The Marine Scientist - August 2011

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No.36 August 2011

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Talking Points 4. A round up of marine science from around the world including: How boat

CONTENTS

propellers can kill large numbers of copepods; nine new species found in Indonesian Rapid Assessment Programme; small fish species as much at risk as top predators; world’s largest sustainable caviar farm opens in Abu Dhabi; and can the giant squid be a conservation icon?

Issue No 36 August 2011

80 years – testament to a good idea 12. After nearly six million miles of surveys, 298 ships of opportunity, countless samples and a scientific publication record renowned the world over the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation is celebrating 80 years of the continuous plankton recorder. SAHFOS Director, Professor Peter Burkill talks to Marine Scientist.

The WiSe approach to safeguarding our marine wildlife 16. The attractions of whale watching, seal spotting and shark encounters can be a welcome addition, or replacement, in local coastal economies. Yet the very act of taking groups to see our marine megafauna can threaten both animals and industry. Colin Speedie introduces us to the WiSe approach combining training, codes of conduct and respect for the spectacular animals the visitors pay to see.

English aquaculture – a strategy for the future 20. As world wild fish stocks decline the importance of aquaculture increases. Yet while many countries are already building the infrastructure to take advantage of the growing demand, Europe and particularly England lag behind. Why is this and what can be done? Tom Pickerell, Director of the Shellfish Association of Great Britain looks to a brighter future for aquaculture in England.

Surf’s Up for marine renewable industry 24. Much like the industrial revolution that grew from the mining of coal, the UK is on the verge of a renewable revolution built on the energy surrounding its shores in the form of wave and tidal energy. The extremes of Scotland and Cornwall, particularly well supplied with marine renewable energy resources, are at the forefront of developing opportunities to harness this energy. Lucy Hunt writes about an innovative ‘socket on the seabed’ that will allow developers to test their energy devices.

Technology 28. Technology: Some of the technological advances that aid in our investigations and exploitation of the marine environment including: a world record for an uninterrupted pipeline inspection by AUV; telemetry reveals secrets of turtle population movements; CFD aids in best way to attach telemetry tags on dolphins; WHOI selects Hydroid AUVs; VideRay protects ports and OceanServer’s latest AUV.

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EDITORIAL

Exploiting our seas feature of Marine Scientist is that it aims to bring you the latest technological advances alongside current engineering successes, and the latest news on biological discoveries while appreciating that we can exploit the marine environment in a number of ways, with sustainability being the watchword. This issue has all of this. The marine environment is a source of tremendous energy, energy that can be turned into power to help reduce our dependence on hydrocarbons and the increasing challenges they pose. The United Kingdom is well placed to exploit energy from the sea and around its shores are hotspots of wind and wave just crying out to be utilised. Economic aspects are the subject of deals and subsidies, market strength and priorities, complex issues it is true. But it is the testing of the technology at a realistic scale which has been a barrier to successfully harvesting the ‘free’ gigawatts that wash our shores. There are a few areas of the nation that are particularly suitable and actively looking to tap into this energy source, one of them is Cornwall where as Lucy Hunt tells us, the innovative £42 million Wave Hub project is now the world’s largest grid-connected and fully consented test site for wave energy devices acting like a giant underwater socket 16 km off the north coast of Cornwall. A growing interest in wildlife and a fascination for the sea encourages more people to want to witness the ‘megafauna’ around our coasts. Indeed, this can be a major source of income for some coastal

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Kelvin Boot Editor

communities, but it is not without its dangers.

Inevitably as the number of ‘marine wildlife watchers’ increases the probability of detrimental impacts upon the whales, dolphins, seals and other sea life, grows – and this is a worldwide problem. Colin Speedie introduces the Wildlife Safe (WiSe) scheme which aims to train boat operators for best practice, not restricting their operations or banning close encounters, but showing that the wildlife industry can thrive without putting the animals at risk.

As world populations grow and coastal areas become more crowded so the pressures on our wild fish stocks increase. One answer is to increase production through aquaculture, but Europe in general and England in particular are being slow to increase production. What is the hold up? Why is England lagging behind the rest of the world? Tom Pickerell takes a look at the industry and asks whether English aquaculture can catch up?

Exploitation of the marine

No.36 August 2011

environment, whether sustainable or not, is just one of the pressures faced by the seas that connect everyone on this planet. What is obvious is that as we make more and different uses of the ocean we need to understand how we might be impacting the resource that we treasure so dearly. Over the last eighty years ships of opportunity have been towing a simple yet effective piece of equipment in their wakes. The Continuous Plankton Recorder ‘flies’ beneath the surface, behind these ships, as they ply their trade across the seas and oceans; all the time sieving out plankton for later analysis and interpretation. In an interview with Marine Scientist, Peter Burkill, Director of the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science, celebrates the last 80 years of research and makes it clear that while the CPR technology has changed little over the decades, the long term data it has collected is as valid today as it was at the beginning. And the CPR is evolving, continuing sampling role but also acting as a platform for additional sensors and monitors that will bring even more clarity to some its stunning discoveries of the last 80 years.

And finally a request!

Marine Scientist is compiled with its members and the wider marine community in mind. As Editor it is my job to bring you a variety of articles and other items you find interesting, informative and hopefully representative.

You can help me by sharing your research, innovation, opinion or successes in the form of articles for inclusion in future issues.

Editor Kelvin Boot kelvinboot@yahoo.co.uk

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No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 3

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TALKING POINTS

may affect marine food webs new study by researchers at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science shows that turbulence from boat propellers can and does kill large numbers of copepods—tiny crustaceans that are an important part of marine food webs.

The study—by VIMS graduate student Samantha Bickel, VIMS Professor Kam Tang, and Hampton University undergraduate Joseph Malloy Hammond—appears in an on-line issue of the Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology.

The researchers don’t expect their findings to lead to any new “No Wake” signs in local waterways; their interest instead is to better understand how significant levels of propeller-induced mortality among copepods might affect local food webs in Chesapeake Bay and other highly trafficked waterways. “Nonpredatory mortality such as this is rarely considered in the literature,” says Bickel, “but it could be important for properly understanding zooplankton ecology and food-web dynamics in coastal and estuarine waters, particularly during summer months when recreational boating increases.” Copepods—shrimp-like crustaceans about the size of a rice grain—typically make up a major part of the zooplankton community and serve an important role by moving energy up the marine food chain, from microscopic plants that are too small for most fish to eat up to larger game-fish and, ultimately, humans.

“If turbulence from boat propellers is killing off large numbers of copepods,” says Bickel, “it could be reducing

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The researchers used a rotating paddle to create different levels of turbulence in the laboratory Photo by Samantha Bickel/VIMS

A photomicrograph shows live copepods (stained red) and dead copepods (not stained). The dead copepods were killed by turbulence.

Photo by Samantha Bickel/VIMS

the supply of food energy available to fish, and reducing zooplankton grazing of algal blooms.” “It’s like cutting down the number of zebras in a herd,” she adds. “That would affect not only the zebras, but also the grass they eat and the lions that eat them.” This type of shift could potentially have a noticeable impact on marine food webs and water quality. “If a large portion of copepods are being killed, and if they sink down to the bottom, you could have additional high-quality organic material available for bottom-dwelling organisms to eat,” says Bickel. “If the amount is high enough, microbial decomposition could even perhaps contribute to development of localized low-oxygen ‘dead zones.’”

The researchers caution that there are untold millions of zooplankton in the world’s aquatic systems, so that when viewed at a global scale, the portion of copepods killed by boat-generated turbulence is probably minimal. “The

4 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

importance of turbulence as a source of mortality among copepods would be of much greater importance at a local scale,” says Bickel, “including highly trafficked areas near harbours and marinas, and within closed freshwater systems such as lakes.”

Field & Laboratory Research The research team studied propeller-induced mortality both in the field and laboratory. During the spring of 2010, they sampled copepods at three sites near the mouth of the Hampton River, a tributary of Chesapeake Bay. One site was a marina with numerous boats but minimal turbulence due to an imposed speed limit. The second was in a high-traffic area of a nearby navigational channel, where fast-moving boats generated considerable turbulence in their wakes. The third site was a tranquil shoreline opposite from the marina, with few boats and little or no boat-generated turbulence. They compared the percentage of live and dead copepods collected from these sites using a dye that is only taken up by living copepods. The results of their comparison showed a much higher fraction of dead cope-

pods in the channel (34%) than in the marina (5.9% dead) or along the shoreline (5.3%). A field experiment in the York River near the VIMS campus confirmed the results of the Hampton River study.

Here, they sampled copepods from within the wakes of passing boats, and again found a link between turbulence and mortality: the percentage of copepod carcasses increased from 7.7% outside the wakes to 14.3% inside the wakes.

The researchers were careful in both cases to minimize turbulence from their own vessel, using a rowboat for the Hampton River study and maintaining an idle during sampling in the York. The team’s final experiment took place in the laboratory, where they exposed copepods to turbulence from a small motor calibrated to mimic the effects of different boat propellers.

