november/december 2011
the
Cold Never Felt So Good...
global aquaculture
The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood
January/February 2009
DEPARTMENTS
From The Director From The Editor GAA Activities Fishy Business Industry News Advocate Advertisers
11 WSSV And TSV: Diseases As Drivers In The Shrimp-Farming Industry
David R. W. Griffith, B.S.
14 The Bottom Line Increase Profits – Consider What Ifs
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.; Chris Stock
18 New Policies, Initiatives Could Advance U.S. Aquaculture
Paul G. Olin, Ph.D.; Pamela D. Tom
20 Sustainable Aquaculture Practices Dissolved-Oxygen Requirements In Aquatic Animal Respiration
On the cover:
Aquaculture products are readily available in seafood departments and shops around the world. Additional knowledge could help more consumers consider farmed seafood in their buying decisions.
Page 44 Value Chain Impacts Vietnam
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
22 Prawn Farming In Bangladesh Faces Climate Change Threats
Vietnam’s government plays an important role in seafood trade, but importing nations establish food safety standards, and NGOs have also become involved.
Nesar Ahmed, Ph.D.
24 GIFT Tilapia Raise Culture Efficiency In Sri Lanka
2 3 5 8 76 80
Nguyen Hong Nguyen, Raul W. Ponzoni, Jayantha Chandrasoma, H. M. V. K. P. B. Herath, Kamal Wathurawadu
26 Public-Private Partnerships Boost Monosex Tilapia Fry Production
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November/December 2011
www.PreferredFreezer.com
global aquaculture advocate
Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D.; Mark Woollard
Page 60
28 Improving Salinity Tolerance In Tilapia
Solid-State Fermentation Solid-state microbial fermentation of raw plant materials can increase the amount of available protein and reduce antinutritional factors.
Avner Cnaani, Ph.D.; Ariel Velan, M.S.; Gideon Hulata, Ph.D.
30 Tail Weight, Yield Traits Considered For Shrimp-Breeding Program
Dr. Gabriel Campos-Montes, Dr. Hugo H. Montaldo, Dr. Alfonso Mart nez Ortega, Dr. Héctor Castillo-Juárez
32 Fat Components, Energy in Poultry By-Product Meal Provide Valuable Nutrients To Shrimp
Sergio F. Nates, Ph.D.; A. Victor Suresh, Ph.D.
34 36
Taurine: Critical Supplement For Marine Fish Feed
M. Rhodes; W. Rossi, Jr.; T. Hanson, Ph.D.; D. Allen Davis, Ph.D.
High Nitrate Levels Toxic To Shrimp
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U.S. Seafood Markets Shrimp Imports From Mexico, India, Ecuador Up Salmon Whole Fish, Fillet Markets Steady Honduras Top Fresh Tilapia Fillet Supplier Pangasius Imports Hit Record – Again Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown; Angel Rubio
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.; Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.; George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
38 Avoid Water Chiller Errors – Research System Selection, Measure Performance Philip Nickerson, P.Eng.
56 Geotextile Bags Enhance Effluent Management In Demo Aquaculture System
James M. Jernand, Ph.D.; Paul Hightower; Reginald B. Blaylock, Ph.D.
60 Solid-State Fermentation Novel Process For Improving Nutritional Value Of Plant Feedstuffs 42 Farmed Fish Consumption Related To Seafood Knowledge In Spain
Prof. José Fernández-Polanco, Ph.D.; Prof. Ladislao Luna, Ph.D.; Ignacio Llorente
44 Governance Of Global Value Chains Impacts Shrimp Producers In Vietnam
Tran Van Nhuong, Ph.D.; Conner Bailey, Ph.D.; Norbert Wilson, Ph.D.
48 Food Safety And Technology By-Product Utilization For Increase Profitability Part I: Gelatin
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Adrián Hernández, Aliro Bórquez, Patricio Dantagnan, Carolina Shenne
64 Multiple Characteristics Considered In Selection Of Probiotics For Marine Shrimp
Dr. Felipe do Nascimento Vieira; Dr. José Luis Mouriño; Bruno Correa da Silva, M.S.; Dr. Walter Quadros Seiffert; Dr. Luis Alejandro Vinatea
68 Financial, Economic Analysis Of Shrimp Farm Investment In Brazil
Márcio Alves Bezerra, M.S.; Ítalo Régis Castelo Branco Rocha, M.S.
71 Wet Mount Techniques Excellent For Health Monitoring, But Not NHP Diagnosis In Shrimp
Giana Bastos Gomes, Jose Antonio S. Domingos, Veronica Arns Da Silva, Emiko Shinozaki Mendes, Paulo De Paul Mendes
74 In Situ Detection Of Blue Crab Reovirus
Kathy F. J. Tang, Ph.D.; Carlos R. Pantoja, Ph.D.; Rita M. Redman; Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
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from the director GLOBAL AQUACULTURE ALLIANCE The Global Aquaculture Alliance is an international non-profit, non-governmental association whose mission is to further envi ronmentally responsible aquaculture to meet world food needs. Our members are producers, processors, marketers and retailers of seafood products worldwide. All aquaculturists in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS George Chamberlain, President Bill Herzig, Vice President Ole Norgaard, Secretary Lee Bloom, Treasurer Jim Heerin, Assistant Treasurer Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS Bert Bachmann Lee Bloom Rittirong Boonmechote George Chamberlain Shah Faiez Jeff Fort John Galiher Jim Heerin Bill Herzig Ray Jones Alex Ko Jordan Mazzetta Rafael Bru Sergio Nates Ole Norgaard John Peppel John Schramm Iain Shone Wally Stevens EDITOR DARRYL JORY editorgaadvocate@aol.com PRODUCTION STAFF MAgazine manager JANET VOGEL janet.vogel@gaalliance.org ASSISTANT EDITOR DAVID WOLFE david.wolfe@gaalliance.org GRAPHIC DESIGNER LORRAINE JENNEMANN lorraine.jennemann@gaalliance.org HOME OFFICE 5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA Telephone: +1-314-293-5500 FAX: +1-314-293-5525 E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2011 Global Aquaculture Alliance. Global Aquaculture Advocate is printed in the USA. ISSN 1540-8906
United By Values One decade ago, we learned from the horrific terrorist acts of 9/11 that we all truly live in a global community, and that in this community, there are both good and evil people. At that time, I was serving as chairman of the National Fisheries Institute, and I wrote an open letter to the global seafood community titled “Words of Hope and Resolution.” The Wally Stevens letter, published in the October 2001 Seafood Business magazine, conveyed my perspectives on what we as an Executive Director industry needed to do to overcome the fear, paralysis, Global Aquaculture Alliance wally.stevens@gaalliance.org shock and pain that people with evil intentions had inflicted on the United States and the world. My main message was that we must rely on the values that made us great: freedom, family and our spiritual beliefs. I argued that what was needed was for us to keep doing what we do best: Supplying a hungry planet with fish (farmed and wild) from around the world. Creating jobs and opportunity in the process. Standing steadfast in our core values. Today, we face challenges somewhat similar to those we faced a decade ago. Global unrest over the economy has become widespread, and it is tempting to play it safe and focus on our own survival rather than address the opportunities before us. Ours is a global industry, and what we all learned after 9/11 was that the seafood community is strengthened when we come together in the face of adversity. As we look toward the next decade regarding the economy and food security, we would suggest that it What we all learned will take global leadership – which includes after 9/11 was that the the Global Aquaculture Alliance and its sister organization, the Responsible Aquaculture seafood community is Foundation – to ensure that seafood-producing strengthened when we countries and companies take steps now to come together in the produce enough fish and shellfish to meet the needs of the planet over the next decade. face of adversity. Now more than ever, we who are in the business of putting seafood on the world’s tables must work together as a global community to increase the production of fish and shellfish – shrimp, salmon, trout, tilapia, oysters, mussels, catfish and Pangasius, to name just a few cultured species. The challenge before us is nothing short of preposterous on its face: In the next 10 years, double today’s production of aquaculture seafood. “Double in a Decade – Responsibly” was our theme at this year’s GOAL 2011 conference in Santiago. While some skeptics argue that the time is not right to set forth such an ambitious vision, we respectfully suggest otherwise. The time is now. Things were bleak in September of 2001, but the world righted itself. The 9/11 incident temporarily threw us off the proverbial horse, but we got back up and pushed on. More recent shifts in international economics have muddied the trail, but aquaculture has continued to grow. It’s what we do – and what we must do. The world can never forget the events of 9/11. In November 2011, let us remember that we got through those dark times by uniting behind our collective values and convictions. We will and we must provide the leadership to double aquaculture production, even in the face of naysayers and those who believe it can’t be done. A preposterous challenge? Perhaps. But we in the aquaculture community must begin to view ourselves as stewards of responsible food production, not just for ourselves today, but for future generations. It can, and must, be done.
November/December 2011
from the editor Aquaculture: No Alternative
Sincerely,
Darryl E. Jory
global aquaculture advocate
FOUNDING MEMBERS
With this issue we close our 12th year, another successful one for GAA and our magazine, and I would like to thank our advertisers, contributors and readers for your valuable support. The end-of-year message I would like to share with you is a simple Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D. vision: The world needs much more seafood, and it Editor, Development Manager can only come from sustainable aquaculture. Global Aquaculture Advocate A 2009 Food and Agriculture Organization of editorgaadvocate@aol.com the United Nations report stated as a critical point that over 500 million people are directly or indirectly dependent on the seafood industry. Humans already number over 7 billion, and our population will inexorably continue to increase, barring some major catastrophic event. Knowing that already some 15% of the world population goes to bed hungry every night, with population growth projected at around 37% over the next 40 years, and with global food needs expected to grow even faster because of the higher living standards in developing countries, it is not hard to foresee that global food production must increase fast. If overall production is to keep pace with an expanding world population, and given the likelihood that capture fisheries will remain stagnant, any future additional seafood production must come from aquaculture. There are no other alternatives. Looking at current trends of aquaculture production for most major species, it is evident that quantum leaps are needed. A critical adjustment with major implications will be to evolve to a more “industrialized” industry, taking better advantage of domestication and selective-breeding programs, and modern seedstock and growout production facilities with systematized management. We’ll need increasingly better nutrition and health management, and an overall approach toward improved risk management. It will also be important to improve the use of growout space, considering alternatives like polyculture and aquaponics/hydroponics. And to expand the industry to new areas, new species and new production technologies. There is a plethora of new applied technologies from other industries out there, ready to be incorporated into our own. No need to reinvent wheels already invented by others. Not forgetting the market side, which tends There is a plethora of to set the rules for our industry, it will be addinew applied technolo- tionally important to guarantee product safety to consumers who are increasingly educated gies from other indus- and demanding through certification programs, tries out there, ready to strengthen industry governance throughout to be incorporated into the production and marketing chains, and to consider animal welfare issues, the environment our own. and others areas. I am a strong believer that the future of our industry is a bright one, and that we have a significant historical responsibility to help feed the growing human population. I hope you share the same vision. Again, thank you for your support, and please let us know how we can best serve our industry.
Sincerely,
Wally Stevens
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Agribrands International Inc. Agromarina de Panama, S.A. Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita Aqualma – Unima Group Aquatec/Camanor Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance Belize Aquaculture, Ltd. Delta Blue Aquaculture Bluepoints Co., Inc. Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura Camaronera de Cocle, S.A. Cargill Animal Nutrition Continental Grain Co. C.P. Aquaculture Business Group Darden Restaurants Deli Group, Ecuador Deli Group, Honduras Diamante del Mar S.A. Eastern Fish Co. El Rosario, S.A. Empacadora Nacional, C.A. Empress International, Ltd. Expack Seafood, Inc. Expalsa – Exportadora de Almientos S.A. FCE Agricultural Research and Management, Inc. Fishery Products International India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group INVE Aquaculture, N.V. King & Prince Seafood Corp. Long John Silver’s, Inc. Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co. Lyons Seafoods Ltd. Maritech S.A. de C.V. Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC Monsanto Morrison International, S.A. National Food Institute National Prawn Co. Ocean Garden Products, Inc. Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM Preferred Freezer Services Productora Semillal, S.A. Promarisco, S.A. Red Chamber Co. Rich-SeaPak Corp. Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A. Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C. Sea Farms Group Seprofin Mexico Shrimp News International Sociedad Nacional de Galapagos Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A. Super Shrimp Group Tampa Maid Foods, Inc. U.S. Foodservice Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
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Join the world’s leading aquaculture organization
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BAP’s latest training course included a visit to a commercial salmon farm.
global aquaculture
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply. Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance, the leading standards-setting organization for farmed seafood. Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture management. Connect with other responsible companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices certification for aquaculture facilities. Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine, GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits. Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture St. Louis, Missouri, USA – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
GOVERNING MEMBERS
ABC Research Corp. AIS Aqua Foods, Inc. Alfesca H.F. Al Fulk National Co., Ltd. Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita Ammon International Aqua Bounty Technologies Blue Archipelago Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd. Cargill Chang International Inc. Chicken of the Sea/ Empress International Darden Restaurants Delta Blue Aquaculture Eastern Fish Co. Fenway Partners LLC Grobest USA Inc. High Liner Foods/FPI Imaex Trading Company Integrated Aquaculture International INVE BV King & Prince Seafood Corp. Lyons Seafoods Ltd. Maloney Seafood Corp. Mazzetta Co., LLC Morey’s Seafood International National Fish and Seafood, Inc. Novus International Pescanova USA Preferred Freezer Services QVD Red Chamber Co. Rich Product Corp. Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A. Sea Port Products Corp. Seafood Exchange of Florida Seafood Solutions Seajoy Thai Union Group Trace Register Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
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gaa activities
Urner Barry Publications, Inc. Zeigler Bros., Inc.
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP Alltech Aqua Star Aquatec Industrial Pecuaria Ltd. Blue Ridge Aquaculture Camanchaca Contessa Food Products, Inc. Cooke Aquaculture Inc. Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd. DevCorp International Diversified Business Communications DSM Nutritional Products Fega Marikultura P.T. Findus Group Fortune Fish Co. H & N Foods International, Inc. Harbor Seafood, Inc. Harvest Select Inland Seafood International Marketing Specialists Ipswich Shellfish Co., Inc. Maritime Products International Mirasco Mt. Cook Alpine Salmon North Coast Seafood North Star Ice Equipment Co. Novozymes Orca Bay Seafoods Pacific Supreme Co. PanaPesca USA Corp. PFS Logistics Profish International Santa Monica Seafood Sealord Group Ltd. Seattle Fish Co. Seattle Fish Co. of N.M. Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
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Solae, LLC SouthFresh Aquaculture Starfish Foods Stavis Seafoods, Inc. The Fishin’ Company Trident Seafoods United Seafood Enterprises, L.P. Western Edge Inc.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
American Feed Industry Association APCC-All China Federation of Industry and Commerce Aquatic Production Chamber of Commerce Associação Brasileira de Criadoresde Camarão Australian Prawn Farmers Association Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation China Aquatic Products Processing and Marketing Association Fats and Proteins Research Foundation, Inc. Indiana Soybean Alliance International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation Malaysian Shrimp Industry Association National Fisheries Institute National Renderers Association Oceanic Institute Prince Edward Island Seafood Processors Association SalmonChile Salmon of the Americas Seafood Importers and Processors Alliance U.S. Soybean Export Council World Aquaculture Society Universidad Austral de Chile World Renderers Organization
Ireland BAP Auditor Training Focuses On Salmon The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) management group and Global Trust Certification, Ltd., an ISO certification body located in Ireland, jointly sponsored an auditor-training course in Dundalk, Ireland, in August. Seven auditors participated in the six-day course, which covered auditor training for seafood processing plants, farms, hatcheries and feed mills based on the BAP standards developed by the Global Aquaculture Alliance. A main focus of the training course was the new BAP salmon farm standards. The course also included HACCP training provided by a qualified trainer from Global Trust. Following the course, auditors visited a modern salmon farm owned by Marine
Alliance Seeks Accreditation For BAP Salmon Standards Following the release of its Best Aquaculture Practices certification standards for salmon farms earlier this year, the Global Aquaculture Alliance has begun the process of accreditation against ISO/IEC Guide 65:1996 for the standards. The process involves a formal application, standards review, audit witness assessment and head office assessment. The first certification body to seek accreditation to the BAP salmon farm standards was Global Trust Certification Ltd. Global Trust’s Bill Paterson said his organization’s extensive experience with salmon standards certification will prove beneficial in obtaining a successful outcome to the accreditation process. “After the successful accreditation of the BAP seafoodprocessing standards last year, the accreditation of all BAP farm standards was the next logical step,” Dan Lee, BAP standards coordinator, said. “Among other things, this will satisfy key requirements of the FAO Technical Guidelines for Aquaculture Certification.”
Harvest near Clare Island in county Mayo, Ireland. Instructors for the course included BAP program personnel William More, Betty More and Jeff Peterson. Bill Paterson, Cormac O’Sullivan and Jennifer Clinton represented Global Trust. The Ireland course was the second in a series of BAP auditor-training courses conducted in 2011. The first was held in conjunction with NSF-Surefish in June in Seattle, Washington, USA, where 10 new auditors were trained.
Avalon To Represent BAP In Europe Best Aquaculture Practices has expanded its international marketing team with the addition of Emil Avalon as BAP’s new business development manager for Europe. Avalon will help manage BAP relationships with seafood suppliers, buyers, retailers and foodservice outlets in the United Kingdom and other European countries. “We are very excited to welcome Emil Avalon into the GAA family,” BAP Vice President of Development Peter Redmond said. “He brings a tremendous amount of experience with him and will be a tremendous asset as we seek to broaden the base of BAP supporters across the European continent.” Avalon began the seafood chapter of his career more than a decade ago in Madagascar. Subsequently based in the U.K., he has been operating Avalon Latitude Premium Seafood as an independent provider of supply chain support services, working with major European Union buyers and shrimp producers around the world. Avalon’s understanding of the E.U. shrimp market and global supply base is complemented by expertise in cooking, product freshness optimization/measurement and new product development. In parallel, Avalon has trained on the BAP shrimp standards since 2004 and is a qualified British Retail Consortium third-party auditor.
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GOAL Sponsorships Support New GOAL 2.0
GOAL 2.0 will help GOAL attendees communicate with organizers and each other.
Thanks to the many companies and groups that have shown support for GOAL 2011 through sponsorship, the Global Aquaculture Alliance has enhanced participants’ experience through an online conference community called GOAL 2.0 (http:// goal2011.conferencespot.org). Before, during and after the event, participants can create a profile and find other GOAL attendees who share common business interests. GOAL 2.0 allows users to communicate, set schedules and query speakers – all with the desired level of privacy. GOAL 2.0 also provided access to attendee lists and elements of the event as they happened: presentations, photos and more. For example, copies of individual PowerPoint files were made available immediately after speakers completed their presentations. GAA hopes participants find GOAL 2.0 an effective tool in stimulating and expanding discussions among aquaculture professionals from around the world.
PLATINUM S P O N S O R S
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Stevens Advocates BAP At World Seafood Congress Global Aquaculture Alliance Executive Director Wally Stevens presented the strengths of the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) sustainability model during “Making Sense of Sustainability,” an October 4 conference session held during the World Seafood Congress in Washington, D.C., USA. Stevens said sustainability must make sense to a wide range of stakeholders from farmers and other supply chain players to NGOs, funding institutions and, importantly, the marketplace. Ultimately, consumers must understand the benefits of – and need for – sustainability. Their opinions, expressed in buying decisions, help define how sustainability is practiced on the production side. The Global Aquaculture Alliance’s top role in seafood sustainability is development of the BAP standards for certification of aquaculture farms, feed mills, hatcheries and processing plants. The standards address environmental, social, animal welfare and food safety issues related to raising and processing fish and shrimp. In his presentation, Stevens explained how the standards
are set within international technical committees with varied stakeholder input and overseen by a diverse Standards Oversight Committee. BAP certification is implemented through independent ISO 65-accredited certification bodies. Best Aquaculture Practices certification is endorsed by the majority of top retailers in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, and dozens of other market players around the world. The scope of BAP continues to expand with rising volumes of shrimp, tilapia catfish and Pangasius coming from BAP-certified facilities. New standards are under development for mussels and marine fish. Stevens was joined on the panel by speakers who outlined the sustainability models of the Marine Stewardship Council/ Aquaculture Stewardship Council, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and GlobalGAP. The congress – which included workshops, presentations and technical tours – was presented by the International Association of Seafood Professionals in cooperation with the National Fisheries Institute.
Chamberlain Speaks At USSEC Meeting George Chamberlain told his audience aquaculture growth is needed to meet the growing demand for seafood worldwide.
During a recent Soy in Aquaculture stakeholders meeting in Kona, Hawaii, USA, researchers and international aquaculture consultants discussed strategies for future aquaculture research and marketing efforts with the United Soybean Board (USB), U.S. Soybean Export Council and state soybean board members. Global Aquaculture Alliance President Dr. George Cham-
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berlain and Dr. John Schillinger of Schillinger Genetics were guest speakers for the event. Chamberlain presented his perspectives on the future of aquaculture, highlighting the aquaculture growth that will need to take place to meet the demand for seafood worldwide. Schillinger updated stakeholders on the progress of new alternative products for aquafeeds, such as high-protein-density, low-oligosaccharide, low-trypsin-inhibitor soybean varieties. Additional information was presented on the status of the U.S and global industry, offshore aquaculture, industry promotion and education, and standards certification. Participants also had the opportunity to visit Kona Blue Water Farms and learn more about USB-sponsored aquaculture feed formulation research on yellowtail and amberjack fish.
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fishy business
Nantes BioMarine Congress
Do As I Do? Do As I Tell You! Environmental sustainability is clearly a goal for everyone in primary industry. Farmers and harvesters of the sea have to look at themselves as stewards of the areas they work. There will always be exceptions because we are dealing with human beings, not robots, but generally speaking, everything is moving in the right direction. We are learning from errors of the past and stepping up to the plate. To me, this is the way it should be. The problem is that sustainability is not an end point but a journey. It is all about continuous improvement in much the same way as HAACP/food safety.
NGO Influences
We are dealing with nature, and in the water, unlike on land, you cannot see things easily. Clearly though, some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have seen this as an opportunity to make money and create powerful enterprises. Some seafood buyers have sought to create marketing niches and use the NGOs as “consultants.” This, they often say, is “giving the customers what they want.” There is little good evidence to support this. Strangely, other protein meat products are not treated the same way. Simply search for each NGO name and “supermarket,” and identify how the groups treat seafood compared to red meat, pork and chicken – none of which come close to the environmental sustainability of seafood. So why is this? Could it have more to do with NGOs
Aquaculture Session Addresses Food Safety, Feeds, Labeling
taking advantage of the seafood industry’s diverse and generally under-organization as a united group? You could not accuse the red meat or chicken industry of these issues.
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD
True sustainability is more than just about environmental factors. It also incorporates economic and social attributes, and some even say there is a fourth prong in governance. The loud NGOs are mainly pushing the environmental banner and, in many cases, confuse their desires for conservation against true sustainability. I query the ethical standards being used by such NGO groups. Some sustainable certification organizations, especially those with strong NGO connections, are using the supply chain to promote their brand. Associated charges are feeding back down the line, and poor producers are paying for that “benefit.” Some of the industry is waking up to this and adding a certification cost to anyone who demands a particular certificate.
Level Field?
This all creates needless work and would seem to be driven by greed from the sustainable certification groups. Many of these have created large organizations which, I believe, will be found unsustainable in the long term. On top of this, a company or country can lead the world in fisheries/aquaculture management practices and environmental sustainability credentials
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD FishyBusiness 2312/80 Clarendon Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia email@fishybiz.com.au
– see “Australia’s Fisheries Rank Second in Sustainability” in the June Seafood Source – but other countries penalize it with tariffs and duties because of antiquated bureaucratic practices and trade barriers. Where is the level playing field? The other interesting issue is how decisions made at the top of organizations float down to the shop floor. In many ways, there seems to be a lack of conviction to promote the great seafood sustainability story (let alone all the incredible health benefits) with the same vigor that drives extra costs with certain certification organizations. Overall, there is a lack of training staff, and strangely, if it is all about giving customers what they want, why isn’t that promoted more at the store level?
Tilapia Shrimp
2125 Wright Avenue C-5, La Verne CA 91750 TEL: (909) 596-9990, E-mail: mail@grobestusa.com
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FishyBusiness 2312/80 Clarendon Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia email@fishybiz.com.au
Real Sustainability
global aquaculture advocate
Alistair Lane said aquaculture should no longer be considered a “minor player” in coastal development in Europe.
Summary:
The experts who presented a session on sustainable aquaculture at the BioMarine Congress covered issues key to development. Alistair Lane said expansion in Europe must be built on economic stability, coordinated development and government recognition. Prathapachandra Shetty said food safety is becoming increasingly complicated and proposed simplified regulations and standard testing methods. Elliot Entis said the call to label Aqua Bounty salmon as “engineered” is unneeded because many other foods are also engineered. Einar Wathne said as long as fisheries harvests are managed well, aquafeed is the best allocation for fishmeal and oil. The BioMarine Congress, held September 7-9 in Nantes, France, not only boasted a strong royal involvement but also covered sectors as diverse as energy, cosmetics, algae and aquaculture. The presentation by Prince Albert II of Monaco clearly showed his interest in and understanding of issues related to the future of activities in and on the ocean. Other discussions and debates kept the
high-level delegates informed and invigorated – none moreso than the session on sustainable aquaculture. A diverse panel of experts covered key issues as the industry strives toward an environmentally and economically sustainable model.
