INTERNEURON Neuroscience and the Unknown
Why Do We Need Sleep? Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity
FEATURE
Mindfulness: What Does it Do To Our Brain, and Why is it Good For Us? Interneuron. Volume 2 Issue 4. April 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
Letter from the Editors
2
FEATURE Why Do We Need Sleep?
3
Destruction of Sleep
4
FEATURE
10
The Love Drug: Oxytocin And Bonding
12
FEATURE Mindfulness: What Does it Do To Our Brain, and Why is it Good For Us
14
Levitinize / Organize Your Mind
Following the River: Paths to Alzheimer's Disease Therapy
6
OPINION Is What is Conceivable Possible?
8
FEATURE Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity
16
FEATURE An Interview With Dr. Cunningham
18
Greetings From IMS Magazine!
Letter from the Editors
Contributors Authors Ann Sheng
Dear Readers,
Danitsa Vasiteva
We are proud to present our final issue of Interneuron for the 2014/2015 year - Neuroscience and the Unknown. With the school year winding down and the anticipation of summer ahead, our team was looking for a theme to commemorate our second successful year in publication - how else, but to look to the ahead to the future? Our feature articles this quarter address the unknowns of the field, including why we need sleep, the emerging benefits of mindfulness, and an interview with Dr. Cunningham from the Department of Psychology, who delved into the murky future of social cognitive neuroscience and the unknowns of graduate school.
Alexandra Mogadam Susmita Sarkar Nicole Fogel Fiorella Wever Stefan Jevtic Susy Lam
We would like to take this opportunity to thank everyone who attended our appreciation get-together at the beginning of April. We had great conversation that led to many new ideas for the future direction of Interneuron. Next year, we hope to integrate an exciting social component for our readers, contributors, and executive members--and even faculty--with movie screenings, snacks, and discussion with like-minded individuals.
Speaking of next year, we are beginning the search for our next Editorial Team! If you have liked what you’ve seen this year and would like to join our team, consider applying for any of our executive positions. Applications have been posted and are due by May 15th. We look forward to hearing from you!
Finally, we would like to reflect upon how far Interneuron has come in only one year. It is a great achievement to have released four issues, but without your readership and contributions from authors and artists, Interneuron would not be where it is today. It goes without saying that these accomplishments are largely thanks to the efforts of our dedicated Editorial Team. As some of us are graduating and moving on, we thank you for your time, effort, and contributions.
Thank you so much for your support this year! We hope to continue to grow and bridge the gap between neuroscience and other disciplines. We wish you the best of luck on the rest of your finals, and a wonderful, relaxing summer‌ but remember to stay tuned for our next issue this September! Regards,
Yannie Lai
Cover Art Oshien Lekhwani
Layout Yasmine Abdelaal Aileen Zhou
Executive Team Omar Bitar Theo Bruun Steven Meas Yasmine Abdelaal Alex Jacob
Sarah & Susmita
Editors-in-Chief
Toni Dayno Sarah Peters Susmita Sarkar
FEATURE Why Do We Need Sleep? Denitsa Vasileva
We have all been there; the late nights, the pressing
theory has drawn criticism because while in-line with the
assignment, and the steaming cup of energy-infused bitter
Darwinian concept of evolution, it fails to note that organisms
black coffee. We draw on our inner resolve to resist the
are safest when alert to possible danger.
temptation of sweet sleep while we mutter promises of
Another theory about the necessity of sleep is the Energy
“never again”: promises which are inevitably broken when
Conservation Theory, which suggests that sleep reduces an
the next assignment comes along.
organism’s energy use during times when the organism is
We have all heard the grumblings and lecturing of parents
least able to procure food, for example at night (3). Given the
and well-meaning friends about the importance of sleep. It is
state of inactivity that sleep produces, it is logical that
clear that, much like healthy eating and exercise, sleep plays
metabolism, as measured by oxygen consumption, is
an integral role in our health. But if you ask people why we
significantly decreased during sleep. However, there is much
need sleep, many may be stumped.
doubt about the validity of the Energy Conservation Theory
According to the Center for Disease Control (1), adults
since the amount of energy saved by eight hours of sleep is
require between seven and eight hours of sleep every night
just 50kCal (2), the same as the energy we get from a piece
while teenagers need at least nine hours and young children
of toast.
up to twelve. However, despite the large portion of our lives
The third, and most prevalent explanation regarding the
that we spend asleep, very little is actually known about this
necessity of sleep, is known as the Restorative Theory and
mysterious state. The question of sleep’s importance, particularly its purpose in the grand scheme of human body function, has baffled scientists for decades. Over the years, scientists have explored the subject of sleep from many aspects. Some have used deprivation models while others have explored the sleep patterns of different species. While these studies have yielded valuable insight into other aspects of sleep, the primary question of why we sleep remains unanswered (3). Experimental results have led researchers to develop several theories about the integral role of sleep in our physical and cognitive well-being. The first proposed explanation, known as the Evolutionary Theory of Sleep (3), suggests that it evolved as a survival adaptation to keep an organism away from harm during its most vulnerable periods. According to this theory, organisms able to remain still during vulnerable periods (i.e. at night when the body temperature is lowest) had an advantage over those that remained active, and thus the concept of sleep evolved through natural selection. This
2
Source: https://metrouk2.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/toddlerdog1.jpg
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
views sleep as "nature's soft nurse:" (2) an opportunity for
it is unlikely that any one of these theories will single-handedly
the body to rejuvenate itself. Scientists believe that one of
provide the answer to the fundamental question of why we
the major functions of sleep is to replenish glycogen levels
need sleep. What is clear, however, is that much like food and
(2) and a reduction in the levels of adenosine in the brain
water, sleep is (unfortunately for us students) an ingredient
(3). Adenosine is a chemical that builds up while we are
fundamental to the proper functioning of the body. So, close
awake and can cause the feeling of being tired (3). Further
that textbook and get some shut-eye!
support for this theory is drawn from experiments involving
References
deprivation models in animals which suggest that major
1.
Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
restorative functions such as muscle growth and tissue repair occur during sleep (2). For example, sleep-deprived
Prevention, 1 July 2013. Retrieved From http://www.cdc.gov/ sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.htm 2.
mice begin to lose body mass within a few days and lose all immune function within a few weeks (2). Given recent findings and the current state of research
"How Much Sleep Do I Need?" Centers for Disease
Purves, D. et al. Neuroscience.2nd Edition. Retrieved From http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11108/.