Their results again confirmed their earlier findings, with a clear link between mortality and increasing levels of turbulent energy.

Their experiments also show that natural turbulence from tides, currents, and waves is unlikely to stress or kill copepods other than perhaps during an extreme storm event such as a hurricane or nor’easter.

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TALKING POINTS

Architeuthis:

he current public perception is that there is little reason for concern for the conservation of marine invertebrates, in part due to the scarcity of emblematic species to represent that diverse group.

Writing in the journal Biological Conservation Ángel Guerra and colleagues from the Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (CSIC), Spain and the Science Branch, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, show that the giant squid can be considered an emblematic species to represent concern for the conservation of marine invertebrate biodiversity. Although at first thought it seems an odd choice it does satisfy the criteria for an emblematic creature, say Guerra’s team.

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We know virtually nothing about it; the first pictures of a live, adult giant squid were only caught on camera in the wild in 2005. The 30 or so specimens landed to date reveal a huge animal up to 13 metres long with ten arms, two of which are massively elongated. The squid has a large beak which is uses to crush its prey. The animal that likely inspired the ancient mariners’ myth of the Kraken that appeared out of the deep ocean, the giant squid has long attracted the public’s attention. It still has the power to awe: people flock to see the few specimens held in museums around the world, and giant squid get a significant amount of press coverage.

But we still know little about how it lives.

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6 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

Architeuthis may also act as a bellwether for human impacts on the ocean. As carbon dioxide levels increase in the atmosphere, more dissolves into the oceans, resulting in a fall in pH. This increase in ocean acidity could make it harder for squid to produce small structures called statoliths which they need for movement and balance. That means more giant squid could float to the surface, where they would die.

Although Architeuthis has been found worldwide (677 specimens recorded to date from the southwest Pacific to the northwest Atlantic), it mainly appears in areas with submarine channels or canyons that cut across the continental shelf. These deep canyons are biodiver-

sity hotspots and are vulnerable to deep sea fishing and dredging. Giant squid are also vulnerable to both, as well as pollution and potentially even seismic surveys or sonar.

The logic suggests therefore that if we learn to love, celebrate and protect the giant squid, we could also protect an entire unique marine ecosystem, and all the other more recognisable animals living within. But this outsized, almost monstrous sea creature of lore is perhaps the more enigmatic, secretive, bizarre and fascinating animal. Like, tiger, elephant, panda and giant tortoise on land it may also better represent the ecosystem in which it lives, and the threats to it.

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Nine New Marine Species

two-week marine survey conducted by scientists with Conservation International (CI) in Indonesia, along with local partners, led to the discovery of eight potentially new species of fish and a potentially new species of coral in the waters surrounding Bali island. The survey, part of CI’s 20-year long Rapid Assessment Program (RAP), was undertaken by CI at the request of the Bali provincial government and the Department of Fisheries and Marine Affairs to assess reef health and provide management recommendations for 25 areas proposed to be developed into a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in Bali, which will be designed to be ecologically-connected and resilient.

Among the potentially new species documented were two types of cardinalfish, two varieties of dottybacks, a garden eel, a sand perch, a fang blenny, a new species of goby and a previously unknown Euphyllia bubble coral.

This RAP survey, along with a previous survey conducted by CI and partners for the Bali government in November of 2008, documented 953 species of reef fish and 397 species of coral in the waters off the coast of Bali. "We carried out this present survey in 33 sites around Bali, nearly completing a circle around it, and were impressed by much of what we saw” said Dr. Mark Erdmann, senior advisor for the CI Indonesia marine program. “There was a tremendous variety of habitats, surprisingly high levels of diversity and the coral reefs appeared to be in an active stage of recovery from bleaching, destructive fishing and crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks in the 1990’s.”

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Recovery and depletion Acting Executive Director for CIIndonesia Ketut Sarjana Putra added, “Compared to twelve years ago, we observed an increase in healthy coral reef

Parapercis - new sandperch, a potentially new species identified during a 2011 marine Rapid Assessment Program Survey in Bali © Conservation International/Gerald Allen

cover in the area surveyed, indicating a recovery phase. That is why it needs serious protection and management, to complete the revitalization."

Though the survey found the reefs to be recovering well, with a seven-to-one ratio of live to dead coral, the RAP survey team observed that commercially important reef fish were severely depleted. The team also saw that plastic pollution was omnipresent and noted the encroachment of fishers on no-take areas in the West Bali National Park.

“This RAP survey highlights how important these Marine Protected Areas are to improving economic returns from marine tourism while also providing food security and ensuring the sustainability of small-scale artisanal fisheries,” Erdmann said. Among the recommendations made by the CI team are a prioritization of which areas need immediate protection, the need for spatial planning to reduce the clash between marine tourism and many unsustainable fishing practices, the need to commit to enforcement and public funding to manage the MPAs and the need for strict measures to be put in place to manage pollution from plastics, sewage and agricultural runoff.

CI’s partners in the Marine RAP survey include the Bali Government’s Office of Marine Affairs and the Bali Department of Fisheries, as well as the Marine Research and Observation Office and Warmadewa University. Funding for the scientific survey was provided by USAID Indonesia as part of Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP).

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No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 7

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TALKING POINTS

Small fry at risk

harks, tuna, billfish and other oceanic top predators have suffered major population declines in recent decades, causing many researchers to consider them the species at the highest risk of extinction. But now Stanford researchers have found that anchovies, sardines and other small fishes are at an equal or greater risk of suffering a collapse.

On land, being small and lurking at the bottom of the food chain is a far better strategy for species survival than being big, fierce and perched on top, at least when humans are after you – just ask the mice and grizzly bears. But talk to sharks and anchovies and they'll tell you a different story, according to a new study of fisheries collapses led by Stanford researchers.

Analyzing over 200 scientific assessments of fisheries around the globe, the team found that populations of small fish such as sardines and anchovies were at least as likely to have collapsed at some point in the last 50 years as stocks of large fish.

A major cause of population crashes in all fisheries is overfishing. That finding runs counter to the assumption of many scientists that the dramatic population

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declines suffered by large predatory fishes, including tuna, sharks and marlins, indicate they are at the greatest risk of extinction, just like large predators on land.

"We were expecting to see a strong pattern with large, top predators showing the highest probability of collapse," said Malin Pinsky, a graduate student in biology at Stanford and one of the researchers. "We were really surprised to find that just isn't the case." Small species were up to twice as likely to have suffered a major decline, he said.

Small fishes are a vital link in the oceanic food chain and when a species suffers a plunge in population, it hits the mammals, birds and other fish that depend on that species for food. “There are relatively few species at that level in the food chain, so if one of them collapses, it can have a big impact," Pinsky said. "It is a big deal."

Smaller fish tend to be short lived and therefore reproduce and mature faster than large species. As a result, a population drop in a smaller species tends to last about five years, Pinsky said, while larger species need about 15 years to recover.

But not every small fish pop-

ulation bounces back in a few years. The collapse of the sardine fishery in Monterey Bay is a prime example of that, Pinsky said, as it took decades for that stock to recover.

Over 25 percent of the world's fisheries consist of small fish, primarily for use in animal feed, fertilizer and nutritional supplements. "The important lesson is that all species of fishes can collapse once humans decide to eat or use them, from sardines to swordfish," Pinsky said.

"You hear the old adage, 'Don't sweat the small stuff,' but for fisheries, we do have to care about the little guys. This really contrasts with what scientists, managers and the conservation community have often

Logging Life Science

assumed up until now."

Pinsky and Stephen Palumbi, director of Stanford's Hopkins Marine Station collaborated on the study with colleagues at Rutgers University and Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Canada. They used two data sets, one compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and another housed at Dalhousie, to which researchers around the world contributed.

"We looked at everything from small species to really large species and asked how frequently fisheries collapses occur for the whole range," Pinsky said.

"We were not focused on small fishes when we started out, but that was what popped out."

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8 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

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World’s largest sustainable source of caviar opens in Abu Dhabi eveloped by family owned Abu Dhabi holding group Bin Salem Holding, the Middle East's first and largest caviar farm of its kind has unveiled future plans and a new brand identity for The Royal Caviar Company. With its first commercial batch of caviar in 2012, the factory will become the world's largest and most technologically advanced producer of high quality sustainably sourced caviar, playing a key role in addressing the world's growing demand for top quality caviar. Developed

by Bin Salem Holding, in cooperation with United Food Technologies AG, The Royal Caviar Company factory currently contains approximately 18 tonnes of sturgeon with a further 124 tonnes scheduled for delivery this year.

The first production of caviar and sturgeon fillets is scheduled for late in 2011, with caviar commercially available in the UAE in the second half of 2012.

Sturgeon are considered endangered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Consequently, The Royal Caviar Company has an essential role to play in ensuring the regular availability of sustainable, high quality caviar. The company was expecting a delivery of around 120,000 sturgeon eggs, which will be the UAE's first home grown sturgeon, and the gift of 20 rare albino sturgeons to the factory by United Food Technologies AG. Ahmad Al Dhaheri, CEO and Vice Chairman of Bin Salem, announced; "Bin Salem has been planning and developing this business for several years, and it is a tribute to every stakeholder

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and partner that we can announce our plans now that the factory is complete.

