The Psychologist December 2014

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psychologist vol 27 no 12

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Women scientists in psychology – time for action Fionnuala Murphy, Dorothy Bishop and Natasha Sigala

Incorporating Psychologist Appointments ÂŁ5 or free to members of The British Psychological Society

letters 896 news 904 careers 968 looking back 982

educating Europe 928 psychological literacy 932 the rise of student consumerism 940 interview with Walter Mischel 942

Contact The British Psychological Society St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR 0116 254 9568 mail@bps.org.uk www.bps.org.uk

the psychologist... ...features

Women scientists in psychology – time for action Fionnuala Murphy, Dorothy Bishop and Natasha Sigala look at a gender imbalance and what can be done to address it

The Psychologist www.thepsychologist.org.uk www.psychapp.co.uk psychologist@bps.org.uk tinyurl.com/thepsychomag

Expectations and destinations 924 Ian Florance meets people who teach and employ psychologists, to discuss expectations and destinations

@psychmag Advertising Reach 50,000 psychologists at very reasonable rates.

Display Ben Nelmes 020 7880 6244 ben.nelmes@redactive.co.uk Recruitment (in print and online at www.psychapp.co.uk) Giorgio Romano 020 7880 7556 giorgio.romano@redactive.co.uk

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Educating Europe 928 Peter Reddy, Stephan Dutke, Ioulia Papageorgi and Helen Bakker look at how our continental neighbours are nurturing the next generation of psychologists

November 2014 issue 49,784 dispatched

Psychological literacy – from classroom to real world 932 Julie Hulme considers the implications of the continued popularity of the subject

Printed by Warners Midlands plc on 100 per cent recycled paper. Please re-use or recycle.

What is happening to A-level psychology?

936 Phil Banyard indicates why we should be worried

ISSN 0952-8229

New voices: The rise of student consumerism 940 Nesrin Gokcen with the latest in our series for budding writers

Cover Ana Heath (http://analouis.com/) Scaling the ivory towers of psychology © Copyright for all published material is held by the British Psychological Society unless specifically stated otherwise. As the Society is a party to the Copyright Licensing Agency (CLA) agreement, articles in The Psychologist may be copied by libraries and other organisations under the terms of their own CLA licences (www.cla.co.uk). Permission must be obtained from the British Psychological Society for any other use beyond fair dealing authorised by copyright legislation. For further information about copyright and obtaining permissions, e-mail permissions@bps.org.uk.

The publishers have endeavoured to trace the copyright holders of all illustrations. If we have unwittingly infringed copyright, we will be pleased, on being satisfied as to the owner’s title, to pay an appropriate fee.

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Methods: Conducting research on the internet – a new era Claire Hewson provides updates on practicalities and possibilities

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The Psychologist is the monthly publication of The British Psychological Society. It provides a forum for communication, discussion and controversy among all members of the Society, and aims to fulfil the main object of the Royal Charter, ‘to promote the advancement and diffusion of a knowledge of psychology pure and applied’.

Managing Editor Jon Sutton Assistant Editor Peter Dillon-Hooper Production Mike Thompson

Journalist Ella Rhodes Editorial Assistant Debbie Gordon Research Digest Christian Jarrett (editor), Alex Fradera

Associate Editors Articles Michael Burnett, Paul Curran, Harriet Gross, Marc Jones, Rebecca Knibb, Charlie Lewis, Wendy Morgan, Paul Redford, Mark Wetherell, Jill Wilkinson Conferences Alana James History of Psychology Nathalie Chernoff Interviews Gail Kinman, Mark Sergeant Reviews Emma Norris Viewpoints Catherine Loveday International panel Vaughan Bell, Uta Frith, Alex Haslam, Elizabeth Loftus

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the issue ...reports news 904 gender equality in academic science; fighting Ebola; open access concerns; shiftwork; science writing prizes; CAMHS shortcomings; Samaritans app; and more society President’s column; Award for Promoting Equality of Opportunity; Impact portal; Book Award; Society presence at party conferences; and more

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...debates letters can we have a Happy Christmas?; problem gambling; autism; assisted dying; hallucinogens; ‘colour blind’ perspectives on abuse; and more

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...digests brain scans and creative writing; publication bias; mate poaching; two more chronotypes; and more, in the latest from our Research Digest blog

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...meets interview 942 the ‘master of self-control’, Walter Mischel, speaks to Lance Workman about his famous ‘Marshmallow Test’ and more careers 968 we hear from some members of the Society’s Special Group in Coaching Psychology, on the 10th anniversary of its inauguration; and Victoria Bourne writes on teachingfocused careers in psychology 942

one on one 984 with Rita Jordan (Professor at the University of Birmingham)

I have been fortunate to meet many brilliant, inspiring and successful female academics over the years: Uta Frith, Christina Salmivalli and Francesca Happé, to name just a few I would consider ‘mentors’ and who have appeared in these pages in 2014. I work for a Society with a female President, a female CEO and 75 per cent female membership. Yet despite a significant presence leading some to discuss the ‘feminisation’ of psychology, women remain heavily underrepresented at the higher levels of academia.

On p.918, Fionnuala Murphy and colleagues call for action. What has helped some women get to the top of their profession, and how can we remove barriers for the next generation?

Nurturing the fresh roots of the discipline is a recurring theme through another packed issue. And while we’re talking new beginnings, please browse our relaunched site at www.thepsychologist.org.uk – see over. Alongside @psychmag on Twitter, it’s the complete experience for the membership and beyond.

Dr Jon Sutton Managing Editor @psychmag

...reviews including Steven Pinker’s style guide; Trust Me, I’m a Doctor; the Secret Footballer; the psychology of babies; tears of a clown; and much more 976

...looks back Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – the sixth level Hazel Skelsey Guest on the lesser-known aspects of a famous theory

The Psychologist and Digest Editorial Advisory Committee Catherine Loveday (Chair), Phil Banyard, Olivia Craig, Helen Galliard, Rowena Hill, Victoria Mason, Stephen McGlynn, Tony Wainwright, Peter Wright

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Two years ago Go to www.thepsychologist.org.uk for our archive, including a special issue on the senses

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Big picture centre-page pull-out Photo by Rebecca Jory and words by Menna Price for Swansea University’s ‘Research as Art’ competition

The Psychologist has a new website Dr Jon Sutton, Managing Editor of The Psychologist, said: ‘The site now allows us to better reflect and build upon the content of the print version. We can break away from the monthly cycle, the eventual aim being that The Psychologist and Research Digest become the daily authoritative sources of news, reviews, interviews and more in psychology.’

The site features numerous improvements. ‘Visitors can now comment on and share content; view multimedia extras; follow us on Twitter @psychmag; use an improved search function; find the latest jobs; get information on contributing, advertising or joining the Society; and browse a complete archive of 323 issues.

For those who like the layout of the print version with added functions, Society members, affiliates and subscribers can also access digital editions to read on desktop, tablet and smartphone.’

Visit www.thepsychologist.org.uk now!

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Feast on an expanded and improved Research Digest Meanwhile, the Research Digest blog goes from strength to strength.

The editor, Dr Christian Jarrett, continues to report on the latest findings in psychology and he now publishes a greater variety of content, including posts by guest bloggers and material from regular contributor Dr Alex Fradera. This means the Digest features new content every day of the week bar Sundays, when the previous day’s ‘Link feast’ will give you plenty of reading.

All this activity has helped our visitor numbers to rise, with the blog passing the milestone of 10 million page views since its launch in 2005. On Twitter, @ResearchDigest has more than 46,000 followers, and we now have a presence on Facebook, Google+ and Tumblr alongside our free fortnightly e-mail (now in html).

See www.bps.org.uk/digest to sign up for the free fortnightly e-mail, ‘friend’ or follow us.

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‘Commit and act’ on Ebola Our journalist Ella Rhodes meets a psychologist involved in the fight against the epidemic Since March this year parts of West Africa have been ravaged by the Ebola virus, several thousand people have died, and the World Health Organization has come under fire for not acting quickly enough.

But in addition to practical and humanitarian challenges, such as screening and quarantine procedures, the epidemic raises psychological ones too. In a remote part of Guinea, eight aid workers and journalists were reportedly murdered and dumped in a latrine, with the BBC claiming that many villagers have accused the health workers of spreading the disease. Behaviours ingrained in local culture, such as burial customs that involve close contact with the deceased, have also fallen under the spotlight.

So is there a role for psychologists to work with communities in these regions to increase acceptance of health workers, adapt burial rituals and support people whose communities have been torn apart by the disease? We spoke to one organisation involved in this work.

In January 2014 a mental and behavioural health clinic opened in Bo, Sierra Leone, under the name ‘commit and act’. Germany-based clinical psychologist and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) advocate, Beate Ebert, had been inspired to help in Sierra Leone in 2009 after hearing about the great trauma suffered by people following the vicious

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long-term civil war in the country. She founded a not-for-profit organisation that trains people in ACT, a so-called ‘third wave’ approach combining mindfulness and acceptance with behaviour change.

Their organisation’s firm grounding in the country and familiarity with local people has meant commit and act have become instrumental in tackling Ebola, its spread, and the horrific psychological impacts of the disease. Beate said: ‘We believe that horror scenarios painted in the media, a culture of fear and purely biomedical interventions, won’t solve the crisis. Prevention is key, and prevention requires effective behavioural change.

Prevention is cheaper, more effective and can create lasting positive changes and enable people to face the future crises.’

‘They thanked me for listening to them’ Beate was first inspired to help the people of Sierra Leone after hearing a vivid talk from half–Sierra Leonean Sarah Culberson, who had been adopted by a middle-class American family. Beate was shocked to hear of the vicious civil war in the country and had first intended to visit during her holiday time to provide counselling to those who had suffered trauma following the war. However, health workers in the country advised her that

this may not be useful as she did not speak the local language and people needed long-term support. Beate said: ‘So, the idea came up to train local counsellors in the practical behavioural therapy method I learned, acceptance and commitment therapy. I thought it should work well for people there, as you can deliver it in an experiential way and adapt it to all kinds of problems.’

Beate visited Sarah’s father in the country and met people living in remote villages. Many had no idea what a psychologist was, but they were grateful that somebody was coming from outside, that somebody was interested in them.

Beate said: ‘I met people in the amputee camp, their limbs had been cut off by rebels in the war. They told me their life stories, and it was heartbreaking how vulnerable they were, trying to deal with their impairments… They were obviously starving, left with no support from the government and with no psychotherapeutic support at all. They thanked me for listening to them and asked me to spread their message so they would not be forgotten.’

Beate found powerful partners in Father Peter Konteh from Caritas, Freetown, and Dr Ross White from the University of Glasgow, deputy chair of Commit and Act. Dr White has visited Sierra Leone twice in recent years as an

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Since the outbreak of Ebola, Hannah has been promoted to head of psychosocial care in the Ebola prevention campaign and works in Bo, Sierra Leone.

She said: ‘We have been able to educate thousands of people in the area of Bo and other chiefdoms; Bo, where we mainly operate, is the only area where the increase of new infections slowed down considerably, according to the numbers provided by the Ministry of Health and Sanitation… It’s hard to prove, but we believe it has to do with our efforts, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Sanitation and other NGOs.’

Fear of medical workers

ACT trainer and has also been involved in supervising MSc Global Mental Health students who have visited Sierra Leone and conducted their MSc research projects there. Beate said upon initial news of the Ebola outbreak members of commit and act gathered to discuss how they could best help mitigate the impact of the disease and prevent its spread. ‘We made a deliberate effort to adapt the ACT model to the Ebola crisis by using it as a tool to initiate behavioural change. We also contacted the founders of PROSOCIAL and of the acceptance and commitment approach, David Sloan Wilson and Steven Hayes, who both kindly and generously support our work.’

Hannah Bockarie, a Sierra Leonean social worker, teacher and counsellor, and the organisation’s current local director, has been leading ACT workshops in her local language, Krio, since 2013. She now shows a video in large community meetings that explains what the Ebola virus is and how it spreads. She uses the PROSOCIAL approach to find solutions for more hygienic behaviour that prevents new infections, but still allows people to follow their traditional burial ceremonies, which is very important for them.

Beate explained that simple, clear information is vital. She said at the start, Ebola was believed by many to simply be a rumour, and when people started dying, it was thought that the government was trying to kill and weaken its political opposition in the east and south of the country. Given the violent recent history of the country, such rumours are created by fear and mistrust in politics.

Despite reports of aid and medical workers being killed or injured in some parts of West Africa while responding to the Ebola outbreak, Beate said: ‘Even as Westerners, whenever we have worked in the country, people have been exceptionally warm and welcoming, and appreciate the time and effort we put in to our work. It seems that problems and conflict arises when ex-pat staff work in remote areas which they have not been before where there is no relationship with people, they don’t know them and vice versa. Don’t forget, in a post-conflict country, trust is important. When medical staff appear in hazmat suits, or “space suits”, local people are simply frightened by what they have never encountered before… that is just a natural reaction.

And if these strangely clad foreigners then give orders and tell you how to behave, scepticism and fear are high and problems arise.’

The commit and act counsellors have been supporting people in rural areas who may not be familiar with medical staff.

Health workers called in Hannah Bockarie to help them with a man who had potentially been infected with the virus.

He had become violent, rejecting blood samples to get tested. Beate said: ‘Hannah talked to him and counselled him, realising he was deeply scared. She asked him what was important to him, and he said he wanted to be healthy again. Hannah then explained how taking a blood sample could help much, much better to achieve this goal of getting healthy. So, after the counselling session he agreed to have the blood test taken and cooperated fully. The medical staff were deeply impressed with Hannah’s work.’

