INTERNEURON The Psychopathic Brain Understanding Paranoia Mind, Brain and Music
FEATURE
To Fall In Love With Someone, Maybe Do This! Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 2 3 6 7 8 10
Letter from the Editors
12 13 15 17 18 20 ARTWORK
Scrawling In the Night
The Psychopathic Brain
Faculty Profile: An Afternoon With Dr. Melissa Holmes
Understanding Paranoia
OPINION Profile: Alina Guna
Mind, Brain and Music
ARTWORK Erasing Fear Memories
ARTWORK Lost In Music
Fear and Forgetting
FEATURE
To Fall In Love With Someone, Maybe Do This!
Oxytocin and Neurobiology of Storytelling
Get Involved!
Contributors Letter from the Editors
Authors Ann Sheng Danitsa Vasiteva Alexandra Mogadam
Dear Readers,
Sawayra Owais Alina Guna
Welcome back from Reading Week! We hope you were able to spend the week finding warmth and refuge from Toronto’s bitter cold, whether by dipping your toes in an ocean or cozying up at a coffee shop. We are glad to present Issue 2.3, featuring emotion. During our most recent call for submissions, the Editorial Team was ecstatic to receive so many messages from eager authors! Our submissions editors were happy to work with you to present some (hopefully!) interesting topics. Before you delve into this quarter’s magazine, we would like to briefly revisit the Interneuron’s mission. As a student-led publication, we aim to provide a platform for students to build scientific communication skills - a key asset for those of you who aspire to research, graduate school, and professional programs. Even further, we hope that having access to a compilation of your peers’ writing will inspire you to strengthen your passion for neuroscience even if you’re in another program! As you read, please keep in mind that articles represent the author’s personal interest, research, and opinions. Next, we have a few exciting announcements! First, Interneuron has been officially certified by the Co-Curricular Record (CCR). What does this mean for you? During the next school year, Editorial Team members will have the opportunity to gain recognition for their dedication to Interneuron; contributing authors and artists can also receive recognition if they fulfill submission and meeting attendance requirements. We would also like to invite all readers to our next General Meeting on March 13th. Meetings are informal, drop-in, and a great way to connect with the team, contributors, and other readers. In each meeting, we spend some time casually brainstorming ideas for the upcoming issue, so we’d love to see you there! Lastly, we plan to host a year-end event in recognition and appreciation of all of the contributors and readers who have helped grow Interneuron in our first year as a UTSU-recognized publication. In honor of how far we have come, don’t miss a special opinion piece on graduate studies from Alina Guna, one of Interneuron’s founders, featured in this issue! As always, please feel welcome to send us any questions, ideas, or feedback. Enjoy the issue!
Regards,
Sarah & Susmita
Editors-in-Chief
Stefan Jevtic Alex Ghali Nancy Diaz
Cover Art Louise Escuban
Artwork Louise Escuban Ann Sheng Sarah Crawley
Layout Yasmine Abdelaal Aileen Zhou Oshien Lekhwani Louise Escuban
Executive Team Omar Bitar Theo Bruun Steven Meas Yasmine Abdelaal Alex Jacob Toni Dayno Sarah Peters Susmita Sarkar
The Psychopathic Brain Nancy Diaz According
to
the
DSM5,
ASPD
is
characterized by deceitfulness, aggression, and lack of remorse and empathy [3]. Does this sound familiar? As you may have guessed, this description seems to fit the typical CEO profile. The trendy term Corporate Psychopath [4] seems to be appropriate because in addition to engaging in antisocial behavior, CEOs are often callous and unemotional, impulsive, and highly narcissistic [5]. A recent study suggests that antisocial behavior is related to deficits in emotional processing [6]. The most prominent and striking emotional deficit in psychopathy is the lack of empathy and remorse. Indeed, it sometimes seems that upon arrest, criminals only regret being caught and punished for their actions—not for committing the crime itself. This largely reflects discrepancies in their emotional regulation processes particularly associated with a lack of empathy. Studies demonstrate We see them in crime shows and horror movies—cold-
that the amygdala is often active when experiencing a variety
blooded serial killers that attack their victims without feeling
of emotions such as rage, fear, and pleasure; its role within
guilt, empathy, or remorse: psychopaths. Yet this “classic”
the perception and expression of empathy has also been well
psychopath seldom appears in its most infamous form in real
documented [7]. Empathy is a strong emotion and a strong
life; more common are encounters with individuals suffering
motivator that is triggered when the observation of the
from Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). According to a
emotional states of others creates a shared state in
study in southern Wisconsin using a sample of nearly 2,000
ourselves. The experience of empathy—for example, when
participants, 8% of adult males met criteria for ASPD [1]. This
we see others suffering or in pain—has been linked to mirror
prevalence is even higher among male prisoners, as
neurons which some scientists believe activate brain regions
demonstrated in a large study in England and Wales with
based on observation of an emotion in others [8]. This ability
ASPD rates exceeding 63% [2]. Most of the individuals with
to experience a similar emotion merely by observing others is
ASPD can be found in youth detention centers and prison;
arguably one of the many characteristics that make us
however, we may often see them in high corporate positions.
human.