3.
"Why Do We Sleep, Anyway?" Why Do We Sleep, Anyway? Harvard Medical School. Retrieved From http:// healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-ofsleep/why-do-we-sleep.
Destruction of Sleep Yannie Lai Complaining of sleeplessness, apathy, difficulties in
are structurally stable and will not break down in the presence
concentration and low energy, a middle-aged woman was
of defensive enzymes. These proteins cause structural
admitted to a psychiatric hospital to confirm a diagnosis of
damage to DNA, leading to the formation of long protein
depression and cognitive dysfunction (1). She had no past
chains; these chains may form plaques that cause cell death
psychiatric medical history, but her family reported that her
(7). FFI is caused by a combination of mutations of the prion
brother was receiving pharmacological treatment for
protein gene reading frame (5). The first mutation is at codon
depression and that her father died of dementia. During her
178, where arginine is changed to asparagine. The second
stay at the psychiatric hospital, her memory suffered and she
mutation is at codon 129, and this location has a polymorphic
became increasingly agitated at night. Bloodwork was normal
effect. If the point mutation inserts a valine, the disease
and her EEG results showed mild slowing of brain waves.
becomes Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease, a human form of mad
Eventually, her symptoms progressed to the point where she
cow disease. If the mutation inserts a methionine, the disease
experienced an irregular circadian cycle; she also developed
becomes FFI (5). In FFI patients, prions cause the
dementia-like cognitive dysfunction. The patient died three
neurological degeneration of the thalamus, which is part of
months after admission to the hospital and a genetic
the sleep wake circuit, resulting in the patient’s inability to
investigation confirmed the presence of a mutation (1). What
sleep (6).
was this devastating disorder?
Late stage FFI patients only exhibit light sleep.
This patient had Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI), a rare
Different stages of sleep, stages 1 through 4 and REM sleep,
prion disease characterized by non-specific symptoms. Prion
have varying functional significance (2). Light sleep is stage
diseases can be sporadic, genetic or acquired by infection,
1, where an individual drifts in and out of sleep and can be
and are propagated by protein transmission. Prion proteins
easily awakened. In comparison, deep sleep—stages 3 and
3
4- is the time when important neuronal reorganization can
susceptible individuals may have already passed down the
take place (2). FFI patients do not exhibit deep sleep;
disorder. Nevertheless, the future looks promising: the
because of this, patients’ brains do not have a chance to ‘take
scientific community is paying more attention to this type of
a break,’ so it becomes overworked, causing the slow
prion disease, several diagnostic tools such as protein
destruction of normal brain functioning.
Without sleep,
assays are becoming available to detect prion proteins, and
humans would have difficulty performing daily tasks,
genetic screening can be conducted to confirm inheritance of
focusing, and learning. Research shows that procedural
FFI through the detection of high-risk mutations (4). This
memory, daily task type of memory, improves with longer
disease tells us that sleep is important in maintaining proper
sleep duration; similarly, declarative (factual) memory
brain functioning, and life without sleep can be fatal.
improves with specific timing of sleep (3). It is also suggested that synaptic homeostasis occurs during sleep to ensure that unnecessary neuronal connections are pruned away and important ones are enhanced (7). Thus, presence and duration of sleep are important in the functioning of a healthy living being. Perhaps the absence of deep sleep contributes to the patient’s inability to focus, encode memory, and exhibit synaptic pruning, ultimately leading to death. Inheritance of FFI is devastating because individuals do not experience symptoms until mid-life, the point at which
References 1. Gistau V.S., Pintor L., Matral S. and Saiz A. (2006). Case Reports: Fatal Familial Insomnia. Psychosomatics. 47:6: 527-528. 2. Dan Crean. Good Sleep for Good Health, Stages of Sleep. Retrieved from: http://www.sleepdex.org/stages.htm 3. Diekelmann S. and Born J. (2010). The Memory Function of Sleep. Nature reviews. Vol 11: 114-126. 4. Krasnianski A., Sanchez Juan P., Ponto C., Bartl M., Heinemann U., Varges D., Schulz-Schaeffer W.J., Kretzschmar H.A. and Zerr I. (2013). A proposal of new diagnostic pathway for fatal familial insomnia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 85: 654-659. 5. Prusiner S.B. and Hsiao K.K. (1994). Human Prion Disease. Annals of Neurology. 35:4: 385-395.
FEATURE
6. Saper C.B., Scammell T.E. and Lu J. (2005). Hypothalamic regulation of
Following the River:
Paths to Alzheimer's Disease Therapy Stefan Jevtic
Greek mythology tells the tale of two rivers in the
emerging research in the field of AD therapy offers promises
underworld: the river Lethe and the river Mnemosyne. To
that the future may hold an answer.
drink from Lethe is to forget all memories and slip into oblivion,
The first documented case of AD was recorded in 1901with
while Mnemosyne grants rejuvenation of memory. Although
Auguste D., a patient of psychologist Dr. Alois Alzheimer,
these stories are fiction, the condition of memory loss is a
after whom the disease is named (1). Upon Auguste’s death
striking reality for those individuals who suffer from
in 1906, Dr. Alzheimer performed a brain autopsy and
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Characterized by severe loss of
discovered unusual clumps and fibrillary tangles of protein in
cognitive function and memory that ultimately lead to death,
the axons of neurons. Today, these are characterized as
AD is currently estimated to affect five million individuals in the
amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and tau fibrillary tangles,
US alone (2). Unlike the tale of Mnemosyne, there are no
respectively (2). The exact correlation of the accumulation of
therapies to stop or reverse symptoms. However, recent
these proteins with the onset of AD is as of yet unknown, but
4
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
there are many hypotheses on this matter. One of the most
Although young blood may not be the fountain of youth, a
prevalent, the Aβ hypothesis, has dominated the field for over
recent study in Nature Medicine found that transfusing blood
a decade; it stipulates that the formation of Aβ plaques and
from young mice to old mice led to significant physiological
toxic oligomers causes onset of the disease. The Aβ protein
repair (9). The authors used a parabiosis model to join the
is formed in the brain throughout our lives, but as individuals
blood circulation of a young and old mouse; what they found
age, these proteins begin to aggregate. Aggregation results
was that the vasculature of old mice significantly improved
in inhibition of synaptic connection, ultimately causing toxicity
after the transfusion.