Kissing the banana tree One major cultural difference which is impacting on the spread of Ebola in West Africa is the differing burial rituals used in

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some communities: bodies are usually washed then laid in the home for family members to pray over, kiss and pay their last respects to. These rituals, Hannah explained, matter deeply to the grieving family, and without them they will feel disconnected from the community.

Beate explained that the counsellors in the country have used a PROSOCIAL matrix process to help people to change these burial rituals in a way that is acceptable to their culture. She said: ‘This matrix helps them develop a willingness and acceptance that they are not avoiding the pain, but going through the pain of not completing the traditional rituals and using alternative rites instead. By highlighting how the new behaviours align with their core values – to take care of their living family and community – participants are willing to accept and commit to the changes in their behaviour.

One great example is that they use the trunk of a banana tree instead of the dead body to do the traditional burial rituals.

We could never invent such an idea as Westerners. PROSOCIAL is a simple concept, but not that easy to convey and very effective when done properly.’

The future Commit and act is training 50 new psychosocial assistants in how to conduct community meetings and deliver solid and clear information about the virus potential behavioural changes. In Bo, one of the quarantined locals, Brima Sowa, said about the work of commit and act’s psychosocial assistants: ‘They have brought hope, happiness, joy and send us back to our lost glory. It has been very difficult to have people to talk to us even our relatives, friends and our neighbours.

With the advent of the psychosocial assistants we have gained hope, they were talking to us, encouraging us and they advocated for us at the Emergency Operation Centre and our voices were heard through them.’

I Do you know of other psychologists involved in the fight against Ebola? Get in touch on psychologist@bps.org.uk

RESOURCES www.commitandact.com Changes in burial rites: an article from the Huffington Post: tinyurl.com/m8vmbtv Vice on the human side: tinyurl.com/mefyq2a Up-to-date information from WHO tinyurl.com/saydk and the BBC tinyurl.com/bbcebola

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DIGEST

Can a brain scan tell us anything about the art of creative writing?

When an accomplished creative writer gets on with their craft, their brain operates in a somewhat different way to a novice’s. A new imaging study suggests that the expert approach may be more streamlined, emotionally literate, and initially unfiltered.

Katharina Erhard with her colleagues from the German universities of Greifswald and Hildesheim asked participants to read a fragment of a story, to brainstorm what could continue the narrative, and then, for two minutes, to write a continuation of the story. Their brains were scanned throughout. This is an improvement on previous studies that have simply involved participants imagining a story while lying in a scanner.

Participants were 20 experts – students on competitive creative writing courses with over 10 years’ experience and a weekly average of 21 hours’ practice – and 28 novices practising less than an hour per week. Independent judges considered the experts’ writing significantly more creative: ‘unmade laundry, unloved days’ was how one expert closed his response to an account of a bitter bachelor killing himself in a laundry, whereas a tale of a violinist losing his instrument in the snow conjured this image: ‘the glacier, winding its tongue around the sounds, suddenly gulped the violin’. The differences between expert and novice brain activation during the writing phase offers some tantalising clues to how such quality emerges.

In the frontal cortex, expert brains showed greater activity in areas crucial to language and goal selection, including across the inferior frontal gyri (IFG). Verbal creativity has been associated with left-IFG activation many times before, but involvement of the right IFG was unexpected. The area is associated with emotional language processing, such as In NeuroImage interpreting expressive gestures, so this may suggest that experts are attending more deeply to the emotional currents of text and their ideas. Together with recent evidence that metaphor comprehension recruits the right temporal lobe, this suggests a role for processes housed in the right hemisphere when a verbal task is more abstract and less factual.

Expert writing also involved more activation in the left caudate. This is part of the basal ganglia, long known to be critical to learning and expert performance, and seems to reflect ordinarily cortical cognitive processes becoming automatised and bundled together within the deeper brain. In this case, these may be to do with visually processing text, as the experts showed less activation in occipital areas involved in visual and perceptual processing.

One final finding: during brainstorming, expert brains showed increased activation relative to novices in several regions associated with speech production. Taking these findings together, they paint a picture of expert creative writers: ideas bubble within them, already on the road from concept to expression, readily communicable, almost rising into their throats. These are handled by neural systems streamlined to take care of the basics, while the writer devotes greater attention to the emotional interpretation of their text. It will be down to future researchers to verify or reject this characterisation – and hopefully, some great future writers to tell us about it. Maybe you. AF

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High emotional intelligence linked with more delinquency among young women (but not men) In the Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology If, as research suggests, the psychological trait of sensation seeking is the catalyst for youthful delinquency, might high emotional intelligence (EI; having empathy for other people’s emotions and good control over one’s own) act as a calming restraint? That was the question Alison Bacon her colleagues posed in their study of 96 undergraduates (average age 20; 48 women).

Their ‘surprising and unprecedented’ discovery was that for women, not only did high EI not moderate the link between sensation seeking and delinquency, in fact high EI went hand in hand with higher rates of self-reported delinquency, including playing truant from school, taking drugs and violence.

Why should this be? The researchers are left speculating. They think high EI might fuel acts of indirect aggression like ‘psychological bullying, deliberate social exclusion or malicious gossip’ that tend to be performed more by young females than males. Unfortunately the researchers' measure of delinquent behaviour didn't include these kinds of behaviours, but they reasoned perhaps the same young women who perform these less visible acts were also more likely to commit the forms of delinquency that were on the scale, such as rowdy behaviour and smoking cannabis.

If so, this would help explain the high EI/ delinquency link in women.

‘A high level of trait EI may facilitate an enhanced ability to present Machiavellian behaviour in a positive light, understand victims’ emotions and predict likely responses in order that social manipulations are successful,’ Bacon and her team said.

What about the male students? Their answers were more in line with the researchers’ predictions. For men, higher EI acted as a moderator, weakening the link between sensation-seeking traits and delinquency. High EI also had its own direct inverse relationship with delinquency – that is, men with higher EI tended to be less rebellious.

‘Trait EI is known to predict a wide array of positive, practical and health-related life outcomes,’ the researchers concluded.

‘Understanding how the perpetration of negative behaviours is linked to trait EI may be an important step towards promoting well-being.’ CJ

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Publication bias afflicts the whole of psychology In PLoS One In the last few years the social sciences, including psychology, have been taking a good look at themselves. While incidences of fraud hit the headlines, pervasive issues are just as important to address, such as publication bias, the phenomenon where nonsignificant results never see the light of day, thanks to editors rejecting them or savvy researchers recasting their experiments around unexpected results and not reporting the disappointments. Statistical research has shown the extent of this misrepresentation in pockets of social science, such as specific journals, but a new meta-analysis suggests that the problem may infect the entire discipline of psychology.

A team of psychologists based in Salzburg looked at ‘effect sizes’, which provide a measure of how much experimental variables actually change an outcome. The researchers randomly sampled the PsycINFO database to collect 1000 psychology articles across the discipline published in 2007, and then winnowed the list down to 395 by focusing only on those that used quantitative data to test hypotheses. For each main finding, the researchers extracted or calculated the effect size.

Studies with lots of participants (500 or more) had an average effect size in the moderate range r = .25. But studies with a smaller sample tended to have formidable effect sizes, as high as .48 for studies with under 50 participants. This

resulted in a strong negative relationship between number of participants and size of effect, when statistically the two should be unrelated. As studies with more participants make more precise measurements, .25 is the better estimate of a typical psychology effect size, so the higher estimates suggest some sort of inflation.

The authors, led by Anton Kühberger, argue that the literature is thin on modest effect sizes thanks to the nonpublication of non-significant findings (rejection by journals would be especially plausible for non-significant smaller studies), and the overrepresentation of spurious large effects, due to researchers retrospectively constructing papers around

surprising effects that were only stumbled across thanks to inventive statistical methods.

The analysts rejected one alternative explanation. To detect powerful effects a small sample is sufficient, so researchers who anticipate a big effect thanks to an initial ‘power analysis’ might deliberately plan on small samples. But only 13 per cent of the papers in this report mentioned power, and the pattern of correlation in these specific papers appears no different to that found in the ones who never mention power.

Moreover, the original 1000 authors were surveyed as to what they expected the relationship between effect size and sample size to be. Many respondents expected no effect,

and even more expected that studies with more participants would have larger effects.

This suggests that an up-front principled power analysis decision is unlikely to have been driving the main result.

Kühberger and his coanalysts recommend that in future we give more weight to how precise study findings are likely to be, by considering their sample size. One way of doing this is by reporting a statistic that takes sample size into account, the ‘confidence interval’, which describes effect size not as a single value but as a range that we can be confident the true effect size falls within. We all want to maintain confidence in psychological science, so it’s worth considering. AF

The psychology of ‘mate poaching’ – when you form a relationship by taking someone else's partner In the Journal of Research in Personality According to one estimate, 63 per cent of men and 54 per cent of women are in their current long-term relationships because their current partner ‘poached’ them from a previous partner.

Now researchers in the US and Australia have conducted the first investigation into the fate of relationships formed this way, as compared with relationships formed by two unattached individuals.

An initial study involved surveying 138 heterosexual participants (average age 20; 71 per cent were women) four

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times over nine weeks. All were in current romantic relationships that had lasted so far from 0 to 36 months.

Men and women who said they’d been poached by their current partner tended to start out the study by reporting less commitment to their existing relationship, feeling less satisfied in it, committing more acts of infidelity and looking out for more alternatives. What's more, over the course of the study, these participants reported progressively lower levels of commitment and

satisfaction in their relationships. They also showed continued interest in other potential romantic partners and persistent levels of infidelity.

This is in contrast to participants

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who hadn’t been poached by their partners – they showed less interest in romantic alternatives over time.

The researchers led by Joshua Foster attempted to replicate these results with a second sample of 140 heterosexual participants who were surveyed six times over 10 weeks. Again the participants who said they’d been poached by their partners tended to report less commitment and satisfaction in their current relationships, and more interest in romantic alternatives.

However, unlike the first sample, this group did not show deterioration in their relationship over the course of the study. The researchers speculated this may be because the study was too short-lived or because deterioration in these relationships had already bottomed out.

It makes intuitive sense that people who were poached by their partners showed less commitment and satisfaction in

their existing relationship.

After all, if they were willing to abandon a partner in the past, why should they not be willing or even keen to do so again?

This logic was borne out by a final study of 219 more heterosexual participants who answered questions not just about the way their current relationship had been formed, but also about their personalities and attitudes.

Foster and his team summarised the findings: ‘individuals who were successfully mate poached by their current partners tend[ed] to be socially passive, not particularly nice to others, careless and irresponsible, and narcissistic. They also tend[ed] to desire and engage in sexual behaviour outside of the confines of committed relationships.’ The last factor in particular (measured formally with the ‘Socio-sexual Orientation Inventory-revised’) appeared to explain a large part of the link between having been

poached by one's partner and having weak commitment to the new relationship.

Across the three studies, between 10 and 30 per cent of participants said they’d been poached by their current partners. This shows again that a significant proportion of relationships are formed this

way, the researchers said, and that more research is needed to better understand how these relationships function. ‘We present the first known evidence [showing] specific long-term disadvantages for individuals involved in relations that formed via mate poaching,’ they concluded. CJ

The material in this section is taken from the Society’s Research Digest blog at www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog, and is written by its editor Dr Christian Jarrett and contributor Dr Alex Fradera. Visit the blog for full coverage including references and links, additional current reports, an archive, comment and more.

Subscribe to the fortnightly email, friend, follow and more via www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog

LINK FEAST Brain Baloney Has No Place in the Classroom Pete Etchells reports on a worrying new study that found strong endorsement of neuromyths by teachers around the world. tinyurl.com/mo487px This is What Developing Acute Schizophrenia Feels Like Moving, graphic first-person account of a young man's descent into a psychotic episode and his subsequent recovery. tinyurl.com/mlqg7o6 Beware, Playing Lots of Chess Will Shrink Your Brain!

A new study compares the brain structure of chess grandmasters and amateurs. tinyurl.com/owclvyy Is Social Psychology Biased Against Republicans?

Maria Konnikova outlines multiple strands of evidence suggesting that social psychology is biased against conservatives and conservative ideas. The introduction of blind peer-review may be one part of the solution. tinyurl.com/k4lxrd5

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We Are All Confident Idiots Thomas Jefferson had it right, argues psychologist David Dunning at the Pacific Standard – someone ‘who knows nothing is closer to the truth than he whose mind is filled with falsehoods and errors’. tinyurl.com/oz9ogvw Magic May Lurk Inside Us All ‘Several streams of research in psychology, neuroscience and philosophy are converging on an uncomfortable truth: We’re more susceptible to magical thinking than we’d like to admit.’ tinyurl.com/p7r9s8z

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DIGEST DIGESTED Full reports are available at www.bps.org.uk/digest An analysis of 12 widely used university textbooks on the topics of sex and gender has found that misconceptions about evolutionary psychology are commonplace. There was an average of 5.75 errors per book. Benjamin Winegard and his colleagues branded the treatment of their discipline ‘shoddy’. Evolutionary Psychology

You’ve heard of ‘Owls’ and ‘Larks’, now sleep scientists propose two more chronotypes In Personality and Individual Differences For many years psychologists have divided people into two types based on their sleeping habits. There are Larks who rise early, feel sprightly in the morning, and retire to bed early; and Owls, who do the opposite, preferring to get up late and who come alive in the evening.

Have you ever thought that you don’t fit either pattern; that you’re neither a morning nor evening person? Even in good health, maybe you feel sluggish most of the time, or conversely, perhaps you feel high energy in the morning and evening. If so, you’ll relate to a new study published by Arcady Putilov and his colleagues at the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The researchers invited 130 healthy people (54 men) to a sleep lab and kept them awake for just over 24 hours.