2
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
So how does the antisocial brain differ from ours? Although
differences in the brain are enough to justify behaviors.
the answer to this question is certainly complex, current
References
research indicates that individuals with ASPD demonstrate
1.
significant reductions in gray and white matter in the
Journal of Family Practice, 45(2), 151+. Retrieved from
prefrontal cortex and limbic system [6][9]. Both of these2. structures are associated with higher cognitive processes
Barry, K. L., Copeland, L. A., Fleming, M. F., & Manwell, L. B. (1997).
Conduct disorder and antisocial personality in adult primary care patients. Singleton N, Meltzer H, Gatward R. Psychiatric morbidity among young offenders in England and Wales. London: Office for National Statistics; 2000 3. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. (2013). In
and emotional processing: two functions that seem to be
American Psychiatric Association., American Psychiatric Association.
implicated in ASPD and psychopathy. A recent fMRI study
(Eds.), (5th ed. ed.). Arlington, Va.: American Psychiatric Association.
revealed that psychopaths tend to perform poorly in facial
4.
Boddy, C., Ladyshewsky, R., & Galvin, P. (2010). The influence of
corporate psychopaths on corporate social responsibility and organizational
expression recognition and are less likely to correctly and
commitment to employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(1), 1-19.
rapidly identify happy and fearful faces; this was associated
doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0492-3
with dysfunctional neural networks between the amygdala and visual and prefrontal cortices [10]. Other studies have suggested that the orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex are implicated in the neuropathology of
5.
Henning, J. B., Wygant, D. B., & Barnes, P. W. (2014). Mapping the
darkness and finding the light: DSM-5 and assessment of the “Corporate psychopath”. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 7(1), 144-148. doi:10.1111/iops.12123 6.
Aoki, Y., Inokuchi, R., Nakao, T., & Yamasue, H. (2014). Neural bases
of antisocial behavior: A voxel-based meta-analysis. Social Cognitive and
ASPD, particularly regarding emotion regulation [7]. While
Affective Neuroscience, 9(8), 1223-1231. doi:10.1093/scan/nst104
these prefrontal and limbic areas have been associated with
7.
Murray, E. A. (2007). The amygdala, reward and emotion. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 11(11), 489-497. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.013
ASPD, it is likely that other brain regions are also involved.
8.
The evidence across the research reminds us that despite
Annual
their superficial simplicity, emotions play an imperative role in
Bernhardt, B. C., & Singer, T. (2012). The neural basis of empathy. Review
of
Neuroscience,
35,
1-23.
doi:10.1146/annurev-
neuro-062111-150536 9.
Sundram, F., Deeley, Q., Sarkar, S., Daly, E., Latham, R., Craig, M.,
guiding our thoughts and behaviors. While many of us often
Murphy, D. G. M. (2012). White matter microstructural abnormalities in the
deem criminal behavior to be entirely under the perpetrator’s
frontal lobe of adults with antisocial personality disorder. Cortex, 48(2),
control, we must ask ourselves whether the structural
216-229. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.06.005
Understanding Paranoia Denitsa Vasileva Nowadays, paranoia is considered to be excessive and
known as Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD)(2).
unsupported thinking that others intend to harm us. However,
PPD usually begins to manifest in early adulthood and is
for years, the very definition of the term presented a source of
defined by a long-term pattern of suspiciousness and
controversy among psychiatrists. For years, mental health
mistrust, disproportionate to the circumstances (2). While it is
professionals failed to agree whether paranoia was a disorder
normal for an individual to have some paranoid or skeptical
itself or merely a symptom of another illness such as
thoughts about a person or situation, those suffering from
schizophrenia or even Alzheimer’s disease (1). Today, a
PPD take this distrust to an extreme as it pervades every
patient suffering from severe long-term paranoia and no other
aspect of their daily life (1). These individuals display an
symptoms is classified as having a personality disorder
elevated sense of self-importance, frequently exhibiting self-
3
self-referential thinking – the belief that everybody is talking
significant others (3). Even then, paranoid schizophrenia
about them- as well as the conviction that others can read
must be ruled out before a final diagnosis of PPD is made (3).
their thoughts (3). This paranoia renders personal and social
While much promising research on the topic is currently
relationships virtually impossible, causing the patients to
underway, the exact cause of PPD remains unknown.
become isolated.
However, researchers believe that there are a number of
Due to the nature of the disorder and the resemblance of
contributing factors including brain chemistry, social
its symptoms to other illnesses such as paranoid
environment and genetics (5). In some patients, hyperactivity
schizophrenia, diagnosing PPD is a difficult process. As with
of the amygdala- the part of the brain that governs fear- has
many other personality disorders, there is no definitive test
been observed (5). [SM1] It is likely that this leads to the
(1). Rather, diagnosis is based upon a psychological test and
elevated state of fear experienced by PPD sufferers (5) but
the patient’s medical history. The consensus among experts
more research is needed before a definitive conclusion can
is that patients must display any four of the following
be reached.
symptoms in order to be diagnosed with PPD: chronic
While there is no universally accepted treatment for PPD,
suspicion of others, constant questioning of loyalty, inability to
mental health professionals consider cognitive-behavioral
confide in others, continuous interpretation of benign
therapy to be the best approach (1). However, the distrustful
comments as personal attacks, hypervigilance and distrust of
4
nature of the disorder makes it difficult to establish rapport
before the effects of marijuana on the brain can be fully
between patient and therapist and this bond is crucial for
determined.