and neuronal death. Many drugs, such as scyllo-inositol
subventricular zone showed growth and proliferation. The
(discovered at U of T), function to inhibit aggregation of Aβ,
subventricular zone is a particularly important area of the
and have improved cognitive function in animal models (5).
brain, as it houses neural stem cells that can differentiate into
However, some believe that neuronal loss may occur much
neurons and other cells. Following the increased vasculature
earlier than the formation of plaques in the brain, indicating an
around the subventricular zone, there was also an increase in
alternate pathway (4).
neurogenesis. This study isolated and identified a particular
In the brain, vasculature in the
Although the exact mechanism leading to AD is not yet
protein in the blood that was responsible for this
known, many treatment options are being investigated based
vascularization, and may prove to be a potential target in
on their ability to relieve symptoms. One such technique,
regulating the aging process. Although the study was not
called MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS) was
done on AD models, the method could be applied in the future
developed at the University of Toronto (3). For many years,
to determine whether similar results will be seen.
the blood brain barrier surrounding the brain was known to be
The final topic regarding AD therapy focuses on the role
penetrable to only a select few molecules; however, using
of the immune system in pathogenesis of the disease. Similar
MRIgFUS, temporary opening of the blood brain barrier at
to other tissues in the body, the brain has resident
specific locations can be achieved (3). This technique uses
macrophages called microglia that are considered the
targeted ultrasound waves to excite lipid spheres injected into
‘guardians’ of the CNS (6). These cells have been implicated
the blood, leading to a temporary opening in the barrier (7).
in phagocytosis of pathogens, neuron clearance, and general
This opening allows for molecules such as endogenous
maintenance of the brain. However, in AD, these cells lose
antibodies to enter the brain, resulting in improved cognitive
their ability to properly clear Aβ from the brain, resulting in
function in AD models (3). Neurogenesis resulting from this
chronic inflammation and disease progression.
procedure has also been demonstrated (7). However, the
studies have demonstrated that inhibition of these
possibilities available with such a powerful tool are even more
inflammatory processes can lead to an improvement in
fascinating. Molecules for genetic engineering techniques,
symptoms, but the long-term effects of such a treatment are
such as CRISPR, could be targeted to the brain to selectively
unknown. A less inhibitory option involves the use of bone
add or remove genes, yielding greater control over
marrow-derived macrophages to help clear plaques and
experiments and treatment trials.
Familial AD, which
strengthen the brain’s immunity. Studies have shown that
constitutes 10% of all cases and arises from known genetic
bone marrow stem cells derived from one mouse can
mutations, could directly benefit from such advancements, in
differentiate into macrophages in the brain of a host mouse,
addition to the rest of the AD community (2). However,
and increase plaque clearance (8). The reason for the
although this technique has shown no short-term adverse
improved efficacy of these newly-derived macrophages is still
effects, the long-term effect remains to be determined.
unknown, but may be linked to the aging process or another
One of the more recent potential AD therapies seems as if it emerged from the storyline of Bram Stoker’s Dracula.
aspect of AD pathogenesis.
Certain
5
Ultimately, the road to a cure is made up of many paths, some of which may converge to yield a multi-faceted treatment option. However, there remains much work to be done before this goal can be realized. Long-term human clinical trials for techniques such as MRIgFUS are required, and the mystery of AD pathogenesis remains to be solved. As the era of the brain continues to unfold, treatment for a disease discovered over a century ago remains elusive— but current breakthroughs leave hope that the effects of the Mnemosyne river may turn into reality. References
transcranial focused ultrasound. Exp. Neurol. 248, 16-29 (2013). 4. Kim, Taeho, et al. "Human LilrB2 is a β-amyloid receptor and its murine homolog PirB regulates synaptic plasticity in an Alzheimer’s model." Science 341.6152 (2013): 1399-1404. 5. McLaurin, J. et al. Cyclohexanehexol inhibitors of Abeta] aggregation prevent and reverse Alzheimer phenotype in a mouse model. Nat. Med. 12, 801-808 (2006). 6. Salter, M. & Beggs, S. Sublime Microglia: Expanding Roles for the Guardians of the CNS. Cell 158, 15-24. 7. Scarcelli, T. et al. Stimulation of Hippocampal Neurogenesis by Transcranial Focused Ultrasound and Microbubbles in Adult Mice. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation 7, 304-307. 8. Simard, A. R., Soulet, D., Gowing, G., Julien, J. & Rivest, S. Bone Marrow-Derived Microglia Play a Critical Role in Restricting
1. http://www.alz.org/research/science/ major_milestones_in_alzheimers.asp. 2. http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/publication/alzheimersdisease-fact-sheet
Senile Plaque Formation in Alzheimer's Disease. Neuron 49, 489-502 (2006). 9. Villeda, S. A. et al. Young blood reverses age-related impairments in cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in mice. Nat. Med.
3. Jordão, J. F. et al. Amyloid-β plaque reduction, endogenous
20, 659-663 (2014).
antibody delivery and glial activation by brain-targeted,
OPINION
Is What Is Conceivable Possible? Nicole Fogel
There is a long-standing debate in neuroscience and
Here, we have a debate between the philosopher and the
philosophy about whether or not it can be true that what is
neuroscientist: the philosopher holds that the conceivability
conceivable is guaranteed to be possible, at least in a broad
argument can apply to a logically possible world, a world
sense. One of the fundamental problems that stand at the
beyond the natural world; on the other hand, the
centre of the conceivability-possibility debate is that of
neuroscientist holds that the world we live in, the natural
consciousness. While the exact neuronal mechanisms of
world, is really the only world and argues that the link between
consciousness are not yet clear, the brain is considered to be
the natural and logically possible worlds must be made
essential for consciousness (2). How can we make sense of
apparent for the conceivability argument to have any
consciousness, then, if our understanding of it is more or less
relevance to us (2).
limited to the fact that the brain is essential for it? That being
Before we can even begin to understand whether or
said, can we really posit that the ability to conceive of
not it is true that what is conceivable is possible and how this
something, like a zombie, is necessarily tied to its possibility?
premise can elicit two very different responses–rejection or in
To philosophers, zombies lack consciousness but
a broad sense, it can be generally agreed that possibility can
can be conceived of. Nevertheless, neuroscientists know that
be defined as follows: to be the case or what could be the case
brain lesions can alter consciousness or lead to its absence.
at a later point in time. In the case of the conceivability-
Again, does this conceivability translate into possibility?