E.U. Outlook
Alistair Lane, executive director of the European Aquaculture Society, asked what seafood production/import model Europe would prefer. “If we are content to have more than two-thirds of our needs imported,” he said, “then we need to be prepared to meet the (food safety, environmental and food security) costs that this implies.” Sufficient political will could make new production sites available, ensure a level playing field with regard to legislation and promote European products through the retail sector. With those conditions, “we have a basis of an economic model that allows producers to not only produce competitively, but also to have strong balance sheets that allow further investment. We cannot build on the other pillars of sustainability until this economic model is resolved,” Lane said. As part of the current reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, European institutions are calling on member states to finalize their aquaculture development
plans based on spatial planning by 2013 and to focus on providing the enabling environment that European aquaculture needs at a national level to give new impetus to production. Recent information from the E.U. fish processors and traders association indicated that E.U. aquaculture has increased by 5.0% to 1.514 mmt, whereas wild catches decreased in the same period by 2.3% to 5.224 mmt. Imported seafood share has grown to 9.394 mmt, 62% of total demand, highlighting E.U. food security issues. Lane concluded by saying: “No matter how any single country plans the development of its (coastal) aquaculture sector, it is absolutely crucial that policy makers and planners understand the simple fact that to produce the highest quality and safest aquaculture products, producers need access to the best sites with the best water quality. Aquaculture can no longer be considered a minor player when it comes to development.” In addition, he said, aquaculture needs to better manage the knowledge generated by research and be more proactive in its communications. He called for the generation of science-based, impartial information at the correct language level for delivery by trusted sources to different end users. “This sounds straightforward, and yet we are not doing it yet to the level that is required to influence societal perception of the activities of the sector,” Lane said.
Food Safety Issues
Prathapachandra Shetty, executive director of Emirates Star Fisheries in the United Arab Republic, used the recent E. coli outbreak in Germany to focus on food safety issues. He said ensuring food safety is becoming more complicated as goods are moved ever greater distances around the world. “It is important to harmonize certifi-
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Timely discussions and debates kept the high-level delegates informed.
cation and traceability requirements on an international level, but also to democratize this process,” he said. “Currently, the cost of certification is prohibitively expensive for developing-world producers.” Shetty proposed simplifying regulations with effective but simple traceability processes and standardizing methods for environmental and chemical testing. Streamlined procedures and adequate staff training are essential, he said.
Labeling Requirements
Elliot Entis, the co-founder and director of U.S.-based Aqua Bounty, which has been at the forefront of genetically modified (G.M.) production with its line of fast-growing salmon, questioned product-labeling decisions. The salmon – which are under regulatory review – will be all female, sterile and raised in indoor pens away from the ocean. Escapes, should they occur, would have no significant impacts on the environment, he said. “In the U.S., the widely accepted and limited role of government is to demand full disclosure of ingredients, nutritional content and potential dangers on labels, but not to label the process used to derive the ingredients if it has no bearing on product qualities.” He said that requiring special labels on foods produced with the help of modern biotechnology to inform consumers of the “true nature” of products is not part of the U.S. labeling standards. The exception would be if a genetically engineered ingredient in some measurable way differed from its non-engineered counterparts in nutritional value, taste or texture. In Europe, however, a different course is followed. Any product that contains 0.9% or more of an approved genetically modified ingredient must have a special label.
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“The rationale behind the U.S. approach is that to label process in addition to product would open a Pandora’s Box to a limitless number of labeling demands to satisfy innumerable numbers of advocacy groups, each with their own tastes and values,” Entis said. If consumers want to know if salmon is genetically engineered, they have a right to ask the seller and make a buying decision based on that information, he said. And if producers of foods enhanced through the use of biotechnology feel there is value in making marketing claims based on that process, they should be able to add that to labels and have the government monitor any specific claims. Aqua Bounty salmon have a smaller carbon footprint than other salmon, for example. Entis said aquaculture was being dealt a different hand compared to other food products. The call for a special label identifying Aqua Bounty salmon as “engineered” ignores the fact that the majority of food products we already eat are engineered and contain genes from two or more species of plant or animal, without any identifying designation. Among these products are farm-raised striped bass, pluots, tangelos, corn, tomatoes, grapefruits and wheat. The only difference is that the engineering was done the traditional way through cross-breeding or traditional hybridization, Entis said. What is the rationale for singling out salmon from the thousands of other enhanced products?
Aquafeed Sustainability
Einar Wathne, managing director of EWOS in Norway, commenced by saying that sustainability issues for aquaculture feeds do not go beyond those for any other feeds used in protein production. “We all face a challenge on how to
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feed a growing population in the future,” he said. “Aquatic organisms like fish have an advantage in efficiency compared to land animals … due to having ambient body temperature and requiring less energy for keeping body in balance, as they live in water.” Despite these facts, there is a perception that feed is a major sustainability issue for aquaculture. Most concern is related to the use of fish as feed for fish. But as long as fisheries management ensures sustainable harvests, Wathne said, aquafeed is the best allocation for fishmeal and oil. The industry has invested substantially in reducing fishmeal content in diets. EWOS, for example, reduced the inclusion of marine ingredients in feed by 50% over the last 10 years. “And we have more to go,” Wathne said. “We should not accept the critics’ view about using fish for fish,” he said. “In the case of fish oil, we have turned a product previously used for fuel or paint into a healthy, nutritious product. We should be praised rather than criticized.” Looking to the future, sources for omega-3 fatty acids other than fish oil, a finite resource, will be needed. Of those sources G.M. oil seeds are the most promising, he said. Soy and rape seed varieties can already produce long-chain highly unsaturated fatty acids. However, their implementation could face a perception challenge from consumers. The aquafeed industry should engage to build its own future sustainability platform. Although not all stakeholder views and positions can be adopted, the platform needs to be based on knowledge. The industry, as well as authorities, needs to engage in further sustainability research.
Government Involvement
In conclusion, the author, who moderated the event, said, “If we are really looking toward a sustainable aquaculture and economic model, governments need to consider two main issues.” One is not to leave the industry “out to dry” in avoiding responsibility for environmental sustainability certification, as we have to ensure that the cost of third-party certification is not an impost on the cost of food. Secondly, a level playing field with respect to duties and tariffs is needed. Currently, some countries that have accepted the sustainable development platform are not receiving any benefits, and the impost of a duty/tariff is working against the process.
production
WSSV And TSV: Diseases As Drivers In The Shrimp-Farming Industry Summarized From The Shrimp Book
David R. W. Griffith, B.S. This shrimp carapace presents the white spots that typically reflect infection by WSSV. Photo courtesy of Dr. Carlos Pantoja.
Technical Manager C.I. Cartagenera de Acuacultura Flybox #2469, 1551 N.W. 82nd Avenue Miami, Florida 33126 USA dgriffith@cartacua.com
Table 1. Chronological summary of the spread of WSS. Year 1992 1994 1995 1999 2004 2005
The Shrimp Book, published in 2010 by Nottingham University Press (ISBN 978-1-904761-59-4), brings together experts from around the world to fill the critical need for a central reference source on the state of shrimp production practices. With chapters by 67 authors representing the spectrum of shrimp biology and aquaculture – many of whom have contributed to this magazine – the book is addressed to a diverse readership at every step of the shrimp-farming value chain. The editor is well-known shrimp pathologist Victoria Alday-Sanz, DVM, M.S., Ph.D. Overall, the comprehensive book represents an extraordinary effort by many of the most prominent researchers involved in penaeid shrimp studies. With the permission of the publisher, the Global Aquaculture Advocate will present a series of summary articles that highlight chapters from The Shrimp Book. These summaries are meant to provide a glimpse into the vast knowledge available in the book, and by no means can replace actual reading of this excellent publication. Viral diseases have arisen in both Western and Eastern shrimp farms with the consolidation of the shrimp-farming industries in these regions. Two diseases, in particular, have been spread worldwide as shrimp farming has expanded, with the result that Taura syndrome virus (TSV) and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) are the most serious of the crustacean viruses currently known to the industry. As the biology of both the viruses and their crustacean hosts became better understood, the impacts of these viruses on production systems have been reduced. In some cases, management has been extremely effective, virtually eliminating these diseases as concerns from production. In other cases, much remains to be done in controlling the impacts of the viruses on production.
Species Shift
Of the 10 viral diseases currently recognized by the International Office of Epizootics as negatively affecting penaeid shrimp production, TSV and WSSV are responsible for the majority of financial losses. It has been estimated that TSV accounted for approximately U.S. $1 billion in losses since its discovery in 1991, while WSSV caused as much as $7 billion in losses over the same period. The history of these two viruses and the steps taken to control them merit careful consideration as reflections of how the shrimp industry has developed across the globe. As a result of the movement of animals for aquaculture and the presence of viral pathogens in the wild, the spread of WSSV and TSV as indicated in Tables 1 and 2 has been swift and worldwide.
Country/Region Japan Thailand/India United States Central America/Ecuador/Mexico Hawaii Middle East
Table 2. Chronological summary of the spread of TSV. Year 1992 1994 1998 2000 2001 2002 2009
Country/Region Ecuador Colombia/Central America Taiwan Venezuela Belize Thailand Colombia
Far from succumbing to these diseases, farmers have in fact been able to increase production. In Asia, this was in great measure due to the change from black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, to white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, which now make up approximately 61% of the overall farmed harvest exported by the region and are the most important species of shrimp farmed worldwide. This suggests L. vannamei may be more resistant to the pathogens present in Asia than P. monodon and supports the switch away from the larger, more demanding P. monodon. However, looking at the performance of L. vannamei in Latin America, we see continued difficulties with both WSSV and TSV.
Production Strategies
Production strategies have always differed considerably between the East and West, and indeed, among countries within regions.
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Table 3. Comparison of disease management tools in Asian and American shrimp farming. Criteria Pond size Stocking density PCR screening of postlarvae
Extensive/ Western
Relative Cost
Intensive/Asian
Relative Cost
Over 5 ha
Low
Less than 2 ha
High
Low (4-25/m2)
Low
High (over 50/m2)
High
No/poor
Low
Yes
High
Yes
High
Specific pathogen-free/ -resistant stock
No
Specific pathogen-resistant stock
The gross signs of Taura syndrome include tail damage. Photo courtesy of Dr. Carlos Pantoja.
There are fundamental differences between both the physicalities and philosophies demonstrated regionally toward production. The differences in pond sizes, for example, reflect both the availability and cost of land in the two regions, as well as social aspects of land ownership and small-scale farming inherent to each region. The long history of small, familyowned and -operated fish farms in the East differs greatly from the situation in Latin America, where shrimp farming was driven by a small number of companies and individuals using large tracts of land operated at low densities. The operation of Western farms thus tends to be based on low technical inputs with a focus on management of fixed costs (or indirect costs, including, for example, salaries and diesel for pumping water). Eastern operations tend to be high-tech, with a focus on variable or direct costs, such as postlarvae and feeds. These elements are summarized in Table 3.
Disease Risk
In addition to the dichotomy presented by the two alternative production methods practiced by Asian and American farmers, it is important to recognize the risks presented by small, poorly financed farms to regional production under both systems. Especially in combination, the lax legal framework common to the regions where shrimp is farmed, sometimes poorly educated and inanced farmers, and the simply unscrupulous represent huge risks to the operations that make substantial investments in disease management.
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Yes
Low
No
Feed-conversion ratio
Less than 1.5:1
Low
Over 1.5:1
High
Direct cost/total cost
Less than 50%
Low
Over 50%
High
Indirect cost/total cost
Over 50%
High
Less than 50%
Low
Yes, specific pathogen-tolerant
Low
Few, specific pathogenfree/-resistant
High
Disinfection of ponds prior to stocking
No
Low
Yes
High
Water exchange during production
Yes
High
No
Low
Genetic programs
Control of disease vectors Production philosophy Movement of animals between countries within region
No
Low
Yes
High
Disease coping
Low
Disease avoidance
High
Restricted
High
Well regulated
Low
Producer nations and industries must take these smallholder farms into consideration when planning regional disease management programs with a view toward minimizing the risk of introducing diseases to existing systems. As part of the planning, it is key to ensure reasonable access to quality seed at reasonable prices in order to minimize the risk of illicit animal movements that threaten regional production.
Market Role In Disease Management
Disease outbreaks, particularly major events such as those caused by WSSV in both Asia and the Americas, may be expected to cause sympathetic responses in markets as demand overtakes supply, the latter being perceived to be short due to mortality caused by the disease. This was, in fact, seen in the market for white shrimp from 1999. Interestingly however, not only was this price response from the market short-lived, having dropped to pre-WSSV levels by the end of 2001, but prices continued to drop from that point forward. To date, prices have not recovered to pre-WSSV levels. The data used was from the main price monitor for the U.S. market, Urner Barry’s Comtell, and confined to three size classes for simplicity. However, these three classes (36-40, 41-50 and 51-60) make up a large proportion of U.S. imports of white shrimp, covering sizes from approximately 12 through 19
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g. The impacts of these price changes on producers is extremely important, as the overall average price dropped U.S. $1.74/ lb from an average of $4.66/lb for the period of January 1995 through July 2001 to $2.92/lb for August 2001 through April 2009. This was equivalent to a reduction of 37%. It is possible that markets exhibit controlling features outside the traditional price models typically considered drivers in the market. With the implementation of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement within Article 20 of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, the World Trade Organization recognized the role that animals destined for market represent to importing nations. It has been clearly demonstrated that frozen shrimp represent a significant risk for disease transmission both to industry and the wild. Ultimately, this may be one of the deciding factors as to which disease management system is chosen by growers.
behind the specific pathogen-free (SPF) concept, aggressive biosecurity and nuclear breeding centers. It is reasonable to assume that farms well removed from the ocean and operating under tight biosecurity with disease avoidance strategies will be less likely to observe new disease events than farms operating under disease-coping strategies. Of course, this assumes a number of provisos, perhaps most importantly that farmers do not cut corners and succumb to the financial temptations inherent in the marketplace as a result of the commoditization of shrimp and the lower returns caused by oversupply. High stocking densities and stressful environments would prove favorable for another epidemic. Reports of infectious myonecrosis (IMN) in Indonesia and the subsequent effects of the disease are an example of this scenario occurring in an intensive disease-avoidance environment. It remains to be seen to what point the model and its management are effective in limiting the spread of the disease in Indonesia and adjacent regions, although at least initially it seems to have been successfully limited. It is interesting to note that the
same disease in the Americas remains to date limited to Brazil, indicating that it is feasible to control the spread of disease through adequate biosecurity.
Perspectives
The industry has clearly moved from one of supply limitation to demand limitation, a shift that will begin to eliminate the less efficient producers from the industry make-up. The coming years will see dramatic shifts in production schemes and marketing methods as producers attempt to survive in the increasingly complicated commodity market. In addition to the market, there always remains the risk of another pandemic affecting the current stability of the worldwide supply of shrimp. Key to avoiding the cyclical rise and fall of production and prices is the move toward controlled reproduction of shrimp to perform within the structure chosen, whether that is disease coping or disease avoidance. What cannot be assumed to offer long-term sustainable production is the use of wild animals of uncertain disease status. Models for production in other animals, both terrestrial and aquatic, have clearly demonstrated that
economically viable long-term production requires the use of carefully selected broodstock whose offspring are reared under controlled conditions where disease is not a limitation. It behooves us to consider what the finding of IMN in Indonesia means to disease control efforts worldwide. As the saying goes, one must learn from one’s mistakes or forever be doomed to repeat them. The painful and costly lessons learned from the TSV and WSSV epidemics represent important inflexion points that have clearly been critical to developing the current state of the industry. Let us hope the Indonesia findings do not herald another round of learning experiences for the industry.
The industry has clearly moved from one of supply limitation to demand limitation, a shift that will begin to eliminate the less efficient producers from the industry make-up.
Future Disease Events
It has been demonstrated conclusively that wild stocks of shrimp and other crustaceans act as reservoirs for disease as well as sources of novel diseases, and it is reasonable to assume that we haven’t seen the last of novel shrimp diseases. That said, it is also probably fair to assume that as farms intensify and move away from the use of wild animals as seedstock, the risk of a new disease appearing in farms will be reduced. This is the reasoning global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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the bottom line
Increase Profits – Consider What Ifs
RESPONSIBILITY
Feed and other inputs should be viewed as investments, as well as costs.
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.
Summary:
Simple economic modeling can show that by considering aquaculture production inputs as investments rather than costs, opportunities for increased profitability can be quickly identified. Farm managers can then determine priorities based on the best profit opportunities that are both realistic and achievable. One advisable strategy would be to experiment with improved production methods in four or five trial ponds. A wise business consultant once advised: “Profits are much like breathing; if we don’t breathe, we are dead. If we don’t achieve enough profit for the risk we take, we are also dead. Profits are a risk premium we need as we commit today’s definite resources to tomorrow’s uncertain return.” In aquaculture, a frequently used strategy to optimize profits is to carefully manage input costs and constantly try to reduce them. This cost-driven approach to profits certainly has merits. However, the profit equation has two components, namely, revenue and costs. Without considering the revenue side of the equation, profit opportunities are lost. Since the cost of feed is usually the largest single cost item associated with the production of aquaculture products, it gets most of the attention when farm managers focus on cost reduction. Although the feed fed to the animals has a significant impact on growth rate,
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survival, water quality, processing yields, shelf life and nutritional quality of the final product – all important contributors to larger revenues – feed manufacturers remain under continuous pressure to reduce the unit cost of feed. If a business is truly profit-driven, then the mental paradigm needs to shift from thinking of feed as a cost factor to feed as an investment that can have a huge impact on crop value at harvest. Other input costs should be viewed as investments, as well, suggesting that the most important question to be asked is, “How can the return on investment be maximized as profit?”
What If?
If one seriously addresses the above question, then a number of possible additional questions arise, such as: • W hat if I invest in ways to improve oxygen levels? • W hat if I invest in better-quality, faster-growing seedstock? • W hat if I invest in improvements to my production system? • W hat if I invest in a higher-quality and more nutritionally complete feed? • W hat if I delay harvest by a week or two? • What if I invest in probiotics?
Economic Modeling
Assessing potential investments through economic modeling can help prioritize business decisions and result in greater profits. To accomplish the above, a project was undertaken by the Zeigler Bros. team
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Senior Technical Advisor Past President and Chairman Zeigler Bros., Inc. P. O. Box 95 Gardners, Pennsylvania 17324 USA tom.zeigler@zeiglerfeed.com
Chris Stock
Zeigler Bros., Inc.
for the purpose of developing economic models for aquaculture according to the following criteria: • simplicity • reported on one page • includes all input costs • i ncludes all relevant revenue from multiple sources. The outcome of this project appears in Table 1. Although this model can be used for almost any aquaculture production system, it is used here as a shrimp economic calculator evaluating the investment associated with two different feeds.
Understanding The Calculator
The calculator uses an Excel spreadsheet format, and the formulas can easily be determined by back calculating the data. It is divided into six sections and two production scenarios: example A and example B. In the example shown, the value of a superior feed is determined at near break-even, assuming certain improvements in shrimp production occur. Section 1 contains the input data. The line for overhead/pond/day includes all production costs except for feed and postlarvae. It is calculated by adding all of the other farm production costs, both fixed and variable, for a year and then dividing this number by the number of unit days, the total number of days the ponds are in production per year times the total area of
EASTERN FISH COMPAN Y
At Eastern Fish Company, we know that maintaining a healthy aquatic environment is the basis of a healthy food supply. We support a wide range of efforts aimed at keeping our oceans thriving while finding better ways to manage and harvest the bounty of our seas. Now more than ever, it is important to choose your suppliers and marketing partners based on their commitment not just to our industry, but to the environment as well. We partner with suppliers that implement and maintain BAP standards to assure industry stewardship. Where BAP standards do not apply, we work to source our product from only well managed or certified fisheries. Sustainability, certification and traceability are the cornerstones of our everyday process. Being part of a global community means displaying social responsibilities that make a difference.
Eastern Fish Company Glenpointe Centre East, Suite 30 300 Frank W. Burr Blvd., Teaneck, NJ 07666
1-800-526-9066 easternfish.com global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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Table 1. Shrimp economic calculator. Example A
Example B
1.0000 15 1.1 15.00 70.0% 1.50 $4.50 0.04 $2.15 $0.40 $30.0 100.0
1.0000 15 1.3 15.00 75.0% 1.30 $4.50 0.04 $2.15 $0.70 $30.0 100.0
– – 0.20 – 5.00 (0.20) – – – 0.30 –
0% 0% 18.2% 0% 7.1% -13.3% 0% 0% 0% 75.0% 0%
95.20 150,000.00 3,459.91 $7,438,81 $675.00 5,189.87 $2,075.95 $2,856.00
80.55 150,000.00 3,707.05 $7,970.15 $675.00 4,819.16 $3,373.41 $2,416.62
(14.65) – 247.14 $531.34 – (370.70) $1,297.47 $(439.38)
-15.4 0% 7.1% 7.1% 0% -7.1% 62.5% -18.2%
$0.195 $0.600 $0.825
$0.182 $0.910 $0.652
$(0.013) $0.310 $(0.174)
-6.7% 51.7% -21.0%
$1,831.86
$1,505.12
$(326.74)
-17.8%
1. Input Data Pond size, ha Stocking density, m2 Gain/week, g Average weight at harvest, g Survival % FCR Postlarvae cost, 1,000, U.S. $ Initial weight/animal, g Market value/lb, U.S. $ Feed cost/lb, U.S. $ Overhead/pond/day, U.S. $ Farm size, ha 2. Calculations Cycle, days Postlarvae stocked Harvest weight, lb Value at harvest, U.S. $ Cost of postlarvae, U.S. $ Feed fed, lb Cost of feed, U.S. $ Overhead cost, U.S. $ 3. Results By Unit Postlarvae cost/lb harvested, U.S. $ Feed cost/lb harvested, U.S. $ Overhead cost/lb harvested, U.S. $ 4. Results – Profit Income over fingerling, feed and overhead costs, U.S. $ 5. Other Factors/Adjustments Additional production, U.S. $
Difference
$362.28
6. Advantage Of B Over A For 1 ha For farm
$35.54 $3,554.10
ponds on the farm. Section 2 reports the important calculations for the model using the input data of section 1. Section 3 reports unit results by showing the postlarvae cost, feed cost and overhead cost per pound of product harvested. Section 4 reports the results as profits calculated by subtracting the total cost of postlarvae plus feed, plus overhead from the total income or revenue. Section 5 allows the opportunity to
consider other profit-related factors. In the example shown, the production time comparing B to A is reduced by 14.65 days. This has an economic benefit of U.S. $362.28, which is calculated as a reasonable 25% gross profit of the gross revenue generated in 14.65 days using the production scenario of example B. If the company is fully integrated, additional economic benefits may be achieved from the sale of additional postlarvae and feed, and/or
greater efficiency of the processing activity. Section 6 reports the advantage of example B over example A, both for a single production unit the total farm for one cycle. By copying the formulas of either example to additional columns to the right, a comparison of various production scenarios can be observed and quickly analyzed. This particular economic calculator can be used to quickly determine the break-even value for postlarvae costs or overhead costs. In addition, it can be quickly adapted to evaluate the economics of fish production.
Interpreting Results
Example A represents a typical production scenario. Example B represents improved production metrics in which the weekly gain is projected to improve by 18.2%, survival by 7.1% and feedconversion ratio by 13.3%. All of these improvements are considered realistic and achievable. Feed cost per pound for example A is U.S. $0.40. By gradually increasing the cost of feed in example B to $0.70 a pound, a near break-even cost is reached. At this point there is a small profit for Example B, although the cost of feed has been increased by 75%. Farm managers frequently evaluate the feed they use by measuring the feed cost per pound of gain and selecting the feed with the lowest value. Feed cost per pound of gain in the example increased by $0.31 or 51.7%. Clearly, this standard of measurement will result in inaccurate conclusions and reduced profitability. Using the same methodology, post-
larvae costs could increase from $4.50 to $14.50/1,000, or daily overhead costs could increase from $30.00 to $48.00 and still nearly achieve break-even in each case. If one assumes that the production results in Example B can be achieved with a feed costing $0.50 per pound, then the increased profits comparing B to A become $999/ha, $99,900/cycle or $299,700 for a farm operating three cycles per year. Does this represent a good business option to try?
Opportunity
Today, the economics of shrimp farming are very favorable if one is not faced with catastrophic environmental issues. One advisable strategy would be to experiment with improved production methods in four or five ponds. By selecting the higher-return opportunities and using only a portion of the available production area, new production strategies and techniques can be tested and evaluated at very low risk. Now is the time, while the shrimp economy is positive, to take steps to get ready for the next downturn, which will surely come at some point.
Bottom Line: Economic modeling opens the door for substantially increased profits. global aquaculture
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Community • Environment • Food Safety • Traceability
leading aquaculture organization.
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serve marine and coastal habitat, balance competing uses of the marine environment, create employment and business opportunities in coastal communities, and enable the production of safe and sustainable seafood.”
New Policies, Initiatives Could Advance U.S. Aquaculture Paul G. Olin, Ph.D. University of California Cooperative Extension, Sea Grant Extension Program 133 Aviation Boulevard, Suite 109 Santa Rosa, California 95403 USA polin@ucsd.edu
Pamela D. Tom
Director, Seafood Network Information Center University of California Food Science and Technology Department Davis, California, USA Photo courtesy of Dr. Charles Weirich. Thanks to new initiatives, U.S. producers of crops like clams and pompano should see improvements in the policies that direct their aquaculture activities.