The participants were asked to refrain from coffee and alcohol, and several times during their stay they filled out questionnaires about how wakeful or dozy they were feeling. They also answered questions about their sleep patterns and wakeful functioning during the preceding week.

By analysing the participants' energy levels through the 24-hour period and their reports about their functioning during the previous week, Putilov and his team identified four distinct groups.

Consistent with past research, there were Larks (29 of them), who showed higher energy levels on the first and second mornings at 9am, but lower levels when tested at 9pm and

midnight; and there were Owls (44 of them), who showed the opposite pattern. The Larks also reported rising earlier and going to bed earlier through the previous week, whereas the Owls showed the opposite pattern. There was an average two-hour difference between the sleep and wake cycles of these two groups.

The researchers also identified two further chronotypes. There was a ‘high energetic’ group of 25 people who reported feeling relatively sprightly in both the morning and evening; and a ‘lethargic’ group of 32 others, who described feeling relatively dozy in both the morning and evening. Unlike the Owls and Larks, these two groups didn’t show differences in terms of their time to bed and time of waking – their habits tended to lie mid-way between the Larks and Owls.

The researchers said their results support the idea of there being ‘four diurnal types, and each of these types can…be differentiated from any of three other types on self-scorings of alertness–sleepiness levels in the course of 24-hours sleep deprivation.’

Part of the title of this new paper is ‘A search for two further “bird species”’. I was hoping the authors might propose two new bird names for their high energy and lethargic categories, but sadly they don’t.

What about Swift for the high energy category? I'm not sure about a lethargic bird: Dodo?

Pelican? Over to you for suggestions! CJ

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Decades of lie detection research has been unrealistic, according to Tim Levine and colleagues, because the approach has always been to have the lie detector in a passive role. Levine’s team found that professional interrogators were highly successful at identifying cheats and liars when they were allowed to ask strategic questions.

Human Communication Research Students trained on a treadmill to walk in a happy style showed a bias for remembering positive words. The researchers, based in Germany and Canada, believe their study could have implications for helping people with depression. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry Insecure mangers are less likely than their more confident counterparts to listen to feedback from subordinate staff. Nathanael Fast and his colleagues believe that insecure managers are motivated by defensiveness and a desire to protect their own status.

Academy of Management Journal A replication of Milgram’s classic electric-shock studies has found that people who score more highly on the traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness are more likely to obey the instruction to electrocute another person. The research involved re-creating the Milgram paradigm in the context of a French TV quiz. Journal of Personality A study of American and German bereavement cards has found that the former tend to avoid negative sentiments and imagery. US participants, more than Germans, also tended to favour cards that contained a more upbeat message. The researchers argue this reveals cultural differences in attitudes towards suffering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Medical students who had more dreams about an important exam tended to perform better in that exam when they eventually took it.

Isabelle Arnulf and her colleagues say this is consistent with threat simulation theory – the idea that dreams help prepare us for real-life challenges.

Consciousness and Cognition

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Women scientists in psychology – time for action Fionnuala C. Murphy, Dorothy V.M. Bishop, and Natasha Sigala Why is there a gender imbalance in the academic field of psychology, and what can be done to address it?

Following a meeting organised to inspire women in psychology, we ask colleagues who have reached the top of their profession what they think helped them get there.

We also examine the issue of unconscious biases that affect decisions in hiring, mentoring and evaluating people, and the value of exposing these gender schemas within ourselves and the organisations we work in. Finally, we discuss ideas about action, ranging from small, but significant, invitations and nominations, to implementation of meaningful institutional measures. Such measures should include, amongst others, linking eligibility for funding with consideration and management of equality and diversity issues.

questions

‘Why so slow? The advancement of women’ talk by Virginia Valian: tinyurl.com/n7l6kenwww.wisecampai gn.org.uk www.athenaswan.org.uk www.hunter.cuny.edu/genderequity/ resources/equitymaterials

references

resources

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Why are women underrepresented in senior academic positions?

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Does it matter? And can anything be done about it?

Bates, M. (2013). Ben Barres: Glial detective. Retrieved 19 June 2014 from tinyurl.com/no7h2zf Bauer, C.B. & Baltes, B.B. (2002).

Reducing the effects of gender stereotypes on performance evaluations of college professors. Sex Roles, 47, 465–476.

Begley, S. (2006, 13 July). He, once a she, Offers own view on science spat. The Wall Street Journal.

omen remain heavily underrepresented at the higher levels of academia, particularly in science, engineering and technology, according to a House of Commons committee report (Science & Technology Committee, 2014). Psychological science should have a considerable advantage over other sciences with its majority female undergraduate intake, yet the picture in psychology is roughly consistent with this trend.

In order to be scientifically competitive, a country must ‘maximize its human intellectual capital’ (Larivière et al., 2013). Thus, the underrepresentation of women at senior levels has adverse consequences not just for women, but for the research community and society as a whole. Promoting diversity can also influence the impact of scientific output.

For example, Campbell and colleagues recently reported that authorship teams that included men and women produced publications that were more highly cited than those produced by gender-uniform teams. The higher number of citations indicated that the science reported by mixed teams was perceived to be of higher quality by the authors’ peers, compared with publications from teams that consisted entirely of men (there were not enough papers by solely female authors to include in the analysis). This result complements findings and reports from the corporate world (e.g. Devillard et al., 2012), where gender diversity is promoted as a priority issue, since companies with gender-balanced management tend to perform better, as well as from the Science

Benard, S., Paik, I. & Correll, S.J. (2008).

Cognitive bias and the motherhood penalty. Hastings Law Journal, 59, 1359–1388.

Brody, E.M. (2004). Women in the middle: Their parent care years. New York: Springer.

Cuddy, A.J., Fiske, S.T. & Glick, P. (2004).

When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn’t cut the ice.

Journal of Social Issues, 60, 701–718.

and Technology Committee (Science & Technology Committee, 2014), who make the economic and business case for gender diversity.

Motivated by the desire to raise awareness of such issues the MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (CBU) in Cambridge hosted a symposium some time ago to celebrate established women psychologists who had been associated with the CBU (or former Applied Psychology Unit) at some point in their career. The speakers, drawn from the developmental, cognitive and clinical fields of psychology, shared their experiences of challenges they had faced as women scientists, and their views of strategies that could be implemented to overcome them.

Here, we first detail core themes that emerged during much energetic discussion and debate.

While these themes, though considered from the perspective of eminent UK psychologists, tended not to be specific to the field of psychology, a recurrent thread was that psychologists should be uniquely placed to understand some of the reasons for the underrepresentation of women in science.

Consequently, the second part of this article touches briefly upon psychological factors, gender schemas and unconscious bias – our tendency to make associations between categories (e.g. women) and attributes (e.g. competence) to evaluate the category members – which may operate to perpetuate the status quo and maintain barriers to the progression of women in science.

No single career path One of the clearest patterns to emerge was the range of ways in which these women had achieved success (see also Leyser, 2009). Some began their careers as mature students, had undertaken a range of demanding caring responsibilities (for parents, children or spouses), or had substantial career breaks for other reasons (illness or bereavement). Professor Barbara

Dasgupta, N. & Asgari, S. (2004). Seeing is believing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(5), 642–658.

Devillard, S., Graven, W., Lawson, E. et al. (2012). Women matter 2012: Making the breakthrough. McKinsey & Company.

Else, H. (2014, 6 February). MPs want more to be done to help women in science. Times Education Supplement.

Equality Challenge Unit (2009). Equality in

higher education: Statistical report.

London: Author.

Foschi, M. (1996). Double standards in the evaluation of men and women. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59(3), 237–254.

Fuegen, K., Biernat, M., Haines, E. & Deaux, K. (2004). Mothers and fathers in the workplace. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 737–754.

Head, M.G., Fitchett, J.R., Cooke, M.K. et al. (2013). Differences in research

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Wilson, for example, completed her undergraduate degree in psychology after having children. Her love for the subject matter led her to pursue clinical psychology training and to build a tremendously successful career in the field of rehabilitation thereafter.

But if the practicalities of career paths differed widely, a thread common to all speakers at the CBU event was the combination of a strong enthusiasm for psychology with an optimistic approach to life. Goals had often been set for the next career step, rather than for a larger career blueprint, with these scientists responding flexibly to unpredictable contingencies and taking advantage of (sometimes unexpected) opportunities as they arose. Nevertheless, Professors Dorothy Bishop and Susan Gathercole strongly recommended an approach that places the highest premium on doing science well and in which activities are guided by core scientific values; e.g. writing papers to communicate important findings and ideas, and applying for funds to facilitate high quality research.

The impact of family life on a research career Not surprisingly, scientists who had had children or had cared for parents (a duty that tends to fall predominantly to women: Brody, 2004) felt that this had affected their careers more than those of their male counterparts. This is consistent with evidence showing that having more children reduces the number of hours worked by women, but increases the number of hours worked by men (Leslie, 2007). There was also general agreement that a senior academic post does not come without repercussions upon the smooth running of one’s family life. Still, family life and a successful career were by no means considered incompatible. On the contrary, it was felt that one could sometimes be more effective by following a schedule that allowed time for nonacademic activities that include caring responsibilities, as each could provide

funding for women scientists. BMJ Open, 3, e003362. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003362 Heilman, M.E. & Okimoto, T.G. (2008).

Motherhood: A potential source of bias in employment decision. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 189–198.

Larivière, V., Ni, C., Gingras, Y. et al.

(2013). Global gender disparities in science. Nature, 504, 211–213.

Leslie, D.W. (2007). The reshaping of

a welcome change from the other. departmental heads and funding bodies.

The nature of support needed to foster Access to mentoring, the right to flexible an academic career was discussed widely. working arrangements, appropriate share In general, the speakers considered that of computing or other laboratory the attitudes of academic managers had resources, breastfeeding facilities and improved greatly, and the provision of child-friendly spaces at work, provision of formal and informal flexibility in working childcare at conferences and cover for hours was often more accommodating teaching responsibilities after a period of than that in other professions. Difficulties maternity leave represent just a few of the remain, however, for women who wish to many concrete examples provided by the work part-time. In university settings, this CBU speakers. It was considered essential is due primarily to the pressure to not only for women to support and maintain teaching and administration duties at the expense of research activities, which weigh disproportionately in hiring and promotion, as well as in institutional evaluations, such as the Research Excellence Framework.

The best timing of career breaks varied across individuals, and there was no preferred model amongst the speakers. Some had waited until their careers were established before having children; a benefit of this was that research staff and PhD students could sustain some momentum during periods of leave. Others had had children at an earlier stage in their research careers; adequate support upon return to work following Periods of maternity leave, caring responsibilities and leave was considered to be part-time work can leave many women with extended particularly essential in such cases. productivity gaps in their CV Given that periods of maternity leave, caring responsibilities and part-time work can leave many women encourage one another into leadership with extended productivity gaps in their roles and even ‘push’ students and junior CV, formalised mechanisms to re-establish researchers to take on responsibilities and support scientific activity upon return they might not undertake otherwise, to work are necessary if individuals are to but also for men to be supportive and realise their full potential. encouraging. Organisations such as Cambridge AWiSE and Athena SWAN (see resources box) were felt to play an Support and inspirational important role in encouraging women to progress in their scientific careers by role models providing opportunities for networking, Support can come in many different advice on how to progress in one’s career, shapes and forms: practical, emotional, information about funding, employment financial and infrastructural. It can also and legislation, and a framework for come from different sources; for example, formal and informal mentoring. partners or parents, peers or colleagues,

America's academic workforce Research Dialogue (Vol. 87). New York: TIAA-CREF. Leyser, O. (2009). Mothers in science: 64 ways to have it all. Available at tinyurl.com/64waysthia Lockwood, P. (2006). ‘Someone like me can be successful’: Do college students need same-gender role models? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 36–46.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Moss-Racusin, C.A., Dovidio, J.F., Brescoll, V.L. et al. (2012). Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 16474–16479.

Nosek, B.A., Smyth, F.L., Sriram, N. et al.

(2009). National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings

of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 106(26), 10593-10597.

Paludi, M.A. & Bauer, W.D. (1983).

Goldberg revisited: What’s in an author’s name? Sex Roles, 9(3), 387–390.

Paludi, M.A. & Strayer, L.A. (1985).

What’s in an author’s name?

Differential evaluations of performance as a function of author’s name. Sex Roles, 12,

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Inspirational role models were felt to be especially important for women, and there is evidence to suggest that women may derive greater inspiration from female than from male role models, whereas the corresponding asymmetry is not apparent for men (Lockwood, 2006). Professor Elisabeth Hill spoke about the tremendously positive impact several female role models had had upon her career, while acknowledging the positive influence from male role models too.

There was strong agreement that women could take responsibility for being a role model at all levels of their career. This could include modelling positive behaviour not only through simple actions such as asking questions at seminars and meetings, but also by taking on delegation responsibilities, chairing lab meetings or seminars, and agreeing to give talks at the group or departmental level. Having access to a mentor at key stages in one’s career could achieve similar effects, with the added benefit of the wisdom and guidance gained from an established and senior scientist, particularly where a formalised and thoughtfully implemented mentor and mentee framework was in place.

Publish or perish A recent large-scale analysis based on over 8,000,000 papers across the social sciences, natural sciences and humanities revealed a number of subtle but persistent ways in which gender inequities remain.

Even where raw publication counts were similar between genders, closer scrutiny revealed that men were often more likely to be found in the prestigious first and last author positions (West et al., 2013).

