A Brief on Election Campaign Finance in Sri Lanka by Transparency International Sri Lanka

A Brief on

Election Campaign Finance in Sri Lanka

A Brief on

Election Campaign Finance in Sri Lanka

First Edition May 2017 ISBN 978-955-1281-80-9 Publisher Transparency International Sri Lanka 5/1, Elibank Road, Colombo 05. Phone: 0114369781 Fax: 011 2 501 707 E-Mail: tisl@tisrilanka.org Web: www.tisrilanka.org Author Sankhitha Gunaratne Printed by Karunaratne & Sons (Pvt) Ltd. No. 65 C, Thalgahavila Road, Midellamulahena, Horana. www.karusons.com

Copyrights ÂŠ TISL This publication may be reproduced by any organisation for use in public education activities, provided the source is acknowledged TISL is notified of such use. Commercial use and reproduction are prohibited.

Contents Introduction ............................................................................. 07 Scope

............................................................................. 08

Preface

............................................................................. 09

Local Context............................................................................ 11 Political Contex............................................................................ 11 A unique problem....................................................................... 11 Internal Party Context................................................................ 12 Legal Context............................................................................... 12 The Election Commission.......................................................... 14 Options Available...................................................................... 16 Disclosure...................................................................................... 16 Normative Ends Sought to be Accomplished................. 16. Transparency...................................................................... 16. Curbing undue influence.................................................. 17. Fostering Competition...................................................... 18 Who Discloses.................................................................... 18 What is Disclosed............................................................... 19. When to Disclose............................................................... 20. Who Disclosure is Made To.............................................. 21. Threshold Exceptions........................................................ 21. Hurdles................................................................................ 22 Donation Bans/Limits................................................................. 23

Spending Limits........................................................................24. Issues with Imposing Spending Limits........................... 25 Public Funding................................................................... 28 Eligibility............................................................................. 29. Allocation............................................................................ 29. Enforcement ............................................................................. 32 Country Examples.....................................................................35. Donation Limits................................................................. 36. Spending Limits................................................................. 40. Public Funding................................................................... 42 Recommendations.....................................................................44

Introduction A vibrant and participatory democracy presupposes the need for money in its political arena. In order to reach electorates and to make their message, policies and goals known effectively, political parties and candidates need access to sufficient funding. The role of money in politics is never unproblematic. The unregulated use of finances could have an adverse impact on the carrying out of free and fair elections. The use of the election campaign process to launder illegal funds, the purchase of the allegiance of certain candidates or parties, the abuse of state resources, media patronage, favouritism by political party leaders towards wealthier candidates and the resultant loss of focus on policy priorities and the creation of an unequal playing field are some of the problems caused. New entrants to politics, the poor and the underrepresented are the invariable victims of such problems. The prejudice caused to certain segments of society due to these influences that should play no part in a democratic electoral process must therefore be prevented, ensuring more equitable representation in governing bodies. The franchise is a core means through which the citizen exercises their sovereignty. A good electoral system must therefore include effective regulation of election campaign finance â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as well as the larger scheme of political finance. Transparency and regulation increase the integrity of the electoral process, informs voter choice by allowing them access to relevant information regarding a particular party or candidate and creates a level playing field for candidates and parties of different social milieu.

Scope This paper seeks to discuss the issue of financing of election campaigns within the particular social, political and legal context of Sri Lanka, and draws parallels and lessons from comparative jurisdictions, with a view to enumerating the options and considerations that must be taken into account in assessing the need for a regulatory framework. The paper will be restricted to the financing and spending of political parties and candidates during elections, and will deal with direct financing, and to a limited extent, indirect financing. This paper will outline the context in which election campaign financing regulation will have to be considered in Sri Lanka, and the four main mechanisms used internationally to regulate election campaign finances of political parties and candidates, drawing from regional international experience â&#x20AC;&#x201C; disclosure, donation bans and limits, spending limits and public funding. It will then highlight areas of concern for consideration and propose limited recommendations on certain initial steps that may be taken. It is important to note that the paper does not propose to deal with the broader issue of political finance. Furthermore, it does not seek to apply the regulations outlined contextually by recommending that a certain system should be the one to be used. It also does not attempt to make a choice of which monitoring authorities should be involved in this process. The paper intends to set out broadly the principles that need to be considered in introducing regulations, in the belief that regulations for regulationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sake will be of use in achieving the ends sought to be achieved â&#x20AC;&#x201C;such as transparency and accountability. The reader may find upon their own assessment that one system, or a combination of a few, may be best suited to accomplish these ends.

PREFACE In the recent past there has been sporadic attention drawn to the spiralling campaign expenses of elected representatives in Sri Lanka. Underlying this spiral is a sense that opportunities within public life can only be afforded to those that can mobilise significant resources, incommensurate with the salaries provided to elected representatives. It is in this context that questions arise as to the source and legitimacy of funds that contribute to the largesse of Sri Lankan elections. This campaign finance brief introduces four key methods of regulating and disclosing campaign finances, thereby working towards greater parity between contesting candidates. In light of the options available, this brief will support an on-going discussion on how best to initiate advocacy and necessary reform on campaign finance. One of the key recommendations of the brief is the need for disclosure of campaign contributions as a necessary first step. This will ensure that the interests of those supporting candidates is publicly disclosed prior to an election and on an annual basis for non-election cycle contributions. This is particularly advisable in light of the already established practice of annually disclosing assets and liabilities of elected representatives. In preparing this brief, I would like to acknowledge the tireless efforts of the TISL team, in particular the research and writing of Ms. Sankhitha Gunaratne and the coordination efforts of Ms. Sashee de Mel. I would also like to thank the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) and Dr. Magnus Ohman for their expedient support in reviewing and providing feedback. Asoka Obeyesekere Executive Director Transparency International Sri Lanka March 2017 9

Local Context Political Context Having gone through several major changes including the end of a three-decade long war and the formation of a unity government between the two major political parties for the first time, Sri Lanka is in a unique position; one that calls for political compromise and delivery on promises made on a good governance mandate due to the precarious position it is in. The proposed constitutional reforms and other legislative and policy changes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; including the introduction of a landmark Right to Information law recently1 taking place in various sectors have a heavy focus on the prevention and apprehension of corruption. The publicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demand for clean politics has been clearly demonstrated in recent elections. What remains to be seen is whether there exists a bona fide political will to implement a system that is in the best interest of the country. It is necessary, therefore, to consider the broad mechanisms available for the regulation of campaign finance.

A unique problem The regulation of campaign finance is problematic for two reasons. The first issue is that political parties and candidates are private entities and are also persons who receive a certain degree of financial support from the State.2 Even though they are private entities, they seek to be elected by the vote of the people, and therefore must be liable to the scrutiny of such voters, as they make a choice of whether to vote for a particular candidate based on whether their 1 Political parties and candidates are not liable to information requests as per the provisions of Act No 12 of 2016. However, the Election Commission may be liable to respond to RTI requests under the law, depending on the information requested. 2 Parliamentary Elections Act, No. 1 of 1981 (as amended), Section 127.

interests will be represented and whether such candidate is being unduly influenced – which would result in a conflict of interest. The second is that the introduction of a regulatory framework would have to be set in motion by the very entities that would be the subject of such regulation. Such entities would have the freedom and authority to decide the details of the laws that would govern them, and would decide the financial support given to the body that would enforce such laws.

Internal Party Context Political parties in Sri Lanka – and perhaps in most parts of the world – are known to be undemocratic, and remain outside the purview of state control. An open, accountable and participatory process in financial and other decision-making is therefore a relatively new concept to adapt to. Each political party would have its own reasons for resistance of a regulatory framework.

Legal Context Sri Lanka was a very early signatory to the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) of 2003 - which came into force in 2005 - which compels State Parties to consider the adoption of legislative and administrative measures to enhance transparency in the funding of election candidates and political parties. In the 19th Amendment to the Constitution, Sri Lanka in Article 156A(c)3 enshrined the need to adopt measures to implement the UNCAC and other international Conventions relating to the prevention of corruption. It would appear, therefore, that Sri Lanka is – or needs to be - on the path to a considered regulatory mechanism for political finance. The New Delhi Declaration on Political Finance Regulation in South Asia, made on December 16, 2015 has also laid out the principles 3 Introduced by the 19th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka, certified on 15th May, 2015.

and practices to be considered in introducing political finance regulations, both during elections and otherwise.4 Thus far, Sri Lanka has no restrictions whatsoever on the amount of contributions that may be made to parties or candidates, nor with respect to spending. No measures have been taken thus far to seriously consider rules for transparency in such matters. During parliamentary elections, there is limited public funding available to political parties that have gained at least 1% of the vote in an electoral district in the preceding election. Parties are entitled to public funding of 50 cents per vote, allocated based on the votes obtained in the preceding election. Every political party or independent group are upon application permitted to use a total period of 45 minutes on radio and 45 minutes on TV.5 Free postage is available to secretaries of political parties, to disseminate electionrelated material. The Declaration of Assets and Liabilities Law No. 1 of 19756 makes it mandatory for candidates nominated for elections to make declarations of assets and liabilities. However, it is only within three months of obtaining nominations that a candidate is obligated to submit their declaration of assets and liabilities. Invariably, such date falls beyond the date of the elections, creating an anomaly where those liable are no longer candidates when their declarations fall due. This also robs citizens of the opportunity to make a decision regarding who to vote for, based on their declarations of assets and liabilities.

4 Found at http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/IIIDEM-Files/NewDelhiDeclaration2015_06012016. pdf accessed on 12th September, 2016. 5 Section 157, Parliamentary Elections Act No. 1 of 1981 as amended by the Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Act, No. 58 OF 2009. 6 Section 2(dc)

The Election Commission The Election Commission in Sri Lanka is set up by the provisions of the Constitution, and has wide powers to ensure that free and fair elections are held,7 including the power to issue directions to prevent the misuse of public property8 and guidelines to any broadcasting or telecasting operator or any proprietor or publisher of a newspaper.9 It has a mandate to exercise all powers stipulated under the laws governing elections and referenda.10 While this Commission has in the past at times proved itself to be a formidable entity in promoting the values of open government in elections, its nature depends largely upon the individuals who hold office. Interestingly, political parties in Sri Lanka are required by law to disclose annual accounts to the Election Commission.11 In practice, this has not translated into any sanctions for political parties that do not file such accounts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; except intermittently - resulting in ineffective regulation. Furthermore, there does not seem to be any diligent scrutiny of the accounts that are filed for discrepancies or illegal activities. While the mechanism that is already in place may be used to effectuate better oversight of political parties via disclosure, there needs to be provision for monitoring specifically related to election campaigns. The Commission has the most relevant mandate in relation to the conduct of elections. Furthermore, it has in its Strategic Plan12 identified the introduction of campaign finance regulation as one of its key goals. In this context, and given the Commissionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s broad powers in terms of election-related laws, the Commission appears 7 8 9 10 11

Article 103(2) of the Constitution. Article l04B (4) (a) and l04B (5)(c)(i) of the Constitution. Article 104B(5) of the Constitution. Article 104B(1) of the Constitution. Section 7(4)(c) of the Parliamentary Elections Act, No. 1 of 1981 as amended by the Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Act, No. 58 OF 2009. 12 For the years 2017-2020.

to be the natural choice as a regulatory and management body for the purpose of regulation. However, it may be useful to consider the possibility of involving the Auditor-General or the Commission to Investigate Allegations of Bribery or Corruption (CIABOC) as part of the regulatory process. The context outlines above bring into sharp focus the need for a good understanding of the local context and political culture within which regulation is sought to be introduced, and for participation of key stakeholders in such a process. Regulations cannot be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;importedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, nor introduced in a vacuum. While targeting an ideal regulatory framework, any proposed system must be one that can be enforced, and will not be dismissed or ignored. Disclosure, and therefore transparency, needs to be the basis upon which a system is developed and implemented. It is a prerequisite for a regulatory system to work, and must form the minimum standard which must be advocated for. The political leadership has recently declared a commitment to the introduction of legislation to govern campaign finance.13 The Election Commission has identified the regulation of campaign finances as a goal for the next three years.14However, it is unclear and indeed doubtful â&#x20AC;&#x201C; that any serious study of comparative norms and lessons are being taken into account in doing so.