Summary:
New government policies and initiatives will likely advance aquaculture in the United States. The Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration policies are intended to facilitate sustainable marine aquaculture, restore natural resources and enhance fisheries. Additional initiatives address shellfish production, aquaculture management in the Gulf of Mexico and technology transfer. Collectively, they will also educate the public about aquaculture, break down regulatory hurdles and advance the science of sustainable aquaculture. The United States Department of Commerce (DOC) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have recently released longawaited policies intended to facilitate the development of sustainable marine aquaculture in the United States, restore natural resources, and enhance commercial and recreational fisheries. Following on these policies, NOAA announced
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three new initiatives to support increased shellfish production, coordinated management of fisheries and aquaculture in the Gulf of Mexico and improved transfer of aquaculture technology. At the outset, NOAA Administrator Dr. Jane Lubchenco said, “We will develop a national policy that focuses on the protection of ocean resources and marine ecosystems, addresses the fisheries management issues posed by aquaculture and allows American aquaculture to proceed in a sustainable way.” Increased domestic aquaculture production will result in much-needed locally produced seafood, jobs in coastal communities and support for a range of seafoodrelated businesses. Equally important, aquaculture increases the opportunity for people to realize seafood’s health benefits, as recommended in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines issued by the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Agriculture, which suggest that Americans should eat seafood twice a week.
Aquaculture Policies Not New
The creation of aquaculture policies is nothing new. The U.S. Congress, through the Aquaculture Act of 1980 and its subsequent reauthorization, asserted that aquaculture is in the national interest and directed federal agencies to work together
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to develop U.S. aquaculture. To improve the regulatory climate and foster industry growth, national aquaculture policies were adopted by both NOAA and the Department of Commerce in 1998 and 1999, respectively. At that time, primary goals were set to increase production 10%/year, reduce the seafood trade deficit and increase production value from U.S. $1 billion to $5 billion by 2025.
Slow Growth
Unfortunately, the annual growth rate of the U.S. aquaculture industry has lagged behind this projection. In the 10 years since the policies were adopted, the average annual growth rate of domestic aquaculture was 1.9%. The seafood trade deficit has risen to U.S. $10 billion, while production value still hovers around $1 billion/year. There are a number of reasons for this relatively slow growth in aquaculture. They include a complicated and uncertain regulatory process that leads to difficulties in obtaining permits, competing uses for coastal and marine waters (especially real estate development), perceived environmental impacts and resulting public opposition, multiple layers of government oversight, lower-priced products from There are a number of reasons for this relatively slow growth in aquaculture. They include a complicated and uncertain regulatory process that leads to difficulties in obtaining permits, competing uses for coastal and marine waters (especially real estate development), perceived environmental impacts and resulting public opposition,
New Initiatives New policies should help the further establishment of new species like cobia. Photo courtesy of Dr. Daniel Benetti.
multiple layers of government oversight, lower-priced products from overseas and the economic risks associated with starting new business.
Moving Agenda Forward
Working closely with the National Sea Grant Program and many partners both within and outside government, the NOAA Aquaculture Office has taken significant steps to move forward an aquaculture agenda. Over the years, the agency has provided science information on environmental effects for use in permit decisions, grant support for innovative approaches to marine aquaculture and spatial planning that includes aquaculture as an ocean-dependent use. The office also worked with other federal agencies on a National Aquatic Animal Health Plan and an NOAAUSDA Alternative Feeds Initiative that evaluates potential replacements for fishmeal in aquaculture diets. Areas of research supported by grants include environmental impacts and monitoring, recirculating aquaculture systems, shellfish-rearing techniques, alternative feeds, new species research and offshore aquaculture.
New Policies
The NOAA aquaculture team has provided needed momentum to the program and contributed to the creation of the new aquaculture initiatives released by the DOC and NOAA in June. The DOC policy acknowledged the potential for U.S. aquaculture to “make major contributions to the local, regional and national economies by providing employment and diverse business opportunities from coastal communities to the agricultural heartland.” NOAA’s policy reflected its broad oceans mandate by reaffirming that “aquaculture is an important component of NOAA’s efforts to maintain healthy and productive marine and coastal ecosystems, protect special marine areas, rebuild overfished wild stocks, restore populations of endangered species, restore and con-
One of the initiatives announced with the release of the new aquaculture policies is a National Shellfish Initiative designed to increase shellfish aquaculture for commercial production and ecosystem restoration. This initiative is a collaboration among NOAA and shellfish industry associations, restoration NGOs, state and federal agencies, and scientists. It is focused on five areas: enhancing shellfish restoration and farming opportunities, looking at interactions between shellfish and the environment, engaging in marine spatial planning to support project siting, improving coordination to facilitate timely permitting and seeking innovative financing and value for ecosystem services. NOAA also announced that the agency would implement the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Plan for Aquaculture. When fully implemented, this initiative will enable the National Marine Fisheries Service to issue permits for the culture of certain finfish in federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico. The plan includes application and operational requirements that ensure aquaculture in the gulf will be compatible with ecosystem health and other uses of the marine environment. Permit applicants will still need requisite federal permits, such as those from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for a structure and from the Environmental Protection Agency for waste discharge. Most recently, Lubchenco announced the Aquaculture Technology Transfer Initiative, which focuses on public-private partnerships that will engage in regional pilot projects that show a credible potential to create “blue green” jobs, include environmental monitoring and rely on the best available science.
Outlook
Collectively, the aquaculuture policies and initiatives bring renewed federal attention to the effort to expand domestic aquaculture for food production, habitat restoration and support of commercial fisheries. Through broad collaboration among federal agencies and other stakeholders, increased aquaculture can serve many needs for the United States, including creating jobs and economic opportunities, as well as increasing the availability of safe and sustainable seafood. global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
The amount of oxygen used by aquatic animals varies with species, size, temperature, activity level and other factors.
Summary:
In aquatic animals, blood hemoglobin unloads oxygen to the tissue fluids. Coldwater species have higher dissolved-oxygen concentration requirements than warmwater species do. Although carbon dioxide is not highly toxic, high levels in the blood have many negative physiological consequences. As carbon dioxide increases, higher dissolved-oxygen tension is necessary to load hemoglobin with oxygen. Small fish use much more oxygen than large fish. Oxygen consumption roughly doubles with a 10° C increase in temperature. Aquatic organisms absorb molecular oxygen from water and use it to oxidize organic compounds and release energy for doing biological work. In the process called respiration, they also must expel carbon dioxide, the resulting waste. Fish blood contains the pigment hemoglobin, which combines with molecular oxygen and allows blood to absorb much more oxygen than will dissolve in the hemolymph (blood fluids). Shrimp and other crustaceans have the pigment hemocyanin, which differs from
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hemoglobin in containing copper rather than iron. The loading and unloading of hemoglobin and hemocyanin with oxygen are controlled by dissolved-oxygen tension in water and hemolymph.
Oxygen Tension
Oxygen tension refers to the pressure of dissolved oxygen in water. Water saturated with dissolved oxygen has an oxygen tension of about 160 mm Hg – the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. The concentration of oxygen at saturation varies with water temperature (Table 1), but the tension of oxygen-saturated water remains the same. For the purpose of loading hemoglobin with oxygen, there is no difference in water at 20° C and 9.07 mg/L dissolved oxygen and water at 30° C with 8.30 mg/L dissolved oxygen. Oxygen tension in water typically is higher than in the blood entering an aquatic animal’s gills from the venous system. Oxygen dissolves in the hemolymph and loads onto the hemoglobin. In the tissues of an aquatic animal, oxygen is used rapidly, and tissue fluids have a lower oxygen tension than oxygenated, arterial blood from the gills. Thus, hemoglobin unloads oxygen to the tissue fluids. The relationship between oxygen tension and the percentage saturation of hemoglobin is called the oxyhemoglobin
global aquaculture advocate
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Auburn University Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA boydce1@auburn.edu
dissociation curve (Figure 1). The shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is usually sigmoid for warmwater species and hyperbolic for coldwater species. As a result, warmwater species have a greater capacity than coldwater species to unload oxygen at the tissues. This is a major reason for the requirement of coldwater species for a higher dissolvedoxygen concentration than needed by warmwater species.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide released during respiration by tissue cells dissolves in tissue fluids and is transported by venous blood to the gills. Water usually has a lower carbon dioxide concentration than that in the blood in the gills, and carbon dioxide diffuses into the water. A high carbon dioxide concentration in water interferes with the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the blood to water. High carbon dioxide in the blood depresses blood pH and has many negative physiological consequences. High carbon dioxide levels also interfere with the loading of hemoglobin with oxygen. As carbon dioxide concentration increases, higher dissolved-oxygen tension is necessary to load hemoglobin with oxygen (Figure 2). Thus, a high carbon dioxide concentration at a time when dissolved-oxygen concentration is low is particularly undesirable.
100 80
Coldwater
Coldwater Fish Oxygen Unloaded at Tissue
Warmwater Fish Oxygen Unloaded at Tissue
Dissolved-Oxygen Requirements In Aquatic Animal Respiration
Hemoglobin Concentration (%)
sustainable aquaculture practices
Hemoglobin Concentration (%)
production
60 Warmwater
40 20
Oxygen Concentration at Gills
Oxygen Concentration at Tissues
0
Figure 1. Oxyhemoglobin saturation curves for warmwater and coldwater fish.
Oxygen Tension (mm Hg)
100
Medium CO2
Low CO2 80
High CO2
Figure 2. Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen.
60 40 20
of 350 mg/kg/hour in a 1-ha pond with 1 m average depth, each ton of fish would use an amount of dissolved oxygen equal to 0.84 mg/L in 24 hours. However, small fish use much more oxygen than large fish – 10-g channel catfish were reported to use 1,050 mg oxygen/kg fish/hour, while 500-g fish used only 480 mg oxygen/kg fish/hour. One hour after feeding, channel catfish consumed 680 mg oxygen/kg/hour, but after fasting overnight, the hourly rate dropped to 380 mg/kg. Tilapia forced to swim against a 60-cm/second current consumed oxygen twice as fast as those swimming against a 30-cm/second current. Oxygen consumption is also strongly dependent upon temperature – the rate roughly doubles with a 10° C increase in temperature within the temperature tolerance of the species. Although less data are available on oxygen consumption by crustaceans, it appears that shrimp consume oxygen at rates similar to those of fish.
Perspectives
0
Saturation
Oxygen Tension (mm Hg)
Carbon dioxide is not highly toxic to fish and other aquatic animals, but in experimental units, they avoided concentrations of 10 mg/L or greater. Most species tolerate up to 60 mg/L or more of carbon dioxide if there is plenty of dissolved oxygen. High carbon dioxide concentrations do, however, have a narcotic effect on fish.
Oxygen Use
The amount of oxygen used by aquatic animals varies with species, size, temperature, time since feeding, degree of physical activity and other factors. Average oxygen consumption rates for adult fish usually are between 200 and 500 mg oxygen/kg fish/hour. Assuming an oxygen consumption rate
Table 1. Solubility of oxygen in freshwater at different temperatures from moist air at 760 mm Hg pressure. Temperature (° C)
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
Temperature (° C)
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
14.60 14.20 13.81 13.44 13.09 12.76 12.44 12.13 11.83 11.55 11.28 11.02 10.77 10.52 10.29 10.07 9.86 9.65 9.45 9.26 9.08
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
8.90 8.73 8.56 8.40 8.24 8.09 7.95 7.81 7.67 7.54 7.41 7.29 7.17 7.05 6.93 6.82 6.72 6.61 6.51 6.41
In pond aquaculture, the main precaution to avoid low dissolved-oxygen concentrations is to not apply more nutrients and organic matter in fertilizer and feed than can be assimilated, but this depends upon the amount of aeration used. Normally, aeration should be provided at about 1 hp for each 400 to 500 kg of production, but dissolved-oxygen concentration should be monitored – especially between midnight and dawn – to confirm adequate aeration. Warmwater fish usually survive at dissolved-oxygen concentrations as low as 1.0 m/L, while coldwater fish normally survive at 2.5-3.5 mg/L dissolved oxygen. However, fish and other aquatic animals are stressed, susceptible to diseases and grow slowly at low dissolved-oxygen concentrations. As a general rule, dissolved-oxygen concentrations in culture systems should not be allowed to fall below 50% of saturation (about 80 mm Hg). In freshwater at sea level, 50% saturation is around 5 mg/L at 15° C and 4 mg/L at 26° C (Table 1). Carbon dioxide is removed from water by aeration, but in an emergency where fish are stressed by low dissolvedoxygen concentration, lime can be applied at 25-50 kg/ha to lower carbon dioxide concentration.
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November/December 2011
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Perspectives
Climate change presents a particular challenge to the sustainability of the prawn sector. Research in this area needs to be given particular attention, considering existing prawn-farming technology and the development of community-based adaption measures. Despite the likelihood of further climate-related impacts to the prawn sector, there are opportunities to reduce the potential vulnerability through promoting coping strategies and improving adaptability. Integrated coastal zone management and forestation in coastal areas, for example, could reduce potential economic losses.
Prawn Farming In Bangladesh Faces Climate Change Threats Nesar Ahmed, Ph.D. Professor Department of Fisheries Management Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh nesar_2000@yahoo.com
Climate-related impacts are reducing the number of wild prawn broodstock in southwest Bangladesh.
Summary:
The inadequate supply of postlarvae is a bottleneck for prawn production in Bangladesh. A shortage of wild broodstock to supply the hatcheries is an ongoing concern. In southwest Bangladesh, catches of wild prawn postlarvae have declined due to increased water temperature and salinity. Coastal villages that depend on prawn farming are prone to natural disasters related to climate change because of their locations and poor socioeconomic conditions. Bangladesh is one of the world’s most important countries for aquaculture and fisheries. A large segment of its population relies on fisheries and aquaculture for over 60% of the nation’s animal protein intake. However, these sectors are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. For example, the production of export-oriented freshwater prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, is a key industry in Bangladesh that is vulnerable to climate change. Since the 1980s, the coastal areas extensively used for prawn farming in southwest Bangladesh’s Bagerhat, Khulna and Satkhira districts have been impacted by floods, heavy rains, droughts, cyclones and tidal surges.
Production Impacts
In southwest Bangladesh, prawn culture remains largely
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dependent on wild postlarvae, as the area’s hatchery production is limited, and farmers consider the wild postlarvae of higher quality. The biology and ecology of prawns are strongly linked to the salinity of water. Prawns require brackish water in the initial stages of their life cycles, and therefore are found in water that is directly or indirectly connected to the sea. Prawn postlarvae use estuaries to find shelter and food. In southwest Bangladesh, a large number of poor coastal residents engage in fishing for prawn postlarvae near the Sundarbans. However, their catches have been declining due to increased water temperature and salinity as a result of climate change. Extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods and droughts, and rising sea levels could further change the aquatic ecosystem and increase the scarcity of wild postlarvae. The inadequate supply of prawn postlarvae is currently the main bottleneck for prawn production and further expansion in Bangladesh. Although a prawn hatchery sector has emerged in recent years, the shortage of wild broodstock to supply the hatcheries due to increased water temperature and salinity is an ongoing concern.
Environmental Impacts
During the next 50 years, temperatures in Bangladesh are predicted to increase by 1.1° C during the monsoon and 1.8° C during the dry season. Sea levels are predicted to rise by 50 cm. An increase in sea level of 100 cm would inundate 18% of the country, directly threatening 15 million people. In addition, the increased backwater and river flow could affect 80 million people. One likely adverse impact of climate change is the loss of prawn feeding, breeding and nursery grounds in the Sundarbans. Located along the mouth of the Bay of Bengal, the 10,000-km2 Sundarbans area is one of the world’s most unique delta regions. It contains the largest mangrove forest in the world. A 45-cm sea level rise would inundate 75% of the Sundarbans, and a 67-cm rise could inundate the entire ecosystem. If the Sundarbans are lost, the habitat for several valuable species, including prawns, would be lost. Several hundred hectares of prawn farms could be flooded as a result of sea level rise. High-intensity cyclonic storm surges induced by rising sea surface temperatures would also likely have compounding effects on salinity intrusion in the prawn-farming areas in Bangladesh. Increased salinity in inland groundwater has already been observed in recent years. Salinity ingress increases soil salinity
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The availability of postlarvae has been reduced in the coastal villages that depend heavily on prawn farming. Ongoing declines in the exports of prawns could have dramatic consequences for the economy of Bangladesh.
and reduces soil fertility. It could also lead to reduced rice and freshwater fish production, and limit biodiversity and wildlife.
Social Impacts
Prawn-farming communities in southwest Bangladesh are particularly prone to natural disasters related to climate change because of their geophysical positions and poor socioeconomic conditions. The coastal villages, where poverty is widespread and livelihood alternatives are limited, depend heavily on prawn farming. Approximately 1.2 million people are involved in prawn and shrimp production. Coastal fishing communities face a double exposure of reduced postlarvae stocks and increased risks of coastal flooding and storm surges. The entire coastal zone in Bangladesh is prone to violent storms. Tropical cyclones originate in the deep Indian Ocean and track through the Bay of Bengal. In November 2007, more than 8.7 million people in the coastal area of southwest Bangladesh were affected by category 4 hurricane Sidr. In May 2008, cyclone Nargis devastated coastal life in Bangladesh. In May 2009, cyclone Aila slammed into southwest Bangladesh. It is recognized that the frequency of cyclones in coastal Bangladesh has increased and affected prawn farming. Higher population density in coastal communities increases vulnerability to climate change because more people are exposed to risk, and opportunities for migration within a country are limited. Poor prawn farmers and associated groups are often socially, economically and politically marginalized, and have worse access to health, education and other social services. Effects on coastal resources also potentially reduce food security for the poor.
Economic Impacts
In Bangladesh, prawn farming is currently one of the most important sectors of the national economy. The prawn is a highly valued product for international markets, with almost all prawns exported to the United States and Europe. In the 2008-2009 fiscal year, Bangladesh exported 50,368 mt of prawns and shrimp valued at U.S. $404 million, of which around 30% was contributed by prawns. However, if prawn production decreased due to climate change, Bangladesh would lose a significant amount of foreign currency earnings. Moreover, reduced production would affect other prawn-related activities, including hatchery operations, prawn feed industries and prawn processing.
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(1988 to 1996) and Malaysia (2000 to present). After more than 10 generations of selection, the fish show fast growth, high survival rates, high fillet weights, good flesh quality, disease resistance and good adaptation to various farming systems. To date, the GIFT strain has been formally disseminated to 14 national government agencies, and it is being widely cultured in many Asian and Latin American countries. In the Philippines, GIFT and GIFT-derived strains account for about 75% of total tilapia production.
Broodstock Development Program
Recently, the WorldFish Center has been implementing a broodstock development program in collaboration with the National Aquaculture Development Authority (NAQDA) of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of Sri Lanka. One component of this project consisted of the introduction and further improvement of the performance of the GIFT strain in Sri Lanka. The breeding program involved the transfer of 50 GIFT families with 20 to 30 fish per family from the latest generation of selection in Malaysia to NAQDA’s Dambulla Breeding Center. A cohort breeding design, in combination with rotational mating of males, has been practiced since 2007. So far, the GIFT fish have undergone four generations of selection for increased harvest weight in Sri Lanka.
The introduction of the GIFT strain to Sri Lanka has had positive social and economic impacts on farmers and their communities.
Summary:
The wide distribution and ongoing improvement of GIFT tilapia in Sri Lanka is raising the living standards of poor people and contributing to gender equality through employment for women in rural areas. So far, the GIFT fish have undergone four generations of selection for increased harvest weight in Sri Lanka. Now preferred in varied culture systems across the country, GIFT fish grow faster and have higher survival than local tilapia stocks.
The WorldFish Center Jalan Batu Maung 11960 Batu Maung Penang, Malaysia n.nguyen@cgiar.org
Raul W. Ponzoni
The WorldFish Center
Jayantha Chandrasoma H. M. V. K. P. B. Herath Kamal Wathurawadu
National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka
The genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) strain of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, has been developed by the WorldFish Center (formerly known as the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management) with assistance from national research partners in the Philippines and Norway November/December 2011
Survival (%)
300 200
100
0 GIFT Local
60 40 20 0
GIFT Local
Figure 1. Growth and survival of GIFT strain and local tilapia in Sri Lanka.
A network of about 30 hatcheries disseminate, GIFT fingerlings to producers.
Dissemination To Producers
Because of the GIFT strain’s superior growth and survival rate, the authors designed a national breeding structure to multiply and disseminate the improved fish to end users in Sri Lanka. The classic hierarchical structure includes three tiers: national breeding centers, where the nucleus is kept and the genetic improvement program is implemented; a network of hatcheries that receive broodstock from the nucleus, multiply them and disseminate fingerlings to producers; and the production level of farmers growing out fish to market weights. Thus, the improved fish resulting from the breeding program are being multiplied and transferred to a network of hatcheries in the country. They in turn produce high-quality seed and distribute it to farmers and community-based organizations. In some instances, fry are also distributed directly from the nucleus to fish producers. Currently, about 30 hatcheries have received the improved fish. A total of 230 community-based organizations and farmers have received GIFT. The introduction of the GIFT strain to Sri Lanka has had a
large impact on farmers, increasing their income through the culture of faster-growing and better-surviving fish. The GIFT strain is now preferred to the local stocks in culture systems across the country. As a consequence, the project is expected to have positive social and economic impacts on the communities, improving the living standards of poor people and contributing to gender equality via the creation of employment for women in rural areas of Sri Lanka, where the percentage of women involved in the sector is 10%.
Perspectives
The GIFT project has contributed to the increases in inland fisheries and aquaculture in Sri Lanka. In 2000, only 10% of the country’s fish production came from inland fisheries and aquaculture. The proportion of production increased to 13.5% in 2010. The increase in freshwater fish production was from 36,700 to 51,390 mt during the same period. The development of aquaculture in Sri Lanka is particularly important, since fish account for up to 70% of the total consumption of animal protein in the country. There is high demand in rural and urban markets for freshwater fish to alleviate malnutrition and poverty, especially in the inland areas of Sri Lanka.
Performance
Nguyen Hong Nguyen
24
Weight (g)
GIFT Tilapia Raise Culture Efficiency In Sri Lanka
In 2009 and 2010, the authors conducted on-farm field tests to evaluate the performance of GIFT fish relative to the locally available tilapia under three prevailing culture environments: earthen ponds, seasonal tanks and minor perennial tanks. Across the environments, the GIFT strain had about 112% greater growth than the local strain (Figure 1). Survival from stocking to harvest was also significantly greater in GIFT tilapia – 85.4 versus 75.5% for the local fish. A similar result was found under cage culture in Vietnam, where the GIFT strain reportedly had 70% greater growth rate than farmers’ existing stock. One of the concerns often expressed about improved strains such as GIFT is that they may perform well in favorable environments but not in harsher ones. The environments the authors have studied ranged from relatively good (station and farm ponds) to intermediate (seasonal tanks) and rather harsh (perennial reservoirs). GIFT performed well above the local strains in all cases.
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November/December 2011
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Public-Private Partnerships Boost Monosex Tilapia Fry Production Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D. Coordinator Aqua-Internship Program Asian Institute of Technology P. O. Box 4 Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 Thailand coordinator@aar-asialink.info
Mark Woollard
Aqua-Internship Program Asian Institute of Technology
Broodstock are kept in hapas at a tilapia hatchery in Bangladesh whose managers were trained at the Asian Institute of Technology in 2010.
Summary:
For tilapia production to reach its full potential, high-quality, uniformly sized fry must be readily available to farmers. With a hatchery system designed at the Asian Institute of Technology that involves collection of eggs and larvae, and hormonal sex reversal, it is possible to produce billions of allmale fry to satisfy demand and accelerate aquaculture development. Public-private partnerships have been the most successful strategy for disseminating the monosex technology. Annual global tilapia production has now surpassed 3 mmt and will continue to grow exponentially if high-quality fry are readily available. However, how to supply such a huge quantity of fry has been a question for countries with the potential to expand tilapia farming for domestic consumption and export markets. Thailand has already achieved sufficient seed production, and Bangladesh is now approaching it. Countries such as the Philippines and Vietnam are also struggling with the issue. Considering the population growth and rapid increases in
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health-conscious middle-class families, seafood demand in most countries is going to be much higher than at present. Strategic planning is needed to fulfill the demand for fish. Natural breeding without the need for any hormone injection was considered the main advantage of tilapia over other species, but as farming became more commercial, demand for large and uniform fish increased. This created high demand for good-quality fry. It was almost impossible for hatcheries to supply the large quantity of fry using traditional methods of collection from ponds due to the low number of eggs per spawn and asynchronous spawning that made the production of millions of fry unfeasible. The production of a sufficiently large quantity of quality seed remained a big problem in Thailand in the early 1980s.
Monosex Fry
The solution was to produce all-male fry, since male tilapia grow faster than females. A large number of broodfish were maintained in hapas, and their eggs were incubated artificially in a clean and controlled system. After hatching, the fish received high-quality feed containing methyltestosterone as early as possible to ensure over 99% males in the fry population.
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Challenges included the development of efficient methods and selection of containers for the artificial incubation of eggs that would ensure consistently high hatching rates and survival of eggs and yolk-sac larvae to swim-up fry. Soft drink bottles and white water bottles were tried, but locally made semitransparent fiberglass jars were found to function better. The larger incubators can accommodate 200,000 to 300,000 eggs. Recently, simple plastic jars or jugs have also been used, as they are cheap, easily available and more transparent, so hatchery operators can see the egg movement easily. They are also lighter and easier to handle than the fiberglass jars. As tilapia eggs are heavy and remained at the bottom of the incubators, they needed to be moved gently to avoid injury and get adequate oxygen. Down-welling water flowed into the jars to keep the eggs suspended in the water. Attempts were also made to maintain high survival and increase the percentage of males in the fry populations. These efforts included determining the optimum dose of methyltestosterone in feed, as well as the frequency and length of feeding period. As demand for fry is seasonal, a method of advanced nursing has been developed that can be applied when fry must be kept longer periods. Research is still ongoing to further maximize productivity through improvements in the survival of fry, development of cold and salinity tolerance, solutions to summer heat stress that drastically reduces egg production, treatments for emerging diseases and cost reductions.