A related assessment of scientific research output across varied disciplines, published in Nature, reported that globally there is no significant discrepancy between the representation of women in authorships overall and first authorships (approximately 30 per cent), but that where a woman occupied any of the prominent author positions – sole authorship, first authorship, and last

353–361.

Raymond, J. (2013). Sexist attitudes: Most of us are biased. Nature, 495, 33–34.

Rudman, L.A. & Kilianski, S.E. (2000).

Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11), 1315–1328.

Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work, and the will to lead. St Ives:

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authorship – papers were cited significantly less often than when a man occupied these positions (Larivière et al., 2013).

Findings such as these suggest that considering authorship at the outset of a study, alongside explicit departmental guidance, could help to offset and resolve the emergence of ambiguities. Because first and last authorship positions outweigh other authorship positions, these data furthermore suggest, as did our speakers, a strong case for the inclusion of an ‘author contribution statement’ on publications where women have made a significant contribution without achieving first- or last-author status. The Larivière study argued that collaboration is key in driving research output and scientific impact, further suggesting that programmes dedicated to the promotion of international collaborations for women might help to offset such imbalances.

Explanations for the underrepresentation of women in science have sometimes focused on gender bias in peer review. The peer review process guides decisions about which scientific articles to publish and which research projects to fund. These are the two main indices of academic success, influencing hiring, tenure and salary decisions, and underpinning academic reputation. Studies show that the same article can be rated more highly with a male versus a female author (Paludi & Bauer, 1983; Paludi & Strayer, 1985). A recent audit in infectious disease research also found that women principal investigators had fewer funded studies and received less funding over a 14-year period (Head et al., 2013).

An audit of the Wellcome Trust research grants (Wellcome Trust, 1997, 2000), found no evidence of discrimination in the outcomes of peer review, but found an influence of gender on grant application behaviour: proportionally fewer women than men submitted grant applications.

Factors identified as having a strong influence on grant application behaviour included seniority, employment status, tenure, type of institution, professional

WH Allen.

Science and Technology Committee (2014). Women in scientific careers.

Retrieved 19 June 2014 from tinyurl.com/o33d6wr Steinpreis, R.E., Anders, K.A. & Ritzke, D. (1999). The impact of gender on the review of the curricula vitae of job applicants and tenure candidates. Sex Roles, 41(7/8), 509–528.

profile, institutional support, career breaks and family circumstances (Wellcome Trust, 2000). These findings further highlight the need for carefully considered policies in relation to part-time or flexible work and career breaks. They also hint at the possible involvement of psychological factors such as gender schemas, the topic we turn to next.

Gender schemas and unconscious bias In Virginia Valian’s book, Why So Slow?, we find a balanced appraisal of research on gender inequalities (Valian, 1998).

Valian explains the absence of women from leadership positions in terms of implicit hypotheses about the genders.

These schemas, which are held by women and men (Steinpreis et al., 1999), lead to small differences in behaviours, perceptions, attitudes and evaluations of performance that accumulate to advantage men and disadvantage women over time, a mechanism she calls ‘accumulation of advantage’. Valian insists that implicit gender schemas, which lead individuals to overrate men and underrate women, must be made explicit before women and men have truly equal opportunity (see also Bauer & Baltes, 2002). This is a realisation and conclusion now openly embraced by scientists (e.g. Raymond, 2013) and policy makers (Science and Technology Committee, 2014) alike.

In an illustrative example, an analysis of over 300 letters of recommendation for faculty applying for jobs at a medical school revealed shorter letters written for female relative to male candidates (Trix & Psenka, 2003). There were also systematic differences in the content of these letters, which tended to portray women as students and teachers and men as researchers and professionals. Recent highly publicised evidence comes from a study led by Yale University, where faculty (127 science professors) from six researchintensive universities rated student applications for a lab manager position

Trix, F. & Psenka, C. (2003). Exploring the color of glass: Letters of recommendation for female and male medical faculty Discourse & Society, 14(2), 191–220.

Valian, V. (1998). Why so slow?

Advancement of women. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wellcome Trust (1997). Women and peer review. Retrieved 27 January 2014 from tinyurl.com/m2zxhfw

Wellcome Trust (2000). Who applies for research funding? Key factors shaping funding application behaviour among women and men in British higher education institutions.

Retrieved 27 January 2014 from tinyurl.com/kdos5gx West, J.D., Jacquet, J., King, M.M. et al.

(2013). The role of gender in scholarly authorship. PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066212

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A study of academic publishing revealed a number of subtle but persistent ways in which gender inequities remain

(Moss-Racusin et al., 2012). The application materials were randomly assigned to a male (‘John’) or female (‘Jennifer’) candidate, but were otherwise identical. The faculty, both men and women, found John significantly more competent than Jennifer, and offered him a higher salary and more career mentoring opportunities. As Valian points out there only has to be a slight day-to-day bias of paying more attention to John than to Jennifer in mundane professional life before all the decision makers in the profession or organisation are male.

A unique insight into the ways that women are judged differently to men, based on the same abilities and qualifications, is offered by Ben Barres, a Professor of Neurobiology at the University of Stanford, who is transgendered and has experienced academic life both as a woman and as a man. As Barbara, Professor Barres was not taken seriously when she did well at maths at MIT, wanted to do her thesis research or applied for a fellowship. As Ben, however, his work was scoring extra points just because, it would seem, of his gender: after a seminar at a prestigious research institute, one scientist remarked how much better Ben’s work was, compared with his sister’s. Ben did not have a sister – the Barbara Barres the man remembered was Ben before his gender change (Begley, 2006).

Complementing these powerful anecdotal pieces of evidence there is a significant body of theoretical and empirical research from the social sciences that explain and demonstrate consistent patterns of discrimination. Examples of such theories, as presented in Benard et al. (2008), include: status characteristics theory, which predicts that low-status individuals are evaluated to stricter performance standards compared with

high-status individuals (Foschi, 1996); the stereotype content model (Cuddy et al., 2004); the shifting standards model (Fuegen et al., 2004); and the lack of fit model (Heilman & Okimoto, 2008).

There is empirical evidence indicating that even when individuals’ consciously reported beliefs about the abilities of women and men do not differ, the implicit belief systems of those same individuals tell a different narrative. Implicit measures demonstrate that 70 per cent of people around the world, including practising women scientists, implicitly associate men (more than women) with science, maths and high authority, and women (more than men) with the liberal arts, family and low authority (Nosek et al., 2009; Rudman & Kilianski, 2000).

These implicit associations have a real and detrimental influence upon behaviour and career expectations for both women and men. And they matter significantly in the strongly hierarchical environments of research units and universities. ‘Pushy, loud, articulate individuals are more likely to be noticed by established academics, and these types may be less common among men than women (Science and Technology Committee, 2014). In last year’s special issue of Nature on gender inequality in science Liisa Husu describes the power of ‘non-events’ – the noninvitations to meetings, conferences and seminars, the non-reactions from senior local colleagues when a high-profile article is published, the subtle discouragement, side-lining or exclusion – to subtly, but systematically, affect not only women’s progression, but also aspirations, in their chosen field.

It is also important to acknowledge men’s attitudes to this issue, as they often occupy senior positions and make relevant hiring and promotion decisions. Recent data indicate that 54 per cent of men, especially those who are not aware of obstacles for women’s career progression, may view measures to promote women leaders as unfair to men (Devillard et al., 2012). A further complication in academia is that scientists may be in denial of the existence of any bias, since ‘we are trained to be objective’ (Science and Technology Committee, 2014, p.24). As Professor Barres says, the issue with bias is that people deny the data that show there is persisting bias (Bates, 2013). As a consequence, despite the abundance of equality and diversity training programmes that can expose the consequences of bias,

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

it is ironic that these programmes can sometimes be ignored or resisted by those who need them the most (Science and Technology Committee, 2014).

Changing the distribution Implicit associations or schemas may help explain the conditions that contribute to the absence of women in top academic positions at all stages – hiring, retention and promotion. Because schemas are derived from statistical abstractions, if the status quo of a male predominance in a field is maintained, then the schema that regards men as more natural and women as less natural in this role will persist (Valian, 1998). What this means, Professor Anne Cutler argued at our CBU event, is that in order to effect real change in the way individuals react to the world, we must change the distribution and the statistics of the world around us. There is also some empirical evidence that the influence of schemas can be offset by environmental factors. For example, women exposed to female leaders in social contexts are less likely to express automatic stereotypic beliefs about women, and the frequency of exposure to women faculty members mediates the long-term effect of social environment (women only vs. mixed college) on automatic gender stereotyping (Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004).

It is clear that it is necessary to increase the numbers of women in senior positions to help establish unbiased expectations of career development across the sexes. What is less clear is the best way to do this.

Professor Vicki Bruce advocates critical examination of the criteria applied to hiring and promotion with an eye to future revision. For example, existing criteria do not reward administrative and pastoral care duties that currently fall, without recognition, to many women academics.

Similarly, academic employers could develop transparent and equitable means of accounting for the potentially adverse effects of part-time work and career breaks on some women’s productivity and timely career progression. Both women and men could make small and comparatively effortless changes at all levels that would help to normalise the skewed distributions.

These changes could include inviting women as keynote speakers and session chairs at conferences, nominating deserving women for prestigious prizes, selecting women for prestigious editorial roles, and placing women on influential committees and boards.

A number of reasons and solutions have now been argued and replicated as to why there is gender inequality in science,

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and what measures can be taken to change that (Science and Technology Committee, 2014). The latest reports both from the government and the private sector (Devillard et al., 2012) agree about the measures that could help, but urge that their implementation must be prioritised and monitored. Andrew Miller, chair of the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, recently urged the universities to ‘pull their socks up’ and implement the measures we know will reduce the gap between the representation of men and women in science (Else, 2014). We would argue that there are two important changes that we scientists should implement ourselves. First, we all – women and men – must be aware of our biases. Second, women in particular must take and be encouraged to take risks that take us out of our comfort zone, or in other words, ‘lean in’ rather than refrain from seizing opportunities that arise in the workplace (Sandberg, 2013).

There are potentially far-reaching benefits of developing selfconfidence in women alongside the courage to take measured risks. These risks include agreeing to give a talk before It is the responsibility of feeling completely our generation to push ‘ready’, applying for the boundary further a position when we fulfil only the essential, rather than desirable, criteria, or embarking upon collaborative research where we might not otherwise have chosen to do so.

The above goals are supported through the existence of schemes such as the Athena SWAN Charter, which evolved to advance the representation of women in science and related disciplines. Athena SWAN was given a significant boost in 2011, when the Chief Medical Officer (Professor Dame Sally Davies) announced that the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) would shortlist for funding only those medical schools that held a Silver Athena SWAN award.

Although the Research Councils UK (RCUK) does not yet link funding to Athena SWAN, 2013 witnessed the launch of its ‘Statement of Expectations for Equality and Diversity’. Those receiving research council funding were expected to provide evidence of ways in which ‘equality and diversity issues are managed at both an institutional and department level’. This evidence includes participation in schemes such as Athena SWAN and

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Project Juno. By making the issue of gender inequality a funding issue (evidence of addressing gender inequalities linked to eligibility for research funding), every single medical school in the country has had to take notice of Athena SWAN and prepare credible applications for the three award levels (bronze, silver, gold).

These submissions need to demonstrate a critical self-assessment of how the schools support career development, flexible working, parental leave and gender balance on decision-making positions. The Athena SWAN awards also introduce accountability in the form of an action plan that outlines how and when outcomes of specific initiatives will be measured. Professor Davies’s leadership has instigated a great deal of action, and RCUK may follow NIHR’s lead in the future.

Push the boundary further There are a number of risks associated with the disproportionately low numbers of women at the higher levels of academic psychology. An obvious one is the loss of valuable perspectives and views from women. Another is that women may feel out of place in a predominantly male environment. Women fail to reach their full potential in science for many reasons, and there is no simple solution to their underrepresentation in the more senior ranks of even academic psychology. Yet one thing is clear: as long as women are underrepresented in senior positions, fewer females will believe that an academic career is appropriate or possible for them.

Some restructuring of the academic research system could go a long way towards retaining women in psychological science, a development that would have important benefits not only for women in psychology, but also for the academy and society at large. There are many ways in which employers and funding bodies could and do help. They include encouraging job-sharing or part-time work, providing adequate support for people returning from parental or childrearing leave, encouraging and regulating collaborations with other researchers, and revising the criteria for professional assessment.

Some positive steps have already been taken. For example, the Equality Challenge Unit (2009) undertook a review of the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise and recommended that staff whose particular circumstances (e.g. part-time work or career break) had adversely affected their capacity to undertake research should be permitted to submit fewer than the maximum number of outputs in the next Research Exercise

Framework. Certain funding bodies have increased the number of years post-PhD during which they will consider applications for prestigious grants, and allowances are increasingly made for years spent working part-time and for career breaks. This is all progress in the right direction, though by no means sufficient to address the still dramatic imbalance of genders at senior levels.

Despite the inequalities and obstacles outlined above, women have come a very long way since the early 20th century, when they had to fight for the right to higher education and enter a profession.

This shift in the social and professional norms in contemporary Western society means that a high proportion of girls and women believe that it is possible to study at university level and make educational choices accordingly. It is the responsibility of our generation to push the boundary further, so that women of the 21st century can achieve their full potential in psychological science and other research careers.

As a case study of the pressures and opportunities facing women scientists associated with a leading centre for psychological and cognitive neuroscience research, together with discussion of the psychological factors that maintain any disparity between women and men, this article will, we hope, offer insights for men and women working in varied conditions across diverse fields of psychological science. It is our hope that increasing awareness will allow us all to implement strategies that will effect positive change.