Abu Dhabi is ideally placed to become one of the world's most successful producers of caviar, as we are convenient to the fastest growing markets in the Middle East and Asia, and I look forward to The Royal Caviar Company being the caviar of choice across the globe." Caviar has been considered a delicacy for centuries, with demand for high quality caviar increasing year after year.

With the factory in Abu Dhabi reaching full capacity within the next four years, The Royal Caviar Company will satisfy approximately 10% of the global supply/demand imbalance, and will become the largest caviar factory in the world offering a supply of caviar on a reliable monthly basis. In addition to high quality caviar, The Royal Caviar Company will be a high volume producer of sturgeon fillets which are also a delicacy in many countries.

Robert Harper, Group

10 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

Sturgeon at the Royal Caviar Company’s caviar farm

Commercial Director, Bin Salem, explained; "Abu Dhabi is an ideal location for distribution to the world's growing markets for high quality caviar and sturgeon fillets. In fact in the UAE alone, demand is around 14 tonnes per year. Cutting edge re-circulating technology and digital process control ensures that the sturgeon enjoy an ideal habitat with carefully controlled pH levels, oxygen concentration and regular feeding. Our sturgeon will produce an extremely high quality of caviar and fillets for the local and international markets for many years to come." At approximately 50,000 m2, the factory is the largest aquaculture re-circulating facility in the world in terms of size and capacity, and has been developed by United Food Technologies AG, world experts in water recirculating technology and equipment, who brought a

Scanning sturgeon with ultrasound

variety of patent pending water purification, caviar production and digital monitoring systems to Abu Dhabi.

Other valued partners and service suppliers of The Royal Caviar Company include Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, Etihad Crystal Cargo, Salem Freight, Maersk Line, AquaLife, who provide special containers to ensure utmost levels of safety for the sturgeon during their sea transport, and AquaOrbis.

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Eating aliens can be a hazard to health atching Lionfish and eating them or selling them to restaurants can be a good thing. First it can provide a source of revenue for local fishermen and second it can help to rid waters of the invasive Lionfish.

In fact NOAA have been promoting a Catch and Eat program and promoting their new Lionfish Cook Book. Up until recently Lionfish have been thought to be immune to or unable to carry the Ciguatera Toxin, but that has now changed.

Scientists and researchers from University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, have been doing a study on ciguatera fish poisoning in the territory. Tyler Smith and his students at UVI’s Center for Marine and Environmental Studies

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Shark values

single reef shark can contribute almost US$2 million in its lifetime to the economy of Palau, according to a new study by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) and the University of Western Australia. The analysis quantified the economic benefits of the shark-diving industry to the Pacific island nation and found that its value far exceeded that of shark fishing. Other findings from the study, which looked at the

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have spent the last year collecting samples of plants, algae and fish at four sites on a monthly basis and sending them to the project’s investigators for analysis. Alison Robertson, a bio-analytical chemist with the Food and Drug Administration, has been studying the fish samples Smith and his students have been collecting. Robertson looked at seven lionfish caught in the Virgin Islands and found four of them were toxic. So the facts have changed, Lionfish can carry the Ciguatera Toxin. According to NOAA, no conclusive study has ever been performed in regards to the Lionfish and Ciguatera and the advice is to address eating Lionfish as any other reef fish, with caution.

reef sharks observed at Palau's major dive sites, include: Shark diving brings approximately US$18 million annually to the Palauan economy, approximately eight percent of the country's gross domestic product; the annual income in salaries paid by the shark-diving industry was an estimated US$1.2 million; and the annual tax income to Palau generated by shark diving was approximately 14 percent of the country's business tax revenue.

Migaloo avoids fresh water

igaloo the world’s only known all-white humpback was spotted swimming off Australia’s Fraser Island in June, a full month earlier than last year. Being able to spot an individual amongst a record number of migrating whales (estimates of up to 13,500 whales) gives scientists an unprecedented opportunity to learn about their movements. Scientists think the early date is a result of a route change caused by large amounts of freshwater in the coastal areas of New South Wales, following extensive rainfall and flooding. The whales avoid the freshwater, and most of the coastline.

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IN BRIEF Island riches he first comprehensive study of the seas around the islands of South Georgia reveals that the region is richer in marine life than even many tropical sites, such as the Galapagos Islands.

The survey, carried out by the British Antarctic Survey and reported in the online journal PLoS One, recorded about 1500 species, showing South Georgia and its surrounding islands to be the richest in the Southern Ocean.

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INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR PETER BURKILL

Marine Scientist: 80 years ago Alister Hardy designed the CPR, is it still fit for purpose?

Peter Burkill: The fact that the technology has not changed is testimony to Hardy’s far reaching thoughts about the robustness of the system. If you think about it, if you want to look at change over a long period of time it’s actually useful to have a parameter, a yardstick, that doesn’t change a great deal, otherwise you end up comparing chalk and cheese. So it’s interesting for me, someone who has used the latest technology throughout my career in marine science, to appreciate technology that is basically conservative. In many areas of marine science you need research ships that cost thousands of pounds each day to run. One of the characteristics of the CPR programme is that we use merchant ships, ships of opportunity, so our costs are minimal. Our basic costs are in the order of one to two hundred dollars per sample run, that’s incredibly low and it does the job.

MS: What led to Hardy designing the CPR? PB: Hardy had spent time in the southern ocean where he studied whales, knowing that whilst hunting was impacting populations, food supply was also important. On his return north he saw parallels with fisheries, where man’s impact was being felt, but food supply was also a key factor. He wanted to know about the plankton, where was it and what were the environmental factors influencing its distribution and numbers? By knowing such things he could help the fishing industry. WWII interrupted his on board researches and by the time he resumed, technology in the form of SONAR was proving a boon to finding fish. This led him to look at plankton for its own sake. The idea of the CPR first came to Hardy early in his career when he was naturalist aboard the research trawler George Bligh,

12 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

80 years - a testament to a good idea September 2011 marks the eightieth anniversary of the birth of the continuous plankton recorder survey. Professor Peter Burkill, Director of the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) shared some of the history of the CPR and his aspirations for its future with Marine Scientist when an opportunity of weather and schedules allowed him the luxury of staying on station, rather than taking samples and steaming to the next station.

The haul of post-larval herring, that were his target, differed dramatically throughout the day, such that the difference between the smallest and greatest numbers at the one station was greater than that between the smallest and greatest numbers from any of the stations on the rest of the cruise! Hardy considered that this demonstrated just how patchy plankton and young fish can be and that the single point surveys were not so useful.

MS: In his excellent book ‘The Open Sea; its natural history: Part 1, the World of Plankton’ he described the CPR as “a torpedoshaped machine which can be towed like a tow-net but at full speed behind any ordinary ship. It automatically samples the plankton mile by mile as it goes along“. How does it work?

PB: It is so simple it’s elegant, and going back to ‘World of Plankton’ Hardy tells us how his design works, and the CPR we still use performs in the same way. “It is fitted with planes which, when it is towed, make it dive below

Alister Hardy with an early version of the CPR (SAHFOS)

the surface and ride at a depth which may be determined by the amount of towing cable veered out. As it is towed along, the sea enters the machine by a small hole in front, passes through it in a tunnel and out at the back; the cross section of the tunnel increases in size so that the water entering it at some 12 knots is slowed down as it passes along, to about a tenth of its original velocity.

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The plankton is sieved out from the slowed down water stream by a continuously moving banding of silk gauze which is slowly wound across the tunnel and into a storage tank of preservative fluid by a system of rollers geared to a propeller on the outside of the machine. As the gauze leaves the tunnel by a narrow slit it is joined by a second fabric which winds on with it on to the storage spool in the formalin tank. This prevents the plankton from being rubbed from one part of the roll to another.”

MS: After the CPR was designed when did it really come into its own?

PB: It was in the 1020s but it was not until he became Professor at University College, Hull that he re-designed it as a smaller version for use on merchant vessels running from Hull across the North Sea. Thus the Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey was born with its first official tow taking place in September 1931.

The CPR’s work began in earnest with a five year survey over the southern half of the North Sea. Hardy was quick to acknowledge “the generous cooperation of a number of different shipping companies and their officers”; that’s the key to the success of the CPR. If it wasn’t for the generosity of a whole host of shipping lines, ferry companies, captains and crew this would simply not happen. We are very, very grateful for their support, 298 ships have taken part to date.

The first sortie into the Atlantic

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There have been minor changes to the CPR over the last 80 years but it remains essentially the same as when first designed (SAHFOS)

At the end of a voyage the cartridge containing silk and captured plankton is removed from the CPR for analysis (SAHFOS)

in 1939 was a major step forward with the realisation that one could look at plankton in the open ocean at scales that previously had not been thought of before. It was in a time before remote sensing, now we live in an era where one can remote sense phytoplankton when there is little cloud cover, but even today, if one wants to carry out major surveys, or look at zooplankton there is only one way to do it and that’s with the CPR. MS: The CPR is still going strong, but what next, do you just maintain the status quo or is there room for further expansion, further development?