A newly established commercial tilapia hatchery in Bangladesh uses modern technology to produce hundreds of thousands of fry annually.
Technology Dissemination
A remaining challenge is how to disseminate the monosex fry technology as widely as possible. The Asian Institute of Technology, where the procedures were developed, applies three major distribution strategies. Public-Private Partnerships A number of attempts have been made to disseminate the technology through public and government organizations with the aim of supplying large numbers of high-quality monosex tilapia fry. However, the results were not up to expectations, probably due to the organi-
zations’ failure to fully grasp the potential of tilapia farming. At the same time, a lack of incentives in the traditional extension systems did not encourage individuals and the organizations to prepare for a potential massive expansion. A breakthrough occurred when a private company picked up the technology through a contractual arrangement and demonstrated that supplying up to 240 million fry yearly was possible. Based on this level of production, the establishment of only about five large-scale hatcheries could supply a billion fry per year. Although the monosex technology was thought to be cumbersome, the private sector adopted it quickly due to its profitability and increasing demand. More importantly, after the successes in the private sector, the public sector has refocused on this technology. Short-Term Training Successful research and development attract the interest of people in shortterm, need-based skill development training. In a poplar course titled “Techniques for Mass Fry Production and Grow-out,” the Asian Institute of Technology trained about 1,000 personnel from 30 countries over a decade. Over 200 participants were from Bangladesh, while nearly 200 came from Vietnam, and 100 were from Cambodia. Most participants were attracted to the hands-on work experience in a tilapia hatchery. Many officials of the governments and research institutions who received the training established tilapia hatcheries in their countries, including Bangladesh, Thailand and Vietnam.
Although the scale of operation remained small, the training helped in promoting tilapia – not only in Asia but also in Africa and the Americas. Recently, increasing numbers of private companies have sent their staff for training when they plan to establish tilapia hatcheries. Because of the proven technology, private companies are confident they can boost production and get the investment back within two years. Several from Bangladesh also asked for technical assistance and quality-monitoring services. Aqua-Internship Program Recently, the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) established an AquaInternship Program that targets university students and recent graduates. Interestingly, tilapia hatcheries have been one of the program’s more attractive placements. AIT and its partners in Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam and other countries offer internship programs to their students as well as students from abroad to provide on-the-job work experience. Students enrolled in their universities’ biology, marine science or related disciplines typically join the internship program. They learn the techniques by doing the work as regular hatchery staff for two to six months. These hatcheries also provide opportunities for students to carry out research afterwards, and may even employ them in some cases. It is hoped that this flexible learning and technology transfer program that provides specific skills will help solve the shortage of skilled human resources for the tilapia hatchery business and ultimately boost tilapia farming around the globe.
global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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homozygotes for the short allele, while in freshwater, growth rate did not differ significantly among the three genotypes.
Improving Salinity Tolerance In Tilapia
Genetics, Environment
Avner Cnaani, Ph.D.
Greater salinity tolerance in tilapia could allow the fish to be raised in new regions of the world.
Salt tolerance in tilapia can be improved by optimizing acclimation protocols, adding salt to the diet or hybridization between fast-growing and salt-tolerant species. Salt tolerance can also be improved by selective breeding. Pioneering projects have suggested that substantial additive genetic variance exists for growth rate and survival in saline environments. The application of modern molecular biology may enable the identification of genes that encode specific proteins related to salt tolerance. With the increasing scarcity of freshwater available for aquaculture in general, and for tilapia culture in arid regions like Israel in particular, the development of fish that tolerate high salinity would increase global tilapia output by expanding the range of production in many regions of the world. The authors recently reviewed the subject, aiming to show what can be learned from past experiences in culture management practices and nutrition, as well as physiology and genetics.
Salt Tolerance
The control of salt and water balance within a narrow limit is critical to life in all multicellular organisms, including teleost fish. Salt tolerance is a term that describes the overall fitness or productivity of fish in a saline environment. It is a combination of different quantitative traits, such as metabolism, growth, osmoregulation, immunocompetence and fecundity. Existing interspecific variations in salinity tolerance can be used to select salt-tolerant species and develop salt-tolerant hybrids.
Chloride Cells
Chloride cells, also known as mitochondrion-rich cells, in the gill epithelium are important osmoregulatory sites in all fish species. Their large surface area at both sides, the apical and basolateral, are locations for ion-transporting proteins such as
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Ariel Velan, M.S. Gideon Hulata, Ph.D.
Institute of Animal Science
sodium-potassium ATPase and sodiumpotassium chloride co-transporter. Studies, mostly in Oreochromis mossambicus, on changes in chloride cells’ characteristics and functions in response to salinity challenges revealed a significant increase in the abundance of chloride cells and ion transporter activity in the gills. Differences in ion transporter type and membrane location on the chloride cells were also found between freshwater- and saltwater-challenged fish.
Hormones, Osmoregulation
Hormones of the neuroendocrine system are essential players in the control of osmoregulatory mechanisms, and extensive studies on endocrine pathways involved in osmoregulation clarified a significant role of prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (G.H.) in osmoregulation. Growth and development are directed by an integration of environmental, physiological and genetic factors. The high energetic cost of osmoregulation, usually estimated at 25 to 50% of metabolic output, means there is a link between osmoregulatory and growth capacities. This might be related to the observation that growth and osmoregulation are governed by many of the same hormones, notably PRL and G.H. It has been demonstrated that genetic variation in the tilapia PRL gene is associated with differential gene expression and growth rate in saline water.
Genetic variance for growth rate and survival in saline environments can be exploited through selective-breeding programs.
Approaches To Salt Tolerance
Salt tolerance in tilapia can be improved by various approaches, such as optimizing acclimation protocols and adding salt to the diet. Exploiting existing variations within and among species, salt-tolerant strains can be produced through hybridization between fast-growing but less salt-tolerant species, such as Nile tilapia, and salt-tolerant ones, such as Mozambique tilapia. Salt tolerance can also be improved by selective breeding. The results from a few pioneer projects suggested that substantial additive genetic variance exists for growth rate and survival in saline environments that can be exploited through selectivebreeding programs. Finally, the application of genomic approaches and modern molecular biology techniques may enable the identification of genes that encode specific proteins active in salt-tolerant species that are lacking or less active in less-tolerant species, or specific proteins that are induced under salt stress.
Prolactin 1 Gene
One such gene is prolactin 1. It has a central role in the adaptation of marine species to freshwater by reducing sodiumpotassium ATPase activity and consequently increasing the osmotic level of the plasma. Microsatellite polymorphism in the tilapia prolactin 1 promoter was shown to be associated with differences in prolactin 1 gene expression and growth response in salt-challenged fish. Fish homozygous for the long allele grew slower at 16 ppt, and their weight was only half those of the heterozygotes and
Genomics Tools
Functional genomics – the field of molecular biology that attempts to answer questions about the function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts and protein products – and proteomic approaches that study the structures and functions of proteins represent powerful tools for gaining insight into the molecular bases of environmental adaptation. Gene transcripts for ion transporters, enzymes, hormones and components of cellular stress signaling were characterized in the brains, gills, guts and kidneys of Mozambique tilapia, O. mossambicus, and black-chinned tilapia, Sarotherodon melanotheron. Most genes showed an immediate response with peak levels observed two to eight hours after seawater transfer. Pathway analysis of the newly identified genes revealed that more than half of the immediate hyperosmotic stress genes interacted closely within a cellular stress response signaling network.
global aquaculture advocate
9 8 7
Weight (g)
Summary:
Institute of Animal Science Agricultural Research Organization Volcani Center P. O. Box 6 Bet Dagan 50250, Israel avnerc@volcani.agri.gov.il
a
Grown in Saltwater ab
Grown in Freshwater ab
6
b
5 4 3 2 1 0
247/253
247/247
247/263
253/263
Genotype Figure 1. Weight of four genotypes of offspring in one family, grown in saltwater and freshwater. Groups sharing the same letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05). From Velan et al., under review.
The authors recently re-examined this association in nine F2 families of O. mossambicus x O. niloticus hybrids. Both parental fish were heterozygous for different alleles (CA33 and CA38 in O. mossambicus, CA30 and CA35 in O. niloticus, resulting with polymerase chain reaction products of 253, 263, 247 and 257 bp, respectively). The authors confirmed this association in three out of nine F2 families of O. mossambicus x O. niloticus hybrids in saline water. The six non-segregating families were from a different spawning season. The same pattern of improved growth for genotypes with shorter alleles originating from the O. niloticus grandparental fish was demonstrated, although O. mossambicus is considered a more salt-tolerant species. In two of the three families, full-sibs were also grown in freshwater, where no correlation between the genetic polymorphism and growth was found. In these two families, fish carrying the allelic combination 247/253 grew better in saline water and worst in freshwater (Figure 1). The effects accounted for only 13 to 15% of the phenotypic variance for growth rate (P < 0.05). The authors concluded that this variation is probably not a major contributor to the total genetic variation in salinity tolerance, and there may also be a large environmental influence underlying the differential growth in saline water. Nevertheless, no association was evident between the polymorphism in the prolactin 1 promoter and the expression of the gene.
Perspectives
Several genes that are differentially expressed in tilapia in saltwater and freshwater – beta haemoglobin, ATPase Ca2þ+ -transporting plasma membrane ATPase, pro-opiomelanocortin (all upregulated in saltwater) and beta-actin (downregulated) – were identified as candidate genes associated with salt tolerance. Transferrin, an iron-binding glycoprotein known to have an important role in the immune system, also showed an 85% upregulation in tilapia kept in saltwater compared to freshwater, suggesting it may be involved in saltwater tolerance or that closely linked genes may be directly involved in saltwater tolerance. In conclusion, studies on the molecular basis of osmoregulatory properties of the gills, kidney, gut and brain have revealed a wealth of genomic knowledge that can lead to genetic studies of intra- and interspecific variation for salinity tolerance. Once relevant genes are identified, genetic polymorphisms can be sought in cultured and natural populations. The emerging knowledge of quantitative trait loci associated with, or genes directly involved in saltwater tolerance may facilitate marker-assisted or gene-assisted selection for this trait in tilapia in the future. This will become even more efficient, now that the first draft of the tilapia genome has been released. Two routes hold the keys for improving salinity tolerance. First, exploring and revealing biochemical pathways and gene networks involved in osmoregulation can realize better understanding of both the salt tolerance phenotype and the genotypic background. Screening domesticated and natural populations, searching for genetic variations in the biochemical pathways that underlie the observed phenotypic differences, is another route. Knowledge so gained can be exploited in the selective breeding of tilapia stocks that perform well in saline waters.
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November/December 2011
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production
Tail Weight, Yield Traits Considered For Shrimp-Breeding Program Dr. Gabriel CamposMontes Departamento El Hombre y su Ambiente Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana – Unidad Xochimilco Calzada del Hueso 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, Delegación Coyoacán, C. P. 04960 México, D. F. gabocamo@gmail.com
Dr. Hugo H. Montaldo
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Ciudad Universitaria, México
Dr. Alfonso Martínez Ortega
Maricultura del Pacífico S.A. de C.V. Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México
Dr. Héctor Castillo-Juárez
Departamento Ciencias Agropecuarias Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana – Unidad Xochimilco The authors’ study evaluated the potential advantage of incorporating yield values in breeding programs at Mexico’s largest shrimp hatchery.
aim of increasing farmers’ profitability.
Summary:
To evaluate the value of incorporating tail weight and yield in shrimp-breeding programs, the authors carried out a study to estimate heritabilities and genetic correlations for the traits. Results based on yield records for 150 families indicated it is not necessary to include tail weight as a trait or to replace body weight with it because measuring either trait led to a similar result. Measuring tail weight would also add unnecessary costs. Shrimp market prices are based on body weight, although one of the main commercialization forms is based on shrimp tail weight, such that the tail is the main component of the processed shrimp. Hence, it is important to evaluate the feasibility of incorporating the tail weight and yield (proportion of the total body weight represented by the tail weight) in breeding programs with the
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Selection Criteria
Breeding programs for Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, have been focused on improving growth traits, survival and resistance to specific diseases. That is why selection criteria are usually defined to obtain a high commercial value biomass – producing a large number of shrimp with high individual body weights. Tail weight, yield and their association with body weight are usually not considered. When considering a selection criterion for a breeding program, it is important to first answer these questions: Can the criterion be measured in the selection candidate or its relatives? Is it heritable and related to the breeding objective? Does the trait show genetic variation? Is it profitable to measure it? With the aim of answering these questions in relation to the possible inclusion of yield tail weight in the breeding program of Maricultura del Pacifico, the largest penaeid shrimp hatchery in Mexico, the authors carried out a study designed to
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estimate heritabilities for body weight, tail weight and yield at 130 days of age, as well as their genetic correlations.
Study Setup
To estimate genetic parameters, 8,208 body weight, tail weight and yield records from 2010 for 150 families were otained from the Maricultura del Pacífico hatchery breeding program. The analysis considered a nine-generation pedigree file for 2002 to 2010. Additionally, the body weight and yield relative economic values were obtained from a profit equation using Mexican shrimp market prices. To evaluate the potential advantage of incorporating yield in the economic response for this population, the economic response was compared with a selection index based on these economic values that involved body weight and yield, with another that involved body weight only.
Results
The means and standard deviations were 15.4 ± 2.6 g for body weight, 9.6 ± 1.6 g for tail weight and 61.9 ± 1.8% for yield. The genetic correlation between body weight and tail weight was essentially 1, which implied that in practical terms, they are the same trait. Hence,
The genetic correlation between body weight and tail weight was essentially 1, which implied that in practical terms, they are the same trait. the decision about which trait to include in the breeding program depends on the cost of measuring the traits. In this case, obtaining the tail weight implies added labor, increased costs and, in some breeding schemes, the loss of evaluated animals as potential breeding candidates. Yield has a smaller genetic variation than body weight. Moreover, the genetic correlations between yield and body weight (0.30), and between yield and tail weight (0.48) were not statistically significant. When comparing the economic response per generation for family selection using an index that considered body weight and yield with relative weights of 35 g and 8.5 Mexican pesos, respectively, with that obtained with an index that considered only the body weight, the response for the index with both traits was 17.2 Mexican pesos, compared to 17.0 Mexican pesos for an index that considered only body weight. When selecting for the two traits, the responses for body weight and yield were similar in both cases: 0.49 g and 0.01%, respectively.
Perspectives
The authors concluded that it is not necessary to include tail weight as an additional trait or to replace body weight with it in Pacific white shrimp-breeding programs because measuring either of the two traits led to a similar result. Although including yield in addition to body weight in selection indices appears to increase the economic response to selection, the expected economic response if yield is ignored is 99% of that obtained using both traits. This is due mainly to the smaller genetic variation of yield, but also to its lower economic value when compared to that of body weight.
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It is not neccesary to include tail weight as an additional trait or to replace body weight with it in Pacific white shrimpbreeding programs. global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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Table 1. Fatty acid profile of poultry by-product meal.
Fat Components, Energy in Poultry By-Product Meal Provide Valuable Nutrients To Shrimp Sergio F. Nates, Ph.D. The lipid extracted from the poultry byproduct meal (lower right) reflects about 15% of the weight of the “raw” meal.
Fats and Proteins Research Foundation, Inc. 801 North Fairfax Street, Suite 205 Alexandria, Virginia 22314 USA snates@nationalrenderers.com
A. Victor Suresh, Ph.D.
Integrated Aquaculture International Hastings, Nebraska, USA
Fatty Acid
Fatty Acids (%)
16:0 (Palmitic) 16:1n-7 (Palmitoleic) 18:0 (Stearic) 18:1n-9 (Oleic) 18:2n-6 (Linoleic) 18:3n-3 (Linolenic)
23.34 7.44 5.73 40.97 19.31 0.95
lipids. Among the phospholipids, phosphatidyl choline (40.8%) was the most dominant, followed by sphingomyelin (11.4%), lysophosphatidyl choline (8.8%), phosphatidyl ethanolamine (7.6%) and phosphatidyl inositol (6.9%). The cholesterol content of PBM was estimated at 0.21% (1.7% of the lipids). The fatty acid profile of PBM is shown in Table 1.
Summary:
Poultry by-product meal can replace much of the fishmeal in shrimp diets. To better understand the nutritive value of the fat in PBM, the authors analyzed the fat components and conducted a feeding trial using regular and defatted PBM. There was no significant difference in weight gain, feed-conversion ratio or survival among shrimp fed the different diets. Supercritical fluid extraction removed most of the neutral lipids from poultry by-product meal, but retained most of the phospholipids in the meal. Rapid growth of aquaculture worldwide has become increasingly dependent upon the use of external feed inputs, and in particular upon the use of compound aquafeeds. Pressures to reduce fishmeal consumption for sustainability and economic reasons require intensive research efforts to find candidates to replace fishmeal. Formulating low-fishmeal shrimp feeds requires the use of combinations of several ingredients, since most feedstuffs have significant nutrient and functional limitations and cannot be used individually at high levels in the diets of farmed shrimp.
Poultry By-Product Meal
Poultry by-product meal (PBM), an
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ingredient with protein and essential amino acid profiles more favorable than those of plant protein ingredients, can replace about two-thirds of the fishmeal in shrimp diets without negatively affecting performance. Why further increases in the inclusion of PBM affects performance is a key area of current research. One of the plausible reasons is the high level of fat in PBM. Feed intake could be affected due to PBM’s excessive energy:protein ratio. Further, the fat has a high n-6:n-3 fatty acids ratio when compared to fishmeal, and consequent alteration of the fatty acids ratio in feed may have a detrimental effect on shrimp performance. On the other hand, the fat in PBM is also a source of valuable nutrients, particularly phospholipids and cholesterol, for shrimp. To better understand the nutritive value of the fat in PBM, the authors quantified various components of the fat, defatted PBM using super-critical fluid extraction, designed experimental feeds with various combinations of regular and defatted PBM, and conducted shrimpfeeding trials.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Extraction with supercritical fluid (SCF) has been found selective in the separation of desired compounds without leaving toxic residues in extracts and without the risk of thermal degradation of the processed product. PBM was supplied to the extraction column, which was subse-
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Fatty Acid Profile
Analyses of the full-fat PBM, defatted PBM and extracted fractions for proximate composition, fatty acids, phospholipids and cholesterol were conducted to understand the levels of the fat components in the experimental ingredients. The data confirmed that supercritical fluid extraction effectively extracted cholesterol and neutral lipids into the liquid portion, but retained most of the phospholipids in the meal portion. The extraction efficiencies were estimated to be 9.0, 78.3 and 59.0% for phospholipids, cholesterol and total lipids, respectively. In addition, 12.5% of the lipids in PBM are composed of phospho-
2.5
Saturated Fatty Acids
n-3 Fatty Acids
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
n-6 Fatty Acids
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Feed 1
Feed 2
Feed 3
Four diets with 0, 12, 24 or 36% inclusion levels of defatted PBM replacfor the shrimp. Carcass analysis revealed ing the full-fat PBM and a reference diet that shrimp fed PBM or fat-extracted with fishmeal were designed. The diets PBM had about 25% higher levels of were formulated to contain 42% crude saturated fatty acids and 26% lower levels protein and decreasing crude fat and of n-3 fatty acids when compared to digestible energy. Analysis of the diets is shrimp fed the reference diet (Figure 1). presented in Table 2. The diets were fed to shrimp of 4.1 Perspectives g average initial weight for seven weeks. Supercritical carbon dioxide extracThe shrimp were stocked at 20/m2 in cirtion is a novel method of extracting cular 1,800-L microcosm tanks that are fat from feed ingredients. It selectively part of the Shrimp Nutrition Research removes neutral fat and cholesterol from Center of the Department of Fisheries in the ingredient, but retains phospholipids. Brunei Darussalam. The performance of Residual fat, various fat components the shrimp is summarized in Table 3. and dietary energy in PBM are valuable One-way variance analysis showed as nutrients to shrimp. Evaluations of there was no significant difference in PBM in diets should consider not only weight gain, feed-conversion ratio or the residual fat and energy, but also chosurvival among shrimp fed the different lesterol and phospholipids. diets. However, regression analysis Dietary inclusion of PBM signifishowed a decrease in weight gain as PBM cantly alters the fatty acid composition of level was replaced by fat-extracted PBM shrimp. The changes are most dramatic in the diets. in the case of monounsaturated fatty The data indicated that the residual acids, relatively moderate for saturated fat, various fat components and dietary fatty acids and n-3 fatty acids, and not energy in PBM were valuable as nutrients noticeable in the case of n-6 fatty acids. Table 2. Proximate analysis of experimental diets. Nutrient (% as fed) Moisture Crude protein Crude fat Crude fiber Ash
Feed 1
Feed 2
Feed 3
Feed 4
Reference Feed
8.05 42.68 10.54 0.87 8.18
7.72 42.26 10.27 1.01 8.48
8.33 40.93 7.47 0.96 8.20
8.18 44.03 6.20 1.03 8.59
8.32 42.74 8.06 0.84 7.76
Table 3. Performance of black tiger shrimp fed the different diets. Parameter Initial body weight (g) Final body weight (g) Weight gain (g/7 weeks) Feed-conversion ratio Survival (%)
Feed 4
Reference
Figure 1. Carcass fatty acid composition of black tiger shrimp fed diets containing different levels of defatted PBM.
Experimental Diets quently connected to the laboratory-scale extraction system. The system was flushed with the supercritical fluid to remove air, and the heating mantles were activated to bring the column to process temperature. An initial starting pressure was selected based upon experience and biomass architecture information. SCF in gas form was passed through the vessel at the selected pressure and temperature conditions for a period of time. The high-pressure stream of gas plus extracted material was then passed through a pressure-reduction valve into a filter flask, where the extractables precipitated. The atmospheric gas exited the flask and flew through a meter for integration of total volume. After allowing a desired amount of gas to flow through the extraction vessel, the flask was removed. The procedure was repeated to collect multiple extracts from the same initial charge until the extractable material was depleted. Finally, the residual defatted PBM remaining in the vessel was collected.
Fatty Acid Composition (% dry matter)
production
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Feed 1
Feed 2
Feed 3
Feed 4
Reference Feed
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4.06 12.12 8.06 2.30 94.44
4.07 12.05 7.98 2.41 89.58
4.00 11.82 7.82 2.25 95.14
3.96 13.25 9.29 1.97 94.44
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November/December 2011
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production
Table 1. Aquaculture species’ responses to taurine.
Taurine: Critical Supplement For Marine Fish Feed M. Rhodes W. Rossi, Jr. T. Hanson, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Auburn University, Alabama, USA
D. Allen Davis, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures 315 Swingle Hall Auburn University Alabama 36849-5419 USA davisda@auburn.edu
A feeding trial conducted with Florida pompano at Auburn University supported others’ findings that taurine may be an essential nutrient for some fish species.
China’s total taurine output reached around 3,000 mt, 90% of which was exported. Natural taurine can be extracted from ox bile, the large muscles of abalones, oysters and octopuses. According to manufacturers, taurine products are crystalline powders that are more than 98.5% pure to conform to standards of the United States, Japan and Europe. Specifications for pharmaceutical grade, food grade and feed grade taurine are all based on the 98.5% purity.
Regulation Summary:
As marine ingredient levels are reduced in aquafeed, supplementation with low levels of taurine may be required to optimize production. Taurine may not only improve growth and performance, but also is required to reduce nutritional diseases such as green liver disease and low hematocrit levels in some fish. Taurine is authorized for fish feed in all species in the European Union and China, but not the United States. Taurine, 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid that has a variety of functions as a constituent of bile and in osmoregulation, cell membrane stabilization, antioxidation and early development of visual, muscular and neural systems. Taurine is not an amino acid, since it lacks a carboxyl group and has not been found within any known protein structure, but is often classified as an amino acid. Taurine exists naturally in animals, including oysters, mussels and fish, but is not found in most plants. Consequently, supplementation of taurine in diets for select species of fish containing high levels of alternative proteins may be necessary. As a chemical reagent for food additives, taurine is added to cat food, chicken feed, energy drinks, infant formula, dietary supplements, cosmetics, inert ingredients in pesticides and pharmaceuticals.
Production
Approximately 5,000 to 6,000 mt of synthetic and natural taurine were produced in 1993, with 50% for pet food manufacturing and 50% used in pharmaceutical applications. In 2008,
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There is little regulation of taurine by governmental agencies. Taurine is sold as a nutritional supplement and included in a number of food and drink products, but is not categorized as “generally recognized as safe” by U.S. codes. It is, however, permitted as an additive in the feed and drinking water of some animals. Taurine can be used as a nutritional supplement in the feed of growing chickens as long as the total taurine content does not exceed 0.054%.
Dietary Relevance
Taurine has been shown to be an essential dietary requirement for cats. Another large use of taurine is in infant formulas. It is included on the CODEX advisory list of amino acids and other nutrients for use in foods and special formulas intended for infants and young children: Infant formula shall contain 60-70 kcal taurine/100 ml. A large amount of taurine is used as a supplement in energy drinks, which contain an average of 1,000 mg taurine per serving.