6
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
possibility argument, the conclusion entails actual physical
depending on the proposition’s surrounding premise or
and natural possibilities. acceptance– to an argument, it is
conclusion and on the view of the person making the
necessary to define what is meant by conceivable and
argument or criticizing it. Let’s start with the claim that the
possible. There are multiple ways to approach defining these
proposition ‘what is conceivable is possible’ can be true, if it
terms (1), providing evidence for the complexity of this
is surrounded by the right premise and the right conclusion.
problem. Based on the literature, it seems that a broad
To establish my point, suppose I define the term ‘drug’ to
definition of conceivability can at least be agreed upon: to be
generally mean something that is external to the body, that
able to form a mental image of x (whatever x is), where x can
when ingested, causes bodily effects. This definition can be
be an object of thought. Also, in a broad sense, it can be
accepted for the most part; there doesn’t seem to be much
generally agreed that possibility can be defined as follows: to
controversy about this. Yet, consider this argument:
be the case or what could be the case at a later point in time.
Athletes take drugs.
In the case of the conceivability-possibility argument, the
Taking drugs benefits one’s health.
conclusion entails actual physical and natural possibilities.
Therefore, athletes benefit their health by taking drugs.
However, the problem arises when it becomes necessary to define the terms conceivable and possible more
Now, if I apply the same second premise to the following
precisely. Since neither term has one precise definition which
argument, look what happens:
can apply to all cases, it is my view that in the absence of
Patients who have leukemia take drugs.
having a single standard for defining conceivable and
Taking drugs benefits one’s health.
possible, the meaning of either term can be manipulated
Therefore, patients who have leukemia benefit their health
given the surrounding context and by the viewer himself. In
by taking drugs.
my opinion, this provides reason why the proposition, what is conceivable is possible, can make one argument true and
The second premise can be controversial, but
another false. That is, if one merely states ‘what is
without precisely stating a descriptor such as ‘street’ or
conceivable is possible’, but does not make a precise claim by
‘prescription’ before ‘drugs’, it is hard to tell whether the
adding something to conceivable or possible, then the
second premise is in fact controversial. It is up to context,
proposition is allowing too much and is oversimplified. In other
namely the first premise and the conclusion, to determine
words, it is up to context to decide what is meant by or allowed
whether the argument is accepted or disputed. In the
to be conceivable and possible.
foregoing case, given the surrounding premise and
In order to eliminate ambiguity, we should be thinking
conclusion of the arguments, it is apparent that even though
about the two terms in a more specific way: conceivable and
the same premise is used in both arguments, the former can
possible are primarily conceivable and primarily possible,
be controversial (if athletes take non-prescription, street
given a list by David Chalmers (1). This is what I meant by
drugs) while the latter can be widely accepted (since street
‘adding something’ to the terms. Now, the above-mentioned
drugs would not be used to cure a patient with leukemia, we
definition of conceivability can be added: to form a mental
can assume it is meant that the drugs are prescribed and
image of x that will actually be the case. Similarly, possibility
legal). I wanted to use this example to illustrate the point that
can be defined in a more precise way: to be the case or what
whether an argument is accepted or refuted–given the same
could be the case at a later point in time in accordance with
premise, and without that premise being precisely defined–
the laws of nature.
greatly relies on the context in which the argument is
I assert that what is conceivable can at least be possible, but given that a precise definition of the terms (which is needed for a strong argument) applies in certain contexts,
presented, specifically in relation to the second premise’s surroundings–the first premise and the conclusion.
7
Similar to the two examples presented above in
The
relationship
between
conceivability
and
which ‘drug’ was not precisely defined, there is no precise
possibility is an important one, as it attempts to make sense
term like ‘primary’ in front of conceivable and possible.
of our mind and the limits of existence, as well as the
Therefore, we cannot be too certain what conceivability and
relationship between psychology and biology. Yet, if it is the
possibility really are or what they are supposed to be, in which
case that the terms conceivability and possibility can be
case, it is up to context, or the surrounding premise and
manipulated by context, maybe it is wise to refocus our
conclusion, to sway our view of the argument and of the
curiosity from ‘is what is conceivable possible?’ to ‘should we
second premise. It is difficult to precisely define conceivability
even use the terms conceivability and possibility?’.
and possibility, and even if the terms were precisely defined, the precise definition would not be agreed upon by every individual, as is generally the case. Given what I have outlined here, however, we can at least have some guide of what conceivability and possibility are supposed to be.
References 1. Chalmers, S. (2002). Does Conceivability Entail Possibility?. In Gendler, T.S. & Hawthorne, J. (Eds.), Conceivability and Possibility (145-200). Oxford: Oxford University Press 2. Northoff, G. (2014). Minding the Brain: A Guide to Philosophy and Neuroscience. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
FEATURE Source: http://yanko.lib.ru/books/philosoph/chalmers=the_conscious_mind=en.files/image011.jpg
Artificial Intelligence and the Singularity Ann Sheng
As citizens of the Internet era, we are all familiar with the
current growth of "smart" technologies: from Apple's voice
were designed to execute. After all, no one would trust Watson to drive a car.
recognition tool Siri to IBM's Jeopardy! winner Watson to
As we develop more weak AI's like Watson, many
Google's self-driving cars. Artificial intelligence (AI) is
researchers believe that we are on our way to achieving the
shaping our world into a safer, more convenient, and more
next milestone, one that is much more daunting than
efficient place. Despite these spectacular advances, the
programming a machine with language understanding and
power of these algorithms are only limited to the task that they
answering trivia questions: the creation of a system with
8
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
human-level intelligence: also known as Artificial General
higher resolution now than ever before. The chessboard
Intelligence (AGI). In his controversial book The Singularity
analogy
Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, inventor and
skyrockets after the 32nd doubling - what Kurzweil calls "the
futurist Ray Kurzweil argues that completely understanding
second half of the chessboard". Based on the observation
our brains and reverse engineering it in a machine is not only
that computing power has already doubled 32 times since the
possible, it will also be completed within our lifetimes.