13 The Minister of Provincial Councils and Local Government has recently requested that certain civil society organizations together with the Election Commission should draft a law to deal with this issue. 14 Goal 3, Strategic Plan of the Election Commission 2017-2020.

Options Available Disclosure 15 One of the primary and initial methods of regulating election campaign finance is the compel disclosure of finances of electoral candidates or of political parties. As referred to above, even the UNCAC obligates State parties to consider the adoption of measures to ‘enhance transparency in the financing of political parties and candidates.16 Indeed, disclosure is critical to ensure compliance of the other regulatory systems, such as spending limits and public funding. The issue of disclosure begs the questions of who discloses what to whom and when. As in the other cases and more so here, enforcement plays a pivotal role. A comprehensive but poorly enforced disclosure system would cause more harm than good to the system.

Normative Ends Sought to be Accomplished The system of disclosure that should be adopted would depend on the normative ends that drive the introduction of such a system. Better transparency, curbing undue influence, and creating healthy competition are ends that could form the basis of a disclosure mechanism.

Transparency If transparency is the end goal, the timing of disclosures, the amount of detail contained therein, and the amount of effort put into dissemination by the entity disclosures are made to, play an important role.17 15 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems. 16 “Each State Party shall also consider taking appropriate legislative and administrative measures, consistent with the objectives of this Convention and in accordance with the fundamental principles of its domestic law, to enhance transparency in the funding of candidatures for elected public office and, where applicable, the funding of political parties.” 17 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems. P.35

The timing has to be such that the information reaches voters in a timely manner that would facilitate the decision-making process before elections. This by no means detracts from the importance of disclosures post-election, towards ensuring transparency in election campaign financing. Providing information about who the donors are is important. The role of the entity receiving disclosures would be to ensure that information disclosed would be processed to machine readable formats and other methods that could help convey the message as quickly and easily as possible.

Curbing undue influence Undue influence is defined as when ‘A person is overpowered and he is induced to do or forbear an act which he would not do or would do if left to act freely’.18 This can take place by the provision of money as part of an election campaign to help a candidate or party win, or as bribes between elections. The influence of donations by wealthy interests would mean that a certain issue could take priority in the election over others that apply to the constituency at large. Another way that the integrity of the process could be compromised is by a candidate or political party having access to State resources. These resources could be utilized to influence voters through unfettered access to media, promised jobs, contracts or patronage in return for votes (vote buying) – known as the abuse of incumbency. Disclosure of election campaign finances would, if observed and enforced adequately, be a means by which such conduct could be arrested through public and regulatory scrutiny.

18 Black’s Law dictionary, 5th edition, 1979.

Fostering Competition In order to ensure that healthy competition is created between parties and candidates, there must exist a level playing field. The problem could either be that a party or candidate may not have enough resources to reach the electorate with their message, or that another competitor has access to so much money that their voice is drowned out. ‘Levelling’ the playing field could thus mean the eradication of all inequality or ensuring sufficient access to resources. The mechanism of introducing a comprehensive disclosure system plays a vital role here.

Who Discloses Whether it should be the party or the candidate who bears the onus of disclosing would depend on which entity acts as the conduit for funding, and on the electoral system.19 However, it must be borne in mind that if one or the other only were disclosed, the other would be an ideal method through which to surreptitiously channel funding. Therefore, both must be subject to disclosure requirements. Accounts disclosed must ideally be independently audited by the party or candidate prior to submission. Keeping track of finances would be made easier if political parties and/or candidates were to accept funding though a single banking account. This could vary depending on the type of election and the means of regulation. A complementary approach to ensuring compliance is to encourage reporting by the donors to elections campaigns, thereby creating a mechanism to corroborate the disclosures of parties and candidates. One method of doing this is to provide tax incentives to those who donate to electoral campaigns.20 This method will only be successful where people are willing and accustomed to paying taxes. 19 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.28. 20 Michael Pinto-Duschinsky (2002) ‘Financing Politics: A Global View’, Journal of Democracy, vol.13, no.4. Electoral Commission UK ‘ The Funding of Political Parties Background Paper 2003’

The objective that disclosure seeks to achieve is the guaranteeing of electoral integrity, and is less about enhancing voter choice, which also could be an ancillary result. It is about enhancing transparency in the electoral process, promoting personal integrity among candidates and increasing accountability of political parties. Regular reporting by political parties and candidates is advised in order to achieve systematic, accurate and useful disclosures.

What is Disclosed Income, expenditure on election campaigns, assets and liabilities should ideally be disclosed. Income should denote who the donors were, how much was donated, to whom and for what purpose. Expenditure disclosed must include all spending on election campaigns. Assets and Liabilities of the parties and candidates should also form a part of the disclosures. Disclosures could ideally include the name, address and employer of the donors to campaigns, subject to any threshold that may be introduced.21 A further essential requirement would be to disclose non-financial contribution at their market value. This is a decision that would have to be made based on the ends sought to be achieved. Instances where generous discounts are given to certain parties or candidates at rates that are not commercially practiced would also have to be disclosed. It may be argued that Sri Lanka â&#x20AC;&#x201C; having a system of annual disclosures of Assets and Liabilities of its Members of Parliament and candidates for elections â&#x20AC;&#x201C; has indeed already in place some of the disclosure elements necessary. However, it needs to use the existing system or a new one in a meaningful manner to increase transparency and accountability in the system. 21 see.p. 21 below.

When to Disclose Another important consideration is what period is covered in the disclosure or reporting requirement. The period must be decided upon bearing in mind that parties or candidates may advance or delay acceptance of donations or expenditures until after elections day or before, based on the period covered by such requirement. The success of a disclosure regime lies in informing parties or candidates that such disclosure is required, in time for them to ensure that records of transactions are retained in a manner conducive to subsequent disclosure. At what point the disclosures must be made would be decided based on what activities it seeks to encompass. The decision must be based on reasonableness and feasibility of the regime. Ideally, candidates and parties should disclose in time for voters to make a decision,22 and throughout the electoral cycle.23 Admittedly, this would not be an easy system to introduce and enforce in all elections â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with the exception of the Presidential Election where it may be possible due to the fewer number of candidates. However, given the context of very poor follow up-mechanisms in Sri Lanka, and given the need to inform voters of the nature of campaigns before they vote, reporting during elections - even if it were to be limited only to disclosure of donations, to be followed up by expenses after elections â&#x20AC;&#x201C; would be the best option to introduce in a system commencing regulation of election campaign finances in Sri Lanka.

22 Not too close to the election. 23 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.34 including Assets Liabilities Declarations,bank accounts etc.

Who Disclosure is Made To Disclosure maybe to a government regulator or an independent body. In Sri Lanka, an option for monitoring election campaign financing would be the Election Commission. It is important to note that information disclosed must reach the public in order to have its twin effects of ensuring electoral integrity and of informing voter choice. It may reach the public in three ways: though freedom of information(FOI) laws,24 the printing of Gazettes, or through the internet and other media.25 The authority that disclosures are made to must make every endeavor to ensure that this information is made available proactively and in an accessible manner, without leaving people to have to resort to FOI laws. Non-governmental organizations and other activists can play an important role here, in aggregating, compiling and analyzing information so obtained into meaningful digestible chunks for public use and consumption.26

Threshold Exceptions It may be useful in the interest of expediency in the face of absence of resources on the part of candidates, parties and of the administration, to allow certain exceptions to the disclosure rule. An option is to provide a threshold contribution over which full disclosure would have to be made. Countries such as Ireland and Russia use thresholds beyond which disclosure must be made.27 The threshold in international experience varies from a 100 USD 24 See note 1 above. 25 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.33. 26 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.33. 27 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.30.

in Afghanistan to 8000 USD in the United Kingdom.28 The risk of having a threshold, of course, is that larger donors would break up their donations into smaller parts to avoid detection.

Hurdles One of the first steps to setting a disclosure system in place is the establishment of an independent regulator who is insulated from the political process to the extent possible, and does not have to depend on such for appointment, resources, etc. A particular challenge in this regard is that it is members of political parties themselves, as legislators, that hold the power to enact laws governing the regulatory system.29 Another hurdle is the abuse of disclosure by parties or candidates in power to target opposition. The preceding enumeration serves to demonstrate the need for a comprehensive disclosure framework as a prerequisite for free and fair elections that enhance voter choice. It would complement, and indeed be a core component of any other regulatory mechanism such as spending limits and public funding, if they were to be introduced. Without a comprehensive disclosure framework, it cannot be ascertained whether other mechanisms such as spending and contribution limits are being observed. However, disclosure by itself will not be the solution to the problems caused by money in election campaigns. Disclosure would merely be the tool providing the information with which other individuals or groups such as civil society organizations must then continue their work with diligence and commitment. The causes such as transparency and accountability will only be served if they are championed effectively. 28 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.35. 29 Refer 3.2 above.

It must be borne in mind that a good disclosure framework must be designed with buy-in from relevant stakeholders in order to be relevant, as well as to be effectively enforced. The system may need to evolve over time to adapt itself to challenges.

Donation Bans/Limits The objective of imposing limits or bans on the amount people or entities can donate is to prevent undue influence on the political process by using donations, as it has the potential to cause serious damage to the system. It can undermine democracy in a significant way. Different entities can exert different types of influence. Foreign entities can be barred from making contributions because it can subvert the sovereignty of a country through foreign influence. Corporations may be banned from donating to ensure the independence of candidates from certain special interests, while corporations with government contracts may also be banned as it can incentivize contributions for the wrong reasons. Public or part-public entities should not be allowed to contribute, as it may be an abuse of public resources. Anonymous sources may also be prevented from contributing in the interest of transparency of the political process. Indirect donations and anonymous donations would have to be banned or limited since the other sectors cannot be monitored otherwise.30 The usual practice is not to ban private donations to campaigns, as such donations are an essential component to ensure that political parties have popular support. Delinking political parties from its support base is ill-advised, and may also incentivize hidden donations.31 30 Ed. Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns: A Handbook on Political Finance,Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, p.21. 31 Ed. Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns: A Handbook on Political Finance,Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, p.21.