successful treatment (1). It is best for the therapist to focus on
As our understanding of the brain evolves, so too does
the patient’s day-to-day difficulties and avoid delving into the
our paradigm of health. No longer is the absence of physical
past (3). This lack of suitable treatment means that while the
injury or illness enough to label someone “healthy”.
symptoms may lessen in intensity, frequency, and duration
Nowadays, mental health also plays an important role in
with age, the disorder will afflict the patient throughout his
assessing a person’s well being, which is why research on
lifetime (2).
cognitive disorders such as PPD is gaining traction. The next
Fortunately, Instances of PPD are relatively rare as it only
few decades are likely to provide more valuable insight into
occurs in about 0.50% of the population [SM2] (2). In addition
these often-overlooked illnesses as well as into the effects of
to the possibility of paranoia as a symptom of another illness,
controversial substances like marijuana. In recent years, the
one of the most common causes of a paranoid state of mind
issue of marijuana legalization has been pushed to forefront
is as a side effect of mind-altering substances such as
of national politics, making good scientific research on the
marijuana.
topic more significant than ever.
Understandably,
the
issue
of
marijuana
legalization has long polarized the mental health community, one of the main concerns being, very little is actually known
References:
about the effects of the world’s most popular illicit drug.
(1) A.D.A.M Inc. (2012, November 10). Paranoid
A large-scale experiment recently conducted by
Personality Disorder. Retrieved from PubMed Health:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001934/ researchers at Oxford University explored the causal `````` (2) Bienenfeld, D. (2013, Jan 7). Personality Disorders. relationship between exposure to THC, the potent ingredient Retrieved from Medscape Reference: http:// of marijuana, and short-term paranoia in 121 participants
emedicine.medscape.com/article/294307-overview
between the ages of 21 and 50, all with previous history of
(3) Blais MA, Smallwood P, Groves JE, Rivas-Vazquez
marijuana use (4). Two-thirds were injected with THC while
RA. Personality and personality disorders. In: Stern TA,
the rest were given a placebo (4). The participants then
Rosenbaum JF, Fava M, Biederman J, Rauch SL, eds. Massachusetts General Hospital Comprehensive Clinical
underwent a series of tests including real life social situations
Psychiatry. 1st ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby
and virtual simulations (4). Overall, one in five participants
Elsevier;2008:chap 39
experienced short-term paranoia as a result of THC (4). More
(4) Freeman, D. et al.,(2014, July 16). “Cannabis really
significantly, the results of the study suggest that increase in
can trigger paranoia” Scizophrenia Bulletin. Retrieved from
negative thoughts caused by THC can lead to paranoia (4). While the exact effect of marijuana on brain chemistry is
The Guardian: http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jul/16/cannabisparanoia-psychoactive-thc-mood
not yet clear, research suggests that cannabinoid receptors,
(5) Roussos, P., Giakomaki, S. G., Georgakopoulos,
which bind to compounds in cannabis, are abundantly
A., Robakis, N. K., & Bitsios, P. (2011). "The CACNA1C
present in the amygdala (6). It is likely that smoking marijuana
and ANK3 risk alleles impact on affective personality traits
may cause this part of the brain to become overly activated
and startle reactivity but not cognition or gating in healthy males" Bipolar Disorders 13:250-259.
and lead to an increase in anxiety and paranoia (6). By
(6) Teniel S. et al. (2014). “Multiple Mechanistically
changing our perception of the world, anxiety makes us more
Distinct Modes of Endocannabinoid Mobilization at Central
focused on a potential threat, potentially fueling paranoia (4).
Amygdala Glutamatergic Synapses” Neuron 81(5): 1111 –
However, as always, more empirical evidence is needed
1125.
5
Mind, Brain and Music Alex Ghali Music is an everyday part of our lives, yet it remains
responsible for storing auditory information.
an enigma to most. No, it doesn’t end at music theory and the
In my opinion, this study and others like it should
seemingly never-ending set of rules that it constitutes; the
appeal to three crowds: the die-hard legions of empirically
latest set of questions on music to tickle our brains concerns
minded neuroscience folks, the musicians and music
the brain itself: the mysterious, three-and-a-half pound lump
connoisseurs madly enamoured with the art, and those
of meat between our ears. Studying music’s emotional effects
chasing the age-old question of what makes us human. For
serves as a gateway to understanding not only how music
the neuro crowd it’s quite obvious how the data relates to the
makes its marks on cognition, but also what lies beneath
cerebral areas in question. Those who love music can take
emotion and every other function that makes us human.
pride that its effects are finally being studied, and that it
Let’s start with this: think of one of your favourite
presents an opportunity to be taken more seriously instead of
pieces of music, whatever it may be. Now think of how often
being written off as a young and pointless ambition (I say this
you find yourself listening to it. You just can’t seem to get
as a musician).
enough of it, can you? That’s because music, like everything else, involves the release of dopamine.