PB: We’ve started to look over the horizon and we now have a science strategy that has two major axes: one is called ‘Going Global’. The other, ‘Going Complete’, accepts the existing CPR is inherently conservative but that much more information can be collected. We realised some

Ro-Ro Ferry Bretagne, a ‘ship of opportunity’ that tows a CPR between Plymouth and Roscoff (SAHFOS)

years ago that we should be looking at molecular taxonomy as well as the microscope based observations and we’ve worked closely with colleagues at the University of Plymouth and the Marine Biological Association and now we’ve appointed someone to do our own molecular taxonomy, in-house. That recognises that by using molecular techniques we can analyse all sorts of plankton – for example jellyfish, which just basically get smashed up by the CPR; from the remaining small strands you can actually identify what they are, and get some reasonable idea of the numbers. And we can go back in time! We are just establishing how these molecular techniques can be applied to the ‘back collection’ of samples – that is just going to be hugely important.

“One of the other things we’ve done is, working closely with the Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), to get a water sampler.

One of the great advantages of collecting water is that there is no selective filtration of the organisms, so we could look at viruses, fungi and bacteria as well as smaller planktonic organisms that escape the net. This is

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INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR PETER BURKILL

particularly important for our interests in Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), a major focus for the molecular work, bringing together two new techniques there – molecular taxonomy and the water sampler. We have capitalised on work in the medical field. We use blood bags to capture water samples in the order of 100mls. The idea is that by using a fluorometer, which is a device for looking at chlorophyll fluorescence in the water, we can set the blood bags up to sample over the physical course of a bloom by opening when once the concentration has reached a particular point. Within the next five years we would hope to add flow cytometers on the CPR; that would enable us to obtain data in real time, a major step forward.

MS: You have already mentioned the CPR is ‘Going Global’, tell me more.

PB: The CPR is the longest marine biodiversity survey in the world, it has covered nearly six million miles over the decades collecting a huge

14 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

amount of data en route, and now we have the opportunity to add extra data through adding more sampling methods, but we also recognise that we can extend the range of sampling into areas that interest us. ‘Going Global’ is the second thrust of SAHFOS’ future strategy. The Survey began in the North Sea, moved into the Atlantic and about ten years ago started working in the Pacific; CPRs are being used in the European Arctic and there are plans to move even wider afield in areas relevant to global change processes. It may be climate, fisheries, pollution or

The recently refurbished laboratory, where scientists painstakingly analyse the collected plankton using specially modified microscopes (SAHFOS)

A typical phytoplankton sample (SAHFOS)

eutrophication there are a lot of drivers and SAHFOS has an interest in understanding them all and we have made our mark with significant discoveries being reported in the scientific literature. Indeed a recent discovery of the CPR showed that a tiny marine phytoplankter had moved through the newly opened North West Passage to recolonise North Atlantic waters after an absence of 800,000 years, and we have noted distributions changing with rising sea surface temperatures. Changes in phytoplankton could have serious consequences as they play such a key role in the biological pump that draws atmospheric carbon dioxide into the sea, they produce half of every breath we take and are the foundation for most ocean food chains. It is now essential to gain ocean basin wide data. In order to get that broad coverage we need a global perspective and at SAHFOS we have 35 people so there’s no way we can actually achieve that, so in the last

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ing that in order to gain a global vision that it’s in everybody’s interest to continue working together. We will all be meeting to discuss how we can produce a global alliance of CPR surveys. At the heart of this and it’s probably some years away, is the idea that we should come up with a global database reflecting the phytoplankton and zooplankton biodiversity across the ocean basins of the world. In order to do that what we need is to agree common standards and formats and who has the intellectual property rights and so on, that’s what we’ll be discussing. It’s extraordinarily exciting. few years we’ve had a very active programme to encourage other countries to start doing the work that we have in sister surveys, in fact we are working very closely with

Zooplankton from a CPR sample (SAHFOS)

South Africa, and Namibia and Angola at the moment, helping them to get a survey going on the Benguelan system. It’s my vision that we should be pooling our capabilities, recognis-

For more information about SAHFOS and the CPR survey, go to: www.sahfos.ac.uk. SAHFOS is celebrating its 80 years of the CPR with a special symposium ‘Plankton 2011’, at the end of September. For further details visit: www.plankton2011.org/

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WILDLIFE WATCHING

here is a general feeling in the United Kingdom that you have to travel to the other side of the world to view a wide range of exotic marine wildlife, but that simply is not the case. The waters around the British Isles abound in a remarkable array of species of global importance. At least 12 species of whales and dolphins are regularly recorded here, 45% of the world’s grey seals breed in the UK, 68% of the world’s breeding population of northern gannets nest on coastal cliffs, and the second largest fish on the planet, the basking shark, is a regular summer visitor. All told it is a highly impressive and attractive tableau and something of great national value, both social and economic.

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Economic impact at a price Globally, wildlife watching is big business. You can now join a whale watching expedition in any one of more than 90 countries, it is a business with an estimated global value approaching $2bn, and supporting around 14000 full time jobs. Recent estimates in Scotland alone have identified a net economic impact from marine wildlife tourism of £15m, supporting 633 full time jobs, many of them in economically deprived communities along the coast where traditional industries such as fishing are in decline, and tourist income is much welcomed.

All well and good, but is there a hidden price to pay, perhaps in terms of impacts upon marine wildlife, the risk of harming the very resource upon which this valuable industry relies? The answer has to be yes – marine life can be sensitive to noise and ill advised or careless boat handling, that can cause disturbance or even injury in the short term.

In the long term these effects and the cumulative impact of too much attention may have even more serious consequences, perhaps through causing animals to vacate preferred feeding

16 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

The WiSe approach to safeguarding our marine wildlife Marine wildlife tours may be a boon to local economies but can threaten the very animals people pay to see. A unique project in the UK is guiding this growing industry towards a sustainable future. Colin Speedie introduces the WiSe way of watching marine megafauna

grounds, harming overall wellbeing and, in some cases, reproductive success, as a number of studies from around the world have demonstrated.

Reducing impacts through best practice Clearly, this is in nobody’s interest, but what can be done?

Britain aready has a comprehensive range of effective laws in place to protect against the worst excesses, but there remains a need to minimise the potential effect of our enthusiasm to see marine life in the wild. In order to address this concern an

Humpback whale breaching off Mallaig (c) Colin Speedie/Shark Foundation

approach has been developed within the UK, through the training and education of commercial marine wildlife boat operators. Called the WiSe (Wildlife Safe) Scheme, the project was launched in 2003 in Cornwall by field researchers with many years of experience studying a range of marine life, as a means of sharing their practical experience with a wider audience, with the aim of reducing impacts upon wildlife through the development of best practice. Then, as now, the basic course consisted of a classroom based day covering a range of

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but noisy and careless approaches can cause cumulative effects that may cause them to vacate the most valuable haul-out sites.

There are obvious seasonal impacts on seabirds, especially around nesting and fledging periods, as well as threats from disturbance of birds resting on the water, and an evaluation of those threats is presented. All of these subjects (and more) are covered using a specially developed slide presentation, and attendees also receive a WiSe developed DVD that uses a mixture of graphic and video presentations, using material culled from field research projects.

The experience should be a privilege

Basking shark (c) Colin Speedie/Shark Foundation

Shark watchers (c) Colin Speedie/Shark Foundation

modules, including wildlife law and its implications for the operator, whales and dolphins, basking sharks, seals and seabirds, outlining the least intrusive ways of watching them, and explaining the potential impacts commercial watching may have upon them.

Codes of Conduct for all of the species covered have been developed, and their practical application is at the heart of the course. In the case of whales and dolphins, the course material demonstrates safe approach angles, minimum distances of approach, duration of encounter

and disturbance caused by sound. The likely reaction to the approach of a vessel across a range of different species is discussed, and sensitivities relating to calves, social groups and habitat usage are presented. For basking sharks, safe distances, correct approach angles, and the risk of disturbance of social behaviour are outlined. Our important seal populations occupy a variety of different habitats, and are very popular with wildlife watchers. They are capable of becoming habituated to vessels that approach on a regular basis in a sensitive manner,

Since the initial training days, courses have been run all over the UK, from the Isles of Scilly to the Shetland Isles, and from Jersey to Northern Ireland. The number of trainers has risen to nearly twenty from the original two, and close to 2000 individuals have attended courses. A wide diversity of individuals, from students to fishermen and academics have been accredited.

WiSe has a number of core beliefs, that underpin the training. The first is that all activities must be carried out within the law, whether it be regional, national or international. Much of our precious marine life is extensively protected, and it is vital that all operators are aware of their rights and responsibilities within the law.