Limiting donations is another approach that is adopted. This approach does not aim to reduce a certain type of influence, but to reduce the possibility of any one source having undue influence upon the process. Limits may be imposed on contributions to parties or to individual candidates. The level at which donation limit is set plays a major role in its success. While setting a high limit will have no effect on the system, a level that is too low can cause people to use alternative means to contribute, undermining its purpose. An ideal limit would be one that is sufficient to achieve the goals sought to be achieved by setting the limit, while allowing political parties and candidates to raise sufficient funding from diverse sources, without dependency on large donations. Special caution must be had in introducing contribution bans or limits, as they are extremely difficult to enforce, and often force donors to resort to illicit means. It is important to note that such tactics to avoid detection would have a negative impact upon transparency.

Spending Limits Unregulated campaign finance can create disparity. A spending limit may need to be imposed on candidates or political parties in order to assure fair and competitive electoral system with a level playing field. Not to have such a limit has been described as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;inviting two people to participate in the race, with one participant turning up with a bicycle and the other with a sports carâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.32 Imposing spending limits on parties and campaigns has several objectives, such as avoiding excessive cost in party politics, controlling inequalities between parties, and restricting the scope of improper influence and corruption in campaigns. 32 Keith D. Ewing, Money, Politics, and Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, p. 15.

Access to finances should not form a barrier to new entrants into elections. The unfair advantage of wealth should be minimized, as it may also create dependency of political candidates on wealthy contributors. Spending limits can prevent the political discourse being shifted or distorted from issues of general importance. In countries with the Westminster model, it is a well-known feature to impose spending limits on candidates. For the first time, Britain introduced spending limits with the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act of 1883, at £710 for the first 2000 voters in the candidate’s constituency, and £40 for each additional 1000 voters. The system was backed up by strict regulations and enforcement.33 The imposition of spending limits can be done through election laws, political finance, or through party finance laws. There needs to be an independent monitoring authority. In order to introduce a spending limit, a ceiling must be specified. This may be a definite value, or a formula, such as a multiple of average monthly wage. Much care must be taken in arriving at the ceiling, as artificially low limits would make them difficult to enforce,34 and too high a level would render the purpose nugatory.

Issues with Imposing Spending Limits Two political objectives come into conflict when attempting to impose spending limits – the need to secure political equality and to secure political liberty. Since free elections and freedom of expression form the basis of democratic systems, some also consider spending limits as an unreasonable infringement upon the freedom of expression.35 However, it could amount to an infringement only 33 The Law Library of Congress, Campaign Finance : UK https://www.loc.gov/law/help/campaign-finance/uk.php#issues – accessed on 19th January 2017. 34 India, Israel, Ukraine. 35 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.47.

if one were to consider the wealthier entities in society to have a higher level of freedom of expression through representatives they donate to, than others. This offends the ‘one person, one-vote’ system that democratic societies embrace.36 Hence the introduction of a spending limit cannot be seen as an incursion upon the freedom of expression. However, it must be noted that a spending limit could have the additional effect of curbing the use of funding sources from multiple small donors. Another issue is that imposing a spending limit would make disclosure provisions harder to enforce. Since sanctions may be imposed for overstepping the spending threshold, parties or candidates may be driven to conceal certain facets of their expenditure, making it harder to assess level of expenditure. Regulating the spending of candidates and political parties does not address the issue that third parties may spend money on behalf of such candidates and political parties. This is further complicated that there may be genuine and independent third parties that have an interest in promoting a particular cause. It would be necessary therefore to identify and limit spending of third parties that may adversely affect the equality sought to be established through spending limits. It must be noted that this in particular would be extremely difficult to regulate. Spending limits, though by no means a new phenomenon, are difficult to enforce. Issues to consider include, the time period that is applicable to the spending limit, the items of spending that should count as ‘campaign costs’ and who the limits should apply to. It is noteworthy that as limits are imposed, new methods will be carved out to infuse money into the system. It has also been argued that a ban on paid advertisements would be far more effective and easier to monitor than attempting to regulate election campaign finance. 36 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems,. 51.

Several international organizations have made suggestions and recommendations in relation to spending limits. Notably, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights37 recommends that a spending limit may be justified to ensure that voter choice is not undermined and that the democratic process is not distorted by excessive spending by particular parties or candidates. Transparency International,38 too recommends that options such as spending limits or subsidized access to media must be considered to control the role of money in politics. One of the myths in the campaign finance discourse is that a spending limit would infringe a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freedom of expression. This cannot be true unless more money can purchase more freedom of expression for an entity. Another is that spending limits assist incumbents as they have access to great amounts of money by virtue of the recognition they have. However, spending limits in fact serve to favour other parties more in creating a level playing field. A third myth is that spending limits would curtail the message from reaching the masses. In fact, it frees up time between elections, where the focus can be on methods such as on door-to-door campaigning that gets the message across with less flash and more content.39 While a limit on spending is by no means a new idea â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it has been tested across the world - emphasis must be laid on a system that comes out of research on what the actual cost of elections, and the amount of money necessary to effectively communicate to electorates. Caution must be taken so that spending limits are not abused as a means to selectively punish those who oppose the government in power. 37 In its General Comment to Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 38 TI Policy Position N 1/2005. 39 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.51

It must be reiterated that the imposition of a spending limit would be to no avail if it is not accompanied by a well thought out and well equipped means of enforcement.

Public Funding Acknowledging the crucial role that money plays in the political process, a key mechanism that is being adopted across the world is the provision of public funding to political parties, and thereby to election campaigns. It has been stated that this is “arguably the most important trend in contemporary political finance”.40 The use of public funding is a relatively new phenomenon that commence in the 1920s and has spread mainly in the 1940s. However, it is one that must not be dismissed without consideration. Many international organisations including the World Bank and Transparency International have urged states to consider public funding seriously.41 68% of the 177 countries in respect of whom information is available, use some form of direct public funding.42 The percentage of countries is higher if indirect public funding were to be considered. It has also been observed that countries using proportional representation electoral systems are more likely to use public funding. Public funding is the provision of money or other resources by the state to defray the costs of politics according to predetermined eligibility and apportionment criteria - in financial or non-financial form. Indirect public funding includes free access to state media, public transport and tax benefits. Providing public funding allows a country a degree of control over the role of resources by which political parties’ and candidates’ behavior can be regulated. It can choose to champion transparency, inclusivity and other such positive standards with a heightened chance of enforcement. It 40 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems,. P. 57 41 World Bank (2001), Transparency International (2005) 42 World Bank (2001), Transparency International (2005).

can encourage political pluralism by providing support to inform voters and thereby increase voter choice and provide a means by which It can help instate a level playing field, reduce the rising costs of campaigning, and curb dependency on wealthy donors in the political process. Public funding can come. Several criticisms exist on the use of public funding as a regulatory mechanism. One is that it may have the effect of de-linking political parties from the people.43 Another is that it can ossify the existing parties and fail to take account of changing trends. It may also be argued that the state could make better use of public finances than to provide it to political parties or candidates, especially in low income-earning countries. It has also been said to fragment the party system and encourage the formation of frivolous parties, in the case of low thresholds, as more parties scramble to obtain public funding.44 A further risk, of course, is that public funding may be manipulated by a party in power to suppress opposition.45 Therefore, it is vital to ensure that effective enforcement mechanisms are set in place to arrest such consequences.

Eligibility To Parties Who is entitled to public funding is one of the main questions posed when deciding on a framework. While one solution would be to provide funding for the campaigns of all registered political parties, this may be a costly exercise that has the unintended result of party fragmentation and the frivolous formation of political parties. As 43 While this is theoretically true, few political parties in reality depend on ordinary donors for finances 44 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, P.64. A high threshold may increase the need for mergers, which may have positive or negative consequences for a country. 45 Ed. Ohman M. And Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global experience. Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.64

a result, most countries adopt a threshold based on parliamentary representation, a number of seats,46 or votes obtained in the previous election,47 number of candidates fielded, for example. While these systems are practical and can be adopted creatively according a certain country’s particular context, they may result in impeding certain persons or parties from entering the political arena. Caution must be taken therefore that “[to] some extent precautions against frivolous candidates are legitimate as long as such discrimination does not exclude new political movements from effective participation in the political competition.”48 To Candidates An alternative is the provision of public funding to candidates, as is done in Mozambique and South Korea. The advantage of such a system is that it limits the monopoly of parties in the political arena, and reduces dependency on personal finances and the need to raise funding from other sources. This can have the positive effect of minimizing undue influence, and encouraging new entrants to politics. However, it may also reduce party discipline, and the party’s ability to communicate its voters’ message effectively.

Allocation Allocation is also another important factor in public funding – one that must be carefully considered in order to have optimum results based on the goals sought to be achieved. One option is to disburse funding based on complete equality, and the other is to do so based on the level of public support a certain party or candidate has within their electorate. Disbursing funding equally can reduce the dominance of large parties, and can encourage new entrants. However, it can result in a 46 United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands 47 Turkey, Sweden, Germany. 48 Nassmacher (2003a) p. 14

serious disparity in the amount a party can spend per voter, based on the size of the party. Disbursing funds equally among candidates is more common than among political parties.49 Basing the amount of funding given on the level of support ensures that public funding goes to parties that the people actually support. However, it can shut out new entrants to politics. Many countries use a combination of the two systems - providing a certain percentage of fixed funding, with the rest fluctuating based on public support.50 Notably, however, the US, France and Canada operate on a completely equal distribution basis. An alternative method used is for the state to match the amount of funds raised by a party or candidates â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a system used in certain parts of the US and Germany. This encourages the disclosure of funding and assures that funding is given based on popular support. However, this is a harder system to implement. It must be stated in closing that public funding is not a strange concept to Sri Lanka. As set out above51 it has been a part of the parliamentary elections law for a very long time. Hence it follows that while it may be a change to implement a wholly public funded system, it should not be totally dismissed as being inappropriate to the local context.

49 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.68. 50 Lesotho, Colombia, Mexico. 51 Refer 3.4 above.

Enforcement The introduction of a regulatory mechanism would be of little consequence if not done in tandem with an effective system of enforcement. Implementation and oversight are elements that cannot be sacrificed in this process. To introduce regulations otherwise would erode faith in the legal system, and in fact encourage disregard for the same. While political factors can always interfere, it is of paramount importance that all measures be taken to ensure that effective enforcement is brought about. Enforcement must be done by a public institution with a clear mandate, independence, the resources and the commitment to do so.52 The electoral management body is the body most commonly mandated for this purpose.53 For Sri Lanka, this would mean the Election Commission.54 However, international practice suggests that the use of ministries, auditing institutions or a wholly new institution created for this purpose are also approaches used.55 The enforcing institution must use best practice in relation to transparency, accountability and consistency.56 However, enforcement should focus on positive engagement with relevant stakeholders such as political parties,57 in order to derive the best possible accomplishment of the ends sought to be achieved through the election campaign finance regulatory mechanism. The imposition of fines, sanctions and penalties may be necessary where violations occur. However, given the nature of the support political parties must maintain, methods such as the issuing of warnings and naming and shaming may be just as effective to ensure compliance. Where public funding is given to parties or candidates, 52 Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns, p. 31. 53 Same. 54 See 3.5 above. 55 Same as 54. 56 P.42 57 P.42

the loss of the same would be an effective enforcement mechanism.58 Another key element of enforcement is that the information derived through such enforcement of election campaign finance regulations must be made available and accessible to the public, in order that public monitoring can take place â&#x20AC;&#x201C; by civil society, media and the public at large.