The case with the third crowd really drives this type of research close to home: the desire to understand what it is
Salimpoor et. al (2010) put this notion to the test by
that makes us human. Revealing the inner workings of the
measuring participants’ physiological and cognitive reactions
human mind–and by extension, being – has proven to be one
to pieces of music from an array of different genres (rock, jazz,
of the most daunting challenges we as a species face today;
classical,
of
with so wide a playing field, it seems impossible to even begin
questionnaires on how they felt while listening to each
looking. But there’s no reason to give up: with the growth of
excerpt, and their responses were also measured via
research bridging the gap between the arts and sciences, the
neuroimaging techniques: in this experiment, functional
path is set for more to follow.
etc.).
Participants
were
given
a
set
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Positron Electron Topography (PET) were used to measure blood flow in
References:
different regions of the brain and neurochemical activity,
Salimpoor, V., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., &
respectively.
Zatorre, J. (2011). Anatomically distinct dopamine release
Salimpoor and her colleagues found that that nucleus accumbens (NAcc), the brain’s pleasure center, was
during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257-262.
activated during the experience of pleasurable music. This was highlighted by an increased flow of dopamine to that region, but it doesn’t end there. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) was also activated, hence the reports of chills, rushes, and sweating that the participants noted during the course of the experiment. Finally, another area of the brain, the auditory cortical stores, was shown to be interacting with the NAcc; the auditory stores, as you can guess, are
6
"Music is one of the universal mediums of expression for human emotion, and represents an active area of research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Although we are still in the dark about much of the brain circuits and mechanism behind musical understanding and expertise, research is beginning to shed light on these topics. This is represented by the radiating colors into the grey areas. Nevertheless, we will always continue to appreciate music and the wonderful neurological effects it has on us."
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
Lost in Music Ann Sheng
FEATURE
To Fall in Love With Someone, Maybe Do This! Alexandra Mogadam
In the cold month of January earlier this year, The
studies that try to parse out the effects of variables such as
New York Times published a warm opinion editorial in which
“similarity” or “expected liking” on engendering closeness
the author of the piece, Mandy Len Catron, recounts her
between two individuals.
experiences recreating a well-known relationship psychology
effectiveness of the experimental method to test concepts in
experiment. The editorial piece is as a cute love story of sorts,
relationship psychology, and review the effects of the various
mixed in with well-chosen snippets of science. The inspiration
variables on measures of closeness; interestingly, they
for Len Catron’s experience and story is Arthur Aron et al.’s
conclude that the 36-step method itself has the most
(1997) closeness-inducing study from nearly twenty years
significant effect in creating closeness. This is quite
ago. In simple and short terms, the study reveals that a sense
surprising, especially considering prior research supporting
of closeness or intimacy can arise between two strangers as
“similarity” and “expected liking” to be key in cultivating
a result of asking each other 36 simple yet specific questions.
intimacy and closeness in relationships (Aron et al., 1997).
Len Catron walks us through her attempt at using Aron et al.’s
This result of course begs the question: is this procedure the
(1997) procedure on a first date, revealing at the end what
magical solution to making anyone fall in love with you and
happens to her and her partner after question number 36.
vice versa?
The authors discuss the
Aron was the principal psychologist spearheading
Len Catron’s article would suggest that it is; after all,
the experiment back in the late 90’s. In contrast to what Len
the name of her article is “To fall in love with anyone, do this”.
Catron implies in her piece, the experiment was not designed
Whether you find this an exciting prospect or a terrifying one,
to evaluate a method by which people could fall in love; rather
it is perhaps not surprising that it isn’t quite that simple:
it was intended as a tool to test the creation of temporary
On the other hand, it seems unlikely that the
closeness in a controlled and scientific manner (Aron,
procedure produces loyalty, dependence, commitment, or
Melinat, Aron, Vallone & Bator, 1997). Relationship
other relationship aspects that might take longer to
psychology has often been limited to correlational studies, in
develop” (Aron et al., 1997).
which various aspects of personality or behavior are
The working definition of ‘closeness’ that Aron et al.
correlated to relationship types and/or outcome (Aron, et al.,
(1997) presents at the outset of their paper frames the
1997). In light of this tendency in the field, studies such as
phenomenon as “an interconnectedness of self and other”, or
Aron et al.’s (1997) are interesting, as they set out to explore
more simply as intimacy (Aron et al., 1997; Aron, Aron &
various aspects of relationships within a controlled and
Smollan, 1992; Aron, Aron, Tudor & Nelson, 1991). The
scientific setting. The 1997 paper consists of a series of
authors admit that this is a narrow understanding of the
8
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
concept, which only accounts for “feeling close”, ignoring the
its defense, it is not entirely blind to method’s limitations, and
behavioral components of “behaving close”, which would
does present an interesting take on choosing to act with
take more time to cultivate (Aron et al. 1992; Aron et al., 1997).
deliberateness when becoming close to someone. Len
In an earlier paper Aron et al. (1992) found both dimensions
Catron suggests that the experiment could inspire one to view
to be equally significant in defining closeness.
closeness or love as a process that one deliberately takes
In other words, the Aron et al.’s procedure
part in, rather than something that simply befalls you.
successfully creates a temporary sense of closeness, which
Therefore, the next time you meet up with that special
manages to transcend characteristics such as attachment
someone you have an eye on, maybe do describe to them the
style or similarity. However the task does not necessarily
last time you went to the zoo (question 13/36) – it might just
engender behavioral closeness, or diminish the importance
make you closer after all.
of attachment style and other psychological concepts in creating long-term intimacy (Aron et al., 1997). Nonetheless,
References:
these arguments do not take away from the importance and
(1) Aron, A., Aron, E. N., Tudor, M., & Nelson, G. (1991). Close relationships as including other in the self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 60(2), 241.
significance of the researchers’ findings. After all, they did not seek to cultivate long-term love, only a temporary sense of closeness, which they accomplish successfully. One has to be aware of this, and understand how this limits the
(2) Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992). Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. Journal of personality and social psychology, 63 (4), 596.
applicability of this procedure; it's not the magical 36-step to love.