invention of the first computers he suggests that we are about
Although it might initially have the mental capacity of an infant,
to make the vital crossing. If true, he predicts that progress
AGI's non-biological substrate gives it great advantages over
afterwards will be "so rapid and so profound that it represents
the human brain. These include an impeccable, expandable
a rupture in the fabric of human history" - a state he dubbed
memory reserve and instantaneous information transfer, all
as "the Singularity". The nature of that change will depend
working 24/7 without fatigue. Once achieved, AGIs can
heavily on careful design; most notably to incorporate human
improve their own neural architecture, bypassing the slow
values, ethics, emotion intelligence and safety mechanisms
and error-prone mechanism of evolution. Because of its
in such a way that moral, intelligent machines can coexist with
advantages in computing power, it will soon become
humans and improve our lives in ways unimaginable to us.
exponentially more intelligent than all of human mental
However, given our poor understanding of the neural basis for
capacity combined - an Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI).
morality it is difficult to conceive how this might be done
also
demonstrates
that
exponential
growth
One of the key assumptions underlying Kurzweil's
successfully in the first try. After all, if invented, an amoral but
argument is the Law of Accelerating Returns, which states t
intelligent machine may outsmart us and destroy human
hat technological progress occurs exponentially, not linearly.
civilization: meaning that we may not get a second chance at
Thus, each new advance lays the foundation for several
AI.
future advances. By analogy, consider the story of the wheat
To assess how AI experts view the progress of artificial
and chessboard problem.
When the inventor of chess
intelligence and its potential risks, Vincent Muller and Nick
showed his emperor patron his new game, the emperor was
Bostrom of the Future of Humanity Institute at Oxford
so delighted that he promised to grant the inventor whatever he wanted. The clever inventor replied that he would like some wheat - specifically, one grain on the first square of the chessboard, two on the second, four on the third, and so on, doubling his way across all 64 squares. It was not until the treasurer calculated the total amount of wheat that the emperor realized how impossible this request was: 264 grains of rice would make a pile larger than Mt. Everest! The emperor was not able to foresee the consequences of his promise because like most humans, his thinking tends to be linear, not exponential. This
effect
of
exponential
growth
has
been
demonstrated in multiple fields, including digital electronics (Moore's Law), genetic sequencing, and neuroscience. Noninvasive brain scanning, for example, is done faster and at a
9
conducted a survey that asked philosophers and AI
are no compelling reasons to stop AI research and that
researchers when we will likely see the emergence of
potential risks are massive enough to potentially destroy
human--level machine intelligence, how long after will it
humanity, the authors urge the scientific community to
advance to superintelligence, and what its impact will be. The
investigate more into what may well the most important
median prediction from 170 respondents was a 50%
breakthrough in human history.
probability that high level machine intelligence will be developed by 2050, and by 2075 the prediction increased to 90%. Experts expected that superintelligence will follow in less than 30 years, with a 1 in 3 chance that it would turn out to be "bad" or "extremely bad" for humanity. Given that there
References 1. Schaller, R. R. (1997). Moore's law: past, present and future. Spectrum, IEEE,34(6), 52-59. 2. Kurzweil, R. (1999). The Law of Time and Chaos. In The age of spiritual machines: When computers exceed human i ntelligence. New York: Viking.
The Love Drug: Oxytocin and Bonding Fiorella Wever For centuries the mystery of love has always been embraced by humanity and emphasized especially by artists, poets, and songwriters. But what if love is really not as mysterious as it seems? What if there is a basic chemical understanding for what causes love? Who thought that endocrinology - never considered one of
Source: http://www.ggznieuws.nl/home/oxytocine-niet-geschikt-voor-postnatale-depressie/
hormone. It is a natural hormone that is produced by the
the most romantic of professions – could have a lot to say on
hypothalamus and stored and secreted by the posterior
how and why people love each other?
pituitary gland (Rogers, 2015). The structure of the hormone
They found that oxytocin, the hormone that facilitates
is the same in every placental mammal: it’s a nine-amino acid
childbirth and breastfeeding in women, is also crucial for how
peptide and it acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain,
we form and maintain romantic relationships.
meaning it regulates the activity of different populations of
Some endocrine scientists even predict a future where
neurons.
love is guaranteed, as it can be provided chemically by
The discovery of oxytocin dates back to 1906, when Sir
hormonal manipulation (Magon, 2011), pointing to a potential
Henry Dale first discovered the uterine-contracting properties
application of oxytocin as a “treatment” in couple’s therapy.
of this hormone (Magon, 2011). He found that extracts from
But is it really so clear-cut as it seems? Is oxytocin really the
the human posterior pituitary gland contracted the uterus of a
“love drug”?
pregnant cat. This discovery led this unknown substance to
Being on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential
be named oxytocin, originating from Greek words meaning
Medicines, oxytocin is definitely considered an important
“swift birth”. A few years later Ott and Scott first described its
10
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
milk ejecting properties, showing that oxytocin also facilitates lactation after childbirth. Oxytocin was the first polypeptide hormone ever to be synthesized. This was done by Vincent du Vigneaud, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955 for his outstanding work (Rogers, 2015). Since its initial discovery, oxytocin has been best known
Another interesting finding was that the couples with the highest levels of oxytocin were the ones who were still together six months later, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin is also correlated with the relationship’s longevity. From these findings, it is no surprise that researchers started wondering about oxytocin’s applications as a “treatment” in couple’s therapy.
for its important role in female reproduction. It is released in large amounts during labour, facilitating childbirth and
A couple therapist and researcher at the University of Zurich
lactation (after the nipples have been stimulated) (Rogers,
conducted experiments in which couples were tested after
2015). It also promotes maternal bonding, by inducing a
adding extra oxytocin to their system (Gravotta, 2013). These
calm, relaxed mood and promoting responsiveness to the baby. Research has found that the amount of oxytocin present in the mother during the first trimester of her pregnancy is a strong predictor of the level of attachment between mother and child; women with higher doses of oxytocin tend to have a stronger bond with their child after birth. Later research, however, has shown that oxytocin’s effects span wider than just between the mother and child. Experiments done in the 1990’s_ _showed that it was essential for prairie voles to have high levels of oxytocin receptors in their brains in order to pick a lifelong, monogamous mate (Stix, 2014) . Later studies then demonstrated that the chemical contributes to trust and social interactions in various animals, including humans. Research on the effects of oxytocin then naturally shifted its focus from mother-child bonding to romantic relationships. Researchers discovered that the increase in oxytocin when falling in love is the highest ever found and that new lovers had twice the amount of oxytocin normally found in pregnant women (Gravotta, 2013). It was also shown that high levels of the hormone are released from both sexes during sexual intercourse.
couples were given a spray with liquid that contained oxytocin, which they then sprayed up their noses to ensure that the hormone would get to their brain. After the oxytocin entered their system, the couples had to talk about a topic that would often lead to discussion and fighting. The researcher then monitored how these couples communicated compared to couples that weren’t given oxytocin. What resulted was that oxytocin lead to an increase in the quality of communication and a decrease in the level of cortisol,
a
stress
hormone.