58 p.42.

Country Examples *

In order to obtain a quick overview of the campaign finance landscape in Asia, set out below

*Drawn from International IDEA - Political Finance Database

Donation Limits Country

1. Is there a ban on donations from foreign interests to political parties?

2. Is there a ban on donations from foreign interests to candidates?

3. Is there a ban on corporate donations to political parties?

Bangladesh

Yes

No. Ban does No not apply as long as the donation from companies or organizations does not exceed taka twenty five lakh (Tk 2,5 million [I$ 98,000]) in a calendar year or service equivalent to it.

Cambodia

Yes

India

Yes

No Ban applies to companies which have been in existence for less than three years.

4. Is there a ban on corporate donations to candidates?

9. Is there a ban on anonymous donations to political parties?

10. Is there a ban on anonymous donations to candidates?

15. Is there a limit on the amount a donor can contribute to a political party in relation to an election?

17. Is there a limit on the amount a donor can contribute to a candidate?

No, but specific limit. Ban on anonymous donations exceeding Tk 5,000

Yes. No direct ban, but de facto ban since the name of the source of all donations must be given.

Regular limit applies. Donations over 20,000 taka [I$ 790] must however be done by cheque.

Yes. No direct ban, but de facto ban through equirement to record or report identity of donor.

Regular limit applies Individuals are not subject to donation limits but companies cannot donate more than 7.5% of their average annual revenue per year.

No. There is no law that limits or regulates contributions made to a candidate for election.

Indonesia

Yes. Ban applies to when political parties compete in elections.

Yes

No. Ban applies to donations per company/ corporation exceeding the amount of Rp 500.000.000 [I$ 1,380,000] within the period of 1 (one) year.

Nepal

Yes

Pakistan

Yes

No Yes No bans on corporate donations to candidates in law.

Sri Lanka

Yes. Ban applies during articipation in elections.

Yes

Yes. For Presidential candidates and Senatorial candidates during the campaign season.

No, but specific limit. No specific ban on anonymous donations, however parties must report the identity of donors giving more than 25,000 Rupees [I$950].

No data

Yes. No direct ban, but de facto ban through requirement to record or report identity of donor.

Spending Limits Country

31. Are there limits on the amount a political party can spend?

32. If there are limits on the amount a political party can spend, what is the limit?

Bangladesh

Yes. Applies to electoral expenses.

Max Tk 45 million [I$ 1,770,000] during election if 200 candidates or more. Max Tk 30 million [I$ 1,180,00] if 101-200 candidates. Max Tk 15 million [I$ 588,000] if 51-100 candidates. Max 7,5 million [I$ 294,000] if 50 candidates or less. The amount a party may spend per candidate may not exceed Tk 1,5 million [I$ 59,000]. BLANK

Cambodia

India

No. There are are no spending limits for political parties, but if a partyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spending directly benefits a candidate or candidates, the amount spent counts towards the spending limits of the candidates concerned.

Indonesia

Nepal

Yes. Ceiling applies to partyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expenses in relation to PR elections.

The limit is prescribed by the EMB.

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

33. Are there limits on the amount a candidate can spend?

34. If there are limits on the amount a candidate can spend what is the limit for spending?

Yes. Applies to election expenses and include election expenditure made by any person on behalf of the candidate.

Maximum Tk 1,5 million [I$ 59,000] per candidate in a constituency. Election expenses shall be based on the total number of voters in a constituency.

Yes. Applies to the elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assembly of a State.

Determined by the Central Government. The limit is determined by the Central Government in consultation with the Election Commission.

Yes

The ceiling â&#x20AC;&#x153;shall be as prescribed by the [Election] Commissionâ&#x20AC;?

Yes

For election to the National Assembly: 1,500,000 rupies [I$ 51,000]. For election to a Provincial Assembly: 1,000,000 rupies [I$ 34,000]

Public Funding Country

19. Are there provisions for direct public funding to political parties? Value

Bangladesh

Cambodia

India

Indonesia

Yes, regularly provided funding

Nepal

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

Yes, in relation to campaigns

Comment While legislation states that public funding could be supplied, there is no provision that such funds will be provided.

Annual funding provided to political parties.

20. If there are provisions for direct public funding to political parties, what are the eligibility criteria?

21. If there are provisions for direct public funding to political parties, what is the allocation calculation?

Value

Comment

Value

Comment

Not applicable

While legislation states that public funding could be supplied, there is no provision that such funds will be provided.

Not applicable

While legislation states that public funding could be supplied, there is no provision that such funds will be provided.

Representation in elected body

Funding only Proportional to available to parties votes received that have gained representation in national, Provincial or Regency/ Municipal Representative councils (DPRs)

Proportional to votes won

Not applicable

# Share of votes in Funding is only previous election available to # Application political parties that have gained at least 1% of the vote in an electoral district in the preceding election.

Flat rate by votes received

Funding is allocated as flat rate per vote gained in preceding election.

Recommendations The introduction of a campaign finance regulatory system takes attention to detail with the objective of addressing the goals sought to be achieved. A mere imposition of a foreign system, or one that is not well thought through in light of these goals, sets itself up to fail. This requires extensive stakeholder consultations which must guide the process. The discussions must take account of the particular political structure â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the electoral system, nature of parties and of power relationships. The system must also not be expected to be a solution to all ills in a political system and therefore cannot be an all-encompassing answer. It may even be necessary to incrementally introduce methods of regulation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; beginning with the essential factor of disclosure - subject to the willingness to modify the system as required. Transparency International Sri Lanka strongly recommends that any regulatory system that may be introduced must include disclosure of campaign contributions, expenditure, assets and liabilities of candidates and political parties, as a non-negotiable starting point. The choice between other regulatory mechanisms must be cautiously made based on consultative discussions with stakeholders in order to arrive at the most suitable and enforceable system for Sri Lanka. The overarching concern, by far, is that a regulatory mechanism should not hinder free speech, nor reduce the involvement of the electorate in politics. It is imperative, therefore, that politicians see the money they receive as a privilege that they must vindicate by engaging in responsible politics. Any system to be introduced must be a well-considered one that takes into account the principles and needs based on which regulatory mechanisms are formulated.

YS% ,xldfõ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh ms<sn| flá ye¢kaùula

g%dkaiafmarkais bkag¾keIk,a YS% ,xld wdh;kh úisks

wvx.= lreKq ye¢kaùu ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 49 úIhm:h ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 50 foaYSh ikao¾Nh''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 51 foaYmd,k ikao¾Nh'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''51 iqúfYaIS .eg¨‍jla'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''51 mlaI wNHka;r ikao¾Nh'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 52 ffk;sl ikao¾Nh''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 52 ue;sjrK fldñIka iNdj'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 53 mj;sk úl,am'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 55 wkdjrKh'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 55 bgq lr .ekSug wfmalaIs; m%ñ;Ska'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 56 úksúo Ndjh'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 56 wh:d n,mEu je<elaùu''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 56 ;r`.ldß;ajh Èß.ekaùu'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 57 wkdjrKh lrkafka ljqo'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 57 wkdjrKh lrkafka l=ulao'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 58 wkdjrKh l< hq;af;a l=uk wjia:djlo''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 59 wkdjrKh lrkafka ldgo'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 60 wkqu; m%udKh ms<sn| jH;sf¾lhka'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 60 ndOl ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 61 mß;Hd. ;ykï lsÍï $ iSud'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 62 úhoï lsÍfï iSud''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 63 úhoï iSud mekùfï§ we;sjk .eg¨‍''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 64 rdcH wruqo,a'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 67 iqÿiqlu'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 68 fjka lsÍu''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 69 n,d;aul lsÍu'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 70 rgj, w;aoelSï'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 72 mß;Hd. iSud'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 72 úhoï iSud''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 76 rdcH wruqo,a ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 78 ks¾foaY ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 82 47

ye¢kaùu ls%hdYS,S yd iyNd.S;ajh iys; m%cd;ka;%jdohla i|yd tys foaYmd,k lafIa;%h ;=< uqo,a ;sîu wjYHh' Pkaoodhlhska fj; m%‍fõY ùu iy ish mKsjqvh" m%;sm;a;s iy b,lal M,odhS f,i Tjqkag oek .ekSug ie,eiaùu i|yd foaYmd,k mlaIj,g fuka u wfmalaIlhkag o m%udKj;a wruqo,a ;sìh hq;=h' foaYmd,kfha§ uqo,aj, ld¾hNdrh yeu úg u .eg¨‍j,g ;=vq fokakls' kshdukh fyj;a md,kh fkdjk wdldrhlska uqo,a Ndú; lsÍu ksoyia yd idOdrK ue;sjrK meje;aùu flfrys wys;lr f,i n,mE yelsh' kS;s úfrdaë wdldrfhka uqo,a /ia lsÍu i|yd ue;sjrK jHdmdrh m%fhdackhg .ekSu" hï hï wfmalaIlhkaf.a fyda mlaIj, mlaImd;S;ajh uqo,g .ekSu" rdcH iïm;a wh:d Ndú;h" udOH wkq.%yl;ajh" foaYmd,k mlaI kdhlhska jvd Okj;a wfmalaIlhkag wksis f,i wkq.%y oelaùu wdÈh ksid m%;sm;a;s m%uqL;d flfrys we;s wjOdkh ke;s ù wiudk mßirhla ks¾udKh ùu tu.ska we;s jk iuyr m%Yak fõ' tjeks .eg¨‍j,ska ksh; jYfhka u mSvd ú¢kafka kjl foaYmd,{hka" uqo,a ke;s wh iy iq¿;r ksfhdað; fldgia hk wh h' ta ksid" m%cd;ka;%jd§ ue;sjrK ls%hdj,shl fkd;sìh hq;= fujeks n,mEï ksid iudcfha iuyr fldgiaj,g isÿjk w.;sh j<lajd" md,k wdh;k ;=< jvd idOdrK ksfhdackhla iy;sl lsÍu wjYHh' i¾jck Pkaoh hkq ish iaffjÍNdjh ls%hd;aul lsÍu i|yd mqrjeishka Ndú; lrk m%Odk udOHls' tneúka" ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh fuka u jvd mq¿,a jYfhka foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh o M,odhS f,i kshdukh lsÍu hym;a Pkao l%uhlg we;=<;a úh yelsh' úksúoNdjh yd kshdukh ue;sjrK ls%hdj,sfha hym;a iajNdjh by< kxjk w;r" hï foaYmd,k mlaIhla fyda wfmalaIlhl= ms<sn| wod< f;dr;=re oek.ekSug Pkaoodhlhdg bv ie,iSu u.ska Tyqf.a ksoyia f;aÍu myiq tlla njg m;a ù úúO iudc miqìïj,ska tk wfmalaIlhkag iy mlaIj,g tu wjia:d tu.ska ks¾udKh fõ'