Taurine In Aquaculture
There is also growing interest in using taurine in aquaculture diets. In the European Union and China, taurine is authorized for fish feed in all species. However, in the United States, current regulations would most likely need modification, as they do not list fish. There is increasing interest in the replacement of fishmeal and other marine ingredients in aquafeeds with alternative proteins. Plant proteins such as soybean meal have received considerable attention, but they contain low or undetectable levels of taurine. In fact, many terrestrial animal meals do not contain adequate levels of taurine, and as a result of processing methods,
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Species
Size Range (g)
Dietary Taurine (g/100 g)
Response Criteria
Cobia
9.8-150.0
0.40-0.60
Growth, survival
Common dentex
40.0-100.0
0.30-0.40
Growth
Florida pompano
5.0-80.0
0.50-0.75
Growth, survival
Japanese flounder
0.9-15.0 0.2-15.0
1.40 1.60
Growth Growth, feeding behavior
Rainbow trout
18.4-220.0
0.85-1.45
Growth
Red drum
2.5-200.0
1.50-3.00*
Growth
Red sea bream
153.0-560.0 2.5-20.0 580.0-1,049.0
0.26-0.50 0.42-1.60 0.60-2.82
Growth, green liver Growth Growth, green liver
Seabass
0.8-3.0
0.45-5.35
Growth, diet selectivity
Sole
Larvae
0.90
Growth, metamorphosis success
Tilapia
Larvae
0.80*
Growth
Yellowtail
0.5-11.0 ~ 6,100.0 250.0-1,000.0
1.30-2.30 1.20 3.40-7.20
Growth Reproductive performance Growth, survival, green liver, hematocrit
* Supplementation levels.
taurine content varies considerably. Consequently, the use of such alternative protein sources in aquatic feeds may require supplementation with taurine. In a feeding trial conducted at Auburn University with Florida pompano, Trachinotus carolinus, the supplementation of taurine in diets containing plant proteins in combination with about 14% meat and bone meal with blood or 14% poultry by-product meal resulted in enhanced pompano growth and survival. The response was higher in the former diet, as it contained a lower basal level of taurine. This is only one example of many studies showing that taurine may be an essential nutrient for some fish species.
Perspectives
Marine protein sources are rich sources of taurine. As these meals are removed from marine fish feeds, we are finding an increasing number of species which appear to have a conditional requirement for taurine. Poor growth and reduced survival are often the first signs of taurine deficiency, however, in some species the taurine deficiency has also been characterized to cause green liver syndrome and reduced hematocrit readings.
Fish Requirement
Increasing evidence indicates some marine fish have a conditional requirement for taurine. The taurine content in many of the protein sources and attractants used in marine fish diets may be a primary contributor to the positive responses to these ingredients. In fish, the ability to synthesize taurine varies among species due to differences in the activity of key enzymes on the pathway of taurine biosynthesis and during ontogenesis. Research has been conducted on several species of larval and juvenile fish, including Japanese flounders, European seabass, red sea bream, yellowtail, cobia, Florida pompano and sole, with results suggesting that taurine may be essential for younger fish. Freshwater species such as rainbow trout and tilapia have positively responded to taurine, whereas common carp and Atlantic salmon do not show a response. A compilation of the utilization of taurine in diets for several marine and freshwater species is presented in Table 1. The table’s comparison among species leads to the conclusions that response to dietary taurine seems to be species-specific and varies among species and growth stages. These results indicate that the dietary supplementation of taurine may be necessary when taurine levels are lower than a minimum requirement. Supplemental taurine may not only improve growth and performance, but also is required to reduce nutritional diseases such as green liver disease and low hematocrit levels, which seem to be characteristic of a deficiency. global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
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production
Figure 2. Representative lesions in the hepatopancreas of a shrimp exposed to high levels of nitrate for a long period. A = abnormal cells, dilated and devoid of epithelial linings. B = normal cells.
High Nitrate Levels Toxic To Shrimp David D. Kuhn, Ph.D. Department of Food Science and Technology Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA davekuhn@vt.edu
Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.
Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathology Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Department of Food Science and Technology Virginia Tech
Summary:
Studies by the authors determined that under culture with water at one-third of ocean salinity, shrimp survival and growth were significantly impacted at levels of nitrate above 220 mg/L. The nitrate may have reduced feeding efficiency, depressed metabolism and impaired endocrine function. Nitrate toxicity is more of an issue for shrimp raised in lower-salinity waters. Shrimp exposed to high concentrations of nitrate exhibit shorter antennae, gill abnormalities and hepatopancreas lesions. In shrimp-farming operations, one of the primary wastes of concern is nitrogen, which appears as ammonia, nitrite and nitrate. Ammonia is excreted by animals and also arises from decomposing organic solids such as uneaten feed. This ammonia can be removed from the water directly via assimilation by heterotrophic bacteria, algae and plants. Ammonia can also be removed from ponds and aquaculture systems via nitrification. This is a two-step process performed by autotrophic bacteria called nitrifiers. Ammonia is converted to nitrite, and nitrite is then converted to nitrate. Compared to nitrate, both ammonia and nitrite are extremely toxic to shrimp. Ammonia and nitrite levels should remain at negligible levels in mature ponds and biofilter systems as presented in Figure 1. Nitrate, however, will continue to accumulate, and high concentrations of nitrate are also toxic to shrimp. Standard options for reducing nitrate levels (water exchanges or denitrifying biological treatment technology) are costly and use up valuable resources. Little is known about the long-term toxic effects of nitrate to marine shrimp. Anecdotal statements are often made about what levels of nitrate are deemed safe. Some recommend keeping
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Nitrate Impacts
Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were exposed to varying levels of nitrate in small-scale 150-L systems over six weeks at approximately one-third of ocean salinity (11 g/L salinity). Table 1 shows a summary of the nitrate concentration impacts on shrimp production. No statistical differences were observed for survival or growth of shrimp exposed to 35-220 mg/L nitrate. However, above 220 mg of nitrate, shrimp survival and growth were significantly impacted. Shrimp exposed to the maximum nitrate load of 910 mg/L did extremely poorly. Several possibilities may explain the suppression of growth and increased mortalities observed, including reduced feeding efficiencies, metabolic depression and impaired endocrine function.
Health Impacts
The easiest way to determine the toxic effects of nitrate on shrimp is to look at shrimp production numbers such as survival and growth. Aquaculturists interested in preserving the health of their stocks can also evaluate other physiological attributes, such as antennae, gills and the hepatopancreas. Shrimp exposed to high concentrations of nitrate over a long period of time exhibited shorter antennae length, gill abnormalities and lesions in the hepatopancreas. Short antennae and gill
Perspectives
It is important to consider pushing the limits of nitrates when considering water and resource conservation. However, it is also important to not compromise shrimp health or production. This trial suggested caution should be used when considering raising shrimp in waters that contain nitrate levels exceeding 220 mg/L. In addition, marine shrimp raised in very low salinities exhibit a reduced tolerance to nitrate. It is hoped this information will provide aquaculturists information to help them make managerial decisions regarding the balance between resource conservation and nitrate control. Table 1. Long-term effects of elevated concentrations of nitrate on shrimp production. Average Nitrate Concentration
Final Survival
Average Final Weight of Shrimp
35 mg/L 220 mg/L 435 mg/L 910 mg/L
87% 87% 64% 15%
9.3 g 8.7 g 7.5 g 5.0 g
Salinity And Nitrate
Additional nitrate exposure experiments were conducted over a wide range of salinities from brackish water to half-strength seawater (2-18 g/L salinity). Shrimp production was significantly compromised in the lowest salinity group. System Startup Mature Systems
Concentration
The effects of chronic nitrate toxicity include dark cuticular lesions on the carapace and anterior segments of the tail, an indicator of stress in shrimp. The upper shrimp is missing an antennae, and one anterior appendage is abnormally shortened.
nitrates lower than 100 mg/L, while other operators feel comfortable exceeding 500 mg/L at their farms. To eliminate this confusion, studies were conducted by the authors to determine what concentrations had negative impacts on shrimp production over an extended period of time.
This study showed that nitrate toxicity is more of an issue for shrimp producers who are raising shrimp in lower-salinity waters approaching freshwater conditions. At lower salinities, shrimp have to put significant energy into regulating their osmotic pressure levels to compensate for the reduced saline environment. This is a stress to them, so when additional stress in the form of high nitrate levels is introduced, the shrimp cannot handle it well.
abnormalities are often considered early clinical signs of decreasing shrimp health. The hepatopancreas organs in shrimp produce digestive enzymes and are responsible for promoting the normal absorption of digested food. One type of lesion observed in shrimp exposed to elevated levels of nitrate is shown in Figure 2. These cells were dilated and devoid of epithelial membranes, probably a consequence of not eating well or not metabolizing feed normally. In addition to affecting the health of the animals, physical and biological changes can result in the shrimp having a reduced market acceptance, which results in reduced profitability for a producer.
Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate
Figure 1. Concentrations of nitrogenous waste over time for typical shrimp production with nitrification.
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November/December 2011
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Avoid Water Chiller Errors
Research System Selection, Measure Performance Philip Nickerson, P.Eng.
This high-efficiency, air-cooled water chiller for aquaculture has a coefficient of performance over 3.5.
The most common factors that affect chiller performance in aquaculture facilities are inadequate water flow, inadequate heat recovery (if part of the system), inappropriate compressors, and imbalances among compressor, condenser, evaporator and thermal expansion valves. For best performance, select well-matched system components, maintain chiller barrel minimum flow rates and adhere to manufacturers’ recommended flow rates for optimal coefficient of performance and equipment life. One of my first encounters with refrigeration occurred during a summer work term at Scotian Halibut’s land-based marine recirculation site. The site had been developed over a period of four to five years. Fish had just been put into the final tanks before my work began in May. As ambient temperatures started to climb past the comfort zone for halibut production, the rush was on to install chillers on the recirculation system. Nearly six figures later, two 30-hp refrigeration compressors were up and running. Even when watching utility bills triple when all chillers were running, nobody thought to check the efficiency of the chillers. Fast forward six years. The refrigeration contractor retired. Chillers at the hatchery were approaching 10 years old, and compressors were failing on a regular basis. Water chiller maintenance costs were quickly rising. Yet the refrigeration systems on the two coolers were trouble free and just as old. I began to dig into refrigeration, suspecting that the water chillers had some flaws in design. When I finally decided to measure chiller performance, the numbers were not good. The coefficient of performance (COP)
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algae
measured 1.6, on average. Then a new refrigeration contractor that specialized in constructing water chillers from scratch came on the scene. Before even seeing the equipment, the contractor told me the problem. At that point, the company had 60 hp of compressors running. The contractor took half of the compressors out of service and connected the remaining 30 hp to all the chiller barrels. Performance doubled or better to an average 3.5. Chilling capacity remained the same, but the power bill due to chilling was halved.
Summary:
Measuring Performance
Scotian Halibut Ltd. P. O. Box 119 Clarks Harbour, Nova Scotia B0W 1P0 Canada panickerson@eastlink.ca
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Coefficient Of Performance
Coefficient of performance is a form of efficiency measurement that compares the work done with the energy input. Clearly, efficiency greater than 100% is not possible. But in refrigeration, the object is not to create energy with the input electrical energy. The work done is energy transferred from one spot to another. In refrigeration, energy transferred should be greater than energy input. In chilling applications, a COP between 3.5 and 4.5 should be achieved in most aquaculture applications. If heating, the COP should be higher than 4.0. New heat pumps have recently seen COP over 5.0. The general formula for measuring COP is: Coefficient of Performance =
Energy Transferred Electrical Energy Consumed
To get an exact measurement of COP, however, requires a lot of equipment. Fluid density, flow rate, temperatures into and out of chiller barrels, compressor voltage and amp draw, and compressor power factor at its current operating point are all variables in the COP formula. Fortunately there is a general rule of thumb equation that can quickly gauge chiller performance: Compressor Power = Flow Rate x T.D. 65 Where compressor horsepower is the electrical energy use in kW, flow rate is the water flow in L/minute, and T.D. is water temperature out minus water temperature in degrees C. Let’s say, for example, that you run your flow rate and T.D. through the formula and come up with 5 kW. If your compressor is rated for 5 kW, you have an efficient chiller with a COP of 4.5. If your compressor is rated for more than 5 kW, your COP
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This custom-built water-source heat pump has a COP over 4.5.
is lower. If your COP is lower than 3.5, you are almost certainly shelling out more money to the power company than necessary. So what was wrong with our system? We had several common errors at play. What I have since found to be the most common factors that affect chiller performance in aquaculture facilities are inadequate water flow, inadequate heat recovery (if part of the system), inappropriate compressors, and imbalances among compressor, condenser, evaporator and thermal expansion valves.
Inadequate Water Flow
The water flow rate through a chiller barrel can have a sig-
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nificant impact on performance. When a chiller barrel is manufactured, it is designed for a specific flow rate. This rate is not a maximum flow, as is often the case with other aquaculture equipment. It is important to maintain a minimum flow rating for chiller barrels. Heat transfer is highly dependent on surface area. A slow flow rate through a chiller barrel causes boundary conditions to be established on the heat transfer surfaces, effectively diminishing the available heat transfer area and, accordingly, chiller barrel capacity. Find out your chiller barrels’ minimum flow rates and maintain them. Ideally, chiller barrels should be plumbed in a loop configuration to maintain flow rather than in series with other equipment. When a chiller barrel is used in series in a system with variable flow, major inefficiencies are likely, and equipment failure is possible. For optimal COP and equipment life, adhere to manufacturers’ recommended flow rate ranges.
Inadequate Heat Recovery
Heat exchangers are often used to recover heat leaving a hatchery or other land-based site. When part of a heating system, heat exchangers are often responsible for the majority of heating or cooling of incoming water. For example, at Scotian Halibut this summer, incoming water temperatures were as high 18° C. For one broodstock tank, water entering at 40 L/minute had to be maintained at 5° C. With heat recovery working well, the heat exchanger was able to cool the incoming water from 18 to 8°. The chiller took care of the remaining 3°. Without the heat recovery in place, the chiller load would have been over four times greater! This means the chiller would had to have been four times larger, and the electrical use of that
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one action would be four times higher. However, the other issue is that the operating point of a chiller that sees 18° C water is different from one seeing 8° C water. Suction pressures, superheat and settings for thermal expansion valves or other metering devices would be different. To get to the point, a chiller produces highest efficiency at one point. To stray from that point can have a very significant effect on chiller COP.
Incorrect Compressor
In general, refrigeration applications are classified for low, medium or high temperatures. Most freezers are designed for low-temperature operation, most refrigerators and coolers work with medium temperatures, and most air conditioners are considered high-temperature units. Compressors and refrigerants are designed for a specific class. One challenge in aquaculture is determining which category an application is in. Due to seasonal variations in ambient temperatures, some applications may bridge the gap from low to medium or medium to high temperatures. Manufacturers provide performance tables that show the efficiency of their compressors at various operating points and where the compressors can and can’t operate. Your refrigeration contractor should be able to show these to you and know what your operating points will be. Using such a chart, you can determine COP before buying, given that the remainder of the system is properly matched to the compressor at your operating points.
low COP and high maintenance costs. The evaporator was only capable of about 40% of the compressor capacity. A 10-ton compressor and condenser were custom fit to an evaporator with two, 2-ton thermal expansion valves for a total capacity of 4 tons. Because the semi-hermetic compressor was cooled by refrigerant from the evaporator, the symptom seen was failed, overheated compressors. Admittedly, solving this issue took a knowledgeable refrigeration contractor. However, determining if a system is balanced should be as easy as reading the nameplates on the compressor, condenser, evaporator and thermal expansion valves.
Perspectives
Refrigeration systems in aquaculture should have lives of 10 to 20 years without catastrophic failure. Depending on the environment, maintenance should involve primarily surface items, such as inspecting electrical components annually if moisture and/or salt are present, or painting the equipment. If this is not the case, it is cheaper to find the right help now. Refrigeration equipment consists of very expensive materials that only seem to increase in price – titanium, copper, refrigerant, etc. If you are interested in reducing your energy bill, take the time to measure your COP. If you have a significant amount of heating or cooling with refrigeration equipment, there may be significant savings available.
System Imbalance
System imbalance was the main reason Scotian had such a
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any direction with the other three species. Finally, perceptions showed significance for sea bream, seabass and trout. In the first two species, price had a significant positive effect. In contrast, sea bream and trout presented significant negative effects when scored on quality. These results seemed to indicate that the main driver for consumer preferences was the low price of farmed species, which balanced less positive quality scores. Safety perceptions showed no significance for any of the species analyzed.
Perspectives
Greater knowledge of farmed seafood was associated with greater seafood consumption. Photo by Greg Krueger.
Demographic factors and consumption habits showed no direct effects on consumption of any of the species analyzed. Those factors act indirectly though their effects on knowledge. The number of species identified as farmed was found to be a determinant factor for consumption of all the species. The longer the list of species known as farmed, the higher the likelihood that a respondent was a consumer of a particular farmed species. This result supported the idea that knowledge favors consumption, since the majority of the respondents who knew certain species were farmed consumed them, and only a few rejected them. Also, a considerable number of consumers ate farmed species without being aware of the seafood’s origins, so an undifferentiated product will not yield better attitudes toward aquaculture, and no marketing effort in this sense would succeed. Results showed that price was the most important attribute to positively effect conscious consumption of farmed species, while the scores for quality in some of them indicated a negative effect. Probably due to a smaller sample size, only turbot showed no significant parameter on this point. The study results could have indicated that competitive pricing balanced the poor appraisal of the quality of farmed fish, which seems to be common in Spain and southern Europe. Differentiation and promotion may help change this issue, and branding would help consumers find better-quality species that may obtain premiums. To achieve these potential benefits, improvements in consumer knowledge regarding farming methods, economic benefits, safety and sustainability need to be improved.
The likelihood of being seabass consumers increased when respondents also reported consumption of sea bream.
Farmed Fish Consumption Related To Seafood Knowledge In Spain Prof. José Fernández-Polanco, Ph.D. Universidad de Cantabria Avenida de los Castros s/n E-3900 Santander, Cantabria, Spain polancoj@unican.es
Consumer Study
Prof. Ladislao Luna, Ph.D. Ignacio Llorente Universidad de Cantabria
Summary:
Results of a consumer study in Spain suggested that those with greater knowledge of aquaculture products were more accepting of farmed seafood as part of their food preferences. The main driver for consumer preferences was the low price of farmed species, which balanced less positive scores for quality. Safety perceptions showed no significance for any of the species analyzed. Differentiation and promotion may help change perceptions of quality. Intensive marketing research conducted by the Spanish Ministry of Fisheries from 2003 to 2007 concluded that Spanish consumers’ knowledge about species of aquaculture origin was far from desirable. According to the ministry, only 30 to 35% of Spanish consumers were aware of consuming any farmed species. For these “conscious” consumers, fish species were most often recognized as farmed, while mussels – which support the larg-
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est aquaculture industry in the country – were associated with farmed origins by less than 8% of the total population. More and better knowledge about aquaculture could result in higher consumption and better appraisal of farmed species. To help in developing strategies to improve opinions and consumption of farmed species, the authors based a current study on data taken from the ministerial study. The questionnaire used in 2007 allowed estimation of the probability of respondents being conscious consumers of any of the four main local farmed species: sea bream, seabass, trout and turbot. This probability was a function of personal factors and habits, awareness of aquaculture, consumption of other farmed species and perceptions of the species of interest. Knowledge was assessed by mean of the number of farmed species respondents could list without committing errors. Perceptions were referred to price, overall quality and expected safety. These perceptions were measured using five-point scoring in which a score of 5 indicated excellent perception regarding the specified item.
Results
Respondents could know a large number of farmed species but not consume them, but results suggested that those with greater knowledge were more accepting of farmed products as part of their food preferences (Table 1). This influence on consumption was greater than that from demographic factors, which only showed some influence of education level in the case of sea bream, more of which were consumed by less-educated segments. This fact may have been related to the price of this species, which was lower for farmed
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than wild fish, and could be an indirect effect of the respondents’ income levels. Eating seafood out of home resulted in no significance with any of the four species. The parameters linking the different farmed species also showed significance, illustrating different consequences depending on the species considered. The relation between seabass and sea bream was positive, which indicated the species are complementary. The likelihood of being a seabass consumer increased when the respondent reported consumption of sea bream. Trout were negatively related with both seabass and sea bream. In this case, the freshwater species appeared to compete with the two marine finfish. The probability of consuming trout decreased when the respondent was a consumer of seabass or sea bream. The consumption of turbot, a flatfish, was not related in
Table 1. Factors affecting conscious consumption of farmed fish. Sea Bream
Seabass
Turbot
Trout
877.286 0.450 0.604
700.222 0.433 0.592
331.773 0.315 0.438
431.427 0.127 0.263
-2 loglikelihood Cox-Snell Nagelkerke B Education
Sig
B
0.063*
Sig
B
0.488
Sig
B
0.654
Sig 0.886
Ill-educated Primary High school
1.142 0.036 -0.021
0.011** 0.876 0.923
-0.043 -0.300 0.046
0.944 0.242 0.849
-0.913 0.220 0.245
0.409 0.558 0.457
0.093 -0.120 -0.226
0.870 0.716 0.484
Dining out
0.062
0.732
-0.177
0.390
0.038
0.899
0.541
0.043
E.V. size
1.522
0**
1.149
0** 0.003** 0.019** 0.543
1.421
0**
1.266
0**
0** 0.253 0.008**
1.235
0**
-0.267 -0.762
0.242 0.027**
-0.395 0.040
0.279 0.911
-0.154
0.724
-0.950 -0.790 0.191
0.343 -0.284 0.071
0** 0.090* 0.657
0.509 0.102 -0.286
0** 0.588 0.106
0.132 -0.362 0.473
0.315 0.232 0.114
-0.230 -0.507 0.390
0.103 0.035** 0.102
-3.345
0**
-3.814
0
-3.777
0.001
-3.565
0
Sea bream Seabass Turbot Trout
1.288 -0.239 -0.810
Price Quality Safety Constant
** Significant at a 95.5% C.L. * Significant at a 90.0% C.L.
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marketplace
Tran Van Nhuong, Ph.D. The WorldFish Center Penang, Malaysia
Conner Bailey, Ph.D.
Professor of Rural Sociology 202 Comer Hall Auburn University, Alabama 36849-5406 USA bailelc@auburn.edu
Norbert Wilson, Ph.D. Auburn University
Vietnamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thousands of small-scale hatcheries annually produce millions of postlarvae most of which grow into mature black tiger shrimp.
Summary:
Research by the authors examined the impacts of governmental and non-governmental standards on the ability of seafood producers and processors in Vietnam to access export markets. The Vietnamese government plays an important role in the governance of international seafood trade, but importing nations establish food safety standards and NGOs have also become involved. To assure market access, exporters must respond to buyers and certification systems that buyers adopt. International trade in seafood, valued at U.S. $102 billion in 2008, is dominated by export flows from the global South to the industrial North. Continued access to these markets is affected by non-tariff measures that have both governmental and non-governmental origins. Governments of the North have focused attention on food safety and consumer health impacts associated with seafood consumption, while non-governmental organizations have pressed for environmental and social accountability in global seafood production and trade.
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Research by the authors examined the impacts of both governmental and non-governmental standards on the ability of seafood producers and processors in Vietnam to maintain access to valuable export markets.
Research In Vietnam
The lead author spent six months conducting interviews among shrimp farmers, processors, exporters and government officials during 2009 and 2010. Field work focused on the Ca Mau, Soc Trang and Ben Tre provinces in the Mekong Delta, where about 75% of Vietnamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shrimp production occurs. The general approach was to trace the movement of shrimp and information along a global value chain with farmers at one end and importers in the industrial North at the other. The value chain framework requires a systematic examination of governance issues that structure relationships among actors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in this case, shrimp farmers, input suppliers, middlemen, processors, exporters and importers. Governance includes both market and non-market coordination of economic activities. Vietnam is an interesting case for exploring the impacts of non-tariff barriers to seafood trade. It is a poor country in transition to a market economy with weak market institutions and low finan-
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cial, technological and managerial capacities compared to other seafood-exporting countries in the region. According to the Vietnamese Institute for Fisheries Economics and Planning, Vietnam produced 383,000 mt of shrimp from 650,000 ha of ponds with an export value of U.S. $1.5 billion in 2009. Japan and the United States accounted for 70% to 83% of the shrimp exports from Vietnam over much of the past decade.
Four Functional Stages
Global value chains for shrimp in Vietnam can be divided into four functional stages: input and service supplies, growout production, shrimp collection, and shrimp processing and export. Each stage involves different, separately operating actor groups. Key actors are identified in Figure 1. Shrimp Production Shrimp production in Vietnam is primarily done by 250,000 small-scale family farmers using extensive and modified extensive systems. There are also roughly 80,000 semi-intensive and intensive shrimp producers, who account for roughly 10 to 15% of pond area. The essential points of differentiation between the extensive and intensive operators are artificial seed stocking, associated input investments and management efforts. No artificial seed is stocked in traditional extensive farming, while up to 5 individuals/m2 are stocked in modified extensive farming systems. Yields are low in these systems at 230-450 kg/ha/year. Semi-intensive and intensive farming systems have higher stocking densities ranging 6-20/m2 in semi-intensive and 21-
Material Resource Conditions, Domestic Sociocultural Relationships and Institutions, Communities
Governance Of Global Value Chains Impacts Shrimp Producers In Vietnam
Shrimp Hatcheries
Feed, Service Suppliers
Producers Extensive, Small-Scale
Semi-Intensive
Collectors
Other Markets
Intensive, Large -Scale
Production
Intensive, Vertical Integration
Collectors
Domestic Markets
Wholesale Agents/ Middle Trading Firms
Collection
Processors Small
Large
Exporters Small
Other Importers
Input Supply
Processing, Export
Large
E.U. Importers
U.S. Importers
Japanese Importers
E.U. Markets
U.S. Markets
Japan Markets
Import, Distribution
Branding, Retailing, Buying
Figure 1. Global value chains for shrimp in Vietnam.