The
improvement
in
communication was a result from increases in behaviour that are needed for resolving conflict in a peaceful way. This was the case for both men and women and thus improved the way these couples engaged with one another. There is no doubt oxytocin influences social behaviour, but the effect it has may strongly depend on the circumstances (Stix, 2014). Even though research has shown that oxytocin used in couple’s therapy improves communication between partners, this won’t guarantee a successful relationship in the long run. If a couple is not connected at all, oxytocin won’t magically make them fall in love. Scientists therefore advice us to be careful about using false labels such as “love drug”, as it may be misleading
11
the public to think that there is one single chemical component that explains it all. Although oxytocin does explain the different components of loving behaviours, such as trust, bonding and communication, the mystery of love still lives on.
www.scientificamerican.com/article/be-mine-forever-oxytocin/ [2] 3. Rogers, K. (2015). Oxytocin. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437006/oxytocin[3] 4. Magon, N., Kaira, S. (2011). The orgasmic history of oxytocin: Love, lust, and labor. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 15(Suppl3), S156-S161. doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.84851
References 1. Stix, G. (2014). Fact or Fiction?: Oxytocin Is the “Love Hormone”. Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/factor-fiction-oxytocin-is-the-love-hormone/ 2. Gravotta, L. (2013). Be Mine Forever: Oxytocin May Help Build LongLasting
Love.
Scientific
American.
Retrieved
*Editor's Note: We would like to apologize to Fiorella Wever for the oversight in failing to include her article in the last issue of Interneuron: Neuroscience and Emotion.
from:http://
FEATURE
Mindfulness: What Does It Do To Our Brain And Why Is It Good For Us? Fiorella Wever
In our ever-evolving and constantly busy student life, we
seems detached from and almost alien to everyday life.
barely have time to sit still and think about the present moment. We are always on the move, mulling over what the
Contrary to popular belief, mindfulness is not the act of
future may bring. Our restless lifestyles are impacting our
eliminating all thoughts from your mind. Instead, it is about
physical and mental health, often resulting in heightened
taking a look within and focusing your attention on the
levels of stress and anxiety, making it more important then
emotions, thoughts, and sensations occurring in the here and
ever to take a moment to sit still. Fortunately, many
now. It is a whole-body-and-mind awareness of the present
mindfulness practices, such as yoga, meditation, and
moment. Being mindful means being fully present, not lost in
relaxation are becoming increasingly popular.
anticipation, daydreams, or worry.
Originally an ancient Buddhist meditation technique,
We are all aware that meditation has various health benefits,
mindfulness practice has been rapidly gaining popularity in
but the exact science behind mindfulness remains a grey
the West. Meditation – sitting down in stillness, closing your
area. As recent studies have been showing, mindfulness is
eyes, and spending a few minutes with no company other
associated with the grey matter of the anterior part of the
than yourself – can sound absolutely terrifying because it
frontal lobe.
12
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
therefore have a considerable impact on the way we think and respond. Mindfulness is not only a great method to handle the emotions and stressors of everyday life, but the practice is also being used more frequently in psychology. Mindfulness practice has been found to alleviate a diversity of psychiatric conditions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Source: http://www.brown.edu/academics/medical/news/2013/02/mindfulness-meditation-can-helpmanage-chronic-pain-and-depression
and anxiety. Also, it has been recently used for the prevention of relapse in depression and drug addiction.
One experiment found that this area, called the prefrontal
A specific type of practice called Mindfulness-based
cortex (PFC), became thicker after an 8-week course of mindfulness practice. Not surprisingly, the PFC plays a role in higher-order
brain
functions
such
as
awareness,
Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) has been shown to be as effective in
reducing
recurrence
of
depression
episodes
as
concentration, emotional control, and decision-making. This
antidepressants. MBCT reduced the recurrence rate over a
experiment also revealed another interesting result: the
12-month
amygdala seemed to shrink in size after the 8-week
conventional care methods.
meditation period. The amygdala is not only associated with the brain’s “fight or flight” system, which controls the body’s
period
by
40-50%
compared
with
more
Research on mindfulness is still in its early stages. There’s a lot about this practice that is still unknown, ranging from the
responses to stress, it also plays a role in emotion and memory. Interestingly, the effects of meditation are not limited to
extent of its effects on our minds and bodies, to the very state of the human brain during one's immersion in it.
shrinking one brain region and thickening another. Meditation
Studies have shown that wandering thoughts take up
may also alter the functional connectivity between the two
about 45% of our time; this “busy” state of the brain has been
aforementioned regions: the connections between the
correlated with psychological unease. Thankfully, there is
amygdala and the rest of the brain are weakened, whereas
something we can do about it: being present. Even as little as
those linking the PFC with the rest of the brain are strengthened. Such changes in connectivity can improve emotional stability and response to stress, as well as refine concentration and focus. The more you meditate, the more
10 minutes of mindfulness practice a day can help train your mind to be calmer, clearer, and kinder. In the end, the result is a happier you!
you help stimulate such changes in your brain. The results of this study were obtained from the participants outside of their meditation practice, which shows that the effects of participating in these practices last beyond their duration. As many brain imaging techniques are revealing, this ancient practice can profoundly change the way different regions of the brain communicate with each other and
References 1. Ireland, T. (2014). What Does Mindfulness Meditation Do to Your Brain? Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/ guest-blog/2014/06/12/what-does-mindfulness-meditation-do-to-yourbrain/ 2. The Science of Mindfulness. Oxford Mindfulness Centre. Retrieved from: https://oxfordmindfulness.org/science/ 3. Andy Puddicombe: All it takes is 10 mindful minutes. Retrieved from:https://www.ted.com/talks andy_puddicombe_all_it_takes_is_10_mindful_minutes
13
Levitinize / Organize Your Mind Alexandra Mogadam Exam season is descending upon us with many gruelling
technology and information-saturated 21st century.