úIh m:h YS% ,xldfõ ksYaÑ;" iudc" foaYmd,k yd ffk;sl ikao¾Nhka ;=< ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK .eg¨‍ fï m;s%ldfjka idlÉPd jk w;r kshduk rduqjla i|yd jk wjYH;dj ;lafiare lsÍfï§ ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= úl,am yd wfkl=;a lreKq oelaùu i|yd iei¢h yels wfkl=;a rgj,ska WodyrK iy mdvï o fmkajd foa' ue;sjrK meje;afjk ld,iSudj ;=< foaYmd,k mlaIj, uQ,H iïmdokh yd úhoï lsÍu hk ldrKhg muKla fï m;s%ldj iSud jk w;r iDcq uQ,H iïmdokh iy hï iSudjlg jl% uQ,H iïmdokh ms<sn|j o tu.ska idlÉPd lrkq ,efí' wkdjrKh" mß;Hd. ;ykï lsÍï iy iSud" úhoï iSud iy rdcH wruqo,a wdÈh ms<sn| l,dmSh iy cd;Hka;r w;aoelSïj,ska lreKq bÈßm;a lrñka YS% ,xldfõ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK kshdukh i,ld ne,sh hq;= miqìu iy foaYmd,k mlaIj, yd wfmalaIlhkaf.a ue;srjK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh i|yd cd;Hka;r jYfhka Ndú; jk uQ,sl hdka;%Khka fï m;s%ldfõ we;=<;a jkq we;' bka miqj úfYaIfhka i,ld ne,sh hq;= lafIa;% úfYaIfhka i|yka lrñka .; yels wdrïNl mshjr lsysmhla ms<sn| iSudiys; ks¾foaY o bÈßm;a lrkq ,efí' foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh ms<sn| jvd mq¿,a .eg¨‍ fï m;%sldfjka idlÉPd lsÍu woyia fkdlrk nj o ie,lSu jeo.;ah' ta yereKq úg" tla;rd l%uhla Ndú;d l< hq;=hehs ks¾foaY lsÍfuka woyia jkafka ta ta wjia:dkql+,j olajd we;s kshdukhka Ndú;d l< hq;=h hkak o fkdfõ' fï ls%hdj,shg l=uk wëlaIK n,OdÍka we;=<;a úh hq;= o hkak ms<sn| f;aÍula lsÍug o th W;aidy fkdorhs' úksúoNdjh yd j.ùu jeks bgq lr .ekSug wfmalaIs; wruqKq bgq lr .ekSfï§ yqfola kshdukh i|yd muKla tajd m%fhdackj;a jkq we;ehs hk úYajdifhka hq;=j" kshdukhka y÷kajd §fï§ i,ld ne,sh hq;= uQ,O¾u mq¿,a jYfhka oelaùu m;s%ldfõ wruqKhs' tla;rd ;ks l%uhla fyda l%u lSmhl tl;=jla tlS mrud¾: imqrd .ekSu i|yd jvd;a u iqÿiq úh yels hehs ;udf.au ;lafiarej wkqj mdGlhdg ;SrKh l< yelsh'

foaYSh ikao¾Nh foaYmd,k ikao¾Nh oYl ;=kl .egqula wjika lsÍfuka iy m<uq j;djg m%Odk foaYmd,k mlaI fol tlaj rchla msysgqùfuka miq" foaYmd,k tlÕ;ajhlg meñŒfï wjYH;dj iy rch isák wvudk ;;a;ajh ksid" hymd,k rchla msysgqùu i|yd ckjru u; fok ,o fmdfrdkaÿ bgq lsÍu hk iqúfYaIS ikaêia:dkhg YS% ,xldj wo meñK isà' fhdað; wdKavql%u jHjia:d m%;sixialrK iy úfYaI wjia:djla iksgqyka lrk f;dr;=re - fkdfndaod y÷kajd §u we;=¿j oek.ekSfï whs;sh ms<sn| mk;la1 ‍ úúO wxYj, isÿfjñka mj;sk wfkl=;a jHjia:dodhl iy m%;sm;a;s fjkialïj, oeä wjOdkh ¥IKh je<elaùu yd tn÷ wjia:d wkdjrKh lsÍu flfrys fhduq ù ;sfí' msßisÿ foaYmd,khla i|yd ck;djf.a b,a,Su uE;ld,Sk ue;sjrKj,§ meyeÈ,sju m%o¾Ykh ù ;sfí' oeka ne,Sug b;sßj we;af;a rfÜ hym;g fya;=jk l%uhla ls%hd;aul lsÍfï hym;a foaYmd,k wêIaGdkhla ;sfío hkak h' tneúka" ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh i|yd we;s mq¿,a hdka;%Khka i,ld ne,Su wjYHh'

iqúfYaIS .eg¨‍ jla ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh lsÍu lreKq folla ksid .eg¨‍ iy.;h' m<uq .eg¨‍j jkafka foaYmd,k mlaI iy wfmalaIlhka o fm!oa.,sl meje;aula we;s fldgia jk w;r u rcfhka hï m%udKhl uQ,H Wmldrhla ,nk wh o ùu h'2 Tjqka fm!oa.,sl meje;aula we;s wh jqj o" ck;d Pkaofhka f;aÍ m;a ùu wfmalaId lrk ksid Tjqka tlS Pkaoodhlhkaf.a mÍlaIdjg hg;a úh hq;=h' Bg fya;=j hï wfmalaIlfhl=g Pkaoh Èh hq;= hehs Tjqka‍f;aÍula lrkafka Tjqkaf.a wjYH;d ksfhdackh jkafka o iy mlaImd;S;ajh ms<sn| .egqula we;s jk mßÈ tjeks wfmalaIlfhl= wh:d f,i n,mEulg ,la jkafkao hk lreKq mokï lrf.k ksid neúks' 2016 wxl 12 ork mkf;a úêúOdk wkqj" f;dr;==re i|yd jk b,a,Sïj,g foaYmd,k mlaI iy wfmalaIlhska j.lSug hg;a fkdfõ' tfia jqjo" b,a,d isákq ,nk f;d;=re wkqj" kS;sh hgf;a f;dr;=re i|yd bÈßm;a lrkq ,nk b,a,Sï j,g m%;spdr ±laùfï j.lSug ue;sjrK fldñiu hg;a úh yelsh' 2 ^ixfYdaê;& 1981 wxl 1 ork md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK mk; - 127 jeks j.ka;sh 1

fojekak jkafka kshduk rduqjla y÷kajd §u ls%hd;aul l< hq;=j we;af;a‍ tjeks kshdukhlg hg;a úh hq;= wh úiska u ùu h' ;uka md,kh lrk kS;sfha wx. ;SrKh lsÍfï ksoyi iy wêldß n,h tjeks fldgiaj,g ;sfnk w;r tjeks kS;s n,d;aul lrk wdh;khg fokq ,nk uQ,H Wmldrh ;SrKh lrkafka o Tjqka h'

mlaI wNHka;r ikao¾Nh YS% ,xldfõ fuka u iuyr úg f,dalfha fndfyda fldgiaj, foaYmd,k mlaI m%isoaO ù we;af;a m%cd;ka;%jd§ fkdjk" rdcH md,k iSudfjka msg ;sfnk tajd jYfhks' ta ksid uQ,H yd wfkl=;a ;SrK .ekSfï§ újD;" j.ùu iys; iy iyNd.s;aj ls%‍hdj,shlah hk wkq.; ùug idfmalaI jYfhka w¨‍;a ixl,amhla njg m;a fõ' kshduk rduqjlg úfrdaOh oelaùug yeu foaYmd,k mlaIhlg u ;u ;ukaf.a u fya;= ;sfnkq we;'

ffk;sl ikao¾Nh ue;sjrK wfmalaIlhkag yd foaYmd,k mlaIj,g uQ,H iïmdokh lsÍfï§ úksúoNdjh iy;sl lsÍu i|yd ffk;sl yd mßmd,k ls%hdud¾. .ekSu i,ld ne,Su ms‚i rdcH md¾Yajhkag n,mEï lrk" 2005 § ls%hd;aul jQ 2003 tlai;a cd;Skaf.a ¥IKhg tfrys iïuq;shg ^UNCAC& mlaIj uq,ska u wkque;sh m%ldY l< tla rgla jQfha YS% ,xldj h' ¥IKh je<elaùu ms<sn| UNCAC yd wfkl=;a cd;Hka;r iïuq;Ska ls%hd;aul lsÍu i|yd ls%hdud¾. .ekSfï wjYH;dj YS% ,xldfõ 19 jeks wdKavql%u jHjia:d ixfYdaOkfha 156 w ^we&3 jHjia:djg we;=<;a lrk ,§' tneúka" YS% ,xldj foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh i|yd lreKq i,ld n,d ksYaph lr.;a kshduk hdka;%Khla lrd hk udjf;a isák nj fyda isáh hq;= nj fyda fmkS hd hq;=h' 2015 foieïn¾ 16 Èk m%ldYhg m;a lrk ,o ol=Kq wdishdfõ foaYmd,k uQ,HlrK kshdukh ms<sn| kjÈ,a,s m%ldYkh u.skao ue;sjrK ld,h ;=< fuka u bka neyerj;a 4 foaYmd,k uQ,HlrK kshdukhka y÷kajd §fï§ i,ld ne,sh hq;= uQ,O¾u yd Ndú;hka o olajd ;sfí' mlaIj,g fyda wfmalaIlhkag ,nd Èh yels odhl;ajh m%udKhka iïnkaOfhka fyda úhoï lsÍu iïnkaOfhka fyda kshu l< yels ljr fyda iSud lsÍï fï olajd YS% ,xldfõ olakg ke;' tjeks lreKqj,§ 3 2015 uehs 15 iy;sl lrk ,o YS% ,xldfõ 19 jeks wdKavql%u jHjia:d ixfYdaOkfhka y÷kajd fok ,§ 4 2016 iema;eïn¾ 12 Èk m%fõY jq http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/IIIDEM-Files New Delhi Declaration 2015_06012016.pdf