80/m2 or higher in intensive farming systems, with correspondingly higher yields of 1.5 and 3.5 mt/ha/year, respectively.
most farmers must rely on local money lenders or input suppliers, who tend to charge high interest rates.
Input Supply Input supply involves shrimp hatcheries, feed and veterinary drug suppliers, and financial service providers. Most shrimp hatcheries in Vietnam produce black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, while only a few produce white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. There are over 4,000 small-scale shrimp hatcheries that annually produce 25 million to 30 million shrimp postlarvae. Feed and veterinary drugs are essential input components for semi-intensive and intensive shrimp farming. There are 53 shrimp feed producers and 105 registered companies supplying drug and chemicals to 1,799 shops supplying producers. Use of these inputs is largely limited to semiintensive and intensive producers. Capital shortage is one of the production constraints most often reported, especially for small-scale producers. When facing a serious financial crisis,
Shrimp Collection Few roads exist in the Mekong Delta, and large numbers of small-scale buyers travel by boat from farm to farm collecting shrimp, often in small 10- to 20-kg amounts from each farm. These buyers then sell to other collectors, who in turn sell to others, so that shrimp change hands as many as five times before reaching the wholesaler who supplies shrimp to processors. The combination of many smallscale producers selling small amounts of shrimp to a large number of collectors who trade up through a series of intermediaries to wholesalers makes tracing the origin of shrimp that reach the processor a practical impossibility. Processing, Export Processing plants in Vietnam commonly are integrated with exporting enterprises. Processing and export companies often work with five to 15 wholeglobal aquaculture advocate
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salers. Of the 479 government-approved seafood-processing and export enterprises, the top 100 accounted for 99% of all exports in 2010. To maintain access to markets, these firms also must be aware of standards set by buyers who may require customized product standards and adoption of certification systems to avoid health risks and criticisms associated with socially or environmentally irresponsible production practices. Exporters know that whole shipments can be rejected if they fail to meet phytosanitary or other standards. Shrimp importers must consider consumer awareness and increasingly stringent governmental standards when negotiating with processor-exporters.
Governance Within Value Chains
The government of Vietnam plays an important role in the governance of international seafood trade, but real power resides with governmental and nongovernmental actors outside Vietnam. Importing nations have the authority to establish and enforce food safety standards. More recently, non-governmental organizations have become involved in seafood trade issues, with groups such as the World Wildlife Fund promoting market-based certification systems and others supporting community-based management and co-management approaches to address food safety, socioeconomic and environmental issues associated with the shrimp industry. Industry organizations such as the Global Aquaculture Alliance, GlobalGAP in Germany and elsewhere, and British Retail Consortium in the United Kingdom work closely with large retailers
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such as Walmart to promote the adoption of certification systems designed to assure consumers that the products they eat are safe and produced in a socially and environmentally responsible manner. The World Wildlife Fund has documented over 30 different aquaculture certification schemes promoted by industry organizations and other nongovernmental organizations. The net result, from the perspective of many exporters from Vietnam, is growing confusion and concern that inconsistent standards will adversely affect their business. To assure market access, shrimp processor-exporters in Vietnam must respond to buyers and certification systems that buyers adopt. To this point, non-governmental certification standards have affected only processor-exporters, not other actors further up the global value chain in Vietnam.
Implications For Food Safety, Socioeconomics
The world economy is organized through global value chains, geographically spread across nations and functionally integrated, coordinated and governed by powerful actors, including private corporations and government institutions. The state in Vietnam plays important roles in driving shrimp value chains to ensure market requirements are met to maintain access to global markets. As foreign markets increase the stringency of seafood standards, government networks have to establish strict inspection and monitoring systems for regulating the actors involved in shrimp value chains. Vietnam’s history as a centrally planned economy with “big government” creates the potential for strong state con-
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trol over export standards. This potential has not yet been realized. Producers, input suppliers, middlemen, processors and exporters in Vietnam all participate in value chains, but governance of the chains resides elsewhere – with regulatory agencies, buyers and consumer advocates in buyer nations. As technical and non-technical standards proliferate, actors who are able to master these standards will capture the most lucrative markets, leaving less-lucrative markets (including domestic markets in Vietnam) to those that are less adept. Will small-scale operations be viable, given the increasing trends of stringent standards for food safety and environmental management imposed by global markets? The authors expect these trends will lead to consolidation in the shrimpprocessing sector, as smaller processors are often unable to sufficiently upgrade their technical and marketing skills. A moral beauty contest orchestrated by a variety of actors is shaping how processes of globalization affect shrimp production and consumption. On one hand are the rights to consume safe and certified products in the industrial North, while on the other are the rights of small-scale producers to earn a livelihood in the developing South. Affluent consumers in the North may benefit from increasing vertical organization and governance of shrimp value chains. They demand more stringent standards to ensure food safety and protect consumer health as well as enhance social and environmental responsibility. The irony of such efforts is that smallscale producers and entrepreneurs are likely to become marginalized in the process.
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food safety and technology
By-Product Utilization For Increased Profitability Part I: Gelatin
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D. Food Science and Technology Department Virginia Tech/Virginia Sea Grant (0418) Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA flickg@vt.edu
Waste by-products from fish processing can be utilized to produce a variety of food-grade gelatin products.
Summary:
The principal use of gelatin is to increase the viscosity of aqueous solutions and aid in the formation of gels. Gelatins produced from fish have been used in foods and food packaging, in industrial applications and as adhesives. Fish gelatin also provides a base for light-sensitive coatings for the electronics trade. The chemical properties of fish gelatin vary by species, and extraction conditions greatly influence gelling properties. The disposal of waste or by-products presents a substantial cost to aquaculture producers and processors. The ability to convert a waste or by-product into a marketable form creates an opportunity for additional income, which is especially attractive at a time when margins are becoming increasingly narrow. Gelatins made from by-products of the land animal industries have many useful applications in foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, photography and industrial products. In the food industry, gelatin has been widely used as a beverage clarifier, a thickener in desserts, a texturizer in confections and a stabilizer in dairy products, food foams and fruit salads. Moreover, gelatin has been used in biochemical applications and biomaterialbased packaging.
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Production, Uses
At present, the production of fish gelatin is minor, yielding only about 1% of the annual world gelatin production of approximately 227,000 tons mt. Factors such as the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and increasing demand for non-mammalian gelatins for halal, Hindu and kosher foods have revived interest in gelatin produced from other raw materials. Recently, several studies of gelatins produced from the skins of various fish species have been published. It is estimated that nearly 30% of fish by-products are comprised of skin and bones left over after removal of the edible parts. Depending on the details of the extraction process, gelatins with varying properties can be obtained from these materials.
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The principal use of gelatin is to increase the viscosity of aqueous solutions and aid in the formation of solidified gels. It is used in the food industry in conjunction with other edible ingredients as a gelling, stabilizing, emulsifying, dispersing or thickening agent. For example, in the manufacture of gelatin desserts, gelatin is combined with sugar, acidulants, flavors and colors. The entire mixture is dissolved in warm water and allowed to set at refrigeration temperatures. In this instance, gelatin serves as the gelling agent. In the production of ice cream, however, gelatin serves as a stabilizing agent. From a nutritional perspective, gelatin is an incomplete protein, since it lacks tryptophan, an essential amino acid. An animal or human being could not survive if it had to subsist on gelatin as a sole source of protein. However, gelatin is high in lysine and methionine, two essential amino acids.
Applications
The applications of gelatin can be categorized into four areas. Edible gelatin: free of heavy metals and aesthetically pleasing for use in foods. A new edible use of gelatin is as a component of edible films used for packaging food. Industrial gelatin: chemical and physical properties are uniquely suited for industrial applications. A good example is gelatin used in the microencapsulation of global aquaculture advocate
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which has a high jelly strength, is light in color, gives solutions that are reasonably clear, is sweet and does not contain excessive impurities. Fish gelatin has been used in all these applications, with the exception of photographic film. Fish gelatin is also used as the base for a light-sensitive (or photoresist) coating for the electronics trade.
Gelatin Properties
Depending on the extraction process, gelatins with varying properties can be obtained from fish processing by-products.
dye precursors for carbonless paper. Photographic gelatin: requirements are extremely critical. Photographic film requires a long shelf life. Gelatin has a major impact on silver halide chemistry and the ability to take a photograph and PSC_ad_2009.qxd:Layout 1
3/12/09
develop it later under standard developing conditions. Glue: especially for adhesion or gluing applications. In commercial parlance, a gelatin differs from a glue only in that the former is a very high-grade product,
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Gelatin with low molecular weight distribution has inferior gelling properties compared to high-molecular weight gelatin. Like every protein, gelatin is more susceptible to chemical hydrolysis at increasing acidity and temperature. Hence, the extraction conditions applied greatly influence the gelling properties. Although collagen, the biochemical source of gelatin, from coldwater species normally contains fewer amino acids than collagen from warmwater fish and mammalian species, the contents of both hydrophobic and hydroxylated amino acids, as well as other properties such as molecular weight distribution and gelatin viscosity, seem to be species-specific. To determine the properties of a fish gelatin, the gelatin obtained from each actual species must be studied.
Edible Films
A new application for fish gelatins is in the production of single- or bilayer edible films for packaging food. Other natural components such as clove oil, seaweed extracts and antioxidants have been incorporated into the films to improve their quality and enhance the functional properties of the packaging. Some specific applications of this packaging have included reduction of oxygen and moisture vapor transport, reactive oxygen species scavenging and inhibition of microbial growth and proliferation. Film properties have been improved through the incorporation of a trypsin inhibitor and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to retard degradation of the gelatin.
Food-Grade Gelatin
The quality of food-grade gelatin depends largely on its thermal and rheological properties. The gel strength, viscosity, setting behavior and melting point of gelatin depends on its molecular weight distribution and amino acid composition. Food-grade gelatin can be purchased in three grades; A, B and C, with A having the greatest gel strength, bloom, viscosity and transparency. The appropriate rheological properties required for many applications are related to the chemical characteristics just described. Competitive gelling agents like starch, alginate, pectin, agar and carrageenan are all carbohydrates from vegetable sources, but their gels lack the ability to melt in the mouth, and have little or no elastic properties compared to gelatin gels. Editor’s Note: Part II of this series will cover principles of fish gelatin production, major sources, expected yields, food safety and current applications of fish gelatin.
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u.s. seafood markets Paul Brown, Jr. Urner Barry Publications, Inc. P. O. Box 389 Toms River, New Jersey 08754 USA pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Supplies of black tiger shrimp have remained tight, generally selling at a premium to white shrimp.
Janice Brown Angel Rubio
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
as most product is destined for value adding. Supplies of black tiger shrimp have remained tight, generally selling at a premium to white shrimp. Many black tigerproducing countries, including India and Vietnam, continue to push toward white shrimp production. Generally, the market in the early fall has a steady tone. Despite the recent strength in the U.S. dollar overseas, offerings have generally been firm due to higher production costs and a tight raw material supply. Demand from new and emerging markets continues to put pressure on available supplies to the U.S. As large holiday orders are completed, it remains to be seen how the market will react in the latter part of the fourth quarter.
U.S. Production, Mexican Wild Summary:
Shrimp Imports From Mexico, India, Ecuador Up Shrimp inventories are not reported in the United States. Table 1 may give us a hint of the available supply. Note that headless, shell-on (HLSO) shrimp supplies are below yearago levels, while supplies of value-added products are higher. Generally, the market appears adequately supplied.
Shrimp Imports
In August, shrimp imports to the U.S. were up 9.8%, pushing year-to-date (YTD) imports up 3.5% (Table 2). Imports from Thailand were down 4.3%, and their YTD imports were off 4.2%. Vietnamese imports were also lower by 10.0%, but remained over 14.0% higher YTD. Imports from Indonesia were up both for August and YTD. Ecuador, Mexican and Indian imports were all up sharply. Note that there was a big increase in Mexican imports in August compared to a year ago, which likely related to an unusually heavy pre-harvest. Imports from Honduras and Peru also continued higher. Imports of shell-on shrimp were about even with a year ago. However, behind the total number, there has been a sharp
U.S. shrimp imports from Ecuador, Mexico and India were up sharply in August. Shell-on imports have been even, while peeled imports have seen strong growth. Demand from new markets is putting pressure on available supplies. Total salmon imports were slightly up in August. Fresh whole fish imports saw YTD figures decrease 8.5%. Fresh fillets were 6.8% up YTD. Imports of frozen whole tilapia increased 12.1% from the previous month. Honduras is the top supplying country for fresh tilapia fillets, whose market has been short of full needs. Imports of frozen Pangasius fillets reached a new monthly record of 18.1 million lb in August. Pricing began dropping, likely due to oversupply. increase in imports of 16-20 and 21-25 shrimp from India. Most other count sizes recorded lower imports on a year-to-date basis. Peeled shrimp imports have seen strong growth thus far in 2011. Imports from the major producing countries were all higher in August, with the exception of Thailand.
The Market
After weakening in August, Latin American white shrimp has maintained a steadier tone. The Asian HLSO white shrimp market has this year been marked by ample supplies of 16-20 and 21-25 shrimp from India that have weakened that market. More recently, the Indian market has stabilized, although some discounting continues on 16-20 shrimp. The balance of HLSO shrimp from Asia has been mostly steady with supplies limited,
Table 1. U.S. shrimp imports, 2010-2011 comparisons. Form
June-August 2011
June-August 2010
130,223 129,403 53,080 26,388 339,094
143,191 114,455 45,956 23,712 327,315
HLSO Peeled Warmwater, cooked Breaded Total
Change
July-August 2011
July-August 2010
Change
-9.1% 13.1% 15.5% 11.3% 3.6%
95,116 91,873 38,729 17,785 243,504
100,463 79,034 31,764 16,624 227,886
-5.3 16.2 21.9 7.0 6.9
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, August 2011. Form Shell-on Peeled Cooked Breaded Total
August 2011 (1,000 lb)
July 2011 (1,000 lb)
Change (Month)
August 2010 (1,000 lb)
Change (Year)
YTD 2011 (1,000 lb)
YTD 2010 (1,000 lb)
Change (Year)
54,224 51,329 21,001 8,842 136,000
41,300 40,544 19,416 8,943 110,643
31.3% 26.6% 8.2% -1.1% 22.9%
52,853 42,550 19,108 8,744 123,859
2.6% 20.6% 9.9% 1.1% 9.8%
288,624 279,454 121,673 63,059 756,864
295,293 248,092 123,203 59,954 731,570
-2.3% 12.6% -1.2% 5.2% 3.5%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
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The limited U.S. Gulf of Mexico domestic white shrimp production resulted in curtailed and firm offerings of HLSO white shrimp at most counts, and significantly reduced peeled, undeveined production. Although the season continues, poor catches have had fishermen concerned about the availability of white shrimp. The wild Mexican shrimp season is under way. Good landings have been reported thus far, concentrated in under 15-count and 16-20 white shrimp.
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The Faroe Islands are now the third-largest exporter of fresh salmon fillets to the United States.
Salmon Whole Fish, Fillet Markets Steady In August, YTD imports of salmon to the United States continued the year 1.6% lower than August 2010 levels (Table 3). Fresh whole fish imports saw YTD figures decrease 8.5%. Fresh fillets were 6.8% up from 2010 YTD levels. Total month-to-month data showed a slight 1.0% increase for August when compared to July.
Whole Fish
August fresh whole fish YTD figures revealed a continued decrease, currently 8.5% below August 2010 YTD figures. Monthto-month data, in contrast, showed a 14.7% increase over July numbers. Comparing August 2011 to August 2010, there was a 1.8% increase. Imports from Canada were 9.8% lower YTD, with month-to-month imports 18.9% higher. The Northeast whole fish market is coming off a very steady September. In the second week of October, the market was steady to barely steady. Supplies were adequate to fully adequate for a very dull demand. Downward pricing pressure existed due to ample supplies of European and West Coast Canadian whole global aquaculture advocate
November/December 2011
53
fish available in the Northeast market. All sizes remained below their three-year pricing averages. The West Coast whole fish market was mostly steady to firm during September. October was the opposite. The market was weak. Middle- to large-sized whole fish supplies were fully adequate to ample. Larger fish also saw additional downward pricing pressure from the ample supplies of European whole fish available in the West Coast market. Like the Northeast market, all sizes remained below their three-year averages.
Fillets
U.S. imports of fresh fillets in 2011 continue with Chile the top importer and Norway number 2. During the month of August, Chile exported 8.0 million lb. YTD imports were 88.4% higher than YTD 2010. Overall, August YTD levels were 4.9% higher than year-ago levels. Month-to-month data comparing August to July was 8.1%
lower. August imports were 18.2% higher when compared to August 2010. For salmon imports from Norway, YTD levels were 65.3% lower than 2010 YTD. Canada’s YTD levels were 30.8% lower than 2010 YTD levels. The Faroe Islands, currently third behind Norway, shipped 7.7 million pounds of fillets to the U.S. this year – up 1,473.6% YTD! The market was extremely steady during the month of September. The second week of October, however, was barely steady to weak. Supplies were fully adequate for a dull demand. The undertone remained somewhat unsettled, with both notably higher and significantly lower offerings and sales collected. A few premiums were seen on smaller-volume sales. Like the whole fish markets, the fillet markets were below their three-year price averages. In October, the European fillet market was weak for several weeks. Supplies were fully adequate to ample for a fair to dull demand. A few still-lower offerings were noted.
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, August 2011. Form
August 2011 (lb)
July 2011 (lb)
Change (Month)
August 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
YTD 2011 (lb)
YTD 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
Fresh whole fish Frozen whole fish Fresh fillets Frozen fillets Total
17,455,374 588,746 11,642,709 11,309,537 40,996,366
15,211,818 833,902 13,162,537 11,389,450 40,597,707
14.7% -29.4% -11.5% -0.7% 1.0%
17,148,791 470,684 10,035,707 12,726,645 40,381,827
1.8% 25.1% 16.0% -11.1% 1.5%
125,535,658 3,846,558 96,249,486 89,584,647 315,216,349
137,131,169 3,784,712 90,111,589 89,366,802 320,394,272
-8.5% 1.6% 6.8% 0.2% -1.6%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Honduras Top Fresh Tilapia Fillet Supplier
from the previous month, this figure showed a substantial retreat when compared to the same month a year ago and on a YTD basis. A shortage of raw materials has been the main reported cause. YTD imports were only 86% of those obtained a year ago, and according to many in the industry, expectations of availability in the near term are poor, especially for larger-sized fillets. As a result, prices for fillets of 5 oz and above have moved up despite falling replacement costs since June. Although most of the upward pressure was felt on 7-9s, 5-7s and 3-5s were following suit, as product holders raised offering levels in order
Pangasius Imports Hit Record – Again Channel Catfish
U.S. imports of channel catfish from China continue to be very limited (Table 5). However, some importers have reported substantially higher replacement offerings, mainly fueled by high prices for domestic catfish, in addition to higher production costs in China. In regards to the market in the U.S., nothing has changed. Trading is negligible in the U.S.
Pangasius
Imports of frozen Pangasius fillets reached their highest monthly import level on record – again – totaling 18.1 million lb in August. On a YTD basis, imports were over 60% greater than in 2010. Although pricing began dropping during August, reportedly due to an oversupplied market, inventories appeared to be adequate as of October. Therefore, the market holds a steady undertone.
Frozen Whole Fish
In August, U.S. imports of frozen whole tilapia increased 12.1% from the previous month and about 41.0% when compared to the same month a year ago (Table 4). On a YTD basis, imports were still 4.6% behind last year’s figures.
Imports of fresh tilapia were presumably recorded with the same error for the fifth straight month. When looking at the official import figures for fresh tilapia fillets and “Marine Fish NSPF Fillet Fresh,” the authors found drastic changes from historical behavior. Hence, these figures could have been potentially entered incorrectly to their pertaining commodity code. When computing these figures with the presumed error, imports of fresh tilapia fillets were just 4.27% above those registered in 2010, totaling 37.9 million lb, up from 36.4 million in 2010. For imports from Costa Rica alone, the 2011 YTD figure was 4.43% lower than that of 2010. Imports from Ecuador were only slightly higher than those registered a year ago on a YTD basis. Only Honduras has managed to increase its shipments of fresh tilapia fillets to the U.S. – by more than 14.00% – and ranks as the top supplying country for this commodity. The market has been short of full needs. Pricing has trended up all across the board, but more steeply for larger-sized fillets.
Frozen Fillets
Despite August’s advance in U.S. imports of frozen fillets
Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, August 2011. Form
August 2011 (lb)
July 2011 (lb)
Change (Month)
August 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
YTD 2011 (lb)
YTD 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
Frozen whole fish Fresh fillets Frozen fillets Total
9,760,340 3,560,124 21,572,215 34,892,679
8,707,703 3,551,071 18,781,078 31,039,852
12.09% 0.25% 14.86% 12.41%
6,914,531 4,393,215 29,704,686 41,012,432
41.16% -18.96% -27.38% -14.92%
55,639,012 32,900,556 168,052,320 256,591,888
58,321,959 36,345,265 195,351,329 290,018,553
-4.60% -9.48% -13.97% -11.53%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
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As expected from the previous report, product that arrived in August to the U.S. was priced slightly lower than in July. Most of these shipments were sales made in late June or throughout July. Orders placed after that will be reflected in the replacement pricing for September, which is also expected to be lower, as most importers reported lower offerings from Vietnam in August. Urner Barry’s quotations adjusted lower in July and August, but remained steady in September through midOctober. The Pangasius market once again reached a monthly record high in terms of volume, while prices have remained relatively steady since mid-August. The undertone is generally steady. The imported channel catfish market remains unquoted due to limited availability.
Table 5. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, August 2011.
Fresh Fillets
Availability of larger frozen tilapia fillets may be poor in the near future.
to slow movement. As of now, the market now holds a full steady undertone. Urner Barry pricing has adjusted lower since May, when replacement costs were reportedly falling. These offerings were for product delivered in June and July. Thereafter, purchase orders made late in June and July, when replacement cost reportedly fell the most, were for product delivered in August. In fact, replacement costs experienced their steepest month-tomonth decline since 2004 in August. Urner Barry’s quotations stopped falling in September, with 5-7s and 7-9s firming up in late September and early October.
Form Pangasius Channel catfish Total
August 2011 (lb)
July 2011 (lb)
Change (Month)
August 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
YTD 2011 (lb)
YTD 2010 (lb)
Change (Year)
18,159,219 38,999 18,198,218
17,882,813 – 17,882,813
1.55% – 1.76%
9,872,459 38,270 9,910,729
83.94% 1.90% 83.62%
115,367,181 2,703,320 118,070,501
71,490,365 8,632,834 80,123,199
61.37% -68.69% 47.36%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
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innovation
Geotextile Bags Enhance Effluent Management In Demo Aquaculture System Geobag, Filled Geobag, Dewatering To Effluent Sump Effluent Collection EPDM Liner Standard 2x8, Pressure Treated 4.88 cm 3.66 cm
The simple construction of geotextile bag systems makes them cost-effective, site-specific and mobile.
Summary:
One promising new technology for dewatering aquaculture solid waste is the use of geotextile bags. Geotextile bags are porous, sealed tubular containers constructed of high-strength, woven polyethylene material that have demonstrated the ability to dewater terrestrial animal wastes, municipal wastewater sludge and dredge spoil. Geotextile bags are cost-effective, site-specific and mobile. They require little maintenance and can be custom-sized. Intensive recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) face a series of challenges that limit productivity. These challenges include tank design, circulation efficiency, solids capture, cost-effective removal of toxic ammonia-nitrogen, carbon dioxide stripping, maintenance of sufficient dissolved oxygen and the ever-increasing demand for higher water quality for marine species. In addition, the increased carrying capacity in large-scale commercial aquaculture achieved over the last 20 years has generated a new problem: effluent waste management. Over the past several years, environmental discharge regulations for aquaculture have made environmentally
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sound waste management and disposal increasingly important, particularly for marine aquaculture. Because of their moisture content, management of the solid wastes generated by aquaculture systems presents unique storage and disposal problems. Mechanical filters such as microscreens, sand filters and floating-bead filters generate solid waste effluent discharges that require further concentration to reduce the quantity and improve the quality of the discharges. For marine RAS, it is further critical that a significant percentage of the waste effluent stream be recycled back into the production system to conserve salt and reduce and/or eliminate the environmental impacts of salt discharges. The development of improved systems for the disposal and reutilization of aquaculture wastes is a critical priority, as enhanced waste management systems will improve the economic viability and sustainability of marine aquaculture systems.
Current Technologies
Current technologies for storing and dewatering solid wastes from marine aquaculture are expensive to install, require high maintenance or have poor treatment efficiencies because of geographical location or poor management. The two most common methods used to recycle solid wastes from aquaculture facilities are composting and land applica-
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James M. Jernand, Ph.D. Research Engineer Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC 108 Industrial Avenue New Orleans, Louisiana 70121 USA james@beadfilters.com
Paul Hightower
Research Associate Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC
Reginald B. Blaylock, Ph.D.
Associate Research Professor Gulf Coast Research Laboratory University of Southern Mississippi Ocean Springs, Mississippi, USA
tion. Both methods can be enhanced by dewatering the wastes before utilization.