The second is that all watching activities should place the welfare of wildlife ahead of all other considerations, at all times. This is the only way that wildlife watching can be regarded as approaching sustainability. The third is that all voyages should have an educational value, through good quality, well informed commentary and support materials. The paying public should be aware that what they are experiencing is a privilege, and leave better informed about the species they

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WILDLIFE WATCHING

have seen, in the context of the marine ecosystem. Finally, WiSe encourages operators to gather information on an informal basis. Being out on the water and around marine life regularly, they are uniquely placed to help local or national scientific data gathering initiatives, such as the Sea Watch Foundation cetacean recording scheme, or the Marine Conservation Society’s basking shark watch project.

Common understanding All WiSe instructors are now regionally based, so that they share a common cultural heritage and intimate knowledge of their shared territory with the attendees. Instructors are selected on the basis of their scientific background, or years of field experience, as well as the vital ability to pass on the course content in an engaging and digestible manner. Most instruc-

tors have additional skills to share with the other instructors that can enhance the overall course and its content, to help it cover a wider range of needs.

Two have extensive experience of leading sea kayak expeditions, for example, sharing an insight with the other instructors into wildlife and kayak interactions.

Another WiSe instructor has extensive academic and practical experience in the field of education and interpretation, that has brought an additional dimension to the courses, helping WiSe to develop enhanced educational elements for improving public awareness.

Whenever possible, local Police Wildlife Liaison Officers are invited to present the module on wildlife law. Having direct contact in this way gives a clear understanding to all attendees of where they stand in regard to the law, and how the Police interpret it. It also enables the

Bottlenose dolphin family group (c) Colin Speedie/Shark Foundation

Partnerships

Bowriding dolphins (c) Colin Speedie/Shark Foundation

18 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

Officers to meet the operators and hear their questions and concerns. On many occasions, courses have benefited from input from the Royal Yachting Association’s excellent environmental initiative, The Green Blue, whose staff are experts at demonstrating ways in which the environmental impacts of small craft can be minimised, a subject entirely at one with the core ethos of WiSe. WiSe has always worked in partnership with both national and regional government agencies as well as conservation NGOs and local initiatives. This helps to ensure that existing structures are not undermined, either in terms of the legal structures in place, or any local initiatives that have developed protocols for sensitive sites or species in their area. This is of particular importance where nationally or internationally significant habitats are concerned, such as the Pembrokeshire coast and islands, where local wildlife watching guidelines already exist. By working with the Pembrokeshire Coastal Forum, WiSe has been able to deliver courses that are supportive of the existing structures. In Scotland, one the UK’s leading marine ecotourism regions, a long term partnership with Wild Scotland, the industry body responsible for ecotourism in the region, has enabled training to extend

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throughout this diverse and wildlife rich region.

In recent years, WiSe has worked to develop specific courses to address niche needs, with a range of organisations.

This has become necessary to reflect the diversity of individuals that have now attend courses, many of whom come from other areas of boat activity than ecotourism operators. Representatives from the fields of yachting, diving, kayaking, coasteering, offshore energy development support craft and research groups have all attended recent courses. This has proved a valuable development, as a wide range of skill sets are usually present, encouraging a lively exchange, that positively benefits all present – including the instructors.

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Propeller injury, basking shark (c) Colin Speedie

Individual accreditation maintains standards All accredited operators are listed (if they wish to be) on the WiSe website (www.wisescheme.org). WiSe does not accredit a company, but treats each attendee as an individual, to ensure that all staff that may be in charge of an excursion for a company are trained, in order to maintain standards. To make this clear to the public, the names of all accredited individuals are listed on the company entry on the website. Accreditation of each individual is currently of three years duration, reflecting the fact that scientific

and practical understanding of the issue of disturbance is never static, and new information is constantly being generated. At the end of their three year period, individuals may choose to attend a further course, or upgrade their accreditation via attendance at one of the new Master courses. The Master courses develop and expand the key messages concerning the range of species covered by the standard courses, with presentations from a range of experts from the scientific field. At the recent Master course in Scotland, for example, attendees benefited from modules presented by a number of WiSe instructors and leading scientists from the University of Aberdeen and the Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU).

The number of people who have opted to attend a course gives some indication of the level of activity currently taking

place in our waters. The seas around us become busier by the year, putting further pressure on some of our most attractive and much loved marine life.

WiSe believes that training of all individuals who spend considerable amounts of time around marine wildlife is essential if we are to reduce the potential impacts in any significant manner. The opportunity to work in marine ecotourism is now a realistic one, and can bring valuable income to coastal communities, with obvious social and economic benefits. But equally that opportunity brings with it a set of responsibilities that must be given equal weight.

The individuals who attend a WiSe course do so voluntarily, and at their own expense, recognising that this is a first step towards meeting those responsibilities, and working towards that most elusive of goals – sustainability.

WiSe Masterclass, Fort William 2011 Louise Johnson/Wave Action

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AQUACULTURE

he recently published report into aquaculture by the WorldFish Centre and Conservation International2 notes that between 1970 and 2008 global aquaculture production grew at an annual average rate of 8.4% and remains among the fastest growing food production sectors in the world. However this growth was not uniform; the annual average growth rate in aquaculture between 2003 and 2005 in China, Asia and South America was 6, 11.2, 7.8% respectively but only 1.4–1.6% in North America and Europe. The slow growth rate in Europe is a concern for many decision makers particularly since in 2002 the European Commission presented a Communication on a Strategy for the sustainable development of European aquaculture.

Sadly, this lack of growth is no more apparent than in the English shellfish cultivation sector where, despite the best efforts of the industry and the available opportunities for expansion, maintaining current levels of production is often the goal.

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Current English Shellfish Aquaculture Production There were 69 authorised shellfish cultivation businesses in England in 2009; they supported 135 full time and 63 part time employees.

The Table, comparing English shellfish aquaculture production in 2000 & 2009, shows there has been a drop in production of Native oysters, mussels and clams but an increase in Pacific oysters and cockles. However, it is a change in the management of cockle fisheries that has resulted in the significant Production (tonnes) of farmed shellfish in the England3 Species Pacific oyster Native oyster Mussels Clams Cockles

2000 297 115 6,131 28 147

2009 811 54 3,800 13 2,027

20 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

English

increase in quantity being recorded as cultivated production, from relaying of undersize animals, rather than any actual net increase in production. The relative scale of the industry is also a concern. The annual production of Pacific oysters in France is approximately 115,000 tonnes and the annual production of mussels in the Netherlands is around 50-60,000 tonnes, for example.

The low level of shellfish aquaculture in England is perhaps a reflection of the ready access we have previously had to affordable supplies of seafood from our own capture fisheries and from imports. This is a situation that will change significantly in the next few decades owing to population growth, economic pressures, climatic and environmental changes at home and elsewhere in the world.

In January 2011 the Foresight project ‘Global Food and Farming Futures’ report was published. This report explores the increasing pressures on the global food system between now

"Maldon Oyster Farm; grading and sorting of oysters" T Pickerell/SAGB

and 2050 and highlights the decisions that policy makers need to take today, and in the years ahead, to ensure that a global population rising to nine billion or more can be fed sustainably and equitably. The Foresight report notes that demand for fish “is expected to increase substantially, at least in line with other protein foods, and particularly in parts of east and south Asia. The majority of this extra demand will need to be met by further expansion of aquaculture”. The report is very positive about the role of aquaculture in assisting food security and notes that “global productivity in aquaculture could, with limited changes to inputs, be raised by around 40%”.

The Development of Government Thinking on English Aquaculture & Food Security Before the publication of the Foresight report, UK Government publications on food security were vague on the potential role of aquaculture. For example

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aquaculture - a strategy for the future The aquaculture industry is gaining increasing importance with static or falling catches of wild-caught fish and increasing global demands for seafood. According to projections1 made by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, most of the future demand for seafood is expected to be met by aquaculture. Tom Pickerell, Director of the Shellfish Association of Great Britain, asks whether the English aquaculture industry is ready for the challenge in July 2008 the UK Government published its strategic vision for the food system as one that is more sustainable – economically, socially and environmentally. The paper states that food must be produced “in a way that is environmentally sustainable or we will set up problems for the longer term. We need to feed a growing world population in a way that does not degrade the natural resources on which

farming and food production ultimately depend”. Unfortunately, aquaculture is not mentioned once in the report.

Also in July 2008 Defra published a discussion paper on ensuring the UK’s food security.

Once again the role of aquaculture was overlooked and instead the report focused on achieving sustainable wild stocks: “The greatest threat to the longer-term sustainability of fish

"West Mersea Oyster Farm; Relayed Native oyster operation" T Pickerell/SAGB

"Maldon Oyster Farm; Pacific oysters 'bag & rack' style" T Pickerell/SAGB

stocks, remains excessive fishing……The intention is that by 2015, all EU fisheries are managed on the basis of Maximum Sustainable Yield i.e. they are fished at a level which balances the scale of exploitation with the need to retain strong stocks.”

It wasn’t until a year later, in July 2009, when the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee published ‘Securing food supplies up to 2050: the challenges faced by the UK’ that aquaculture was officially considered as an option for food security. The Committee recommended that “Defra and the devolved Administrations should produce a study evaluating the potential of sustainable aquaculture off the shores of the UK”.