úksúoNdjh i|yd kS;sÍ;s oeä fia i,ld ne,Su i|yd o fï olajd mshjr f.k ke;' l,ska ue;sjrKfha§ ue;sjrK fldÜGdihl Pkao ixLHdfjka wvq jYfhka 1] la ,nd.;a foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iSudiys; rdcH wruqo,a m%udKhla md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK ld,fha§ ,nd.ekSfï yelshdj ;sfí' l,ska ue;sjrKfha§ ,nd.;a Pkao ixLHdj mokï lrf.k Pkaohlg Y; 50 ne.ska rdcH wruqo,a ,nd .ekSug mlaIj,g ysñlu we;' b,a¨‍ï lsÍfuka miqj" .=jkaúÿ,sfha úkdä 45l ld,hla iy rEmjdysksfha úkdä 45 l ld,hla o Ndú;d lsÍug yeu foaYmd,k mlaIhlg fyda iajdëk lKavdhulg fyda wjir ,efí'5 ue;sjrKhg wod< ,sms øjH fnod yeÍu i|yd foaYmd,k mlaI f,alïjrekag fkdñf,a ;eme,a .dia;= myiqlu ,nd § we;' ue;sjrK i|yd kdufhdað; wfmalaIlhka j;alï iy nerlï m%ldY l< hq;= nj 1975 wxl 1 ork j;alï yd nerlï kS;sfha6 oelafõ' flfia jqj o" wfmalaIlhl= ish j;alï yd nerlï m%ldY l< hq;af;a kdufhdackd ,ndf.k udi ;=kla we;=<; mu‚' tlS Èkh fkdjer§u ue;sjrK Èkhg miqj tk Èkhla ksid j.lsj hq;= jk whf.a m%ldYkh l< hq;= Èkh jk úg Tjqka ;jÿrg;a wfmalaIlhka fkdùfï úIu;djhla yg .kS' wfmalaIlhkaf.a j;alï yd nerlï mokï lrf.k Pkaoh Èh hq;af;a ldgoehs ;SrKh lsÍug mqrjeishkag ,eî we;s wjia:dj o fï ksid .s,syS hhs'

ue;sjrK fldñIka iNdj YS% ,xldfõ ue;sjrK fldñIka iNdj wdKavql%u jHjia:dfõ úêúOdk u.ska ia:dms; ù we;s w;r ksoyia yd idOdrK ue;sjrK meje;aùu"7 iy;sl lsÍu i|yd Bg mq¿,a n,;, we;' th i;= wfkl=;a n,;, kï" rdcH foam, wh:d Ndú;h je<elaùu i|yd ksfhda. ksl=;a lsÍu"8 ´kEu .=jkaúÿ,s fyda rEmjdyskS m%pdrl wdh;khlg ud¾f.damfoaY ksl=;a lsÍu9 wdÈh h' tfia u ue;sjrK yd cku; úpdrK md,kh lrk kS;s hgf;a kshu lr we;s ish¨‍ u n,;, ls%hdfõ fhoùug o Bg whs;sh ,eî we;'10 2009 wxl 58 ork md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK ^ixfYdaOk& mk;ska ixfYdaê; 1981 wxl 1 ork md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK mkf;a 157 jeks j.ka;sh 6 2^dc& j.ka;sh 7 wdKavql%u jHjia:dfõ 103^2& jHjia:dj 8 wdKavql%u jHjia:dfõ 104 wd ^4& ^w& iy 104 wd ^5& ^we& ^1& jHjia:dj 9 wdKavql%u jHjia:dfõ 104 wd ^5& jHjia:dj 10 wdKavql%u jHjia:dfõ 104 wd ^1& jHjia:dj 5

ue;sjrKj,§ újD; wdKavqlrKfha w.h m%j¾Okh lsÍfï ,d m%n, wdh;khla jYfhka w;S;fha iuyr wjia:dj, fï fldñIka iNdj Yla;sh m%o¾Ykh lr we;s w;r tys iajNdjh fndfyda ÿrg ;SrKh jkafka flduidßia OQrh ork mqoa.,hka u; h' ;j;a jeo.;a lreKla jkafka YS% ,xldfõ foaYmd,k mlaI ish jd¾Isl .sKqï ue;sjrK fldñiug wkdjrKh lsÍug kS;sfhka ne£ isàuhs'11 m%fhda.sl ;;a;ajh .;a úg" tjeks .sKqï bÈßm;a fkdlrk foaYmd,k mlaI iïnkaOfhka b|ysg yereKq úg fuh ljr fyda iSud lsÍula jYfhka ls%hd;aul ù fkdue;s ksid kshdukh M,odhl ù ke;' ta yereKq úg" bÈßm;a lrkq ,nk .sKqïj, úIu;d fyda kS;súfrdaë ls%hdldrlï fidhd ne,Su i|yd lsisÿ iqmÍlaIdldÍ fidaÈishla isÿ jk njla o fkdfmfka' wkdjrKh lsÍu u.ska foaYmd,k mlaI jvd fyd¢ka wëlaIKh lsÍu i|yd oekgu;a ;sfnk hdka;%Kh Ndú;d l< yels jqj;a úfYaIfhka ue;sjrK jHdmdrj,g wod< wëlaIKh i|yd úêúOdk ;sîu wjYH h' ue;sjrK meje;aùu iïnkaOfhka b;du;a wod< n,hla fldñiug ,eî ;sfí' ta yereKq úg" ish m%uqL b,lalj,ska tlla jYfhka ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK12 kshdukhka y÷kajd §u th ish 2020 l%fudamdh ie,eiafï y÷kdf.k ;sfí' fï iïnkaOfhka ie,lSfï§ iy ue;sjrK yd wod< kS;s iïnkaOfhka fldñiu i;= mq¿,a n,;, wkqj ne,Sfï§ kshduk mrud¾:h i|yd kshduk yd l<ukdlrK wdh;kh jYfhka we;s m<uq f;aÍu jkafka fldñiu nj fmkS hhs' flfia jqj o" kshduk ls%hdj,sfha fldgialrejka jYfhka ú.Kldêm;sjrhd fyda w,a,ia fyda ¥IK fpdaokd úu¾Yk fldñIka iNdj ^CIABOC& iïnkaO lr .ekSfï yelshdj i,ld ne,Su o m%fhdackj;a úh yelsh' y÷kajd §ug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk kshdukh isÿjk foaYSh ikao¾Nh iy foaYmd,k ixialD;sh ms<sn| fyd| wjfndaOhla ;sîfï iy tjeks l%shdj,shla ;=< m%uqL md¾Yajhkaf.a iyNd.s;ajfha wjYH;dj by; olajd we;s miqìï lreKq u.ska wjOdrKh fõ' kshdukhka neyeßka wdkhkh l< fkdyelsjdla fuka u Y=kH ;;a;ajhla ^ßla;hla& ;=< y÷kajd §ug o fkdyelsh' b;du;a u iqÿiq kshduk rduqjla b,lal lrk w;r u fhdað; l=uk fyda l%uhla jqj;a ls%hdfõ fhoúh yels iy neyer lrkq ,nk fyda fkdi,ld yßkq ,nk tlla fkdúh hq;=h' l%uhla f.dvke.Su yd ls%hd;aul lsÍu isÿ úh hq;af;a wkdjrKh lsÍu iy ta ksid u isÿ jk úksúo Ndjh hk moku u; h' th kshduk l%uhla i|yd mQ¾j wjYH;djla jk w;r wfmalaId lrk l%ufha wju m%ñ;sh o úh hq;=h' 2009 wxl 58 ork md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK ixfYdaOk mk;ska ixfYdaê; 1981 wxl 1 ork md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK mkf;a 7^4& ^we& j.ka;sh 12 2017- 2020 j¾Ih i|yd 11

ue;sjrK jHdrmdr uQ,HlrKh md,kh lsßu i|yd kS;s y÷kajd §u iïnkaOfhka foaYmd,k kdhl;ajh uE;l§ ish lemùu m%ldY lr we;'13 ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK kshdukh bÈß jir ;=fka b,lalhla14 jYfhka ue;sjrK fldñiu y÷kdf.k ;sfí' flfia jqj o" tfia lsÍfï§ iei¢h yels m%ñ;Ska iy mdvï ie,ls,a,g .ekSu ms<sn| .eUqre wOHhkhla isÿ fjñka mj;Soehs meyeÈ,s ke;s w;r th ienúkau iel iys;h'

mj;sk úl,am wkdjrKh15 ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh lsÍfï m%d:ñl iy uQ,sl l%uj,ska tlla jkafka ue;sjrK wfmalaIlhkaf.a foaYmd,k mlaIj, uqo,a wkdjrKh lrk f,i n, lsÍuh' by; olajk ,o mßÈ" foaYmd,k mlaI iy wfmalaIlhka ms<sn| uQ,HlrKfha úksúoNdjh jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu i|yd ls%hdud¾. .ekSu ie,ls,a,g .ekSfï ne£u UNCAC úiska rdcHhka fj; mjrd we;'16 we;af;ka u" úhoï lsÍfï iSud yd rdcH wruqo,a iïmdokh jeks wfkl=;a kshduk l%uj,g wkql+, ùu iy;sl lsÍu i|yd wkdjrKh b;d ;SrKd;aul h' wkdjrKfha§ mek k.sk m%Yakh jkafka ljqreka l=ula ldg fldhs wjia:dfõ§ wkdjrKh lrkafkao hkakhs' wfkl=;a wjia:dj,§ yd úfYaIfhka fuys§ ls%hdfõ fhoùu hk lreK uQ,sl ld¾hNdrhla bgq lrhs' úia;rd;aul tfy;a wi;=gqodhl f,i n,d;aul lrk wkdjrKh lsÍfï l%uhlska hym;g jvd jeä ydkshla iuia; l%uhg isÿ fõ'

iuyr isú,a ixúOdk ue;sjrK fldñiu yd tlaj fï lreK iïnkaOfhka kS;shla flgqï m;a lrk f,i m<d;a iNd iy m<d;a md,k weu;sjrhd uE;l§ b,a,Sula lr we;' 14 b,lalh 3" 2017 - 2020 i|yd ue;sjrK fldñifï Wmdh ud¾.sl ie,eiau' 15 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, 13

Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems.

fï iïuq;sfha wruqKqj,g wkql+,j iy ish wNHka;r kS;sfha m%uqL uQ,O¾u wkqj" f;dard m;a lr .kq ,nk fmdÿ OQrhka i|yd wfmalaIl;ajhkag uq,H iïmdokfha§ iy wod< wjia:d j,§ foaYmd,k mlaIj, uq,H iïmdokfha§ úksúoNdjh jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu i|yd fhda.H kS;suh yd mßmd,k ls%hdud¾. .ekSu ms<sn|j tla tla rdcH md¾Yjh i,ld ne,sh hq;=h'

bgq lr .ekSug wfmalaIs; m%ñ;Ska wkq.ukh l< hq;= wkdjrKh lsÍfï l%uh r|d mj;skq we;af;a tjeks l%uhla y÷kajd §ug ;=vq fok wfmalaIs; m%ñ;Ska u; h' jvd fyd| úksúoNdjh" wh:d n,mEï je<elaùu iy hym;a ;r.ldß;ajhla ks¾udKh lsÍu wkdjrK hdka;%Khlg mokï úh hq;= m%ñ;Ska h'