Fionnuala C. Murphy is at the Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit fionnuala.murphy@ mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk

Dorothy V.M. Bishop is in the Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford dorothy.bishop@psy.ox.ac.uk

Natasha Sigala is at Brighton and Sussex Medical School, and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex n.sigala@sussex.ac.uk

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Research. Digested.

Free.

www.bps.org.uk/digest ‘Easy to access and free, and a mine of useful information for my work: what more could I want?

I only wish I’d found this years ago!’

Dr Jennifer Wild, Consultant Clinical Psychologist & Senior Lecturer, Institute of Psychiatry ‘The selection of papers suits my eclectic mind perfectly, and the quality and clarity of the synopses is uniformly excellent.’

Professor Guy Claxton, University of Bristol

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FEATURE

Expectations and destinations Ian Florance meets students and the people who teach and employ them

eople offer many different reasons for studying psychology, and there are equally diverse ways and contexts for applying what they learn.

Do people’s expectations of training match what it actually delivers, and how this feeds into employment?

P

The school Deb Gajic is head of psychology at the Polesworth school near Tamworth, as well as Treasurer for the Association for the teaching of Psychology (www.theatp.org).

She left school at 16, went into banking and finance, then studied sociology after having children. Deb took her master’s in psychology before starting to teach it fulltime. She is obviously an inspiring teacher: her pupils gave up their lunch hour to meet in the psychology room and answer my questions.

Deb let them do the talking but, in the brief period before they arrived, made a couple of important points. ‘They study psychology for a lot of reasons – they may simply need a fourth option or see psychology as a life skill. Some have been influenced by films and TV and have become genuinely interested in the whole area. Psychology is a hugely popular subject, and my biggest worry is that there aren’t enough trained psychology teachers. Some head teachers – luckily not at Polesworth! – have a view that everyone and anyone can teach the subject. That’s obviously not true.’

The pupils’ responses were rich, varied and sometimes brooked no argument. Their reasons for studying psychology varied as much as Deb had suggested: ‘Because people fascinate me’; ‘It fills a gap’; ‘I am interested in the mind’; ‘Personal reading’. The need for a social science to qualify in another profession (both midwifery and law featured) is important, as is the influence of media depictions of psychologists – again, the TV series Dexter has reignited interest in forensic psychology as the novels of Thomas Harris and the TV series Cracker once did. Psychologists

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may be critical of media depictions of psychology, psychological applications and mental disability, but it plainly has a huge influence on young people’s expectations. Finally, the desire to want to help people is as clear among students as it is among practising psychologists.

Deb’s students are well informed: they seem very aware of a wide range of psychological applications – not just forensic and clinical – and understand that psychological techniques can help in a variety of settings. They have an elegant appreciation of the arts vs. science debate,

wouldn’t be like Dexter or CSI (but, I suspect, secretly hoped it would be).

Their views have changed during the course. They are pleasantly surprised at how interesting and diverse the subject is and are beginning to see applications for psychological thinking in the media and politics. One pupil, who shall remain nameless, admitted ‘there are really boring bits’. Interestingly, they all knew that first degree psychology requires a study of statistics, something a lot of people I have spoken to for my ‘Careers’ interviews in this publication describe as being a huge shock when they experienced it.

These hugely positive responses no doubt reflect Deb’s commitment to psychology teaching. One of the recurring themes of my interviews is how important psychological role models are in interesting students in psychological careers, creating expectations and opening doors. A strong school ethos will also affect pupils. That ethos became apparent as soon as I sat down in the reception of Polesworth school.

Asked what they thought could be improved in school psychology teaching,

Deb Gajic and her students at Polesworth school near Tamworth

seeing psychological applications as ‘an art backed up by science’, though they see a clear divide between more scientific ‘biological specialisms’ and those that are more akin to social sciences. They are also able to see that studying psychology can give transferable skills.

Their views on ultimate jobs reflect their motivations for studying the subject.

Some students, unsurprisingly, had no idea of their future employment. The hardcore ‘forensics’, of whom there were two or three, claimed to know that work

the students, in effect, asked for more: more schools teaching it, more GCSEs and more opportunity to really learn what psychological jobs are actually like. Deb reinforced this and repeated: ‘We need more psychology teachers who are committed to the subject.’

The university The University of East London (UEL) is near the 2012 Olympic Park and the huge new Stratford shopping centre. It is one of

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the most diverse universities in the UK, educating 120 nationalities and with close links to the lively and multicultural local community. I met with Chris Pawson, Leader in Learning and Teaching and Programme Leader, Clinical and Community Psychology, and Rachel Mulvey, Associate Dean of the Psychology School and Chair in Careers Guidance.

Chris and Rachel stress that their university is at the forefront in seeking solutions to the issue of student expectations and destinations in a very changed situation. Chris comments, ‘We’re facing a different discourse now. At one time open days were about lifestyle – what’s the social life like at the university?

What’s the local community like? Now parents often attend with their children and the key issue is placements. Parents are interested in how the university assesses their students and also how they build up CVs during an undergraduate course. The funding change has been a huge influence – the £9000 really influences views about employability.’

This, and other things Rachel and Chris say, emphasises a critical point.

It’s easy to see psychological training, employability and career paths as withindiscipline issues. Yet they are all hugely affected by very wide social and political pressures: from tertiary education funding to youth unemployment and cultural diversity. Chris identifies ‘a chill wind blowing. The London population is cushioned compared to the rest of the country, but only if it’s mobile enough.

Our population needs help. They often aren’t able to travel and still live within strong family systems which preclude too much flexibility. The whole situation is often bewildering for parents, given recent changes in society and in the way higher education works, even if they actually attended a college or university themselves.’

Rachel makes a wider point: ‘I think the fundamental issue is a move from employability to career adaptability.

Generation Y is freer and more fluid in how they regard employment, and we need to equip students to be adaptable, to learn skills they can use over a series of different types of jobs.’

What are students’ expectations and knowledge when they apply for a course?

Both Chris and Julie contribute. ‘Many want to be clinical psychologists and there’s still a hardcore at the end of the course who are focused on this route; interestingly they are often the ones with the most realistic idea of what that entails and it’s very much for those people that we’ve designed the Clinical and Community Master’s course we offer. But

a lot of students can’t really distinguish psychology from counselling: they mention Freud when they apply for a course to show they know It’s been six years since I started studying psychology about the area. For them, the as an A-level student, and whilst my interest in a career idea of psychology as a hard within psychology never really wavered, my horizons science is a revelation. It’s the have certainly broadened, and I have become much same for their parents, and more optimistic about the career prospects of students often have to battle psychology graduates. families to help understand The lack of a concrete career path, even for those the subject. That’s why public pursuing psychology-specialist roles, can be both a engagement – some of the blessing and a curse. On the flipside, few, if any, careers work at the Science Museum are off-limits, as psychology degrees require a huge for instance – is important to range of skills and competencies, balancing essayus.’ writing and presentation skills with statistics and data How do students get analysis. One thing I found most enjoyable about my interested in the area? ‘Many undergraduate degree was the variety of content, have personal exposure to from the visual system to personality, and having such mental health issues. Friends, a range of knowledge makes a well-rounded and family or they themselves have adaptable employee. been treated for a syndrome or For those who do wish to work within psychology, they know somebody who the prospect of competing for rare work experience works in a psychologically opportunities can be as daunting as the postgraduate related job.’ As Chris points study that is also often required. As a first-year out, ‘it’s not unusual for private undergraduate, I hoped to find a wealth of placements motives to drive the trajectory and internships in hospitals and clinical services of many sorts of career’. Many available, and naively scanned careers-fair guides students start with a hoping to find an NHS representative. I was sorely generalised desire to help mistaken. Whilst this can be frustrating, finding others, and this results in experience is possible with perseverance, grit and a large number of graduates forward-planning, but it does not happen overnight. moving into paraprofessional Even what seems like the most loosely related health and social care jobs in opportunities can be used as a springboard to more the public sector when it relevant or paid positions. However, although some becomes obvious they can’t organisations may impose age restrictions on get onto a clinical course, for applicants, it’s important to start looking early – they instance. can often take months, rather than weeks, to organise, Rachel stresses the great and it’s much easier to accept short-term unpaid importance of psychological positions whilst you’re still in education. Nonetheless, literacy, a topic dealt with by I no longer think it’s a race to tick enough boxes to apply Julie Hulme elsewhere in this for specialist training; each job I have taken on since issue (see p.932). Rachel sees graduating has counted as relevant life experience to this as a major contributor steer me towards a career I am ultimately happy with – both to the influence of and hopefully good at! psychology throughout After taking a gap year, during which I discovered society, but also as a way science communication, as well as building on clinical of overcoming the problems experience I had already been pursuing, I am now back of unrealistic or inaccurate at Durham University, studying for a master’s in expectations among Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. I am enjoying prospective students and their the more focused and interactive nature of the course, parents. The solution is not and whilst I intend to apply for a variety of psychologyonly about getting the courses related and science communication jobs afterwards, right but getting the way I am no longer worried about where I will end up. students apply for the courses Lexie Thorpe more efficient and accurate.

‘Employability is not something that kicks in in the last year of a course’ says Rachel. ‘You Rachel is also emphatic that students address issues of career adaptability at need to understand their transferable induction. There’s a job to be done in skills better. ‘Not just the way psychology ensuring that the Society’s curriculum can be applied in management, sales, increasingly takes this into account, that marketing or social care jobs. Not just the academic psychologists understand and idea that psychology helps you value transferable skills as well as “understand people”. Psychology courses specialist knowledge.’ teach a huge range of skills from the

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The graduate

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ability to carry our research, statistical literacy and ethical and evidence-based approaches.’

Chris and Rachel return to the issue of placements. They both stress the opportunity offered by local communities.

‘Our placements on our clinical/ community programme are driven by partnerships. A recent project with the Newnham Clinical Commissioning Group allowed students to become genuinely engaged and make recommendations for real-life policy. Working in local schools allows students to see how their work impacts real issues. Placements help you find out what you can do… and what you can’t do. Like the student who wanted to be an educational psychologist but bravely admitted that she’s discovered she didn’t like working with kids.’

Rachel raises a final issue, which Chris supports. ‘We need to widen access to psychology courses. Clinical psychology demographics are a real problem in particular, in that there is a growing impression that you need to come from quite a well-off background to survive in unpaid placements. Clinical psychology is in danger of appearing to be a white, middle-class profession. We need to open it up to BAME students.

If not, the profession will fail many of its clients.’

The employer I ring Julie Smith, General Manager at Headway in Cardiff. I could have rung any

number of organisations to get an idea of what is good or bad about employing a psychologically trained person, but an appeal on Facebook drew an instant response from Headway, a charity dedicated to helping people who have acquired brain injury. Headway Cardiff was founded 30 years ago.

Julie used to work in a bank (see also Deb Gajic above – is there a pattern here?) and is at pains to point out: ‘I’m not an expert. I’m not a psychologist.

And, indeed, none of us are, that’s not what we’re about.’ Headway’s range of day services offer ‘therapy by stealth… we try to grow people’s confidence and help them to thrive’. Headway Cardiff has 12 staff but ‘a huge number of volunteers’.

‘We look for bright, enthusiastic individuals who can help our service users. The volunteers create energy. They ensure people are involved in the activities on offer. What’s critical is that they have social skills.’ Julie notes that, given problems in the job market and the need to get experience, there’s been a huge growth in numbers of graduate volunteering since 2008. ‘And that includes psychologically trained graduates’. Presumably a number of them are on the path to a clinical course. ‘Yes, and they’re often working with a number of different organisations to build up their experience.’ Julie echoes comments made

by Rachel about the demographics of people who are able to volunteer. ‘It squeezes the diversity. Many of then come from a professional

Where do graduates go?

In 2012 the British Psychological Society launched a longitudinal study to find out about the career destinations of psychology students.

The aim is to follow the 2011 cohort of graduates over seven years, evaluating their career progression at four key points – one, three, five and seven years post-graduation. The current careers of earlier graduates will also be evaluated as a comparator. This should enable us to pinpoint key landmarks in the early years of employment (such as completion of postgraduate training, entrance into postgraduate training, completion of supervised work experience, progression/transition into a stabilised period of employment in their chosen profession).

Phase 2 of the project was undertaken over the summer and the results from this phase will be published early next year. A summary report of the main results from Phase 1 is available from Dr Lisa Morrison Coulthard (Lisa.MorrisonCoulthard@bps.org.uk).

Have your say on expectations and destinations by e-mailing your letters to psychologist@bps.org.uk, or commenting on this piece via www.thepsychologist.org.uk.

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background, which our clients often aren’t from – they tend to be from the lower end of the economic scale.’

‘We employ graduate psychologists for their transferable skills – by their third year they’re notably empathetic and have good social skills. We look at personality and aptitude rather than skills or knowledge. I sometimes get the feeling that the students are champing at the bit to do more in-depth work with the clients, but that is not what we provide.

We work hard to ensure that they understand the benefits to the service users of simply being able to participate and being listened to with patience and empathy.’

Themes Over the last decade the pieces in our ‘Careers’ section (see the archive at http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/meets) have built up a picture of what studying psychology and using it is like – looking at fairly conventional career paths within one of the Society’s recognised applications as well as more unusual ones, from robotics, to railway safety, sports coaching broadcasting and financial services.

A number of themes have developed, not least the fact that psychological training gives individuals a range of strengths that are applicable in many different jobs; that psychology graduates often underestimate these skills; but that employers who do take on psychology graduates come to value a really rigorous approach to evidence, a strongly ethical approach and genuine numeracy among many other qualities, not least, as Julie points out, empathy and people skills.