Geotextile Bags
One promising new technology for dewatering aquaculture solid waste is the use of geotextile bags. Geotextile bags are porous, sealed tubular containers constructed of high-strength, woven polyethylene material that have demonstrated the ability to dewater terrestrial animal wastes, municipal wastewater sludge and dredge spoil. Geotextile bags can dewater wastes over 10% solids per volume in less than a week and can achieve 30% final solids content. Geotextile bags are costeffective, site-specific and mobile. They require little maintenance and can be custom-sized. Other than from limited demonstration trials, there is little engineering design information available for using geotextile bags for the treatment of marine aquaculture waste streams, as opposed to the treatment of other industrial sludge. One of the primary difficulties when designing aquaculture systems is the wide variation in the concentration, composition, salinity, pH, temperature and quantity of wastes, much of which is dependent on the species grown. Even with a â&#x20AC;&#x153;saltwater system,â&#x20AC;? the actual salinity might vary from as low as 2 to 38 ppt, depending upon the species and growth phase. global aquaculture advocate
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57
Flow Switch (Optional)
Return To Sump Gate Valve Flow Control Polymer Injection
1,135-L Polyethylene Tank
Rubber Coupling To Bag #1 Sample Port
To Bag #2 Knife Valves
Overflow Back To PBF Backwash Collection Sumps
Primary treatment consisted of a sludgeholding tank, dosing pump with inline mixer for coagulation/flocculation aids and distribution/pressure equalization manifold for two geotextile bags.
From Primary PBF Backwash Collection Sump
Inline Static Mixer
Submersible Sump Pump
Aeration/Mixing Grid 23-cm Air Stones
Primary Treatment
The authors installed a demonstration system in the fall of 2010 to treat the waste discharge from a spotted sea trout, Cynoscion nebulosus, growout facility at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory of the University of Southern Mississippi. Working with facility personnel, an estimate was made of the daily volume of backwash from the six propeller-washed bead filters used for solids capture. Based on this estimate, a sludge sump tank was sized to hold a single daily production of sludge for batch loading into the geotextile bag. The sludge sump tank provided a consistent flow into the geotextile bag, which allowed a dosing pump to add a predetermined concentration of a coagulation and flocculation aid. The geotextile bag was filled from the sludge sump tank up to 85% of its volume and allowed to drain and consolidate for three to four hours. This cycle is repeated until the geotextile bag reaches its final capacity of 85% consolidated solids. Maximum pressure on the multiple bags was limited to 1-2 psi by using a standpipe/overflow to direct the flow from the full bag to the next bag in line. The coagulation and flocculation aid was mixed into the waste stream as it entered the geotextile bag from the sludge sump with an inline mixing column. The geotextile bags were supported on a gravel bed with a liner and drainage pipes to direct the effluent flow into a small recovery sump. From the recovery sump, the geotextile bag effluent was pumped to a supernatant sump for secondary treatment and reuse in the culture system.
Secondary Treatment
The secondary treatment system incorporates three aspects of an engineered approach to saltwater reclamation: bioclarification (mechanical/biofiltration), disinfection/sterilization and denitrification. A propeller-washed bead filter was used
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The secondary treatment system included a supernatant reservoir tank, polishing filter, activated carbon filter, ultraviolet treatment and tank aeration.
for bioclarification, an ultraviolet sterilizer was used for disinfection, and an activated carbon filter was used for final polishing and removal of trace organics, metals and other potential pollutants. Capacity for a passive denitrification system designed by Aquaculture Systems Technology, LLC was engineered into the system to provide removal of nitrate-nitrogen. This suite of secondary treatment equipment constitutes its own recirculating loop to ensure maximum stripping of unwanted solids and nutrients prior to transfer to a reservoir for reintroduction into the culture system.
Performance
The system has been operational for several months, and the first cohort of spotted sea trout has been raised for a stock enhancement program. The system was monitored every two weeks, and water quality samples were taken from the sludge storage tank, geobag supernatant and the treated supernatant reservoir. This trial was without a coagulant or flocculant agent as a control. Initial results showed a slight 8.22 to 8.93 increase in pH across the treatment train. More importantly, there was a net decrease in ammonia-nitrogen from an initial value of 6.61 mg/L to 0.99 mg/L and a decrease in nitrite-nitrogen from 4.84 to 0.68 mg/L. Additionally, there was a decrease in dissolved orthophosphate from an initial concentration of 31.0 mg/L to 13.1 mg/L phosphate. Moreover, the total suspended-solids concentration was reduced from a sludge value of approximately 1,600 mg/L to less than 2 mg/L, a 99.9% removal rate. Currently, Aquaculture Systems Technologies and Gulf Coast Research Lab are using the results of this trial to design, install and operate a large system to treat all backwash water from the entire lab’s aquaculture facility under the auspices of a grant from the NOAA Sea Grant Aquaculture Research Program.
Not Everyone Could Make It To “The End Of The World”
Photo courtesy of Marine Harvest – Chile.
For business partners, associates and customers who missed GOAL 2011 in Santiago, a summary of its findings will be presented during a special session at the 2012 International Boston Seafood Show. The take-home topics all relate to our industry’s need to produce more, but in a responsible way.
Double In A Decade – Responsibly International Boston Seafood Show March 2012 • Global speakers • Key production and market data • Solutions for a sustainable future
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innovation
Solid-State Fermentation Novel Process For Improving Nutritional Value Of Plant Feedstuffs Adrián Hernández Escuela de Acuicultura Núcleo de Investigación en Producción Alimentaria Facultad de Recursos Naturales Universidad Católica de Temuco P. O. Box 15-D Temuco, Chile ajhernandez@uct.cl
Aliro Bórquez Patricio Dantagnan
Escuela de Acuicultura Universidad Católica de Temuco
Carolina Shenne
Departamento de Ingeniería Química Universidad de la Frontera Temuco, Chile The test bioreactor consisted of flat trays in a closed chamber with a controlled system for temperature, humidity and processing time.
Summary:
The use of solid-state microbial fermentation for upgrading the nutritional characteristics of raw plant materials has been proposed as a pretreatment to improve their use in animal feeds. SSF, which can deliver high-volume production with limited effluents, can increase the amount of available protein in the materials and reduce the antinutritional factors. Results in laboratory testing were variable among different substrates and microorganisms, and directly affected by the fermentation conditions. In response to environmental concerns and increased costs, substantial efforts have been focused on research to reduce or eliminate fishmeal in aquafeeds. Important considerations in the selection and use of alternative protein ingredients for commercial diets include the amounts of essential nutrients available for optimal
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growth, the digestibility and bioavailability of the nutrients, commercial availability and reasonable cost, and the presence of antinutritional factors. Enhancement of the nutritional quality of alternative protein ingredients is one of the main strategies for the sustainable development of aquaculture. The efficiency and utilization of alternative plant raw materials could be maximized by means of biotechnological processes aimed at concentrating protein content, improving essential amino acid profiles, reducing the level of antinutritional factors and increasing nutrient digestibility and availability.
Solid-State Fermentation
Among the different biotechnological processes, solid-state fermentation (SSF) has various applications for the bioconversion of plant feedstuffs and production of new products with added value that can be of interest for the aquafeed-manufacturing industry and aquaculture in general. SSF can be defined in a simple way as a microbial fermentation that occurs in a solid, moist medium. It offers numer-
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ous advantages over widely used liquid fermentation, including high-volume production and concentration of the final product with the consequent generation of limited effluent. The positive effects of SSF on the nutritional composition of plant raw materials is essentially based on the capacity of the microorganisms that participate in this bioprocess to synthesize necessary nutrients for their growth from the substrate in which they are reproduced. Another important advantage of SSF is that the substrates used are often by-products of the agriculture, forestry or food-processing industries and in most cases have limited application in the formulation of aquafeeds for carnivorous species. The use of SSF for upgrading the nutritional characteristics of raw materials has been the aim of numerous studies, and solid fermentation of agro-industrial residues has been proposed as a suitable pretreatment that could improve their use in animal feeding. The process of SSF can increase, for example, the amount of available protein in the raw materials and reduce some of the antinutritional factors that limit their incorporation into diets for cultured species. However, the implementation of such procedures at industrial scale for the pro-
duction of aquafeeds still requires considerable research efforts in order to optimize the processes as much as possible.
Substrate, Microorganism Selection
In laboratory research, the authors examined the use of solid-state fermentation with soy, rapeseed cake, lupine and peas for the enhancement of their nutritional profiles. The authors selected various ingre-
dients with different characteristics (substrates with high protein content, starchy substrates and lignocellulosicsubstrates) as the macromolecular matrix for SSF processing. Ingredients were also considered on the basis of their actual and potential application in aquafeed formulations. Microorganisms commonly used in the food and feed industries were selected for the fermentation essays at laboratory scale: Lactobacillus plantarum, Aspergillus niger, A. oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae and R. oligosporus.
Table 1. Characteristics of rapeseed cake fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum under optimized laboratory conditions. Raw Ingredient
SSF Product
Standard Deviation
Units
Increment
20.15 0.28 120.90 11.06 35.26 40.49
11.16 170.34 1.51 47.12 8.61 37.40 33.35
0.66 9.07 0.06 5.78 0.89 2.00 0.45
% mg/g ss mg/g ss mg/g ss % % %
745% 439% -61% -22% 6% -18%
mg/g ss mg/g ss mg/100 g ss
-97% -70% 0%
Dry matter Soluble protein Soluble phosphorus Total sugars Crude fiber Crude protein NNE
Antinutrients Oligosaccharides Phytic acid Total polyphenols
25.88 0.57 0.89
0.89 0.17 0.89
0.05 0.05 0.05 Enzymes
Proteases Cellulases
0 770.25
Ul/g ss Ul/g ss
50.15
ss = Solid Substrate
Table 2. Characteristics of soybean cake fermented with Aspergillus niger under optimized laboratory conditions. Raw Ingredient
SSF Product
Standard Deviation
Units
Increment
104.23 0.56 162.96 4.82 51.20 36.36
39.30 210.13 39.33 18.75 3.10 65.41 21.53
5.28 2.74 4.04 0.19 0.53 0.45
% mg/g ss mg/g ss mg/g ss % % %
102% 6,923% -88% -36% 28% -41%
mg/g ss mg/g ss mg/100 g ss
-100% -68% 18%
Dry matter Soluble protein Soluble phosphorus Total sugars Crude fiber Crude protein NNE
Antinutrients Oligosaccharides Phytic acid Total polyphenols
86.19 0.73 0.17
0 0.23 0.20
0.05 0.01 Enzymes
Proteases Cellulases
2,761.62 1,182.20
247.48 70.39
Ul/g ss Ul/g ss
The variables evaluated considered such fermentation conditions as moisture, pH, fermentation time, surface area/ dry mass relationships, microorganism growth, and size and state of inoculum. Changes in the substrates’ nutritional profiles for amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, soluble proteins, phosphorus, phytic acid and polysaccharides were also examined.
Varied Results
The results obtained in the laboratory were variable among different substrates and microorganisms, and directly affected by the conditions of the fermentation process. Tables 1 and 2 outline the characteristics for two different microorganisms and substrates used in the fermentation process under the best conditions evaluated to obtain a desirable final product. The laboratory results served as a basis for the design and construction of a pilotscale bioreactor capable of replicating and controlling the main variables evaluated in the laboratory to produce up to 30 kg of dry fermented ingredients. The bioreactor consisted of flat trays in a closed chamber with a controlled system for temperature, humidity and processing time. One of the main difficulties observed in other studies conducted on the use of SSF products in aquafeeds was the inability to produce high-volume batches of fermented ingredients at laboratory scale. The bioreactor was tested and tuned for conducting SFF processes with the selected ingredients using Aspergillus niger as a microorganism. Tables 3 to 5 describe the results of proximate analysis and other characteristics obtained during the fermentation process using the pilot bioreactor. Table 3 shows the proximate compositions of the selected plant ingredients before and after being treated by SSF. The SSF treatment generated significant improvements in some parameters. These results corresponded to the results
Table 3. Profiles of plant materials under solid-state fermentation with Aspergillum niger in the pilot bioreactor. Soybean Proximal Profile (%) Moisture Crude protein Crude fat Total ash Crude fiber NNE Energy (Kcal/100 g)
Rapeseed
Lupin Meal
Pea Meal
Raw
SSF
Raw
SSF
Raw
SFF
RAW
SSF
10.5 49.1 2.5 6.4 7.7 23.8 396
5.5 61.6 6.7 11.7 8.9 5.6 431
5.4 35.2 9.3 5.2 11.1 33.8 424
5.6 37.4 7.5 8.6 8.6 32.3 413
4.6 40.3 7.2 8.4 13.1 26.39 402
5.58 52.2 6.06 9.66 9.7 16.81 418
7.2 25.5 1.4 3.4 9.3 60.4 404
6.8 31.2 2.3 4.0 10.9 51.7 408
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Table 4. Other parameters that characterize plant raw materials after solid-state fermentation using A. niger. Soybean
Rapeseed
Lupin Meal
Pea Meal
Parameters
Raw
SSF
Raw
SSF
Raw
SFF
Raw
SSF
Soluble protein (mg/g ss) Soluble phosphorus (mg/g ss) Total sugar (mg/g ss)
104.23 0.56 162.96
210.13 39.33 18.75
20.15 0.28 120.9
170.34 1.51 47.12
29.96 0.19 30.53
25.96 0.26 19.21
17.02 0.32 32.71
75.08 5.61 40.16
ss = Solid Substrate
Table 5. Effects of SSF over phytic acid content in treated ingredients. Sample
Phytic Acid
Lupin Lupin SSF Soy Soy SSF Pea Pea SSF Rapeseed Rapeseed SSF
6.27 4.47 8.79 <1.77 7.92 <1.77 n.d. n.d.
obtained for SSF production using A. niger in the pilot bioreactor. Tables 4 and 5 show additional content values for plant ingredients before and after SSF treatment.
Perspectives
The characterization of macro- and micronutrients of plant raw materials treated by SSF in the pilot bioreac-
tor showed it is possible to manipulate the nutritional profile of raw materials through bioconversion processes. The results changed depending on the type of plant substrate used. There was an increment in the amount of protein of all tested ingredients. Positive effects were observed on soluble protein and phosphorus levels, which could have a significant impact on the discharge of these nutrients to the aquatic environment. The results suggested that SSF could improve the nutritional characteristics of plant protein ingredients and thus decrease or overcome the negative effects of antinutritional factors, making them more promising alternative protein sources for aquafeeds. However, further studies are necessary to determine the direct effects of using SSF products â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not only over growth
performance and feed utilization, but also nutrient balance and the health status and immune condition of fish.
Preliminary assays using selected ingredients and microorganisms for SSF under laboratory conditions.
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Multiple Characteristics Considered In Selection Of Probiotics For Marine Shrimp Dr. Felipe do Nascimento Vieira Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Departamento de Aquicultura Laboratório de Camarões Marinhos Ademar Gonzaga Street, 1346 Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil vieirafn@lcm.ufsc.br
Dr. José Luis Mouriño Bruno Correa da Silva, M.S. Dr. Walter Quadros Seiffert Dr. Luis Alejandro Vinatea
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Departamento de Aquicultura Laboratório de Camarões Marinhos
The use of L. plantarum was evaluated under intensive commercial pond conditions at the Yakult Experimental Farm-USFC. After 75 days, shrimp whose diet was supplemented with probiotics had higher survival and lower feed-conversion than control shrimp, with no alteration in growth rate.
this step, 78 strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated from the intestinal tracts of Litopenaeus vannamei shrimp cultivated in a super-intensive biofloc system.
In Vitro Strain Selection Summary:
The authors conducted studies in Brazil to develop a probiotic for marine shrimp cultivation. They chose a bacterium with the highest growth velocity, greatest capacity to inhibit pathogens, and capacity to resist biliary salts and different pH values and salinities. After 75 days of cultivation, shrimp whose diet was supplemented with Lactobacillus plantarum had a higher survival rate and lower feed-conversion rate than control shrimp, with no alteration in their growth rate. Most people on this vast planet do not realize that microorganisms represent the majority of the Earth’s inhabitants in number, biomass and genetic diversity. Among this immense world of microorganisms, the development of a specific probiotic for use in aquaculture is an arduous task that includes the isolation of microorganisms, selection according to in vitro characteristics and trials on pilot and commercial scales.
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With financial support from the Brazilian Ministry of Fishing and Aquaculture (MPA), Financing Agency for Studies and Projects (FINEP), and Scientific and Technological Research Support Foundation of Santa Catarina (FAPESC), the authors conducted studies at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina in Brazil to develop a probiotic for marine shrimp cultivation.
Isolation Of Bacteria Strains
The isolation of bacteria from the intestinal tract of the animal in study is the first step toward successful development of a probiotic. Selective and differentiating culture mediums are used to isolate specific groups of beneficial bacteria. In this case, the authors sought to isolate lactic acid bacteria because they have beneficial characteristics such as easy multiplication, the production of compounds that inhibit pathogenic bacteria (hydrogen peroxide, organic acids and bacteriocins), and production of exogenous enzymes and immunostimulant compounds. To isolate the strains, a de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe medium with aniline blue indicator was used, so the lactic acid bacteria colonies were colored blue. In
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The high number of the bacterial strains isolated made direct evaluation of the effects of each strain on the animals in cultivation difficult. Various in vitro laboratory selection tests were thus conducted to select a few strains to test with the animals. For the selection used in this study, the following characteristics were considered. Inhibition of pathogens. Evaluation of the capacity of the isolated strains to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria for marine shrimp by means of the diameter of the inhibition zone (Kirby-Bauer technique in diffusion in agar). Growth kinetics. Growth velocity is an important characteristic, as high growth speed permits more efficient commercial production processes and can indicate greater competitiveness of the strain in the environment. Resistance to different salinities. In marine shrimp cultivation, variations in salinity depend on the region, time of year and rainfall, and can range from close to zero to higher than that of the ocean in very saline regions. It is therefore important for commercial probiotic bacteria to survive wide variations in salinity. Resistance to different pH values. Since the pH of water used for cultivation is
Lactic acid bacteria grown in agar with aniline blue indicator appeared blue.
not constant and can vary from close to 6 in super-intensive shrimp cultivation with biofloc up to 9 in eutrophic ponds, probiotic strains must handle a broad pH range. Resistance to biliary salts. Biliary salts have an emulsifying function, increasing the solubility of fats and fatsoluble vitamins to help in their absorption. This detergent effect is microbicidal because it can affect the phospholipids and fatty acids on the walls of the microorganisms. For a probiotic to efficiently colonize an animal’s digestive tract, it is important for it to resist the action of biliary salts. From these in vitro tests, a theoretically ideal strain based on the best results obtained from the evaluated strains was defined. The ideotype had the highest growth velocity, greatest capacity to inhibit pathogens and greater capacity to resist biliary salts, different pH values and salinities. Lactobacillus plantarum was selected for later studies.
Probiotic In Shrimp Hatchery
The colonization of the digestive tract of shrimp larvae by beneficial bacteria can be an important strategy for the prevention of infirmities. The larvae are only totally colonized in the digestive tract when there is a transformation to the protozoea state with the initiation of exogenous feeding. Thus, the supply of a diet supplement with probiotics in this stage can lead to the establishment of a favorable intestinal bacterial microbiota from the beginning. In an experimental hatchery, it was observed that from the nauplius V stage to postlarva 1, diet supplementation with L. plantarum increased the survival of the larva, with survival rates of 51% for those in the probiotic treatment and 21% for the control group. There was also a global aquaculture advocate
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Table 1. Performance of farm-raised shrimp fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with L. plantarum. Treatment
Survival (%)
Feed-Conversion Ratio
Final Weight (g)
Days of Cultivation
Probiotic Control
83.02 ± 6.12 74.65 ± 9.07
0.84 ± 0.44 0.96 ± 0.73
11.23 ± 0.62 11.96 ± 0.35
77.00 ± 6.42 72.33 ± 9.70
Bacteria Count (log UFC/g)
7
Control
Probiotic
6 5 4 3 2 1
0
Vibrio Species
Lactic Acid Bacteria
Figure 1. Bacterial counts in shrimp larvae fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with L. plantarum. 9
Control
Probiotic
Bacteria Count (log UFC/g)
8 7 6 5 4 3
laboratory conditions are important, but their results are not always replicated on a commercial scale. Thus, in the final step of this work, the use of L. plantarum was evaluated under commercial conditions at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Yakult Experimental Farm. Six, 12,000-m2 ponds stocked at 14 shrimp/ m2 were used. The shrimp in three ponds received a diet supplemented with probiotics and three were maintained as a control. After 75 days of cultivation, the shrimp whose diet was supplemented with probiotics had a higher survival rate and lower feed-conversion rate (Table 1), with no alteration in their growth rate. This result should be associated with a change in the intestinal bacterial microbiota of the shrimp fed with probiotics. The decrease in the Vibrio populations in the animals’ intestines led to the increased survival of the shrimp in the ponds fed with probiotics. Meanwhile, the lower feed conversion can be related to the capacity of the probiotic bacteria to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes in the host, improving the digestibility of the rations. A study conducted for a master’s dissertation by Celso Buglione-Neto demonstrated that the addition of L. plantarum to the diet of shrimp improves the apparent digestibility of the protein in the ration, corroborating the authors’ hypothesis.
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2 1
0
Vibrio Species
Memorable Meals
Lactic Acid Bacteria
Figure 2. Bacterial counts in the intestines of shrimp fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with L. plantarum.
modification in the bacterial microbiota of the larvae, with an increase in the concentration of beneficial bacteria (lactic acid) and decrease in the population of Vibrio species (Figure 1). Larvae fed with L. plantarum had even greater resistance to an experimental challenge with V. harveyi, with 80% survival in relation to 50% survival in the control group.
Probiotic In Experimental Cultivation
In this study, experimental cultivation was conducted in clearwater for 60 days, beginning with the shrimp in the postlarvae 20 stage. A modification in the intestinal bacterial microbiota was observed, with a decrease in the population of Vibrio species and an increase
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of lactic acid bacteria (Figure 2) in the shrimp fed with probiotics. However, there was no alteration in the survival rate (81%) and final average weight (6 g) in both treatments. These results were expected, given that the shrimp were maintained under excellent cultivation conditions with 70% daily water exchange and a temperature of 30° C during the experiment. At the end of cultivation, the shrimp were challenged with V. harveyi by intramuscular injection. After 12 hours, it was observed that the shrimp fed with probiotics had a 66% survival rate compared to the control animals’ 40% survival.
Probiotic At Shrimp Farm Studies conducted in controlled
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Table 2. Operational costs for scenarios I and II.
Financial, Economic Analysis Of Shrimp Farm Investment In Brazil
Description Fixed costs Labor Depreciation Capital fixed renumeration Maintenance Variable costs Total cost
Márcio Alves Bezerra, M.S.
Description
Commercial Director Ceará Shrimp Farmers Association Ceará, Brazil
financial and economic indicators based on a set production system common to shrimp-farming projects in the state of Ceará. The stability of the scenarios was tested through analysis of the sensitiveness of achieved indicators with regards to product price variations and production-related inputs.
Technical Parameters The authors did a comparative economic and financial analysis to compare three scenarios for shrimp-farming investment in Brazil: self-managed, bank-based or lease. Based on the current macroeconomic conditions of the production sector, all three investment scenarios demonstrated viability, especially the lease approach. The three scenarios also presented satisfactory stability against fluctuations. However, future investors should be cautious with regards to possible variations related to the aquaculture sector. After recent problems related to technical, economic and environmental issues, the industry of shrimp farming in Brazil is experiencing a positive period that signals its economic recovery. In the recent past, the Brazilian consumer market for shrimp was not recognized and exploited by only a few producers in Brazil. The domestic market has since become the main target of the shrimp industry as it seeks a return to full potential and profitability. The authors did a comparative economic and financial analysis to compare three scenarios for shrimp-farming investment modalities going forward: self-managed, bank-based or lease. Scenario I considered a 100% investment of the investor’s own resources. Scenario II considered an investment of 50% of deployment costs from the investor’s own resources and the remaining 50% through bank financing. The line of credit used in this research has annual finance charges of 8.5% and a repayment term of 12 years, including a four-year grace period. Scenario III considered an investment of 10% of deployment costs from the investor’s own resources to be used only with the reform of a unit already in progress, and then work on operational leasing. The data collected demonstrated their feasibility through
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Fixed costs Labor Depreciation Capital fixed renumeration Maintenance Leasing Variable costs Total cost
Costs
Based on primary data obtained through research with shrimp producers in Ceará, tables were compiled and reported with the deployment and operation costs for different scenarios. The details of the construction costs are shown in Table 1. Prices are from January 2011 with currency conversion based on the following relationship: U.S. $1.00 = R $1.60. Operating costs were divided into fixed and variable ones. The breakdown of costs for the scenarios with and without lease are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Table 1. Construction costs for medium-size (11.0-49.9 ha) shrimp production unit in Brazil. Component
Total cost Total cost/ha
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59,828.27 39,836.43 17,340.47 1,831.06 820.31 120,003.87 187.832.14
Useful Life (years)
Value (R $)
Value (U.S. $)
40 – – 5 10 3 5
100,000 29,500 156,500 28,000 86,450 18,400 15,000
62,500 18,437 97,812 17,500 54,031 11,500 9,375
5 20
8,650 1,141,850
5,406 713,656
1,427,850
892,406
35,696
22,310
Indicator
Unit
Scenario I
S Scenario
II
Scenario III
Payback period Benefit-cost ratio Net present value Internal rate of return
Year R$
4.30 1.26
1.79 1.27
0.45 1.37
R$
1,737,065.08
1,951,736.46
2,256,983.13
%
28.78
57.08
229.55
Results
Cost/Cycle (R $)
Cost/Cycle (U.S. $)
141,451.03 63,738.29 27,744.75 2,929.69 1,312.50 45,725.81 204,806.19 346,257.22
88,406.89 39,836.43 17,340.47 1,831.06 820.31 28,578.63 128,003.87 216,410.76
Production costs: R $5.35/kg, U.S. $3.59/kg
In Ceará, the farmed shrimp sales price is calculated based on final average weight of shrimp prior to harvest. For this research, the reference price was R $7.92/kg (U.S. $4.95/kg).