The editorial has a somewhat banal ending (surprise, surprise Len Catron and her partner fall in love). However, in
3) Aron, A., Melinat, E., Aron, E. N., Vallone, R. D., & Bator, R. J. (1997). The experimental generation of interpersonal closeness: A procedure and some preliminary findings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), 363-377.
9
Oxytocin and the Neurobiology of Storytelling Ann Sheng Night is falling. Hurrying back to the eatery where her
control subjects, those who viewed the emotional video
parents have stopped to take platefuls of unattended food,
experienced an increase in oxytocin levels by an average of
Chihiro is aghast when she finds two bloated pigs in mom and
47%, alongside increased feelings of empathy. Empathetic
dad's outfits, still gorging on the delicacies. She screams–and
individuals were more likely to donate part of their
flees as unearthly apparitions begin to materialize into
experimental earnings to charities supporting patients like the
mythical spirits of all shapes and sizes around her.
child in the video, although no direct relationship was found
She is trapped, alone in a nightmarish, fantastical
between oxytocin levels and likelihood of donation.
world.
However, oxytocin was not the only molecule keeping It is easy to relate to the young protagonist in Spirited
me enthralled in Hayao Miyazaki's brilliant visual narrative. By
Away. As a child, who hasn't harboured the fear of getting
facilitating dopamine and serotonin release, oxytocin
lost? This emotional resonance, says Paul Zak, the Director of the Centre for Neuroeconomics Studies at Claremont Graduate University, is "an amazing neural feat.� It allows us to directly experience what the characters are feeling, even though consciously, we know these personalities are nothing more than flickering lights on a screen or squiggling lines on paper. How does the brain do this? According to Zak, the hormone oxytocin is implicated. Oxytocin has been found in non-human mammals to play a key role in pair bonding, breastfeeding, labour, sex, and the ability to form social attachments. In humans, oxytocin appears to exert an influence on whether we trust a stranger, and is released
activates reward circuits in the brain involved in pleasures
when we are engaged in an emotionally-charged story, such
such as food, sex and drugs. Undeniably, as Jonathan
as that of Spirited Away.
Gottschall noted in the preface of his book The Storytelling
In an experiment to quantify the neurobiological effect of storytelling, Zak's team showed volunteers one of two short
Animal: How Stories Make Us Human, "[w]e are, as a species, addicted to story."
videos: a father's narrative of his struggles facing his 2-year-
Not only do books and movies captivate our attention,
old son with terminal brain cancer, or an emotionally-neutral
but we are also constantly surrounded by narratives in the
clip of the same father and son at the zoo. Compared to
form
10
of
advertisements,
news
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
reports,
biographies,
daydreams, songs and video games. At night, our brains
has gained from this unforgettable adventure. With advances
conjure up fantastical scenarios while our bodies are
in cognitive neuroscience, we are just beginning to appreciate
immobilized. Storytelling seems too pervasive in our lives to
the mastery of storytelling from a whole new perspective.
be an evolutionary coincidence, which begs the question:
References:
Why? Throughout much of human history, storytelling has
(1) Barraza, J. A., & Zak, P. J. (2009). Empathy toward
been contextualized as a social event during which people
strangers triggers oxytocin release and subsequent
gathered to listen to tales of ancient heroes or distant lands.
generosity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
In this way, narrative may serve to connect people together by
1167(1), 182-189.
affecting them with the same emotions and forging a common identity through shared ideas. Indeed, fMRI studies have
(2) Gottschall, J. (2012). Hell is Story-Friendly. In The
shown that when speakers and listeners communicate, they
Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human (p. 67).
display similar neural activity. Others suggest that stories
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
offer good escape, as self-reflection and the demands of daily
Insel, T. R., & Young, L. J. (2001). The neurobiology of
life can be stressful. Gottschall, however, notes that fiction is
attachment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(2), 129-136.
rarely pure pleasure fulfillment but instead full of crises and conflicts which range from natural disasters to interpersonal
(3) Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., &
drama. Since most of the time we cannot directly learn from
Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature,
experience, Gottschall tells how storytelling may "[a]llow our
435(7042), 673-676.
brains to practice reacting to the kinds of challenges that are, and always were, most crucial to our success as a species.�
(4) Marshall, J. (2011). Gripped: why stories are so
Whatever the evolutionary advantages, storytelling is a
compelling. New Scientist,209(2799), 45-47.
powerful medium to motivate, move, and sometimes misguide people. With the knowledge of how good narrative
(5) Stephens, G. J., Silbert, L. J., & Hasson, U. (2010).
can influence our brains, however, we can avoid falling victim
Speaker–listener neural coupling underlies successful
to orchestrated marketing campaigns and inflammatory
communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of
conspiracy theories.