The Government response to this report was encouraging noting that “The Government recognises that aquaculture has an important part to play in meeting the needs of UK con-

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AQUACULTURE

sumers for a sustainable supply of fish and seafood….In the coming decades aquaculture could become the greatest source of increased fish and shellfish production required to bridge the gap between the diminishing supply from wild resources and significantly increased demand for secure food”.

The response also made reference to a Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) commissioned study exploring the potential for aquaculture to contribute to the future security of food and nonfood products and services in the UK and specifically England.

This report suggested that there was scope to increase production but recognised a number of constraints, including technical and geographical constraints.

Prompted by these developments in Government thinking, a workshop on sustainable English aquaculture was held at the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) Weymouth in October 2009. Attended by the aquaculture industry, scientists, retailers and policy makers, the workshop reviewed different aspects of aquaculture and concluded that this area of food production could continue to increase in importance if better supported.

In particular, a Government supported long term enabling strategy for English aquaculture was considered essential and the production of a strategy for England should build on the previous Scottish and Welsh experiences whilst recognising the different drivers for any strategy between countries.

Moving Towards an English Aquaculture Strategy To ensure the momentum was not lost the Shellfish Association of Great Britain (SAGB) and the British Trout Association (BTA), the two trade associations representing the bulk of current English aquaculture production, joined forces to press for a collab-

22 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

orative industry-led, Governmentfacilitated English Aquaculture strategy. Defra were very receptive to this approach and in July 2010 a workshop was held to investigate the ideal future of aquaculture in England, the issues that are currently impeding the development of the industry, and how stakeholders can work together to solve the problems.

The ideal future of the industry, 20 years hence, was a diverse and profitable sector working in a climate of innovation and confident investments. In this future world, aquaculture would no longer be a new industry, but part of the accepted high-tech manufacturing and food production sectors.

"Native oysters" S Peplowski/SAGB

The workshop identified 5 major barriers currently preventing development: perceptions (including public and media); Governmental (lack of commitment to the development of the industry, resulting in a lack of clear strategy, endorsement, cohesive departmental structures or streamlined planning and environmental regulations); spatial and environmental limiters (including water quality, planning, space, and environmental impact); investment and profitability (investment, profitability, retailers); and innovation (including research funding).

It was agreed to establish a Defra-facilitated ‘Stakeholder

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Advisory and Consultation Group’ to take the findings from this workshop forward and develop an English Aquaculture Strategy. Between October 2010 and May 2011 this group, formed of representatives from trade associations, retailers, environmental organisations, academics, Government scientists and decision-makers, developed the English Aquaculture strategy.

Strategy Highlights The keystone for the effective development of the English Aquaculture industry is the provision of a high standard of scientific and technical guidance for the optimal management of existing activities, combined with innovation to realise new opportunities and to mitigate against unforeseen events. The challenge associated with this is to ensure that the necessary research and technological development infrastructures are in place, are suitably resourced, well-coordinated and responsive to the needs of industry and policy-makers. In order to be successful, Defra and other research funding bodies will need to provide an appropriate level of investment for science supporting the industry’s sustainable development strongly aligned with the needs of a dynamic and developing industry in England.

Substantial research expertise and associated infrastructures are already in place for this within England (principally within academic institutions and Cefas), but these would benefit from operating within a well-defined English strategic framework led by a new national technical body/research hub responsible for coordinating aquaculture technology and training. It is envisaged that such a body would incorporate existing colleges, academic institutions and training schemes and qualifications and provide technical and managerial education producing a highly skilled and knowledgeable workforce for the industry.

"Exmouth Mussels Farm; Sorting of mussels" S Peplowski/SAGB

In order to enable expansion the aquaculture industry in England needs to be able to reinvest its own profits and attract long term investment. For this to happen, the industry needs to be able to demonstrate that it is a long term prospect, with security of tenure and expanding markets. They will then become a securable asset with a recognised value and can be used as loan collateral. Initial de-risking of investment of aquaculture through the establishment of loan guarantee schemes, and by provision of tax incentives, has been identified as vital to attract investment Formation of an industry promotional body, nominally referred to as ‘Aquaculture England’, is seen as a vital link between the industry and outside observers to ensure that accurate and relevant information is available for the rational development of the industry.

The key tasks of this body will be to promote consumption of aquaculture products, develop wider understanding of English Aquaculture, provide an information hub within the industry and to work in partnership with Government to fully develop the English Aquaculture Strategy.

The strategy also notes that Defra can support the develop-

ment of English aquaculture by promoting aquaculture as a solution to wider government issues and identifying opportunities where aquaculture can deliver wider government policy outcomes (e.g. health benefits, economic drivers etc.). Defra also needs to show support by investing in R&D for the developing industry, to a similar level as the investment supporting the wildcapture sector.

Next Steps As of June 2011 the final report is with Defra seeking Ministerial sign-off. The aim is to then consult with all stakeholders who can provide an informed opinion on aquaculture and its future expansion and development in England. This document will seek views on the Advisory and Consultation Group’s conclusions on the constraints and barriers to expansion and development, and their recommendations to address these.

FAO: The state of world aquaculture 2006 2 Hall, S.J., A. Delaporte, M. J. Phillips, M. Beveridge and M. O’Keefe. 2011.

Blue Frontiers: Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia.

1

http://www.cefas.defra.gov.uk/publications/shellfish-news.aspx

3

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MARINE RENEWABLES

n the late 1930s Pip Staffieri, a young ice cream seller from Newquay in Cornwall, came across a photo of Hawaiian ‘wave riders’ in an encyclopaedia and made his own 13 foot hollow wooden surfboard based on the picture. Pip would wheel it down to the water’s edge on an old pram that he’d cut in half to try and tame the Atlantic Ocean.

Pip has gone down in surfing folklore as the first person in Europe to stand up on a surfboard and as the man who started a trend which has grown into a major industry for Cornwall.

However, in more recent times our understanding of the latent power held in waves and tidal movements has moved the focus away from the coast to the powerful swell waves 20 miles offshore where a marine renewable energy industry is developing.

What’s more, it has the potential to make a major contribution, not just to Cornwall’s economy, but to the nation’s too, as businesses export their knowledge around the world. Industry estimates put the revenue potential of marine renewables in the UK at over £6 billion.

I

Natural advantage Much like the industrial revolution in the 18th century was sparked by natural resources in the form of coal mined in the North of England, this latest revolution has also been triggered by natural resources. With more than 300 miles of coastline, Cornwall has become one of the main centres for the UK’s fast growing marine renewable industry. The county, and the wider South West, has a serious natural advantage with its exposure to the prevailing and highly reliable westerly Atlantic swell, which is capable of generating around 20-40 kilowatts for every metre of wave face; not to mention the Severn Estuary, which has the world’s second largest tidal range. A recent report commissioned by the South West Regional Development Agency

24 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

Surf’s (SWRDA) identified over 9.2 GW of potential offshore energy resources around the south west coast, including at least 1.2 GW of wave energy off the coast of Cornwall.

The UK’s potential as a marine renewable centre is also underpinned by a rich marine heritage which provides a readymade infrastructure in the form of harbours, port facilities and an abundance of marine engineering expertise. For example, Falmouth is the third deepest natural harbour in the world, and provides a secure environment for assembling off-shore

up

Wave Hub allows wave energy developers to test and monitor the performance of their wave energy devices.

platforms and equipment. It is also well-placed for transporting equipment around the Atlantic seaboard and beyond. No wonder then that Falmouth Docks is home to a range of marine businesses, many of which have diversified from traditional activ-

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for marine renewable industry

A potent mix of nature, experience and expertise is keeping the UK at the forefront of the global marine renewable industry, explains Lucy Hunt from inward investment service InvestinCornwall

Aerial view of Falmouth docks

ities into marine renewables.

A&P Falmouth, one of the largest ship repair and conversions companies in the UK, now provides offshore and renewable marine engineering services, for example.

Research centre This mix of natural resources and marine heritage has attracted entrepreneurs and scientists alike to the South West from around the world, giving rise to one of the UK’s most attractive marine assets: PRIMaRE – The Peninsula Research Institute for Marine Renewable Energy. PRIMaRE comprises a team of international researchers and world class facilities, created to accelerate the development of technology. The organisation addresses

PRIMaRE uses ROV-mounted video to conduct environmental surveys of the Wave Hub site

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MARINE RENEWABLES

the most critical challenges facing the marine renewable energy industry, including marine ecology and conservation.

PRIMaRE has been instrumental in supporting Wave Hub, one of the marine renewable industry’s most prized assets.

The £42 million development is

the world’s largest grid-connected and fully consented test site for wave energy devices and acts like a giant underwater socket 16 km off the north coast of Cornwall. Wave energy developers can plug their wave energy devices into the 12-tonne Wave Hub and test and monitor their

Installing Wave Hub

Case Study: Exporting marine knowledge around the world IN 2004 Captain Richard Parkinson decided to leave his safe job working in the offshore oil and gas industry and create a world class marine technology consultancy – Mojo Maritime.