Talking to Deb, Chris, Rachel and Julie, the overwhelming impression is one of huge change – in terms of the expectations of young people, the job market, the requirements of training in (and the importance of building on the strengths of) an increasingly diverse society. Parts of the model for training – particularly clinical training – crop up regularly in discussion, and there is a tension between the requirements of an accredited course and the needs of trainees to gain employment.

Another overarching theme is the need for more attention to society’s psychological literacy. Could this be the key not only to decision making among parents and prospective students, but also to helping a variety of organisations fully value the skills of psychology graduates?

I Ian Florance is a freelance writer and regular contributor to our ‘Careers’ section Ian.florance@btinternet.com

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Annual Conference 2015 5-7 May / ACC, Liverpool Poster submissions We are inviting poster presentation submissions up to 7 January 2015. Present your research, get valuable feedback and expand your network at the annual flagship event.

Confirmed keynotes Professor Sir Cary Cooper, CBE, FAcSS Professor Edgar Jones Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Professor Richard Crisp

Book early and save yourself money Early bird rates apply until 17 March 2015 and there are a limited number of bursaries available to Postgraduate Student members

#bpsconf www.bps.org.uk/ac2015 ‘big picture’ pull-out www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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BIG PICTURE

Photo by Rebecca Jory and words by Menna Price, for Swansea University’s ‘Research as Art’ competition. ‘Big picture’ ideas? jon.sutton@bps.org.uk.

‘Sweet Temptation’ was hand-formed by my three young children who already display individual differences in the ability to resist temptation – many sweets were harmed during the making of this image! The ability to exhibit selfcontrol in an environment abundant with temptation may be a key factor in preventing overeating and obesity, and my PhD has focused on developing behavioural interventions for reducing impulsivity and consequent overeating behaviour. Discovering how to measure the exact form of impulsivity that underlies overeating can inform us of the best strategies to help currently overweight people enhance self-control, and focus preventative measures so that they can target vulnerable individuals at a young age. My research not only excites me intellectually but is vital to me as a

parent responsible for the long-term health of my children.

I The ‘Research as Art’ competition, devised and run by Dr Richard Johnston, is a way for researchers to communicate with the public and other researchers. He says: ‘It is a way to tell their story – why they do research? What does it feel like to be a researcher? Researchers are encouraged to be creative, and can tell whatever story they want to through an image and short, accessible text. In addition to increasing the visibility of research and fostering dialogue, the Research as Art project develops the engagement skills of researchers from undergraduate level to professor. It has increased the confidence of the entrants and encouraged them to take part in further engagement activities within their individual research groups.’

www.thepsychologist.org.uk

I can resist anything but…

INTERVIEW

Were there any teachers or mentors that particularly influenced you?

Very much so – after the experiences I’ve just described I went on to graduate clinical work in psychology at Ohio State University from 1953 until 1956. Two mentors at the time had a huge influence on me. One was Julian Rotter – who was Walter Mischel speaks to Lance Workman about his famous ‘Marshmallow very much the originator of the idea of Test’ and more social learning – he wrote an important book on social learning called Social Learning in Clinical Psychology. He died earlier this year aged 97. I went on to do my PhD with him in the mid-1950s and he had strong influence on my thinking execution. So obviously this kid had lot because his focus was that social learning ou’ve been working in psychology of issues to deal with. I started to talk to makes an enormous difference. We can for 60 years now and are well him and attempted to make an empathic change not only what we know but how known for your research on connection with him. I thought I was we think as well. personality, child development and doing very well, surrounded by these The other major influence, especially self-control. What got you interested kids as I made use of my newly developed in my clinical work, was George Kelly. in psychology in general and more He had an enormous specifically these areas? personal impact on me I was born in Vienna in 1930 with his theory of not all that far from Freud’s personal constructs. house. So even as a young He was very much of child I was aware of his the view that you can’t presence, and I suspect at change what nature does. some level I became quite So if I break my leg there interested in what makes is a reality about it – you people tick. In 1938 the Nazis can’t walk on it – but how took over Austria and we had you think about it can to get out of Austria alive – change. You can change which was not easy to do. how you perceive and But we managed it and we construe it. I can think left pretty much without about it as a catastrophe – anything. We had to begin ‘I can’t ride a bike now or all over again. even walk’ – or I can see As a child in the United it as an occasion to catch States, my family lived under up on books I have long conditions of poverty. It’s not wanted to read, and so that we were starving – we had on. Events happen, the enough to eat – but not much freedom we have is to else. A few years later, as an change how we think adolescent, I became about them. I think this increasingly interested in had a profoundly reading about psychoanalysis, important influence on which was all the rage at the my own thinking and time. Remember, we are now development of my own talking about the 1940s when Walter Mischel is Robert Johnston Niven Professor of Humane Letters interests. How cognition psychology was very different. in the Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York can change experience and As I was going to college I what the role of thinking is worked as an uncredentialised knowledge and empathic skills. Then in how we deal with impulse control. So social worker with kids at the Lower I smelled smoke and realised that the the two sides of my work began to come East Side of New York, which was at the back of my jacket had been set on fire… together. time an extremely impoverished area. a rather dramatic awakening to the They were living under very difficult limitations of my attempts to change the These themes remerge in your conditions. So my interests in psychology new book The Marshmallow Test: lives of these adolescents. It made me really began as I tried to apply the work Understanding Self-control and How to realise I had a lot to learn.

I was reading about to these troubled Master It. For any readers not familiar And that experience really led me into adolescents. This was still within psychology. I think that was the moment with your famous test, can you outline a psychodynamic perspective. it and how you came up with it? when I really wanted to become a There was one evening I remember It’s simplicity itself. I saw the tremendous vividly when I was surrounded by a group psychological scientist and to make some sort of impact on young people. I think change in my own three daughters who of adolescents and was speaking to one this is an important part of my personal were three, four and five at the time when who had a brother who was in the New story of why I got into psychology.

I was beginning my professorship at York state penitentiary awaiting

The master of self-control

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children manage this that led us to Stanford University. I became interested understand the sort of strategies that they in self-control as I saw them evolve from develop – strategies of self-distraction. what newborns are to thoughtful, Some children are able to deal with the reflective individuals with a lot of control. situation by turning away from the My burning interest became how does marshmallow so they couldn’t see it. that transition work? Clearly it involves Others would talk to themselves and changing from being relatively give themselves uncontrolled to becoming able instructions, or to control oneself. So I wanted they pretend that to develop a measure to “It is difficult to resist a they are putting it capture this phenomenon. world full of alluring in their mouth but After lots of experimenting temptations” don’t. They engage I came up with a very simple in a whole set of situation where the child has strategies that allowed the choice of some attractive us to systematically test the mechanism compelling thing that he or she that underlies the ability to use selfreally wants – it doesn’t have to be a control – to fundamentally cool the marshmallow, it can be a cookie or a stick situation, to reduce the power of the pretzel. It just has to be something they marshmallow and to focus on the really want. Then the question is ‘Would consequences, ‘if I don’t do this then you like one or would you like two?’

I get that later’.

They invariably choose two. Then the contingency question is ‘You can have So for those that are very poor at these two if you wait for me to come back delaying gratification – you can teach or at anytime you can ring the desk bell them strategies to improve this? right here in front of you and I will come Yes – I think there are back and let you have the one really two key points marshmallow’. So that’s the methodology that come out of the – a methodology you can eat! early stages I’ve seen this on film many times and of this they vary a lot in response – I recall one little boy who popped the marshmallow in his mouth as the experiment was being explained to him!

Yes they do vary a great deal.

Some do that – but there are others who really can delay this response. And in watching them we saw the sort of mechanisms they were using to delay gratification. Then the research went from just observing how different kids deal with the situation to doing controlled experiments with it – where we suggest ways in which they can delay their response. Going back to Kelly it is very much a case of thinking differently about research. The first is that there are the marshmallow. If you think about it as obviously large and important individual something delicious and chewy, invariably differences in how difficult this task is for they consume it within a minute. This is some children but not for others. The thinking ‘hot’ about it. But if you give second point is exactly what you are instructions to them to think about the saying – there are cognitive skills that are marshmallow differently – such as a fluffy teachable and there are a number of cloud or a little tiny cotton ball – then strategies that can be taught that make children have a very easy time delaying it much easier. Anyone within a normal gratification. So what we have here is a range can learn these. This is very good demonstration of Kelly’s idea that the way news because it allows a much more you construe a stimulus determines how optimistic view than the one that you respond to it emotionally and willpower is very much a trait that you cognitively. can’t do much about.

It’s really direct observation of how

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Does this link into your idea about our having two different systems – hot and cool?

Yes, we have two systems that interact constantly in the brain. We can call these the hot system and the cool system. The hot system is the limbic system that is very important to us from an evolutionary perspective. On the savannah we needed immediate reflexive rather than slower reflective reactions. They saved our lives and got us to keep away from the things we needed to avoid, but also encouraged us to approach and take the things we needed (including the equivalent of the marshmallows). The problem is that in modern life there are many situations in which eating the marshmallows all the time results in, for example, very bad retirement planning. Where the current availability of things that you want enormously restricts how well you can delay gratification. Also we have to consider the complexities of emotional relationships. And it is difficult to resist a world full of alluring temptations like cigarettes and drugs and sugar-filled foods. These are all waiting to trigger our hot systems.

I think the key, psychologically, is how to use the prefrontal cortex, which is the core of the cool cognitive system. How to make automatic, through practice, the kinds of strategies that are normally activated by the hot system. At that point we are not in a position to reflect on the long-term consequences of our actions – the possibility of heart disease decades down the line.

The cool system allows us to regulate the emotional thermostat, so that in ‘hot’ situations our response is cooler and reflective rather than hot and reflexive. It helps to have if-then implementation plans so that when, say, the dessert arrives, I choose the fruit rather that fill myself with sugar.

Not much psychological research passes into popular consciousness.

Why do you think that the marshmallow study has had such staying power? Was it great research, or is there something in particular about it which captures the imagination?

I’d like to think it is a bit of both! It wasn’t great research when I started. But I think what I started became great research

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showed great self-control in achieving. delayed gratification over the last 60 years At the same time he was not without is very much like the Flynn effect has areas where his self-control did not seem shown for intelligence – this has risen to be his dominant focus. It really is remarkably. This is due to the fact that context-dependent. I think the hot system there are far more cognitive challenges can be very useful because it that kids have simplifies and condenses lots these days. You of impressions into one single know I have “There is something one. So we say Charlie is four-year-old fundamental that the really highly conscientious grandchildren that prefrontal cortex does whereas Sally isn’t at all. are better on the which is captured by the We make these easy iPhone and the generalisations and in fact iPad than I am. marshmallow test” one person is more These increase the conscientious if we aggregate cognitive skill sets everything together. But I think as they develop and scientists our job is to disaggregate things. may be why the ability to When we do this we find behaviour is delay gratification is increasing. highly contextualised. In the studies that I have done with kids in a camp for six Turning to your work on personality weeks, where we make 180 hours of theory in the late 1960s you developed observations on each child and we look a new way of thinking about at things like aggression, what we find is personality. People generally that the profile of aggression for one child subscribed to the view that we all with the same average level of aggression have personality traits that are pretty can be completely different to another. consistent across situations. Then you This is because one child might become developed the idea that a person’s super aggressive but when adults want responses are largely shaped by the him to take time out and away from other situation? kids they may be far less so. In the case of I think that this links in very closely with Many people consider that the another kid, they might be aggressive, but the fact that people who are very good at benevolent way that we bring up only when adults are around. So we find self-control – for example ex-president children in the West today means that that a profile is stable over time but not Bill Clinton who had a Rhodes we are shifting the balance towards consistent over situations. It’s a very scholarship, went to Yale, got a law a lesser ability to delay gratification. particularised aggression – it is only degree and became president of the This is a common belief. But I think there shown if certain hot spots are triggered.

United States – can, at times, show less is evidence that it is actually going the That I think is where good science goes. control. In all of these achievements he other way. I think what is happening to It tells us that each of these kids has a problem with aggression – but one has a problem with other kids and the other has a problem with adults. Aggression is highly contextualised. They have different hot-spot triggers that lead to stress and to aggression in general. This is also true of Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test. New York: Little, Brown. conscientiousness, sociability and extraversion. by bringing others in from cognitive science and expanding it by concentrating on executive function. There is something fundamental that the prefrontal cortex does which happens to be captured by the marshmallow test. There are three important components here. First, you have to keep the goal in mind – ‘I want the two marshmallows’. Second, you have to suppress interfering responses – ‘I can’t let my hand ring the bell, I can’t think how chewy it is’. The third component is you have to use your attentional control system to find ways of both monitoring your progress to the goal and preventing interfering responses and doing whatever you need to do to allocate your attention to make it possible. That’s where imagination comes in. That’s where playing piano on your toes or distracting yourself or imagining the future consequences come in. So the fundamentals of it are captured by the marshmallow measure. I think that captures the imagination of people because they can visualise it and relate it to their own kids. It became a way to study executive function in many ways.

Resources

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y. & Ayduk, O. (2008). Introduction to personality: Toward an integrative science of the person (8th edn). New York: Wiley.

Mischel, W. (2007). Walter Mischel. In G. Lindzey & W. M. Runyan (Eds.), A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. IX, pp.229–267). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Mischel, W. (2004). Toward an integrative science of the person (Prefatory chapter). Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 1–22.

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y. & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938.

Mischel, W. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality.

Psychological Review, 80, 252–283.

Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley. www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/indiv_pages/mischel/Walter_Mischel.html

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I started by pointing out that you have been involved in psychology for 60 years now. You’ve had a very full career, but are there any ambitions you have yet to fulfil?