Sciences, 107(32), 14425-14430.
In
Spirited
Away,
though,
the
message
is
resoundingly positive. As Chihiro completes her "hero's journey" to save her parents and find a way home, her hard work and courage are rewarded with help from a white dragon, an eight-legged apothecary, a gregarious co-worker and a kind witch. We, like Chihiro, appreciate the growth she
(6) Zak, P. (2013, December 17). How Stories Change the Brain.
Retrieved
February
5,
2015,
from
http://
greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/ how_stories_change_brain
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
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Scrawling in the Night Ann Sheng "No great mind has ever existed without a touch of madness." Aristotle's famous quote of the "tortured genius" has been echoed in the scientific communities by findings that creative people are more likely to be afflicted with mood disorders such as bipolar disorder. This drawing is a depiction of such an artist in the state of creative mania, frantically scribbling down the loose associations and unsuppressed ideas that surface into his consciousness.
Faculty Profile: An Afternoon with Dr. Melissa Holmes Sawayra Owais Hard work, persistence and a little bit of luck led Dr. Melissa Holmes, a behavioural neuroscientist at the University of Toronto Mississauga, to a professorship and research lab at a world renowned institute. However, Dr. Holmes admits that as an undergraduate student at Simon Fraser University (SFU), she was confused about which career path to pursue. Indeed, her first year and a half at SFU
As a behavioral neuroscientist with a focus on neuroendocrinology and neural plasticity, Dr. Holmes' current research focuses on the unique eusocial mammal, the naked-mole rat.
were spent toward attaining a Bachelor of Business Administration. Dr. Holmes comments, “You have a sense of what your abilities are and I knew I wasn’t succeeding according to my abilities.” Contrast that remark with her effusive description of her first year psychology class that she chose only to complete as an elective. “I loved the professor
Endemic to east Africa, naked-mole rats live in strict social hierarchies: 2 members of the colony are sociallydominant breeders while the rest of the members are their
as he was incredibly engaging,” Dr. Holmes enthusiastically
subordinates fulfilling roles such as colony maintenance and/
describes. Serendipity had it that she chose biopsychology in
or pup rearing. When thinking about hormones that foster
second year to gain admission into upper year psychology
cooperation or love, oxytocin comes to mind. Indeed,
courses and the rest, Dr. Holmes remarks, was history.
oxytocin, often called the cuddle hormone, is secreted by the
Hands-on lab work during her undergraduate degree
posterior pituitary gland to modify caring behaviour. Skyler
partnered with the excitement of working toward a common
Mooney, a graduate student in the Holmes lab, demonstrated
lab goal indicated to Dr. Holmes that she should pursue
that subordinates have more oxytocinergic neurons than
graduate school. After completing her undergraduate degree
breeders. “This finding is great because it suggests that
in Psychology from SFU, Dr. Holmes did a Masters in
oxytocin is important for pro-social behaviour in this species.”
Biopsychology from the University of British Columbia.
However, Dr. Holmes explains that this hormone-behaviour
Afterwards, she obtained her PhD in Neuroscience from
relationship is not that simple. “We don’t know if oxytocin is
Michigan State University and completed a postdoctoral
directly promoting affiliation and attachment because they
fellowship at University of Massachusetts to further her academic training.
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are pro-social or if it’s acting as a buffer for stress. Currently,
provide for them...I think it’s a great opportunity to pursue.”
that is what we’re trying to figure out,” clarifies Dr. Holmes.
Indeed, a quick search of University of Toronto’s career
The dual function of oxytocin as both a love and stress
centre revealed ample help with resume writing, interviews
hormone may muddle the direct relationship with a certain
and
behaviour but Dr. Holmes gushes that the pursuit of
recommends paying attention to the world around you. “Look
knowledge is her motivation.
at people in your community and ask them what they do, if
opportunities
post-graduation.
Dr.
Holmes
also
Surrounded by an academic and stimulating
they like their job and how they got to be where they are”. In
environment, it is natural for a university student to lean
fact, Dr. Holmes and her colleagues anticipate networking
toward academia as a career. However, after getting mixed
with university alumni so they can relay what kind of career
reviews of the anticipated labour market of graduate
paths are available for their present undergraduate and
students, one’s hopes may be dimmed. After reading the
graduate students.
headline of a 2013 Globe and Mail article titled, “Who will hire
Dr. Holmes closed by re-emphasizing that students
all the PhDs? Not Canada’s universities” Dr. Holmes
pursuing graduate studies should not be despondent. “I
acquiesces to the article’s claims. She explains that Canada
think there is tremendous value in getting an education.
is producing a lot of graduate students and it is not
But, there are no handouts so just work really hard and be
immediately clear where they are all going to go. However,
really good,” motivates Dr. Holmes.
she stresses that there are many opportunities for PhD students outside of academia. “Maybe they go into industry,
We would like to sincerely thank Dr. Holmes for taking time to lend us her insights!
policy or government. You can do a lot of great things with a PhD that isn’t sitting in an office like this and running a research lab,” Dr. Holmes remarks, gesturing to her book-
References
filled enclosure.