The company specialises in the offshore renewable energy industry and is involved in marine construction, engineering and installation on several high profile wind, wave and tidal projects which include installing the world’s first commercial tidal-current power system, SeaGen, in Northern Ireland’s Strangford Lough. Another project is developing the technology to install a 1MW prototype tidal energy device off the Orkney Islands.

Having two divisions – marine operations and subsea technology – Mojo Maritime is now planning to develop an American-based subsidiary, Mojo Ocean Dynamics, which will create solutions to harsh marine environments using pioneering marine technology.

“You can’t wait for business to come to you. You have to be amongst it. The UK leads the world in the marine renewable energy sector and Cornwall’s realising that we’re good at selling our expertise to the rest of the word. We may be a relatively small company but we have big ambitions,” says Parkinson.

performance in eight square kilometres of sea with an excellent wave climate. Wave Hub is connected to the grid via a 25km, 1,300-tonne sub-sea cable which means it could generate up to 20MW of electricity for an estimated 7,500 houses in the region – 3% of the present domestic electricity needs in Cornwall. Wave Hub’s first customer is Ocean Power Technologies, which intends to deploy an array of up to 5MW of its PowerBuoy technology, phased over several years.

PRIMaRE and the Wave Hub have acted as both a magnet and catalyst for a cluster of other marine renewable testing facilities including: the Dynamic Marine Component Test Facility; the South West Mooring Test Facility; The University of Plymouth’s new £18 million Hydrodynamics facility; and FabTest.

Environmentally sensitive These research and testing

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facilities have really put the UK and the South West on the marine renewables map as a hotspot for harvesting energy from the ocean. But the industry is also keen to protect the natural resources on which it relies, which means working hand-inhand with marine conservation organisations. Initiatives such as Finding Sanctuary aim to do just this by bringing together people and bodies representing a range of marine interests, from nature conservation, leisure and commercial organisations, to design Marine Conservation Zones in the seas around South West England. The initiative is all about shared decision making to establish the co-location and spatial planning of marine renewable, ecological and conservation projects to provide maximum benefits to nature. Finding Sanctuary is part of a wider network of Marine Protected Areas which aims to safeguard undersea habitats and marine life, and to help ensure the long-term sustainability of marine resources.

Commercial opportunities The combination of worldclass research and development, skills and infrastructure from a

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World-leading marine renewable energy research facilities PRIMaRE – One of Cornwall’s greatest marine attractions is access to the unique knowledge and expertise provided by the Peninsula Research Institute for Marine Renewable Energy (www.primare.org) Wave Hub – This £42 million project has created the world’s largest grid-connected and fully consented test site for wave energy devices. Wave Hub’s first customer will be Ocean Power Technologies with its PowerBuoy device (www.wavehub.co.uk) Dynamic Marine Component Test Facility – A 12 tonne test facility and world first. It provides a secure, low risk setting to quickly identify potential engineering problems South West Mooring Test Facility – This sophisticated buoy tests how moored structures respond to changes in wind, wave, current and tide in actual sea conditions Fab Test – In response to the industry’s needs, a shallow water testing site is planned for Falmouth Harbour. FabTest will enable developers to trial devices in calm waters prior to linking to Wave Hub

Wave Hub is designed to connect a wide range of wave energy devices to the onshore grid.

rich marine engineering heritage, and an environmentally sensitive approach, has proven to be a serious attraction to innovative and creative entrepreneurs and established marine businesses alike. Although the sector, like most, has been affected by recent public sector cuts, it is no wonder that the Prime Minister recently promised to put ‘rocket boosters’ under marine renewables.

One significant development that stemmed from this pledge is the Government’s challenge to the industry to build a centre for the marine industry modelled on California’s Silicon Valley.

The challenge was laid out by Greg Barker, the Minister of State for the Department for Energy and Climate Change, when he visited the region earlier this year for the inaugural meeting of the UK Marine Energy Programme Board.

The Minister’s vision is for a marine energy park or cluster in the South West. The idea is supported by RegenSW, a not for profit centre of expertise which has been instrumental in getting both financial and community support for wide range of renewable energy projects. RegenSW is working with the Government and local partners to create such a park which would provide a positive business and investment environment to encourage technology developers, industrialists, investors and local public and private sector partners to work together to accelerate the commercialisation of the marine energy industry.

Although a lot has changed in the seventy years since Pip Staffieri first got on his surfboard, harnessing the power of the waves commercially is still a relatively young industry, but one with a huge amount of potential. The breadth and depth of knowledge and expertise in places like Cornwall has helped the region’s businesses become global leaders in the sector. Opportunities for growth will only improve as renewables play an increasing role in meeting our long term energy needs.

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VideoRay to protect US ports

ideoRay has been awarded a $2.2 million dollar contract by the Combating Terrorism Technical Support Office (CTTSO) of the US Department of Defense to modernize the United States Coast Guard’s (USCG) fleet of VideoRay Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV).

VideoRay systems have been employed by the Department of Homeland Security at various ports since 2003, inspecting ships and harbor infrastructure.

The ROVs have been used for both routine and emergency responders to inspect ship hulls and individual pil-

V

IN BRIEF Japan finds rare earths apanese researchers have discovered vast deposits of rare earth minerals on the deep seabed 3500-6000 metres down.

Geologists estimate there are about 100 billion tonnes waiting to be extracted from the deep sea mud in around 80 locations. Just one square kilometre of the mud could provide twenty percent of current global demand.

J

ings of piers and bridges for explosive devices, to help direct divers to an area of interest, to search for, and recover, evidence which has been discarded in a body of water, and to inspect an object or area of interest before deploying divers.

This contract will update all USCG VideoRay ROVs to the latest technology, including sonar, an improved nonacoustic navigation system, video enhancement, advanced ship hull inspection capabilities, and other improvements required to expand their role and work in challenging conditions.

The CTTSO and USCG project includes requirements for 100% search coverage while assuring 100% probability of detection (POD) in very strong currents, with low visibility water.

“VideoRay is honored to be selected by CTTSO and the USCG for this contract” said Scott Bentley, President of VideoRay LLC. “The Technical Support Working Group (TSWG) within CTTSO has considerable experience and expertise in selecting the most effective tools from vendors in a competitive marketplace, then helping field those solutions effectively. This contract will help take VideoRay’s domi-

nant worldwide market position in underwater security and bring it to the next level, integrating our robots with the most effective sensors and software to accomplish very challenging underwater missions.”

Suppliers of sensors integrated on the new VideoRay configurations include KCF Technologies of State College, Pennsylvania, Blue-

View Technologies of Seattle, Washington, and Lyyn AB of Lund, Sweden.

VideoRay’s current ship hull crawler capabilities – which lead the industry – were critical in the selection of VideoRay in this contract.

Through this contract CTTSO and the USCG will work with VideoRay to increase their flexibility and capability

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No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 29

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TECHNOLOGY

Fugro Breaks World Record eeByte, the global leader in creating smart software technology for unmanned systems, has announced that Fugro Survey Pty Ltd (Fugro) has successfully broken the current world record for the longest uninterrupted pipeline inspection using a low-logistics AUV. The SeeTrack AutoTracker software was utilized

by Fugro in conjunction with the Gavia AUV to survey a pipeline on the Northwest Shelf off Western Australia in 90 meters of water. The vehicle successfully inspected 31 kilometres of pipeline on a single mission, surpassing SeeByte’s existing record. The mission was manually ended due to low battery while AutoTracker was still operating successfully. The SeeTrack software was developed to enable

S

Gavia loaded with See Track Auto Tracker, ready for launch on world record breaking inspection

30 Marine Scientist No.36 August 2011

AUV’s to carry-out export pipeline inspections.

Through SeeTrack AutoTracker the inspection data is improved and time is saved by reducing repeat missions which are usually required due to missing data. SeeTrack AutoTracker can also operate in areas where multiple pipelines and unexpected burials are encountered.

Ian Hobbs from Fugro said: “The data attained from this successful mission has provided us with clear and accurate information regarding the status of the pipeline. The SeeTrack software operated at an ideal offset and it is apparent that, with practiced operations, the software provides a timeefficient method for accurate pipeline inspection. We were very pleased with the results.”

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Latest OceanServer AUV ceanServer has recently introduced an integrated Marine Sonic HDS Sidescan Sonar in the 600/1200 (kHz) range, which will be supported on most EP35 and EP42 AUV models.

This new Sonar option will come standard with OceanServer’s Sonar Mosaic software for rapid analysis and display in VectorMap (the Iver2 mission planner). OceanServer will also be displaying the “Iver Track” command and control software, based on Iridium Short Burst Data messaging. “Iver Track”, supported on the full range of Iver AUVs, takes advantage of cloud computing to enable global users to monitor vehicle progress, access real-time vehicle data, issue limited commands to the Iver AUV

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in real-time, and log vehicle history.