úksúoNdjh úksúoNdjh wjika mrud¾:h fõ kï" wkdjrKh lsÍï ms<sn| ld,iSud ks.ukh" tys we;=<;a jk úia;r m%udKh iy wkdjrKh lsÍï ,nd .kakd wdh;kh tajd m%pdrh lsÍu i|yd ork m%h;akh fldmuKo hkak jeo.;a ld¾hNdrhla bgq lrhs'17 ld,iSudj kshu l< hq;af;a ue;sjrKj,g fmr ;SrK .ekSfï ls%hdj,sh myiq lrjk mßÈ l,afõ,d we;sj Pkaoodhlhkag f;dr;=re ,efnk wdldrhg h' ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKfha úksúoNdjh iy;sl lsÍu Wfoid" ue;sjrKj,ska miqj jqj o wkdjrKh lsÍfï jeo.;alfuka neyer hEula fuhska lsis f,il;a woyia jkafka ke;' mß;Hd. lrkakka ljqo hk f;dr;=re iemhSu jeo.;a h' wkdjrKh lsÍu ,efnk wdh;kfha ld¾hNdrh jkafka hka;%hlska lsheúh yels wdlD;sj,g iy yels;dla blaukska m‚jqvh ,nd §ug WmldÍ jk fjk;a l%uj,g tfia wkdjrKh lrk ,o f;dr;=re ilia lrk njg j.n,d .ekSu h'

wh:d n,mEu je<elaùu wh:d n,mEu w¾: ksrEmKh lr we;af;a zhï mqoa.,fhl= uev mj;ajd" ksoyfia lghq;= lsÍug Tyqg bv yeßfha kï Tyq fkdlrkakg bv ;snqKq hula lsÍug fyda hï ls%hdjla bjid isàug Tyqg fm<Uùï lrkq ,nkZ wjia:djla jYfhks'18 wfmalaIlfhl=g fyda mlaIhlg ch .ekSu i|yd Woõ lsÍug ue;sjrK jHdmdrhl fldgila jYfhka fyda ue;sjrK meje;afjk w;r;=r w,a,ia jYfhka fyda uqo,a iemhSu u.ska fyda fuh isÿ úh yelsh' Okj;a md¾Yajhka úiska mß;Hd. u.ska lrkq ,nk n,mEfuka woyia jkafka iuia;hla jYfhka uq¿ Pkao fldÜGdihg u n,mdk fmdÿ lreKqj,g jvd hï úfYaI lreKlg m%uqL;dj ,nd Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh"f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.35.

Black’s Law dictionary, 5th edition, 1979

.ekSug lghq;= lsÍu h' ls%hdj,sfha wjxlNdjh ydkshg m;a úh yels ;j;a wjia:djla jkafka wfmalaIlfhl=g fyda foaYmd,k mlaIhlg rdcH iïm;aj,g m%fõYh ;sfnk wjia:djls' ndOdjlska f;drj udOHhg m%fõY ùu" /lshd fmdfrdkaÿ" Pkao ñ,§ .ekSug m%;s Wmldrhla jYfhka fldka;%d;a fyda jdis ie,iSu jeks foaj,a u.ska Pkao odhlhskag n,mEï lsÍug tjeks iïm;a Ndú;d l< yelsh' tajd ie,flkafka oekg ‍;k;=re ork wh úiska lrkq ,nk wh:d mßyrKh jYfhks' ue;sjrK jHdmdr uqo,a wkdjrKh lsÍu m%udKj;a mßÈ n,d;aul lrkafka kï th rdcH iy kshduk mÍlaIdj u.ska tjeks yeisÍï keje;aùfï ud¾.hla njg m;a jkq we;'

;rÕldß;ajh Èß.ekaùu mlaI yd wfmalaIlhka w;r .=Kd;aul ;r`.hla isÿ ùu iy;sl lsßu i|yd ish,a,kag u idOdrK mßirhla ;sìh hq;=h' .eg¨‍j jkafka tlaflda ish m‚jqvh Pkaoodhlhska fj; f.k hEug hï mlaIhlg fyda wfmalaIlfhl=g m%udKj;a iïm;a fkdue;s ùu fyda fjk;a ;r`.lrefjl=g úYd, uqo,la ,nd .; yels ksid l,ska lS md¾Yjfha y~ hgm;a ùu h' ta wkqj mßirh yeugu idOdrK njg m;a lsÍï hkafkka woyia jkafka ish¨‍ u wiudk;d bj;a lsÍu ke;akï iïm;aj,g m%udKj;a m%fõYhla iy;sl lsÍu hkak h' wx. iïmQ¾K wkdjrK l%uhla y÷kajd §fï hdka;%Kh fuys§ jeo.;a ld¾hNdrhla bgq lrhs'

wkdjrKh lrkafka ljqo@ wkdjrKh lsÍfï j.lSu oeßh hq;af;a mlaIh o wfmalaIlhd o hkak r|d mj;afka uqo,a ,nd.ekSfï udOHh jYfhka lghq;= lrk md¾Yajh iy ue;sjrK l%uh u; h'19 flfia jqj o" isf;a ;nd .; hq;= lreKla jkafka tajdhska tlla muKla wkdjrKh fõ kï wruqo,a ryis.; f,i fhoùfï fyd| u ud¾.hla njg wfkl m;a úh yels nj h' ta ksid" ta fomd¾Yjh u wkdjrKh lsÍfï wjYH;djkag hg;a úh hq;=h' wkdjrKh lrkq ,nk .sKqï bÈßm;a lsÍug fmr mlaIh fyda wfmalaIlhd úiska iajdëkj ú.Kkh l< hq;=h' foaYmd,k mlaI iy $ fyda wfmalaIlhka tla nexl= .sKqulska wruqo,a ,nd .kafka kï uqo,a Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu"

fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 28 msgqj'

ms<sn| fidaÈish jvd myiq jkq we;' ue;sjrK j¾.h yd kshdukh i|yd fhdod .efkk udOH wkqj fuh fjkia úh yelsh' wkql+, jk nj iy;sl lsÍfï ;j;a l%uhla jkafka ue;sjrK jHdmdr i|yd mß;Hd. lrk md¾Yajhka jd¾;d lsÍu i|yd Èß.ekaùuh' mlaI yd wfmalaIlhka wkdjrKh l< foaj,a ii|d n,d ikd: lr .ekSu i|yd tu.ska hdka;%Khla ks¾udKh l< yelsh' fuh lsÍfï tla l%uhla kï ue;sjrK jHdmdr i|yd mß;Hd. lrk whg nÿ wkqn,hka ^incentives& ,nd §u h'20 fï l%uh id¾:l jkafka ck;dj leue;af;ka u nÿ f.ùug yqre jkafka kï mu‚ ' wkdjrKhkaf.ka ,nd .ekSug wfmalaIs; wruqK jkafka Pkaoodhl f;aÍu jeä ÈhqKq lrkjdg jvd Pkao l%ufha úYajikSh;ajh iy;sl lsÍuh' Pkaoodhl f;aÍu o tys w;=re m%;sM,hla úh yelsh' tys mrud¾:h jkafka ue;sjrK ls%hdj,sfha úksúoNdjh by< kexùu wfmalaIlhska w;r fm!oa.,sl wjxl;ajh m%j¾Okh lsÍu iy foaYmd,k mlaIj, j.ùu jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu hk fïjd h' l%udkql+," ksjerÈ yd m%fhdackj;a wkdjrKhka bgq lr .ekSu i|yd foaYmd,k mlaI yd wfmalaIlhka úiska wLKavj úêu;a f,i jd¾;d lsÍu fhda.H h'

wkdjrKh lrkafka l=ulao @ wdodhu" ue;sjrK jHdmdrhg lrk úhou" j;alï yd nerlï ms<sn| wkdjrKh lsÍu wjYHh' wdOdr ÿkafka ljqo" fld;rï uqo,la m%odkh lrk ,oafoa o" ldgo l=uk mrud¾:hla i|yd o hk lreKq wdodhu hgf;a oelaúh hq;=h' wkdjrKh lrkq ,nk úhoug ue;sjrK jHdmdr i|yd ork ,o ish¨‍ úhoï we;=<;a úh hq;=h' mlaIj, yd wfmalaIlhkaf.a j;alï yd nerlï o wkdjrKhkays fldgila úh hq;=h' wkdjrKh lsÍïj,§ y÷kajd fokq ,eìh yels hï wkqu; m%udKhlg ^threshold&21 hg;aj ue;sjrK jHdmdrj,g wdOdr fokakkaf.a ku" ,smskh" iy fiajHhd ljfrlao hk úia;r we;=<;a ùu iqÿiqh' ;j;a w;HjYH wjYH;djla jkafka uQ,H fkdjk odhl;ajhka tajdfha fj<|fmd< jákdlï wkqj wkdjrKh lsÍu h' fuh bgq lr .ekSug Michael Pinto-Duschinsky ^2002& zfoaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh ( f.da,Sh úuiqula" Journal of Democracy, fj¿u 13" wxl 4" tlai;a rdcOdks ue;sjrK fldñiu" foaYmd,k mlaI uq,HlrKh - miqìï m;s%ldj" 2003 21 my; 61 msgqj n,kak 20

wfmalaIs; wruqKq u; mokï úh hq;= ;SrKhls' jd‚c jYfhka ls%hd;aul fkdjk wkqmd;j,g iuyr mlaIj,g yd wfmalaIlhkag ;Hd.YS,S jÜgï fok wjia:d o wkdjrKh l< hq;=h' md¾,sfïka;= uka;S%jrekaf.a iy ue;sjrK wfmalaIlhkaf.a j;alï iy nerlï wkdjrKh lsÍfï l%uhla wkq.ukh lrk YS% ,xldj ienúka u oekgu;a wjYH wkdjrKh lsÍfï wx. ls%hd;aul lrkafka hehs hful=g ;¾l l< yelsh' flfia jqj o" moaO;sfha úksúoNdjh yd j.ùu by< kexùu i|yd mj;akd l%uh fyda kj l%uh w¾:dkaú; wdldrhlska Ndú; l< hq;=h'

wkdjrKh l< hq;af;a l=uk wjia:djlo@ i,ld ne,sh hq;= ;j;a jeo.;a lreKla kï wkdjrKh lsÍfï fyda jd¾;d lsÍfï wjYH;djg l=uk ld,hla we;=<;a úh hq;=o hkakhs' ld,iSudj ;SrKh l< hq;af;a tjeks wjYH;djla u.ska wdjrKh jk ld,iSudj mokï lrf.k" ue;sjrK Èkh miq jk ;=re fyda Bg fmr mlaI fyda wfmalaIlhka m%odkhka ms<s.ekSu fyda úhoï l,ska isÿ lsÍug fyda m%udo lsÍug fyda bv we;s nj is;a ;nd .ksñks' wkdjrKh lsÍfï l%uhl id¾:l;ajh r|d mj;skafka miqj lrkq ,nk wkdjrKh lsÍug myiqlu we;s jk wdldrhlg .kqfokq ms<sn| jd¾;d r|jd .kq ,eîu iy;sl lsßu i|yd ld,h ,efnk mßÈ tjeks wkdjrKhka isÿ lsÍu wjYH nj mlaIj,g fyda wfmalaIlhkag oekqï§u u;h' wkdjrKh l< hq;af;a l=uk wjia:djl§o hkak ;SrKh l< yelafla tu.ska isÿ lsÍug wfmalaId lrkafka l=uk ls%hdldrlï o hkak mokï lrf.kh' ;SrKh mokï úh hq;af;a l%ufha idOdrK;ajh yd ls%hd;aul lsÍfï yelshdj mokï lrf.kh' jvd;a u fhda.H f,i ;SrKhla .ekSug Pkaoodhlhkag bv ,efnk mßÈ ksis fõ,djg wfmalaIlhka yd mlaI wkdjrKh lsÍu l< hq;=h'22 tfiau ue;sjrK ls%hdj,sh mqrd u th l< hq;=h'23 wfmalaIlhska iq¿ ixLHdjla isák ckdêm;sjrKhl§ yereKq úg ish¨‍ u ue;sjrKj,§ fuh y÷kajd §ug myiq fkdjk l%uhla nj ms<s.; hq;=h' ue;sjrKh TkEjg jvd wdikak fkdù' Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 34 msgqj" j;alï nerlï m%ldYk" nexl= .sKqï wdÈh we;=¿j