science examinations ahead. In these challenging times, one
As the title of the book implies, Levitin’s main message
often develops a knee-jerk averse reaction to anything that
is mind “organization.” He explains how a mind that is
reminds us of science and studying. However, is there
organized lends itself more easily to creativity and also allows
perhaps a way that scientific knowledge can help us study
for optimized and heightened cognition. His assertions rely on
more effectively for our science tests? In short, can we learn
the idea that the human mind is not naturally suited for our
to embrace the foe in order to conquer it?
current environment: the brain evolved before a time
Although there are no magical miracle solutions there is
characterized by constant bombardment of information. The
currently a growing body of research on cognitive
incessant stream of information that engulfs us in this century
optimization. Daniel Levitin has made a name for himself in
results in a constant fight for our limited cognitive resources:
this field through the publication of his recent self-help-esque
meaning that it is not always the most salient stimuli that
book “The Organized Mind.” Levitin, based out of McGill
“wins” and grabs our focus. Because of our innate tendencies
University, is a cognitive neuroscientist specialized in the
to avert our attention to novel stimuli, we keep superficially
cross-talk between music and the brain, with an additional
consuming excessive information, ultimately doing ourselves
interest in the workings and struggles of the mind in our
a disservice and exhausting our minds. Ultimately this
Source: http://www.thepartnerstrust.com/blog/2012/01/04/creating-a-mind-map/
14
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
inefficient use of our cognitive resources makes it harder for us to attend to the pressing things at hand and results in us feeling more stressed.
3. Prioritize Have a clear view of what you need or intend to get accomplished every day. One way to do this is to write out a
In his book, Levitin weaves together snippets of scientific
list first thing in the morning and indicate the priority of each
findings, anecdotes, as well as basic cognitive optimization
point. The idea here is to externalize your “to-do’s” for the day
rules. Nothing that he presents comes across as extremely
such that you have a clear view of them and can prioritize
revolutionary, yet he backs up his tips with scientific findings
them. This way you are not wasting cognitive resources on
that lend credence to his work. Recognizing that you have
trying to remember what you need to get done and can
enough to read already, here are our top 5 suggestions to give
efficiently tackle the most pressing things first.
you
4. Naps
a
head
start
on
cognitive
optimization:
1. Externalize
This is perhaps one of my favorite suggestions – who
Externalize aspects of your memory to your physical
doesn’t love a little mid-day siesta? Levitin explains how our
environment and use it to help you remember things – this
minds have natural “mind wandering modes” which allow for
way you free up more “internal” memory to be used on other
neural resetting and attentional refreshment. These are
things. For example, if you know in advance that you need
relaxing for the mind and most easily attained through a quick
certain things for your exam the next day, assemble those
nap. However if napping isn’t your cup of tea you can also
things right away and put them by the door. This way the
choose to meditate for half an hour or go for a little walk.
environment helps remind you to bring your exam-aids along,
5. Do not multitask!
as opposed to having to rely on a stressed-out-you first thing
Our generation likes to pride itself on being professional
in the morning.
multitaskers but according to Levitin our brains do not function
2. Write things down
in this manner: instead our mind quickly but sequentially shifts
This may seem like a straight forward one, but nonetheless
attention between the things we are juggling at the time. This
it is an activity that is becoming increasingly unpopular in our
lack of focus results in decreased work efficiency. Therefore,
computer age. It would seem that compared to typing or
try to focus one thing at a time and minimize your smartphone/
thinking abstractly, the act of writing something down allows
computer usage when working. If this is hard for you try
for deeper encoding in the memory structures of our brain.
downloading apps which block Youtube and Facebook or
Levitin also suggests that when you’re stressed you write
disable your Internet connection altogether. In addition, make
down what is causing your distress. Putting it on paper might
an effort to incorporate breaks in your work schedule –
make your angst more tangible and allow you to tackle it more
however, this break should not involve the consumption of
easily and directly.
useless information. Instead of going on the Internet consider taking a break by going for a walk or even take a mini-nap to refresh your mind.
15
FEATURE Faculty Profile:
An Interview with Dr. Will Cunningham Susmita Sarkar
– social, developmental, cognitive, neuroscience. Not the
Interneuron contributing author Susmita Sarkar introduces us
essay that a potential supervisor would be interested in. I
to Dr. Will Cunningham from the Department of Psychology.
never understood that the fields of psychology were supposed to be different and non-overlapping, and so I ended
Can we start with a bit about your background?
up being curious about everything.
My path to psychology is not very straightforward. In
Well that leads to my next question. You teach social
undergrad at William & Mary, a small liberal arts college in
cognitive neuroscience which seems very nebulous.
Virginia, I started as a computer science and chemistry
Would you mind breaking it down a little?
double major – because that is what I was good at in high
Social cognitive neuroscience, that’s a funny one. I’m
school. After taking several classes, I realized what I was
not quite sure what it actually means. At some level, it’s
interested and what I was good at were different things, and
everything. Trying to explain behavior though multiple lens
I switched to studying philosophy and religion. Psychology
simultaneously. As a field, I find it exciting because it’s a place
ended up being a perfect combination of these skills and
where you can take a topic like emotion, or prosociality, or
interests.
prejudice, and rather than putting blinders on and only
I was lucky to attend Yale for graduate school to work
thinking about it from one perspective, you are forced to deal
with Marcia Johnson and Mahzarin Banaji. It was a great time
with everything simultaneously, which makes it kind of
to be there – cognitive neuroscience was just beginning to
exciting and hard.
really pick up speed, and we had access to an fMRI scanner in the evenings. Also, Yale at that time was getting rid of the
Do you think that’s inherent to the field, or do you think
distinctions between the “areas” of psychology at that time,
that because it’s such a new field, data is coming in all at
and so I was able to spend time in cognitive, social,
once, so you’re forced to consider everything at once?
developmental, and neuroscience labs. It allowed me the
Well I don’t think you have to. You can have a very
flexibility to try weird things.
narrow way of looking at things. For example, if I’m interested in how a certain brain regions responds to faces, I can have
So how did you get interested in neuroscience and
a really narrow question and not consider a sociological
psychology? Your background seems to flow there
perspective. But, I think that most of psychology is becoming
naturally, but it could have lead down lots of different
interdisciplinary. You are starting to see job searches for
paths.