(1) Mooney, S. J., & Holmes, M. M. (2013; 2012). Social
Some undergraduate science students may only
condition and oxytocin neuron number in the hypothalamus
know two options that exist to them after convocation:
of naked mole-rats (heterocephalus glaber). Neuroscience,
professional or graduate school. When asked how students
230, 56-61. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.014
can be exposed to other career opportunities, Dr. Holmes had a plethora of answers. First, she encourages students to visit their career counselling or academic skill centres. “I think
(2) Naked Mole Rats. (n.d.). Retrieved February 11, 2015, from http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/ mammals/naked-mole-rat/
students should capitalize on the resources that universities
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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
OPINION Profile: Alina Guna I started graduate school last October. It has been
interesting. For starters, I spent my entire undergraduate
degree mildly obsessed with neuroscience and all it entailed: from classes to research to student organizations. My PhD is in cell biology, in a primarily biochemistry heavy lab (the only course I have taken in biochemistry being the long gone BCH211). I also happen to be in a different country, at the second oldest English speaking University in the world. Is this enough of a hook? I was hoping it would be. Basically, I want to tell you a bit about why I ended up where I am. And in doing so, I want to try to convince you that stepping outside of your comfort zone is one of the best things you can do. Last year at around this time, I was getting ready to
Alina's lab at Cambridge
interview for PhD programs. I was a fourth year student
challenging but rewarding period of time, and you will learn a
specializing in Neuroscience at UofT. Whenever one of my
lot about a lot of things. I never thought too much about the
classmates asked me where I was going next year and I
future (what I would do after my PhD). This perhaps reckless
responded with ‘probably grad school’ I sometimes got a
mindset is also a very liberating one – maybe you should try
sympathetic look and a ‘oh, yea it’s good to have a back-up
it out.
for med school but don’t worry, I’m sure you’ll get a few
I ended up going to the University of Cambridge, to
interviews!’. Suffice to say I was very confused. Graduate
study at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (to get a
school was never a substitute or side road for me. Research
taste for the rich history of this place, here’s a tiny list of people
had always been the coolest way you could possibly spend
did ground breaking work at the LMB: Fred Sanger, Watson
your time, and I was excited. I also had interviews to Harvard,
and Crick, Sydney Brenner and Aaron Klug). Apart from a few
Stanford, Columbia, MIT, and Cambridge, so you can
logistical and research oriented reasons, I must admit that a
imagine that I took these comments pretty well. To this day I
large portion of my decision-making was based on how I felt
maintain that more people need to consider graduate school
when I came here – I just felt good. There was also something
as a thing in and of itself. It will be a very intellectually
thrilling (dare I say YOLO-esque) about switching into
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it to happen that’s a different story!) c) Other people are a wealth of information. And if you’re likeable and not completely annoying they will share this information
with
you
for
FREE.
FREE
KNOWLEDGE! d) A few don’ts: don’t be afraid to be wrong, don’t compare yourself to anyone but the you of yesterday, don’t conflate authority with someone
who
possesses
supernatural
knowledge, and don’t talk so much (a simple cost/benefit analysis will usually show you that St. John's College, Cambridge
listening is usually a much better investment) e) Every once in a while, remove yourself from your There was also something thrilling (dare I say YOLO-esque) daily environment. While away do some thinking. Just sit about switching into something you theoretically know little somewhere looking at something you think is pleasing and about, for the purposes of doing a PhD (a 3-year PhD might think. See what you come up with. I add). f) Stop worrying so much. Transform that energy into This being said, the first few months were objectively movement and doing and living and listening to some good not the easiest. Confronting your own incompetence on a jams at the end of the day. Trust. daily basis is at times very frustrating. The key is not to get I’ve been told the first few months of grad school are demoralized under any circumstance. I think it is possible to rough, and that it will get better. If that’s true I can hardly wait. turn this frustration into something very positive. This is one It’s been sweet. I predict there will be very few times in my life of the things I learned during the first few months of my PhD. where I can sit down at the end of the day and literally list the I learned a few other things: things I have learned (be it about research or life in general). a) Despite how you may feel, being the least informed I would never have been here if I didn’t take a few chances and and knowledgeable person in a room means you’re the most though this is very anecdotal advice – I suggest you give it a privileged person in the room. Embrace the opportunity. shot. b) Whenever you’re tempted to think about silly things like ‘I’m not good enough’ or ‘nothing works and I’m going to fail’ remind yourself that these are all practically useless thoughts. If you want something to happen, work for it. It will happen eventually (if you’re not willing to wait 10-20 years for
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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
Erasing Fear Memories Sarah Crawley
Fear and Forgetting Stefan Jevtic Many of us would love to be able to alter certain fears
channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), into neurons in the brain2.
or memories: a bad break-up, an embarrassing presentation,
ChR2 expression is generally linked to a gene involved in
or even a phobia of spiders. Despite all our hopes of having
early memory consolidation, such as c-Fos, which allows it to
the neuralyzer from Men in Black, our memories are here to
be integrated only into memory-related neurons. When
stay- or are they? The field of neuroscience has seen a wave
exposed to light, the channel undergoes a conformational
of
genetic
change, opening and allowing ions to enter the neuron,
manipulation techniques. Several studies in the past decade
subsequently causing neuron firing3. The light is usually
have looked into various roles that fear plays in the formation
delivered by an optic fiber inserted into the skull of the animal
of memory, and whether it is possible to modify these
subject. This robust technique has seen a quick rise to fame,
memories. Although there is much research yet to be done,
as it allows neuroscientists greater control over the
the current state of the field leaves us hopeful that the key to
manipulation of specific neurons in the brain, and has opened
understanding the complicated interplay of neurons in the
the door to astonishing discoveries.
revolutionary
research,
thanks
to
novel
brain is within our grasp.