My ambition currently is the hope that this book will make a difference to a lot of people. At the very least to help people understand how self-control is not something you either have or don’t have, but involves a series of strategies and mechanisms that can become automatic over time. That, to me, would be a great realisation. If it can be incorporated in very simple ways into the agenda at preschool level and into early education to help with some of the challenges we are faced with today, then that would be a real achievement.

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REVIEWS

Cursed by knowledge Pinker partially explains the Curse of Knowledge through Style guides aren’t known for being riveting reads, but Pinker’s the phenomenon of chunking. To process information we store The Sense of Style isn’t just a style guide but a long hard look at it in chunks, and communication requires whoever we are the problems that come with academic writing through the lens communicating with to be able to decode these chunks of of cognitive psychology. information. If our reader doesn’t possess the same chunks that I was initially hesitant when asked to write a review of a book we are using to communicate, then we might as well be speaking about good writing. The adage of Muphry’s law – an intentional in gobbledegook. The solution seems straightforward – we must misspelling of Murphy’s law – states: If you write anything go the extra mile and break down our chunks so that criticising editing or proofreading, there they match the repertoire of our audience. If only will be a fault of some kind in what you things were so simple. Pinker explains that a reason have written. If these words are academics find this so difficult is the fear that ‘if our anything to go by, then criticising readers do know the lingo, we might be insulting a book on academic style sounds like their intelligence by spelling it out’ and that we a dangerous task. Thankfully I found would prefer to ‘run the risk of confusing them it difficult to fault Pinker’s ‘thinking while at least appearing to be sophisticated than person’s guide to writing in the 21st take a chance at belaboring the obvious while striking century’, which lays out his roadmap them as naive or condescending’. According to Pinker towards good writing. we need to recognise that we often overestimate our In 1990 Elizabeth Newton conducted audience’s understanding of the abstract language an experiment in which students were we use. asked to tap the rhythm of songs such Another concept Pinker borrows from cognitive as ‘Silent Night’ and ‘Baa Baa Black psychology to explain the Curse of Knowledge is Sheep’ using their fingers. They were functional fixity. In a classic experiment participants then asked to guess what percentage are given a candle, a book of matches and a box of of listeners would be able to guess the thumbtacks and asked to attach the candle to the wall song they had tapped. The tappers without it dripping on the floor. Participants typically estimated that on average 50 per cent of fail to realise that the box of thumbtacks could be the listeners would guess the song they tacked to the wall and used to hold the candle, they were listening to. In reality, participants fail to see that objects can have uses other than their who listened to their tapping could only The Sense of Style: guess 2.5 per cent of the songs. The The Thinking Person’s intended function. According to Pinker, academics three hits in 120 tries that the listeners Guide to Writing in the face the same problem, ‘expertise can make our thoughts more idiosyncratic and thus harder to correctly guessed, was outside the 21st Century share: as we become familiar with something, we entire range of the tappers’ estimates.

Steven Pinker think about it more in terms of the use we put it to The results of Newton’s study illustrate and less in terms of what it looks like and what it is how bad we humans are at predicting made of’. what is going on in another’s head and Another related reason academic writing can be understanding how others interpret our so troublesome is a ‘dangerous weapon called nominalization: intentions, when we know something that they do not. making something into a noun’. Pinker cites as an example of This is the Curse of Knowledge, which Pinker argues is functional fixity the following sentence from the methods section the central reason for the appallingly opaque standard of of a research paper: ‘Participants read assertions whose veracity communication that makes up much of academic writing. was either affirmed or denied by the subsequent presentation of If you’re thinking, ‘I’ve heard that one before’, that’s because an assessment word.’ Pinker translates this as: ‘We presented the Curse of Knowledge or versions of it have come under participants with a sentence, followed by the word TRUE or many names: lack of a theory of mind, mind-blindness, egoFALSE.’ It is notable that Pinker’s plain English translation uses centralism, hindsight bias, false consensus, illusory fewer words than the version from the paper, but also manages transparency, to name a few. to be far less cognitively taxing. Pinker uses this example to In Pinker’s eyes, the problem of bad academic writing is not demonstrate how functional fixity can explain bad writing – the typically due to a desire to bamboozle the reader or prove the academic uses the term ‘assessment word’ because ‘that’s why author is serious. Pinker writes: ‘It simply doesn’t occur to the he put it there’ – but this information isn’t useful to the reader, writer that her readers don’t know what she knows – that they nor is it any more precise, we’d much rather be spoken to in haven’t mastered the missing steps that seem too obvious to plain English, but this isn’t how we think. The skill of good mention, have no way to visualize a scene that to her is as clear writing is the ability to adapt the language we use when we as day. And she doesn’t bother to explain the jargon, or spell out process information into language that can be easily understood the logic, or supply the necessary detail.’ This seems generous by others. to many academics who appear to write badly for the reasons Pinker throws out, but Pinker’s explanation at the very least I Allen Lane; 2014; Hb £20.00 provides an explanation for the conundrum that some of the Reviewed by Neurobonkers who is a freelance science writer and most influential academics appear to possess some of the worst blogger (neurobonkers.com) writing skills.

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Unwarranted conclusions Trust Me, I’m a Doctor BBC Two Seeking to reduce confusion in the mixed health messages provided in today’s media, this series uses doctor-hosted experiments to provide answers to common health questions. Amongst a host of other items in this episode (Series 2, Episode 3) was something of particular interest to me as a physical activity researcher. Can your weekly household chores help you ‘cheat’ your way to the recommended 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) a week in adults? Activity monitors were worn by a sample of eight participants ‘of a range of shapes and sizes’ whilst completing various chores on a crosssectional basis. Tasks such as mopping, hoovering, car washing and mowing were found to reach the metabolic rate classified as target MVPA. Participants’ self-reported time performing these weekly tasks suggest that they can indeed reach the weekly requirement largely through chores alone – hurrah! Doing the chores you ‘hate’ is celebrated as a great alternative to the gym, before a swift transition to the next item.

I was left feeling frustrated and angry at such a premature conclusion. Given a welldocumented activity crisis in the UK and years of hard work dedicated to promoting activity, this brief item seemed hugely

dismissive. Individuals watching this may well increase their self-efficacy for activity, in becoming aware of their daily tasks as being physically active. However, the overarching theme common in media and society persists here: activity is a chore and something to be avoided. Although supposedly aiming to clarify messy health media for consumers, I fear this item has done the opposite. Despite news items regularly promoting the positive effects of exercise on health and well-being, this was promoting daily tasks alone as sufficient.

The weak cross-sectional evidence was

unwisely described to have unwarranted conclusions extending far beyond its minute sample. Physical activity is fun and beneficial for the body and mind and should be promoted as such, not as a chore.

Programmes advertised as science-based such as these, have a responsibility to present well-validated research and prevent premature conclusions in their narrative and for their viewers.

I Reviewed by Emma Norris who is a PhD student at University College London and Associate Editor (Reviews)

At ease, at last?

Warriors and Worriers: The Survival of the Sexes Joyce F. Benenson This book turns a well-held (and widely researched) belief completely on its head.

Professor Benenson courageously asserts a new notion: women are more competitive than men while men are more sociable than women.

While not attempting to draw new battle lines between the sexes, Benenson’s theories in Warriors and Worriers instead suggest how the genders could begin easing any friction between their emotional behaviours.

Historically, the accepted academic interpretation of

human evolution describes males travelling out into the wilderness alone to hunt for food while females are safely ensconced together around camp fires, gathering berries from bushes, awaiting their return. However, Benenson’s observations of survival experiences in Uganda, as well as three decades spent studying children and chimpanzees, offer new insight into how males and females think, emote and behave. By forming socially cooperative ingroups males keep outgroups out (warrior enemies) while, conversely,

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females attempt to protect their children and parents and compete for mates by rejecting other females (worrisome competition). Suggesting that gender behaviour evolves to prevent death.

Reflecting on the connection

between Benenson’s research and today’s society, there appears an all-too-familiar resonance to it. Could this explain why women can often experience the emotional ‘green-eyed-monster’ and possibly how men are often found in ‘packs’ in bars, on battlefields and around balls (of the sporting kind)? Initially, this concept seems hard to grasp, however, much of Benenson’s thorough research appears to confirm the claims made and it proves insightful reading for therapists counselling challenging couples.

I Oxford University Press; 2014; Hb £16.99 Reviewed by Kaye Bewley who is a psychotherapist working for the British Army

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Simple take-home messages Professor Stuart Biddle: Myth-busting Sports Medicine BMJ Podcasts

As a landmark figure in physical activity psychology, Professor Stuart Biddle outlines some issues and recommendations for behaviour change in physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SB) in this podcast.

Biddle argues that a public health approach is required, addressing the obesogenic environment from multiple angles and modifying lifestyles at a population level. This is a huge challenge, especially when considering the multifaceted influences on individual activity choice.

Discussion is directed to motivation in activity, with three key myths being addressed.

First, Biddle argues that motivation is not just about quantity – being more motivated doesn’t necessarily mean you will start running regularly.

More important and effective is the quality of this motivation:

having a focus on a specific activity and goal.

Second, the importance of recognising different types of motivations is described. More awareness is arguably needed of the differences between extrinsic (e.g. ‘I ought to run to meet the 150 minutes recommended weekly level) and intrinsic (e.g. ‘I want to run as I enjoy it) motivational categories.

Encouraging individuals to shift from external to internal motivational focuses provides greater, longer-lasting activity change.

Finally, the myth of high willpower levels being sufficient to engage individuals in activity and structured exercise is tackled. Instead, reflecting on ‘Nudge’ theory, Biddle describes how we must work towards developing environments where activity is easier and more pleasurable: providing healthier options without individuals

having to make conscious decisions on their uptake.

Examples include cycle hire schemes such as London’s ‘Boris’ Bikes: making cycling facilities available, accessible and appealing to the general public.

The podcast ends with two simple methods for individuals to improve their activity behaviours. First, Biddle stresses self-monitoring of your own sitting and moving behaviours as a useful start, combined with goal-setting and giving yourself feedback on your actions; for example, assessing how long you spend sitting at work and developing goals to go for walking or stair-climbing breaks at regular intervals.

Second, he advises that individuals should focus on activities most realistic and attractive to them. It is simply no good to hold hugely intensive or

unappealing exercises on a pedestal, as this will only serve to demotivate individuals.

These simple take-home messages are something that I feel should be stressed more in physical activity interventions: the need for fun, variety and relevance for the target population. Although the podcast’s title is somewhat misleading, focusing on public health rather than sports per se, I really recommend this great overview of current research priorities in physical activity.

I http://journals.bmj.com/ site/podcasts Reviewed by Emma Norris who is a PhD Student at University College London and Associate Editor (Reviews)

A revelation The Secret Footballer’s Guide to the Modern Game: Tips and Tactics from the Ultimate Insider The Secret Footballer Of the 95 per cent of people who love football, only 2 per cent understand it. One of my best friends is a complete fan, sees everything, knows everything.

But he has no idea… it’s complicated. – Xavi This book, written by an anonymous professional footballer, begins with that quote from the legendary Barcelona playmaker. (Incidentally, anybody who thinks all footballers are thick should watch Xavi play, or read this interview with him – tinyurl.com/o6hwpzx). And he’s right… I have played football for more than 30 years, I currently manage my son’s under-11s team, and yet my overwhelming realisation on reading these ‘tips and tactics from the ultimate insider’ is just how little I know about the game.

I tackled this book in around 90 minutes, and it hit the net numerous times… I picked up some really useful fitness drills, nodded vigorously in agreement over what is wrong with England and the FA, and learned loads about fashions and formations in football. Despite thousands of hours over the years playing the game, or reading and talking about it, a lot of the thinking was completely new to me.

But one area where The Secret Footballer (TSF) and I are talking

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the same language concerns the importance of the mental side of the modern game. Even with my fledgling footballers, I am convinced that if I can just ‘get inside their heads’, the performances will come. And there has been a growing acceptance and use of the discipline in the professional game… we are light years from the 1990s, when the sports psychologist was generally viewed with the same suspicion and disdain as Eileen Drewery, the faith healer Glenn Hoddle brought in to work with the England team. In a chapter dedicated to psychology TSF describes sports psychologists’ involvement in the game as ‘a revelation’, and he writes knowledgeably about David Dunning and Justin Kruger, Stanley Milgram, and more.

Elsewhere the reader can glean plenty of psychological insight into the great managers, the average football fan, and even the corporations and tycoons feeding off the players and the game.

If you’re one of the fortunate 2 per cent who understand the game, the book is worth the price for the Dimitar Berbatov anecdote alone. If you’re in the 98 per cent who think they understand it, buy this book and think again.

I Guardian Books and Faber and Faber; 2014, Hb £12.99 Reviewed by Dr Jon Sutton, Managing Editor of The Psychologist.

See tinyurl.com/kc2vfhp for an exclusive extract from the book.

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False dichotomies laid bare

Needs working on

A Sociology of Mental Health and Illness (5th edn) Anne Rogers & David Pilgrim The fifth edition of Rogers and Pilgrim’s A Sociology of Mental Health and Illness is a timely contribution to current debates surrounding mental health theory and practice; particularly considering the social, political and economic upheaval that has been ongoing since 2008, its impact on the psychological health of the nation and our ability as practitioners to respond.