The Iver Platform All Iver2 AUV models come standard with OceanServer’s VectorMap Mission Planning and Data Presentation tool, which provides geo-registered data files that can be easily exported to other software analysis tools. This unique

AUV design has enabled OceanServer to carve out a very strong position in the research space for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, sensors and behavioural studies. The VectorMap program can input NOAA ENCs or any geo-referenced charts, maps or photo images, allowing the operator to intuitively develop AUV

missions using simple point-and-click navigation.

The base vehicle, with a starting price at just over $50,000 USD, gives university, government and commercial users an affordable base-platform for sensor development or survey applications in water quality, sub-surface security and general research.

Telemetry tells turtle tales University of Exeter team has monitored the movements of an entire sub-population of marine turtles for the first time. The study confirms how satellite tagging can aid the close observation of the day-to-day lives of marine turtles, accurately predicting

A

their migrations and helping direct conservation efforts.

Dr Lucy Hawkes (now at Bangor University) attached tags to adult females nesting along the coast from North Carolina to Georgia and showed that they foraged in shallow warm waters off most of the US eastern

seaboard, and that those that travelled north had to return south to avoid cold winters there. Most importantly despite travelling thousands of miles each year, they rarely leave US waters, such information will enable more directed conservation efforts.

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No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 31

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TECHNOLOGY

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) helps create e share the earth with billions of fascinating creatures, few of which receive as much attention or universal affection as the dolphin. Magnificent and playful swimmers, they can move at speeds of 20 miles per hour through a world very different from our own. Even so, there is much these intelligent animals can teach us.

Researchers agree, however, that the search for knowledge must be tempered with concern for the well-being of these and other marine mammals. One of the greatest challenges for researchers today is discovering new ways to attach biotelemetry tracking tags to their subjects with minimal risk of injury or discomfort.

Funded through the German National Science Foun-

need to pierce the animal’s skin and offer less invasive ways of tracking dolphins for long-term behavioral research. Central to the researchers’ work was the use of Tecplot 360 to visualize the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) results that ultimately helped validate the theory.

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Laying the Groundwork for Less Invasive Dolphin Biotelemetry Tags

The Marine Mammal Science Journal recently published a groundbreaking study that shares the first attempt to develop a less invasive way of tracking dolphins for long-term behavioral research. The results of the study, which relied heavily on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), support the theory that biotelemetry tags can be held in place on a dolphin’s dorsal fin by hydrodynamic force. Image Credit: ©iStockphoto.com/crisod

dation, Dr. Vadim Pavlov and his team at University of Kiel’s Research and Technology Center Westcoast in Kiel, Germany, recently completed a groundbreak-

ing study that validated the theory that biotelemetry tags could be held in place on a dolphin’s dorsal fin with hydrodynamic force. Such tags would eliminate the

Researchers presently have two options for attaching biotelemetry tags to dolphins: with suction cups or with pins. Suction cups are less invasive and work well for short-term studies, but the tags tend to fall off after any length of time. For longterm studies, researchers must pierce the dorsal fin

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less invasive dolphin telemetry methods Tecplot 360 CFD visualization software is used to help decipher, decode, and visualize the information, and to gain a more thorough understanding of the basics of the flow around the dorsal fin

Tecplot 360 CFD visualization software is used to help decipher, decode, and visualize the information, and to gain a more thorough understanding of the basics of the flow around the dorsal fin

Image Credit: Dr. Vadim

Image Credit: Dr. Vadim

Pavlov, University of Kiel.

Pavlov, University of

with pins to attach a tag, which obviously causes the animal pain. The pin and tag also can affect the animal’s behaviour and bias the resulting data. To find better ways of ensuring the comfort and well-being of these and other marine mammals whilst maintaining the advancement of science, Pavlov and his team examined the viability of using hydrodynamically designed tags for telemetry studies.

Scientists have theorized for some time that a properly designed hydrodynamic tag should remain securely attached to the dorsal fin for long periods of time, minimizing drag on the dolphin’s body and allowing the animal to propel itself more naturally through water.

Through a series of 35 experiments, which relied heavily on CFD, Pavlov’s team gathered data around two models: one for a common dolphin with no tag, and the same model with a tag attached. They compared lift and drag efficiency in both models to understand the impact of the attached device. The simulation results showed an appropriate decrease in lift coefficient associated with the attached tag in 33 of the 35 experiments, indicating that when dolphins swim, the resulting force would keep a hydrodynamically-

designed tag securely attached to the dorsal fin.

Understanding Flow Basics with Tecplot 360 Faced with enormous amounts of data requiring analysis, Pavlov leveraged Tecplot 360 CFD visualization software to help decipher, decode, and visualize the information, and to gain an understanding of the flow around the dorsal fin in verifying the hypothesis. Tecplot 360 allowed Pavlov’s team to observe the absence of edge flow and vortices behind the tag, confirming their theory that a properly designed tag would have less impact on dolphins. “Tecplot 360 made it easy to verify our ideas more clearly,” said Pavlov. “When you move zones in the areas of interest, move the slices and animate the stream traces, you can get a better idea of where you’ve got some mistakes in the design.”

Kiel.

hydrodynamic testing was not carried out, the behavioral responses to the shorttime attachment of the tag did not adversely affect the dolphins’ behavior. “This is a small but important step in working with live dolphins because these animals are very sensitive to the devices attached to their body,” said Pavlov. “I believe the next generation of telemetry tags will be constructed in an ani-

mal-friendly manner, based on understanding of the biology of the target species and bearing in mind natural characteristics of the site of attachment.” In the next two years, Pavlov and his team expect to conduct live hydrodynamic testing of the novel tag under a range of natural dolphin behaviours including accelerations, manoeuvres, and leaping out of the water.

Enabling Natural Behavior for More Accurate Data After using Tecplot 360 and CFD analysis to gain an in-depth understanding of the tag performance, the Sea Mammal Research Unit made a prototype of the tag and tested it on dolphins at the Conservation Research Center Marineland in Antibes, France. Though

No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 33

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WHOI selects Hydroid AUVs for Ocean Observatories Initiative he Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and the Consortium for Ocean Leadership (OL) announced Hydroid, of Pocasset, Mass., will provide Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and docking stations to support the Pioneer Array of the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI).

WHOI, an implementing organization on the OOI Program, awarded the contract for approximately $1 million to Hydroid for initial development and design modification of AUV systems to meet OOI specifications.

Subsequent phases of the contract will lead to the delivery of production AUVs that will be used to collect data as a part of the OOI Pioneer Array located off the New England coast. The Pioneer Array spans the continental shelf-break, where water depths drop quickly from about 100 metres to greater than 500 metres over a distance of about 40 km.

The shelf break is a region of energetic and important ocean variability, a boundary region between cool coastal waters and warmer offshore and Gulf Stream waters. Biological productivity and variability are strong, and a goal of the Pioneer Array is to understand the interplay of physical and biological processes across many scales, from hundreds of meters to hundreds of kilometres. The Pioneer Array AUVs will be dedicated to sustained operation in the vicinity of the shelf break, with each vehicle capable of making more than 50 missions per year in water depths up to 600 m.

“AUVs are a critical tool for rapid sampling of vari-

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The Remus 600 AUV. Hydroid is set to provide AUVs to support operations at the Pioneer Array Courtesy: Hydroid

ability on dynamically relevant scales within the complex frontal system,” said Al Plueddemann, a WHOI senior scientist and project scientist for the Pioneer Array.

“This capability is key to improving our understanding of interactions between the continental shelf and slope.”

Mobile platforms like AUVs provide oceanographers with the ability to deploy sensors and move them through space horizontally and vertically. Propeller-driven, battery powered AUVs look somewhat like an instrumented torpedo, though they are optimized for longer life at slower speeds while carrying a sensor payload; they are able to carry a broad suite of sensors to conduct a diverse variety of observations.

AUVs surface to obtain position fixes using GPS and also will enter the OOI communications network using satellite telemetry.

The OOI, a project funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), is

planned as a networked infrastructure of science-driven sensor systems to measure the physical, chemical, geological and biological variables in the ocean and seafloor. As a fully integrated system, OOI will collect and disseminate data on coastal,

regional and global scales.

Through a unique cyberinfrastructure, OOI will make ocean observing data available to anyone with an internet connection. Greater knowledge of the ocean’s interrelated systems is vital for increased understanding of their effects on biodiversity, climate change, ocean and coastal ecosystems, environmental health and climate.

WHOI and its partners, Oregon State University and Scripps Institution of Oceanography are responsible for the OOI coastal and global arrays and their autonomous vehicles. The OOI Program is managed and coordinated by the OOI Project Office at the Consortium for Ocean Leadership in Washington, D.C.

Ocean Research Equipment

Measuring: s Waves s Currents s Meteorology s Salinity s Fluorescence s Turbidity s Dissolved Oxygen

s Tides s Carbon Dioxide s Methane s MEG s Hydrocarbons s Flow Cytometry

Accessories: s Tracking: Oil - Dye - Ice s Location Beacons s Mooring Markers s Telemetry s Housings

s Buoyancy s Drifters s Databuoys s Gliders s Argo Floats ...and more.

No.36 August 2011 Marine Scientist 35

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