One such finding came from MIT, with an experiment
The year 1885 marked a revolution in our conception
led by Xu Liu and Steve Ramirez; their results demonstrate an
of memory with the publication of Hermann Ebbinghaus’s
ability to stimulate the recall of fear memories in novel
Ăœber das Gedächtnis (On Memory)1. Despite conducting the
environments4. The researchers first inserted ChR2 into a
experiments only on himself, Ebbinghaus was able to
select population of neurons in the dentate gyrus (an area
demonstrate many fundamental cognitive principles that
within the hippocampus) of mice, under the control of a
remain valid to this day: the forgetting curve, the learning
tetracycline response element (TRE) promoter. This
curve, and the serial position effect, among others1. Ever
promoter allows researchers to use the chemical doxycycline
since, we have gone on to classify the location of memories
to control the expression of the ChR2 gene. When the mice
in the brain, as well as their interaction with certain primal
were administered doxycycline, ChR2 was not expressed;
emotions such as fear. Over the past decade, one of the
when doxycycline was removed, neurons involved in learning
techniques that has shown a similar transformative potential
were labelled with ChR2 and a visible marker called YFP
is the field of optogenetics.
(yellow fluorescent protein).
Briefly, optogenetics is the use of light to control the
Using this method, the researchers were able to
activation and deactivation of neurons in the brain. Realized
fear condition (FC) mice in one chamber (chamber A) and
in 2005 by Karl Deisseroth and Ed Boyden at Stanford, the
label the neurons encoding the fear memory with ChR2. As
procedure
ChR2 can be stimulated by light, the researchers were
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consists
of
inserting
a
protein,
called
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 3 . February 2015
able to selectively activate these labelled neurons.
optogenetics to activate LTP and its antagonist, long-term
When placed into a novel chamber (chamber B), these
depression (LTD), during fear conditioning6. First, the fear
neurons were stimulated by an optic fibre implanted into
condition memory was formed through optogenetic
the mice’s skull, causing them to freeze. As freezing is a
stimulation in mice. These mice were then exposed to an
reaction to fear, this demonstrated that the contextual fear
optogenetic LTD protocol, which resulted in loss of the fear
of chamber A was stimulated in chamber B, even though
memory (no conditioned response). When subsequently
the mice had no “reason” to fear the new chamber.
exposed to an optical LTP protocol, the mice again
The same researchers who led this experiment also
demonstrated a conditioned response, indicating
managed to create a false fear memory in mice, through a
reactivation of the memory. This study, in addition to
similar procedure5. When mice were exposed to a novel
providing evidence for the mechanism of LTP/LTD in the
context, C, the neurons were labelled with ChR2; when
brain, demonstrates an ability to selectively alter the recall
these mice were later fear conditioned in a different
of fear memories in the brain.
context, D, the previously labelled neurons were
With the ability to selectively activate specific
simultaneously activated with light. This activation led to
neurons in the brain, we are entering a Golden Age of
the creation of a hybrid memory, with fear encoded into the
neuroscience research. From false memory creation to
memory of context C, despite not having undergone fear
selective activation/reactivation, we are inching closer to
conditioning in this context. The result was increased
elucidating the formation of memories in the brain.
freezing in these mice when placed in context C, where
Although we won’t be sticking optic fibers into our own
they had not been fear conditioned. This result of being
skulls anytime soon, it may be that the scarring memory
able to create a false or altered memory leaves us with
from eighth grade gym class already has one foot out the
many questions, the answers to which have far-reaching
door.
implications. For example, this study demonstrates not only that our memories are malleable and subject to change, but raises questions pertaining to the validity of witness testimonials. How can we be sure that witnesses
References: (1) Abbott, B. Herman Ebbinghaus. Retrieved from http:// users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/Ebbinghaus.html (2) Boyden, E. (2011). A history of optogenetics: the development of tools for controlling brain circuits with light. F1000 Biol Reports,
of dangerous situations correctly remember crucial details
3(11).
when they present a testimony in court?
(3) Guidera, J. (2014). Optogenetics: A New Frontier. Harvard
Similar experiments have managed to go one step further in isolating pathways for memory development, even to the point of inactivating and reactivating a memory.
Science Review. Retrieved from http:// harvardsciencereview.com/2014/04/28/optogenetics/. (4) Liu, X. et al. (2012). Optogenetic stimulation of a hippocampal engram activates fear memory recall. Nature, 484, 381-5. (5) Nabavi, S. et al. (2014). Engineering a memory with LTD and
Working under the model that long-term potentiation (LTP)
LTP. Nature, 511, 348-352.
is the dominant mechanism for memory formation in the
Ramirez, S. et al. (2013). Creating a false memory in the
brain, Roberto Malinow and colleagues employed
hippocampus. Science, 341(6144), 387-391.
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