‘social cognitive development’ or ‘social clinical science’. My I think not starting in psychology and taking a non-
ideal would be to get rid of the category of social cognitive
direct path was very helpful for me. Coming from a liberal arts
neuroscience entirely and just simply say psychology. Really,
school, I didn’t know that you were supposed to do one and
once you’ve added everything together, it’s really just a series
only one thing. My interests were everywhere, and
of questions : How does emotion work? Or what’s prejudice?
psychology and neuroscience is where they all came
And instead of defining our questions in terms of something
together. Strangely, because of this I was rejected to every
like social process or neuroscience, to me, it’s more
graduate school that I applied to. Looking back at my personal
interesting to take a problem like ‘what is an emotion?”, and
statement it makes sense. I said I was interested in everything
try to answer it with all the tools available.
16
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
Currently, what are your research interests then? I’m right now at the point of defining what I want my next question to be, and I think it’s going to relate to goals and how goals shape our perceptions, actions, and how we relate to the world. If you change the way you’re thinking about the world, your very early perceptual processes change. You categorize people in a certain way and it changes everything. I want to think about how we can do things strategically to change the most automatic aspects – getting rid of the idea that you have an automatic response and then, you control it. What can we do to prepare the mind to interact with the world in certain ways and understand that from a neuroscience perspective?
I think we’re about to see a very different social cognitive neuroscience in about four years as we start thinking about what are the core questions? What are the core computations? Rather than labeling a brain area as ‘the self’, we can label it with some other term that relates to a process that might be used in multiple things. Because of that, it will be recreating the whole brain map at a very different level of resolution. For many of our readers, graduate school is a big unknown. As either a former graduate student, or from a professor’s point of view, could you speak about what to expect going in? I think graduate school is an amazing opportunity
Do you have any major influences that helped you gain this new perspective? Randy O’Reilly: I think his perspective is very powerful – he’s trying to, computationally, answer what the mind does and how it interacts to give rise to these more emerging concepts. What I like about it is that it doesn’t
when done right. I think that it comes with perspective – again, I was rejected to grad school the first time I applied, but I think that’s the best thing that’s ever happened to me. If I had started graduate school at that moment, I was not thinking correctly about what I wanted to do and accomplish. Graduate school isn’t school and nor is it a job. It’s a weird thing that looks like nothing else. It’s an opportunity to
Right now, social cognitive neuroscience is going through a growing phase. It’s coming out of infancy and is now having to deal with some harder questions.
explore some topic that you’re passionate about. The trick is to be passionate about it, and not figure out that out after you show up. See where your mind goes naturally, and explore that. I go to sleep worrying about what the amygdala does, or worrying about what consciousness is, or I was obsessing the other day about what the concept of ‘now’ is. One way that people think about it is : omg I have to work 12-13 hours/day, but I don’t think that’s the right way of thinking about it. The right way of thinking about grad school is that you have the
ask: where is emotion, cognition, perception, and memory? He’s asking: what are the basic processes that the mind does and how do they combine in different ways to give rise to things that we call memory, attention, and emotion? This is a very interesting way to think about the mind.
opportunity to think about something for 12-13 hours/day. So you better want to think about whatever it is. One of the critical things is having intrinsic motivation. You have to be willing to let something get under your skin, and if approached that way, it is the most amazing time in someone’s life. If you don’t have that, it’s like this grueling, terrible experience. You might not
Our theme this issue is Neuroscience and the Unknown, and you’ve hinted that your future is unknown. How does this theme apply to the field of social cognitive neuroscience in its current state? In the first few years, there was the assumption that “the self” is going to be somewhere in the brain or that “social cognition” or “facial processing” is going to be somewhere else. That was very important step for building an encyclopedia of information about localization, but we’re now realizing that this might not be the best way of characterizing how the brain does social things.
know exactly what it is that you will study, but it is best when you can allow yourself to let it take over and be open to that happening.
We would like to thank Dr. Cunningham for taking the time to lend us his insights!
17
Greetings from IMS Magazine: Who We Are, and a Brief Reflection on Graduate School Susy Lam On behalf of the IMS Magazine, I thank Interneuron for the courteous invitation to be included in this issue. IMS Magazine serves to link one of the University of Toronto’s largest graduate departments, the Institute of Medical Science, by bringing together cutting edge research into a well-designed magazine masterpiece. With a heavy translational research focus, we showcase bench-tobedside works from teaching hospitals and research facilities across the Greater Toronto Area--to unite the University of Toronto’s best research! As co-editor, I’ve been privileged to work with very talented journalists, photographers, design illustrators, and of course, our dedicated IMS graduate students and faculty. Being involved with IMS Magazine has been a tremendously rewarding experience, and I am excited to continue coordinating the publishing process! That being said, I, myself, am also a graduate student, pursuing a MSc. with Dr. Robert Chen at Toronto Western Hospital, with a particular focus on motor learning neurophysiology in human subjects using transcranial magnetic stimulation. My graduate experience has been very much enjoyable, so I’d like to comment more about it. Transitioning from undergraduate student to graduate
18
student is a dynamic change. During undergraduate studies, more often than not we are accustomed to a specific class schedule, and time is tight--assignments are due, midterms will approach, etc. In a project-based master’s, things change dramatically! I was left with so much time on my hands that it became a little overwhelming. Eventually, I got into the groove of it by allotting time to planning my project from scratch, applying to scholarships, hitting the gym, meeting friends, and of course, managing the IMS Magazine. Graduate life becomes a different challenge, and it’s about self-discipline and having the drive and ambition to make the best out of yourself, with the time that you are given. This dialogue between Interneuron and IMS Magazine is a great start to facilitating a smoother transition between undergraduate studies and graduate school! Check out the magazine’s website at www.imsmagazine.com. Here, we make regular blog posts of both print and online-exclusive articles written by our IMS students and faculty. If you click on the link “Print Issues”, you will be able to access current and past issues of the print magazine in PDF format. I wish you all the best in your studies! If you are interested in pursuing graduate studies in the IMS, some exciting news— the IMS has recently approved a new professional Master’s degree in Translational Research! Check it out here: www.trp.utoronto.ca Cheers to you all!
Susy Lam Co-editor, IMS Magazine MSc. Candidate, Dr. Robert Chen’s Research Laboratory
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 4 . April 2015
Get involved with Interneuron! Applications for Interneuron's Editorial Team are now available! If you are interested in joining us as an... Editor-in-Chief, Submissions Editor, Layout Manager, Layout Team Member, Financial Advisor, or Webmaster... download an application from our website or Facebook page!
Deadline: May 15th - Send us an email: editor@interneuron.ca - Join our Facebook page: www.facebook.com/UTInterneuron - Tweet us: @InterneuronUofT