The technical parameters used in this research had the following values: total area – 30 ha, pond size – 3 ha, species – Litopenaeus vannamei, production system – semi-intensive, aeration power – 2 hp/ha, stocking density – 25 shrimp/m2; cycles – 2.2/ year, shrimp final weight – 11 g, feed-conversion ratio – 1.35, survival – 72%, cycle time – 135 days.
Purchase Labor costs Equipment Transportation Aeration Feed Analysis (biometrics, water quality) Harvest Infrastructure (ponds, raceways, etc.)
95,725.23 63,738.29 27,744.75 2,929.69 1.312.50 204,806.19 300,531.42
Table 3. Operational costs for scenario III.
Ítalo Régis Castelo Branco Rocha, M.S.
Summary:
Cost/Cycle (U.S. $)
Production costs: R $4.99/kg, U.S. $3.11/kg
Federal Institute of Education Science and Technology of Ceará Campus Acaraú mab.aquicultura@gmail.com
Medium-size shrimp farm in Ceará, Brazil. Photo courtesy of A.S. Marine Aquaculture.
Cost/Cycle (R $)
Table 4. Financial and economic indicators.
An analysis was made of economic and financial indicators, based on the cash flow, revenue and costs of the scenarios (Table 4). Based on the current macroeconomic conditions of the production sector, all three investment scenarios demonstrated viability, especially Scenario III. The sensitivity of the three investment projects presented satisfactory stability against fluctuations defined in this study.
Sensitivity Analysis Scenarios
The sensitivity analysis tested the stability of the scenarios against external factors such as variations in the price of shrimp in the Brazilian market and changes in the prices of production inputs. The minimum rate of attractiveness used in this analysis was 10%. The details of each scenario are shown in Table 5. Despite the excellent projected economic performance of these shrimp-farming investment modalities, future investors should be cautious with regards to possible variations related solely to the aquaculture sector.
Table 5. Sensitivity analysis scenarios. Sensitivity
Scenario IS
Scenario II
Scenario III
Indicator
Rb/c
Net Present Value
Internal Return Rate
Rb/c
Net Present Value
Internal Return Rate
Rb/c
Net Present Value
Internal Return Rate
Revenues, costs under normal conditions Less 5% on revenues, costs, normal conditions Revenue under normal conditions plus 5% on costs Less 10% on revenues plus 10% on costs
1.26
1,737,065.08
28.78
1.38
2,487,065.08
62.55
1.37
2,256,983.13
229.55
1.20
1,321,842.65
24.62
1.31
2,034,342.65
51.45
1.30
1,841,760.70
191.09
1.20
1,408,695.91
24.82
1.31
2,158,695.91
51.96
1.31
1,954,609.85
192.93
1.03
249,881.87
12.77
1.13
924,881.87
26.39
1.12
821,791.72
88.77
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Wet Mount Technique Excellent For Health Monitoring, But Not NHP Diagnosis In Shrimp
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Giana Bastos Gomes Aquaculture Genetics Research Group School of Marine and Tropical Biology James Cook University Townsville, Queensland, Australia giana.gomes@jcu.edu.au
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anorexic. Slow growth, heterogeneous sizes at harvest, reduced feed consumption, low survival and poor feed conversion are registered in affected ponds, causing severe production and economic losses.
NHPB Detection
An outbreak of NHP results in shrimp of highly variable size at harvest.
Summary:
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Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis is a disease of shrimp that causes slow growth, low survival and poor feed conversion. Wet mount analysis is commonly used to diagnose NHP in ponds in Brazil. In a study, however, the wet mount technique was found inaccurate because none of the observed lesions were disease specific, not to mention the subjective interpretation involved. Polymerase chain reaction testing provides more definite proof of the presence of NHP bacteria. In shrimp, the hepatopancreas is an organ of vital importance for the production of digestive enzymes, assimilation and storage of digestive products, delivery of nutrients to and removal of waste metabolites from the hemolymph, maintenance of salt balance and detoxification of heavy metals and foreign organic substances. Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis bacterium (NHPB) is a pathogen mainly found in the tubular epithelial cells of the hepatopancreas, where it causes atrophy and malfunction. Shrimp digestion, lipid storage, healthy growth and development are impaired in infected animals. NHPB affect juvenile and adult shrimp by the ingestion of infected material or cannibalism. Clinical signs of shrimp with necrotizing hepatopancreatitis (NHP) include soft and loose shells, flaccid bodies and dark gills. Animals become lethargic and
NHP is believed to be associated with elevated water temperature and salinity based on an outbreak in Texas, USA, that occurred after temperatures rose over 29° C with salinities ranging from 20 to 40 ppt. These same environmental conditions are commonly found in northeastern Brazil’s shrimp farms throughout the year, where serious NHP outbreaks have also been reported. In the authors’ experience, the occurrence of NHP in semi-intensive pond systems is also highly associated with inadequate pond bottom management. NHPB is a gram-negative, pleomorphic, rickettsialike intracellular bacterium belonging to the a-proteobacteria group, which cannot be cultured by traditional microbiological techniques. There is still a great deal of discussion among farm managers and researchers on the most effective way to diagnose this infection in situ. Several techniques are claimed useful in detecting NHP, including wet mount analysis, histopathology, gene probes, electron microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Among these, wet mount analysis has been the most used approach in the field, not only for health-monitoring programs but also for presumptive diagnoses. In Brazilian shrimp culture, it has been a common field practice to rely solely on wet mount observations to diagnose NHP in ponds and thereafter apply therapeutic treatments.
Testing Methods Compared
In a study, the authors compared the techniques of wet mount microscopy, histopathology and PCR in the diagnosis of NHP in farmed Litopenaeus vannamei and evaluated the usefulness of the wet mount technique as a field method for the diagnosis of this disease.
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50 PCR+
PCR-
Percentage (%)
Percentage (%)
40 30 20 10 0
1
2
3
4
30 20 10
0
Shrimp of 10- to 11-g weight were randomly sampled with a cast net from three growout ponds at a semi-intensive commercial farm with reportedly high mortality caused by NHP in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. The hepatopancreas of each shrimp was divided into three pieces. One piece was used for wet mount and the other two were fixed for posterior histopathology and PCR analyses. For wet mount analyses, one part of each shrimp hepatopancreas was set onto a glass slide with a 3% saline solution and observed under a microscope. Each sample was classified for loose cells from tubular epithelium, melanization and alteration in normal fluid color (orange to brown). Tubular alteration and lipid content were classified into a score ranging from 0 (normal) to 4 (highly altered) and 0 (no lipids) to 4 (replete with lipids), respectively, which were directly related to shrimp nutritional status. Scores were allocated according to the severity of tubular alteration, based on the amount of alteration per field per animal, and quantity of lipids, based on the percentage of tubules filled with oil droplets per field per animal. For histopathological analyses, samples were embedded with paraffin and then stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Each sample was classified depending on whether hemocytic infiltration, edema, granulomatous lesions and tubular atrophy were distinctly present. Because of the sensitivity of detecting the presence of DNA of the causing agent in host shrimp, PCR was used as a control in this experiment to identify shrimp carrying NHP. PCR analyses were conducted following a well-known commercial protocol.
Results
For the hepatopancreas samples of 154 shrimp, 41.6% tested PCR positive and 58.4% tested PCR negative for NHPB. Infected animals scored lower lipid levels and higher tubular alteration, loose cells and melanization than those that registered as PCR negative. However, such differences were not statistically significant. It was observed that 25% of NHP-infected samples possessed perfect hepatopancreas tubules (score 0), while 21.9% were severely altered (score 4). Although the PCR-negative group contained a higher percentage of individuals with normal tubules (36.7%), 42.2% of the individuals had a moderate, high or very high presence
1
2
3
4
Lipid Content Score
Tubular Alteration Score Figure 1. Relation between the percentages of NHP-infected (PCR+) and uninfected (PCR−) samples and tubular alteration in Pacific white shrimp hepatopancreas.
PCR-
40
0 0
PCR+
Figure 2. Relation between the percentages of NHP-infected (PCR+) and uninfected (PCR−) samples and lipid content in Pacific white shrimp hepatopancreas.
If this mismanaged bottom of a NHPB-infected pond is not adequately treated, necrotizing hepatopancreatitis is likely to reoccur in the next production cycle.
In this magnified wet mount, hepatopancreas tubules show an alteration score of 4 and no lipid droplets.
of severe alterations (Figure 1). Likewise with the tubular alterations, no clear relationship was observed between hepatopancreas lipid content and PCR results (Figure 2). Histological analyses showed that both infected and uninfected shrimp had a high prevalence of hemocytic infiltration, edema and necrosis and atrophy in the tubular epithelium, with granulomatous lesions to a lesser extent (Table 1). The observed hepatopancreas characteristics or diagnosis criteria of the traditional approaches most correlated with PCR-positive results were that of lipid content (wet mount) and hemocytic infiltration (histopathology). However, in this study, a poor correlation (R = 0.07) was found among the PCR results and those parameters observed in wet mounts or histopathology, indicating that neither of these traditional techniques can be used alone to diagnose NHP.
Perspectives
This work demonstrated that using the wet mount technique alone is inaccurate in the diagnosis of NHP because none of the
Table 1. Mean percentages of histopathological lesions observed in NHP-infected (PCR+) and uninfected (PCR−) Pacific white shrimp hepatopancreas. Values are not significantly different. PCR+ (64) PCR- (90)
72
Hemocytic Infiltration (%)
Edema (%)
Granulomatous Lesion (%)
Tubular Atrophy (%)
93.8 ± 24.4 81.1 ± 39.4
54.7 ± 50.2 57.8 ± 49.7
18.8 ± 39.3 10.0 ± 30.2
51.6 ± 50.4 52.2 ± 50.2
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observed lesions appeared to be disease specific, not to mention the subjective interpretation and grading by the examiner. The wet mount technique should be kept as a paramount tool for shrimp farmers to routinely check their stocks’ overall health and nutritional status. However, only PCR techniques should be considered for definite proof of the presence of NHP. In fact, the hepatopancreas tubules of healthy shrimp typically show perfect fingerlike shapes replete with oil droplets, which is a good indicator of nutritional and overall health status and can be clearly observed in wet mount exams. Tubular alteration, melanization and low lipid levels in shrimp hepatopancreas tissue may be related to NHP, but can also be a consequence of factors such as quantity and quality of consumed feed, poor water or soil quality and environmental changes, and may also occur in shrimp infected with vibriosis, poisoned by toxins or with nutritional disorders. It is important to note that environmental or pond management factors, rather than NHP, can play a significant role in results because uninfected animals also presented low lipid scores. In most disease-affected ponds, it is unlikely that a single etiology is the illness causative agent. The common case is to find more than one agent affecting either a single animal or an important part of the population. Furthermore, the presence of several etiological agents or factors can lead to an inaccurate diagnosis, as viral infections are typically accompanied by secondary bacterial infections that can cause the death of animals previously weakened by a virus. As with the wet mount examinations, none of the histopathological lesions were NHP-specific, because lesions can also be associated with other illnesses or toxins. For this reason, PCR is an important method for NHP diagnosis, as it allows the detection of non-culturable bacteria even when a large number of samples must be simultaneously analyzed. A positive PCR result does not always mean that the pathogen is causing disease. Sometimes the host can coexist with the pathogen with little or no adverse effect as an overall function of host health and pathogen virulence, concentration and ability to compromise the host’s immunological defenses.
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In Situ Detection Of Blue Crab Reovirus (Top) H & E staining of hepatopancreas from a CsRVinfected blue crab shows eosinophilic to basophilic cytoplasmic inclusions within connective tissue and hemocytes. (Bottom) In situ hybridization in a consecutive section of hepatopancreas shows a positive reaction (black precipitate) to the CsRV-specific gene probe. Scale bars = 25 Îź.
Kathy F. J. Tang, Ph.D. Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona 85721 USA fengjyu@u.arizona.edu
Carlos R. Pantoja, Ph.D. Rita M. Redman Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology University of Arizona
captured from Chesapeake Bay in 2005 was present in over 50% of dead/moribund soft-shell crabs and 5% of the wild crab populations sampled. As noted in 2010 by Holly Bowers and co-authors in Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, this virus replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cells. It has an icosahedral shape with a 55-nm diameter and contains a genome consisting of 12 segments of dsRNA.
Histopathological Characterization Summary:
Efforts are under way to develop hatchery technology that will increase the availability of juvenile blue crabs for both aquaculture and stock enhancement. However, a reovirus was found in crabs collected from Chesapeake Bay. Histological examination of hepatopancreas and gill sections from infected crabs revealed inclusions in the cells of connective tissues and in hemocytes. An in situ hybridization procedure can be used to diagnose blue crabs infected with the reovirus. Aquaculture of blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, is being developed in the Chesapeake Bay between Virginia and Maryland, United States, to reduce the impact of overfishing. The growing demand for both hard- and soft-shell crabs has led to overfishing, with an estimated 75% of the bayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adult blue crab stock removed each year. This has resulted in dramatic reductions of blue crab populations. Historically, blue crab aquaculture in Chesapeake Bay has been relatively primitive and based on the capture and fattening of juvenile crabs collected from the wild. Current efforts are focused on the development of hatchery technology that will increase the availability of juvenile blue crabs for both aquaculture and stock enhancement. Recent success in the hatchery technology has shown that blue crabs can be mass produced year round, which increases the prospects for commercial production. Attention to blue crab diseases, especially those caused by marine viruses, will undoubtedly become increasingly important as the industry develops.
Blue Crab Reovirus
Histological examination of the affected crabs showed the presence of eosinophilic to basophilic cytoplasmic inclusions in both hepatopancreas and gill tissues. In the hepatopancreas, inclusions were found in the cells of connective tissue and hemocytes in hemal sinus. These spherical to pleomorphic inclusions were present both singularly and in clusters. In the advanced of infection, the cytoplasmic area showed an increased volume, and the inclusions became less intense in color with a granular appearance. In the gill filaments, the inclusions were also found in hemocytes. In addition, focal inflammatory lesions were present, which were formed by repeated layering of fibrocytic cells. The core of these lesions consisted of infected hemocytes which engulfed necrotic cell debris. Total RNA was extracted from hemolymph samples drawn from the moribund crabs, and the cDNA was synthesized for construction of a cDNA library. One clone (CsRV-28) was found to have a significant match with a reovirus that infects mud crabs, Scylla serrata. The matched region is part of the guanylytransferase gene, and there was a 95% similarity in amino acid sequence.
In Situ Detection
The CsRV-28 clone was used for generation of a digoxigenin-labeled probe for in situ hybridization. This probe reacted to cytoplasmic inclusions in the hemocytes of hepatopancreas and gill tissues. No reaction was seen in any of the tissues prepared from uninfected crabs. Thus, the in situ hybridization was effective as a diagnostic procedure. This method has several advantages for diagnosis over commonly used histological techniques. It provides a high specificity in that the positive reaction occurs only with the target virus and thus can distinguish among viruses that are morphologically similar. In addition, the method is relatively easy to perform, rapid and suitable for routine use by diagnostic laboratories.
A Callinectes sapidus reovirus (CsRV) found in blue crabs
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industry news Velella Project Could Revolutionize Sustainable Aquaculture
Marine biologists at Kampachi Farms (formerly with Kona Blue Water Farms) are exploring new submersible Aquapod pen technology, an innovative mariculture system that drifts on open-ocean currents. “The Velella Research Project explores the potential of raising healthy fish in their natural environment with virtually no environmental impact on the underlying sea floor, surrounding water or wild fish,” Neil Anthony Sims, Kampachi Farms CEO, said. One small 6.7-m-diameter Aquapod tethered to a sailing vessel manned by marine biologists has been deployed in federal waters near Hawaii, USA. The Aquapod is stocked with hatchery-reared native Kampachi, which are fed a diet that has replaced significant amounts of fishmeal and fish oil with soy and other agricultural proteins. “We’re very excited about the results so far,” Sims said. “The fish are healthy, growing well and where they’re meant to be – in the ocean. This technology has the potential to revolutionize fish farming.” A video of the project can be viewed at www.youtube.com/ watch?v=OPs-0LfCEq0. Contact Kelly Coleman at +1-415939-4602 or kcoleman@hawaii.rr.com for further information.
Auburn University Opens Aquatic Resource Center
Auburn University’s new U.S. $9 million Center for Aquatic Resource Management will offer leading-edge aquatic research facilities, enhanced classrooms and improved community education opportunities that enhance the university’s ability to meet its mission of research, teaching and outreach. Located at the E.W. Shell Fisheries Research Center north of campus, the facility consists of an 1,860-m2 administration building and a 1,580-m2 laboratory building. The administrative building includes office space, classrooms, a meeting room, a teaching lab, a hatchery and a 600-m2 holding area for handling fish for research projects. It also has a market area for sales to the public. The adjacent laboratory building houses fish tanks and state-of-the-art labs, including several climate-controlled wet labs for year-round research.
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People, Products, Programs Please send short news items and photos for consideration to: Darryl E. Jory 5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com Fax: +1-419-844-1638
“This new center has been designed to have real-world impact by not only strengthening our fisheries and aquaculture research programs, but also expanding our students’ learning experiences,” Bill Batchelor, College of Agriculture dean, said. For photos and video of the center, visit http://ocm.auburn. edu/featured_story/aquatics_center.html.
Darden, Publix, SFP Recognized For Commitment To Fisheries
At the 2011 annual meeting of the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), Darden Restaurants was formally recognized for its three-year commitment to rebuilding troubled fisheries through Fishery Improvement Projects (FIPs). Initial FIP work will be around the Gulf of Mexico with partners Publix Super Markets and Sustainable Fisheries Partnership (SFP). Darden’s recognition stems from CGI’s Commitments to Action, where members are encouraged to propose concrete plans to address global challenges. Darden’s submission, “Catalyzing Industry to Rebuild World Fisheries,” was selected as an exemplary approach in the environment and energy cluster, and includes commitments to combat illegal fishing, enhance productivity and reduce ecological impacts. “Darden is an industry leader in supporting healthy ecosystems for future generations,” SFP CEO Jim Cannon said. “Through this commitment, Darden is taking action to create change within the seafood supply chain by building alliances … to implement fishery improvement. We hope others will look at what Darden has achieved and also take action.” As part of its commitment, Darden will lead the creation of an alliance of companies, non-governmental organizations and other groups to support targeted fishery improvement projects.
New Website Clarifies Seafood Health Benefits, Risks
A new website aimed at helping consumers weigh the benefits of eating seafood against possible risks has been launched at www.seafoodhealthfacts.org. Organizers hope the site will help clear up many of the myths surrounding seafood. Developed largely through a grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the site was created as a credible resource for health care professionals and consumers, said Dr. Michael Morrissey, director of Oregon State University’s Food Innovation Center and primary project investigator. “Our program has synthesized all the available informa-
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tion from government agencies and leading universities, and we’ve made it accessible,” Morrissey said. “Consumers should feel confident about their seafood choices, and Seafood Health Facts answers their questions in a credible and balanced way.” The comprehensive site includes resources for seafood nutrition and seafood safety, and a comparison of the risks and benefits of seafood consumption. It is also organized to provide resources for specific population groups. For more on the Seafood Health Facts project, contact Heather Mann at hmann@seafoodschool.org or +1-541-265-4484.
AGCT Offers Fast DNA Analysis
Species substitution has been a problem in the seafood industry for many years, and regulators as well as consumers are increasingly demanding products from sustainable fisheries and traceability for wild-caught and aquaculture products. ACGT, Inc., a global leader in DNA analysis since 1993, has established its Seafood I.D. service to meet the growing need for compliance in each of these areas. ACGT’s DNA-based fish and shellfish analysis can be performed either in conjunction with existing certification programs or as a stand-alone procedure. The company combines superior customer service with fast, accurate and cost-effective results. Accurate DNA analysis provides clear scientific data for compliance and decision-making by regulatory agencies and nongovernmental organizations. It can assist fishermen in protecting their brand and highlighting compliance with sustainability directives. DNA analysis also supports identity and sustainability for processors and vendors, and proof of verification for restaurant and supermarket customers. For further information, visit www.acgtinc.com or e-mail ed_diehl@acgtinc.com.
Harvest Select Releases New Gourmet Catfish Tenders
In celebration of its 20th anniversary, Harvest Select has released Gourmet Select Breaded Fillet Tenders. This new product features a special breading that complements but not overpowers the natural, mild flavor of U.S. farm-raised catfish. Gourmet Select Tenders offer a new spin on a favorite Southern tradition, with their light and crispy taste that maintains a crunch throughout cooking, serving and dining. “A good catfish meal is a staple in the U.S. South, and Harvest Select has set the bar high with our new Gourmet Select line,” Marketing Director George Norris said. “We have given catfish a deliciously light, crunchy taste reminiscent of Sunday dinner at grandma’s.” “Harvest Select works diligently to develop new products that are sustainable, nutritious and consistently high in quality, taste and texture,” Technical Director Russ McPherson said. “Combining our premium cut of catfish with a specially developed gourmet breading, we can now supply our customers with a unique savory delight.” For more information, visit www.harvestselect.com or contact the sales office at +1-334-628-3474. global aquaculture advocate
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Aquaculture America 2012
calendar Seafood and Aquaculture Events
NOVEMBER
Send event listings in English to: Event Calendar 5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA homeoffice@gaalliance.org fax: +1-314-293-5525
China Fisheries and Seafood Expo/Aquaculture China November 1-3, 2011 Quindao, China Phone: +1-206-789-5741 ext. 334, +86-10-58672620 Web: www.chinaseafoodexpo.com Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership 2011 November 6-9, 2011 Santiago, Chile Phone: +1-314-293-5500 Web: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/
Nicovita’s Annual Symposium November 22-24, 2011 Honduras Phone: 511-315-0800, ext. 43414 Web: www.nicovita.com.pe/PageEdit. aspx?pag=84&len=2
FEBRUARY Fish International February 12-14, 2011 Bremen, Germany Phone: +49-421-3505-264 Web: www.fishinternational.com
International Sturgeon Conference November 23, 2011 Warsaw, Poland Web: www.aller-aqua.com/cms/front_ content.php?idcat=560&changelang=3
Victam Asia 2012 February 15-17, 2012 Bangkok, Thailand Phone: +31-33-246-4404 Web: www.victam.com
International Symposium on Aquaculture Nutrition November 23-25, 2011 Mexico City, Mexico Phone: 52-55-5623-1197 Web: www.iztacala.unam.mx/XIsina/
Aquaculture America 2012 February 29-March 2, 2012 Las Vegas, Nevada, USA Phone: +1-760-751-5005 Web: www.was.org/WasMeetings/ meetings/Default.aspx?%2code=WA2011
DECEMBER
MARCH
Virginia Aquaculture Conference 2011 November 18-19, 2011 Williamsburg, Virginia, USA Phone: +1-804-684-7742 Web: www.vaaquacultureconference.com
International Algae Congress December 1-2, 2011 Woerden, The Netherlands Phone: +31-(0)348-484-002 Web: www.algaecongress.com
International Boston Seafood Show March 11-13, 2012 Boston, Massachusetts, USA Phone: +1-972-943-4726 Web: www.bostonseafood.com
Congreso Nacional de Acuicultura November 21-24, 2011 Barcelona, Spain Phone: +34-932-212-955 Web: www.seacongresos.org
Shanghai International Fisheries and Seafood Exposition December 8-10, 2011 Shanghai, China Phone: 86-21-34140187 Web: www.sifse.com/en/
Aquaculture New Zealand Conference 2011 November 9-10, 2011 Nelson, New Zealand Phone: 03-548-8944 Web: http://aquaculture.org.nz/ conference/ Expo Pesca/AcuiPeru November 10-12, 2011 Lima, Peru Phone: 511-201-7820 Web: www.thaiscorp.com/expopesca_ new/site/index_en.php
Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture November 21-25, 2011 Mangalore, India Phone: 0824-2244356, 2249256 Web: www.daa8.org
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JANUARY 2012 Texas Aquaculture Association Conference and Trade Show January 25-27, 2012 Bay City, Texas, USA Phone: +1-281-639-8271, +1-979-695-2040 Web: www.texasaquaculture.org/ Conference%202012/Conference-2012.htm global aquaculture advocate
MAY Skretting Australasian Aquaculture Conference and Trade Show May 1-4, 2012 Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Phone: +61-437-152-234 Web: www.australianaquacultureportal.com International Abalone Symposium May 6-11, 2012 Hobart, Tasmania, Australia Phone: +61-3-6231-2999 Web: www.cdesign.com.au/ias2012/
Bringing all Players to the Table
February 29 - March 2 Paris Las Vegas Las Vegas, Nevada USA THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXPOSITION OF
Associate Sponsors American Tilapia Association American Veterinary Medical Association Aquacultural Engineering Society Aquaculture Association of Canada Catfish Farmers of America
Global Aquaculture Alliance Global Aquaculture Alliance International Association of Aquaculture Economics and Management Latin American Chapter WAS Striped Bass Growers Association US Shrimp Farming Association US Trout Farmers Association Zebrafish Husbandry Association
For More Information Contact:
Conference Manager P.O. Box 2302 • Valley Center, CA 92082 USA Tel: +1.760.751.5005 • Fax: +1.760.751.5003 global aquaculture advocate November/December 2011 Email: worldaqua@aol.com • www.was.org
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