Rogers and Pilgrim examine the causes and meanings of mental health and illness using a sociological perspective, pointing a critical finger at, among other things, the machinations of social context, institutions and mental health professionals; the impact of gender, race and life course on mental health; and the often detrimental effects of treatment and attitudes to mental health. In the new preface Rogers and Pilgrim appropriately scupper the aspirations of certainty and definitive accounts, and state that the book ‘raises important ethical and political challenges for trainees in “mental health work”’ – this does not go far enough, as the book should raise challenges for the qualified practitioner as well. Although the book is not targeted at psychologists specifically, there is no question that the topics covered would resonate with practitioner psychologists of all persuasions.

One weakness of the book is the absence of a

WorkOut (app) Reach Out Ireland

chapter on methodology and research. As explained by the authors, there is a considerable bibliography in this new edition as theories and research in sociology and mental health are constantly revised and evolving. It is strange that there is no critical discussion on the nature of evidence in mental health theory and research, as one would imagine that what is determined to be ‘appropriate’ evidence is arrived through social consensus, therefore making it sociological. By omitting evidence as an area of critique it is almost as if Rogers and Pilgrim tacitly endorse a correspondence theory of truth with regard to the research they cite, which would not be in keeping with the critical stance taken by the authors in the rest of the book. Perhaps this is something to debate in the sixth edition.

Nevertheless, A Sociology of Mental Health and Illness is an excellent introductory textbook; perhaps its greatest contribution is that it lays bare the false dichotomy between sociology and ‘psy’ disciplines such as psychology. If this book is indeed intended for trainees in mental health work, then the earlier that unhelpful dichotomy is dissolved in their minds the better.

I Open University Press; 2014; Pb £28.99 Reviewed by Patrick Larsson who is a counselling psychologist working in the NHS

Gap in the market The Psychology of Babies Lynne Murray I’m an occupational psychologist – so why am I reviewing this book? Well, I have a 15-monthold baby and was eager to read more about how babies develop.

My knowledge of child development is patchy to say the least – there is not much beyond what I remember from my first degree over 20 years ago.

I loved this book – as a mum and as a psychologist. It’s very well structured, covering the key areas, and is highly engaging.

The points in the text are continually illustrated with picture sequences showing different babies behaving in response to different situations and people, which is invaluable – it definitely brings it alive, and I could easily relate it to my

son’s behaviour. It has also given me some ideas about how to support his development more effectively.

Intellectually I found it stimulating, and it made me think about aspects that I could relate to as an occupational psychologist. For example, thinking about how the quality of daycare will be influenced by how staff are treated by their organisation. It also reminded me of the instinctive ways we have of learning – babies are hard-wired to explore things, to be experimental, and to imitate others and look for social reinforcement. Sometimes we

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lose that natural curiosity as adults, and certainly some development activities forget about tapping into these natural ways of learning, and instead try and impose a very unnatural approach.

This book covers a gap in the market – there is a lack of books covering this period of child development – and I would thoroughly recommend it.

I Robinson; 2014; Pb £16.99 Reviewed by Emily Hutchinson who is an occupational psychologist at EJH Consulting and Senior Lecturer University of Gloucestershire

This ‘mental fitness’ resource, developed by Inspire Australia and the Brain and Mind Research Institute in Sydney, also includes a supplementary iPhone app built by Reach Out Ireland, a mental health organisation for young people.

In a nutshell, the WorkOut app involves users completing a series of mental health-related questionnaires and activities in the mental fitness themed areas of ‘being practical’, ‘building confidence’, ‘taking control’ and ‘team player’. The app provides feedback based on the users’ scores and displays a Life Wheel chart so users can see what areas need to be worked on.

We thought that the app made great use of colour, metaphors and usability. It appeared that the developers of the app favoured clinical health measures such as the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale over positive health measures such as the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire. We felt that vulnerable young people accessing clinical questionnaires may not be the most optimal resource if increasing the well-being of young people is the general goal of the app. Therefore, we suggest an emphasis on positive measures for future development. Furthermore, limiting the app to iPhone users, and physically using the app in an unsupervised nontherapeutic environment, may decrease the efficacy of this app as a mental health resource.

Lastly, we suggest that the developers consider improving the interactivity and enjoyment of the app in order to encourage multiple usages.

I 2014; Free on Apple App Store Reviewed by Derek Laffan, Breanna Coyle and Juliette Salmon of the Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology, County Dublin, Ireland

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Comedy, melancholy and mental health

The only way over it, is through it…

Robin Ince’s Tears of a Clown BBC Radio 4

The Trauma of Everyday Life Mark Epstein

This hour-long programme, examining the relationship between sadness and comedy, is both thoughtful and thought-provoking. Its focus is on stand-up comedians, but its insights go wider to consider the fundamental human conditions of sadness, loss and the use of humour to cope with some of the darker aspects of life.

Ince was inspired to create the documentary after the death of Robin Williams. ‘Robin Williams was a very important influence on me, and I happened to be doing a stand-up event about comedy and therapy when I heard Robin Williams had killed himself,’ Ince told me. ‘I started to mull over the truth, fiction or in-between of the image of the miserable clown.’

‘For most of my life, comedy has been one of my main obsessions, and for half of my life I have made a living from it,’ said Ince. ‘The older I become, the more I wonder why it is what I have always wanted to be and why I can’t imagine being anything else.’

Ince doesn’t come up with a pat conclusion or a list of psychological research that answers all the questions he raises, and the programme is much richer for this. He uses beautifully selected interview footage from a range of brilliant comedians, talking seriously about comedy as therapy and therapy itself. Ince describes how hard it was to edit the show to an hour with so many thoughtful interviewees: ‘Ten minutes before the deadline we were still trying to fit it all in.’

Jo Brand is one of the interviewees, explaining bipolar disorder and extremes of emotion eloquently. Whilst she doesn’t think all comedians experience bipolar, she wonders if they go to slightly higher highs and lower lows in mood than many. Psychotherapist Philippa Perry 22 interviewed too, with a lightness of touch but depth of theoretical knowledge. Ince has researched what few psychological studies there have been on comedians and he peppers these in as he goes.

The documentary is fascinating from a psychological perspective, but also from a human perspective, providing an opportunity to think about how deep and dark emotions can fuel creativity. Ince says he is pleased that the documentary has inspired others to talk about melancholy and mental health.

On the use of humour in general, Ince thinks it has many functions, both positive and negative: 'It can be used to confirm our beliefs or it can be used to question them. It can be a valve and it is a release of frustrations. Sometimes it reveals our petty-mindedness and insularity, at others it is a celebration of our empathy and altruism.'

Ince said he often returns to a quote from George Carlin: 'Humour is a low art, but a very potent art.' However you see the use of humour, this documentary is definitely worth a listen.

just in

I Reviewed by Lucy Maddox who is a clinical psychologist (see @lucy_maddox and https://psychologymagpie.wordpress.com)

Sample titles just in: The Domesticated Brain Bruce Hood The Rise Sarah Lewis G is for Genes Kathryn Asbury & Robert Plomin For a full list of books available for review and information on reviewing for The Psychologist, see http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/contribute.

Send books for potential review to The Psychologist, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR

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Trauma comes in various guises, inflicting people from all walks of life but providing opportunity for positive change.

Epstein skilfully combines his knowledge of Buddhism and psychotherapy to explore this phenomenon, emphasising how trauma can be used for the mind’s development.

Whilst sparse in descriptions of client work, this book is rich with stories from both the life of the Buddha and Epstein’s personal experiences.

Through these stories Epstein expertly highlights a key message: pain becomes bearable when we do not run from it. But how does Epstein propose we bear this pain?

Through mindfulness we nurture ‘a spy consciousness in the corner of the mind’ from which we can acknowledge dissociated painful feelings.

Epstein teaches us how our mind can learn to hold our distress and how, in the process of doing this, we enhance our ability to relate to ourselves and

others with compassion and connectedness.

Epstein writes with honesty and charm whilst discussing his journey to understanding Buddhism and his frustration in mastering meditation. This provides the reader with reassurance that their own struggle with such practices is not an isolated one. Epstein transports the reader on a philosophical journey, leaving one feeling pensive and enlightened upon its conclusion.

If you are a practitioner seeking to understand how Buddhism may apply to developmental trauma, a trainee wishing to grasp Buddhist principles behind mindfulness (like me), or simply an individual navigating through the ‘trauma of everyday life’, this book is for you!

I Hay House; 2013; Pb £12.99 Reviewed by Fiona Broderick who is a trainee clinical psychologist at Staffordshire and Keele Universities

For a fast-growing profession What Is Clinical Psychology?

Susan Llewelyn & David Murphy (Eds.) Clinical psychology is one of the fastest-growing health professions all over the world including Britain. Clinical psychologists were recognised within the NHS for the first time in 1952 and a separate Division of Clinical Psychology was established within the BPS in 1966 (at the moment the Division has approximately 10,000 members). Since 1952 and 1966 the number of people working in the field of clinical psychology has expanded hugely due to success in delivering high-quality and effective clinical services. So it is a relative newcomer to health care compared to the giants of medicine and nursing, but thanks to all developments it claims its own unique contribution as an applied science, drawing on the science of psychology.

The first edition of What Is Clinical Psychology? was published in 1987, and since then the number of professionals in the UK has more than quadrupled. The profession has extended into a wide range of new settings and client groups. Therefore the fifth edition since 1987 contains new chapters on new developments while remaining chapters have been significantly updated. By doing so, the content of this book represents a comprehensive and

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Creative, empowering

Fascinating and convenient

The Therapist’s Treasure Chest: Solution-oriented Tips and Tricks for Everyday Practice Andrea Caby & Filip Caby Any book that labels itself a treasure chest is setting itself a pretty high bar in my view, but surprisingly, despite weighing in at 319 pages (sans bibliography, references, etc.), this one seems to hit the mark. Of course, opening with a quote from Goethe is always a strong move, but the true sign came when I felt my fingers itching for highlighter pens.

The book starts with a very brief introduction to the models behind the approach before leaping right in to some useful advice for clinicians regardless of theoretical stance. The rest of the book is dedicated to introducing techniques, recommendations for specific clinical issues, and problem solving things that may come up during the course of therapy.

The Therapist’s Treasure Chest is aimed at those working in child and adolescent services, and you might have some trouble explaining why you have a box of finger puppets in

supervision if you work outside of these specialities. This being said, a lot of the techniques can be slightly adapted (the authors often comment on these as they along) and it only really becomes rather blatant once you start getting into Part 3 ‘Indications: What Works Best When?’.

It’s well structured, and peppered with case studies to further expand on the techniques. Overall, the book encourages a creative, empowering and respectful approach to clinical work and is a useful resource and reference for those who work primarily in other models.

I Norton; 2014; Pb £17.99 Reviewed by Luke Allinson who is a Senior Assistant Psychologist in Long Term Health Conditions, LIFT Psychology Wiltshire

contemporary account of the profession today. It covers all the major domains of clinical practice ranging from primary care to severe and enduring mental health problems; from clinical psychologists working in forensic settings to psychologists in leadership positions.

The book begins with an overview of professional practice and a clear introduction to the major competencies and theories used by practitioners, while it concludes with a consideration of likely future developments and challenges. In an appendix it also provides guidance on training routes. By doing so, What Is Clinical Psychology? is vital reading for anyone teaching, considering, or working alongside the profession of clinical psychology.

I Oxford University Press; 2013; Pb £24.99 Reviewed by Dr Giovanni Timmermans who is a clinical psychologist working in health care in the Netherlands

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The Mind is Flat: The Shocking Shallowness of Human Psychology Future Learn, and the University of Warwick What a marvellous opportunity – an interesting free psychology course, available to study online at any time of day or night! This was the first MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) that I had studied, and although familiar with distance learning, I found the convenience and interactive nature fascinating.

FutureLearn started free online courses from UK and international universities in the autumn of 2013. Over the last year the number of courses appears to increase exponentially, so take the plunge and try one (www.futurelearn.com/courses/upcoming).

The Mind is Flat (www.futurelearn.com/courses/the-mind-isflat) was one of the first of the FutureLearn courses and continues to be repeated. Nick Chater, Professor of Behavioural Science at Warwick Business School, leads this course. The main principle, which is elucidated and then argued cogently, is that we make decisions in a surprisingly uninformed manner. Strangely, as a relatively careful individual interested in facts, I found this information surprisingly reassuring and believable. Many concepts described will be well known to psychologists, such as present behaviour is strongly influenced by past behaviour. Yet, it is argued, decisions remain superficial, based on present evidence available and the views of others.

This course covering six weeks is entertaining with a series of short videos or text, with tests, and the opportunity each week to state your views and comment on those of others.

I Reviewed by Kathryn J. Fraser who is a Chartered Psychologist

Positive and reassuring The Teenage Guide to Stress Nicola Morgan Having enjoyed Blame my Brain: The Amazing Teenage Brain Revealed, I was excited to read Nicola Morgan’s new book on the subject of teenage stress.

I was not disappointed.

Morgan’s writing is clear and engaging, making it an accessible and enjoyable read.

The book is split into three sections; the first describes what stress is and how it affects teenagers specifically. The middle section covers a wide range of issues that teenagers face. The cyberbullying, social media, sleep and exam sections were particularly interesting and informative. Each topic is followed by tips and advice to help with that particular issue.

The third section goes into more detail about stress management strategies teenagers can utilise as well as advice on how to generally look after their mental health.

This book is positive and reassuring and gives teenagers, and the adults who support them, practical strategies to manage stress. Talking about and acknowledging teenage stress and encouraging good mental health is undoubtedly positive as it can stop young people developing more severe difficulties. This book is a fantastic starting point to encourage this and is a useful read for teenagers, parents and those working with teenagers.

I Walker Books; 2014; Pb £7.99 Reviewed by Susanne Litts who is a Primary Mental Health Worker, NHS Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service

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