22 23

flfia jqj o" YS% ,xldfõ mj;sk b;d wid¾:l miqúmrï hdka;%Khka i,lk úg iy ;uka Pkaoh §ug fmr jHdmdrj, iajNdjh ms<sn|j Pkaoodhlhkag oekqï §fï wjYH;dj i,lk úg" úhoï wkdjrKh lsÍu ue;sjrKj,g miqj isÿ lsÍug bv ;nd m%odkhka muKla wkdjrKh lsÍug iSud l<;a" ue;sjrK ld,h ;=< jd¾;d lsÍu YS% ,xldfõ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh wdrïN lrk l%uhla ;=< y÷kajd Èh yels fyd| u úl,amh jkq we;'

wkdjrKh lrkafka ldgo@ wkdjrKh lsÍu rcfha kshdulhl= fj; fyda iajdëk wdh;khla fj; isÿ l< yelsh' YS% ,xldfõ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh wëlaIKh i|yd jk tla úl,amhla jkafka ue;sjrK fldñiu h' wkdjrKh lrk ,o f;dr;=re uyckhdg hd hq;af;a Pkao l%ufha wjxlNdjh iy Pkaoodhlhskaf.a f;aÍug bv ie,iSu hk tys oaú;aj n,mEu we;s jk mßÈh' th uyckhd fj; f.k hd yels l%u ;=kls' tkï f;dr;=re oek .ekSfï ksoyi ms<sn| kS;sh ^FOI&"24 .eiÜm;a uqøKh fyda wka;¾cd,h iy wfkl=;a udOH25 u.ska hk wdldrj,g h' tlS f;dr;=re ;ud úiskau lshd;aul ù ,nd fok njg;a" FOI kS;sj, msysg me;Sug ck;dj fhduq fkdlr m%fõY úh yels wdldrhlska tajd ,nd fok njg;a j. n,d .ekSug f;dr;=re ,nd.kakd n,Odßhd yeu W;aidyhla u oeßh hq;= h' tfia ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re uyck;djf.a Ndú;h yd mßYS,kh i|yd w¾:j;a yd wjfndaO lr.; yels fldgia jYfhka taldnoaO lsÍu" f.dkq lsÍu yd úYaf,aIKh lsÍu u.ska jeo.;a ld¾hNdrhla bgq lsÍug rdcH fkdjk ixúOdkj,g yd wfkl=;a ls%hdOrhskag yelsh'26

wkqu; m%udKh ^threshold& ms<sn| jH;sf¾lhka wfmalaIlhkag" mlaIj,g yd mßmd,khg iïm;a fkdue;s ;;a;ajhla ;=< wkdjrKh lsÍfï Í;shg hï jH;sf¾lhla i|yd bv ,nd §u m%dfhda.slj m%fhdackj;a úh yelsh' tla úl,amhla jkafka hï m%udKhlg jvd jeä jk úg wkdjrKh lsÍfï wjYH;dj kshu lr hï wkqu; odhl;aj m%udKhla i|yd bv ie,iSuh' wh¾,ka;h iy reishdj jeks by; igyk n,kak Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 33 msgqj" 26 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 33 msgqj" 24 25

rgj,a tn÷ wkqu; iSudjkag bv § we;s w;r wkdjrKh l< hq;af;a ta m%udKhka blaujk wjia:dj,§h' 27 cd;Hka;r w;aoelSu ;=< ta wkqu; m%udKh we*a.ksia:dkfha we' fvd' 100 isg tlai;a rdcOdksfha we'fvd' 8000 olajd fjkia fõ'28 we;af;ka u" tn÷ wkqu; iSudjla ;sîfï wjodku kï úYd, jYfhka mß;Hd. lrkakka ish mß;Hd. l=vd fldgiaj,g lvd fidaÈisfhka fíÍug we;s bvlv h'

ndOl wkdjrKh lsÍfï l%uhla ilia lsÍfï§ m<uq mshjrj,ska tlla jkafka yels;dla ÿrg foaYmd,k ls%hdj,sfhka ksoyia iy tjeks m;aùï" iïm;a wdÈh u; hemSug wjYH;djla ke;s iajdëk kshdulhl= m;a lsÍuh' fï iïnkaOfhka ;sfnk tla úfYaI wNsfhda.hla kï kshduk l%uh md,kh lrk kS;s mekùfï n,h we;af;a kS;s iïmdolhka jYfhka foaYmd,k mlaIj, idudðlhkag ùu h'29 ;j;a ndOlhla jkafka n,fha isák mlaI fyda wfmalaIlhka úmlaIh b,lal lsÍu i|yd wkdjrKh wh:d f,i Ndú; lsÍu h' Pkaoodhlhdf.a f;aÍu Yla;su;a lrk ksoyia yd idOdrK ue;sjrKj,g mQ¾j wjYH;djla jYfhka úia;rd;aul wkdjrK rduqjla ;sîfï wjYH;dj by; úia;rfhka meyeÈ,s fõ' úhoï lsÍfï iSud yd rdcH wruqo,a jeks wfkl=;a kshduk hdka;%Khka y÷kajd fokafka kï th tjeks hdka;%Khkag W!k mQrKhla fuka u we;af;ka u tajdfha uQ,sl wx.hla o jkq we;' úia;rd;aul wkdjrK rduqjlska f;drj" úhoï yd odhl;aj iSud jeks wfkl=;a hdka;%Khka wkq.ukh lrkq ,efío hkak ksYaÑ;j oek.; fkdyelsh' flfia jqj o" wkdjrKh muKla .;a l, th ue;sjrK jHdmdrj, we;s jk .eg¨‍j,g úi÷u fkdjkq we;' wkdjrKh" isú,a iudc ixúOdk jeks lKavdhï j,g fyda fjk;a mqoa.,hskag Wkkaÿfjka yd lemùfuka ish lghq;= È.g u lrf.k hEu i|yd f;dr;=re imhk yqÿ fuj,u muKla jkq we;' úksúoNdjh iy j.ùu jeks mrud¾: bgq jkafka tajd iïnkaOfhka M,odhS f,i lghq;= lrkq ,efí kï mu‚' fyd| wkdjrK rduqjla wod< fuka u M,odhS f,i ls%hd;aul jk tlla njg m;a ùu i|yd th ie,iqï l< hq;af;a wod< md¾Yajlrejkaf.a Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 30 msgqj" 28 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. foaYmd,k uq,HlrK kshdukh ( f.da,Sh w;a±lSu" fjdIskagka DC: ue;sjrK l%u ms<sn| cd;Hka;r f*vf¾IKh" 35 msgqj" 29 by; 3'2 n,kak 27

iyNd.s;ajh we;sjh hkak isf;a ;nd .; hq;=h' fjkialïj,g .e,mSu i|yd tlS l%uh ld,hla mqrd úldikh úh hq;=h'

mß;Hd. ;ykï$ iSud lsÍï ck;dj fyda wdh;k úiska mß;Hd. l< yels m%udKh ms<sn| iSud fyda ;ykï mekùfï wruqKq jkafka mß;Hd. Ndú;d lrñka foaYmd,k ls%hdj,sh flfrys wh:d n,mEï lsÍfuka tu.ska ue;sjrK l%uhg nrm;< ydks isÿ ùug bv ;sfnk ksid tjekakla isÿùu je<elaùu h' tfia n,mEï lsÍfuka m%cd;ka;%jdohg ie,lsh hq;= ydkshla isÿ úh yelsh' úúO md¾Yjhka úiska úúO j¾.j, n,mEï isÿ l< yelsh' úfoaYSh wdh;k úiska odhl;ajhla ,nd §u je<elaúh yels jkafka úfoaYSh n,mEï u.ska rgl iaffjÍNdjhg ydks meñKùug Bg yelshdj we;s ksid h' ixia:d wdh;k úiska odhl;ajhka ,nd §u ;ykï l< hq;= jkafka hï hï úfYaI ´kE tmdlï we;s fldgiaj,ska wfmalaIlhkaf.a iajdëk;ajh wdrlaId lsÍu i|ydh' rcfha fldka;%d;a i;= ixia:d o ;ykï l< yels jkafka jerÈ fya;= uq,a lrf.k odhlùï isÿ lsÍu i|yd tu.ska Èß.ekaùula isÿ úh yels ksid h' rdcH fyda w¾O rdcH wdh;k úiska odhl ùug bv fkdÈh hq;= h' Bg fya;=j th rdcH iïm;a wh:d f,i Ndú;d lsÍula ùug bv we;s ksid h' foaYmd,k ls%hdj,sfha úksúoNdjh rlskq i|yd ks¾kdñl uQ,hka úiska odhlùï o je<elaúh yelsh' wfkla wxY wka wdldrhlska wëlaIKh l< fkdyels ksid jl% mß;Hd. fyda ks¾kdñl mß;Hd. o ;ykï lsÍug fyda iSud lsÍug fyda isÿ úh yels h'30 ue;sjrK jHdmdr i|yd fm!oa.,sl mß;Hd. hkq foaYmd,k mlaIj,g ck;d iydh ;sfnk nj iy;sl lrk w;HdjYH ldrKhla jk ksid idudkH ms<sfj; jkafka ue;sjrK jHdmdr i|yd fm!oa.,sl mß;Hd. ;ykï fkdlsÍu h' foaYmd,k mlaI tajdfha wdOdr mokfuka fjka lsÍu fhda.H fkdjk w;r tfia lsÍfuka ieÕjqKq mß;Hd.j,g Èß.ekaùula we;s úh yels h'31 ixia' Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, foaYmd,k mlaI iy ue;sjrK jHdmdr wruqo,a" foaYmd,k uq,HlrKh ms<sn| w;afmd;la" m%cd;ka;%jdoh yd ue;sjrK iydh ms<sn| wdh;kh"

21 msgqj' ixia' Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, foaYmd,k mlaI iy ue;sjrK jHdmdr wruqo,a" foaYmd,k uq,HlrKh ms<sn| w;afmd;la" m%cd;ka;%jdoh yd ue;sjrK iydh ms<sn| wdh;kh" 21 msgqj'

wkq.ukh lrkq ,nk ;j;a m%fõYhla jkafka mß;Hd. iSud lsÍu h' fï m%fõYfhka n,dfmdfrd;a;= jkafka tla;rd j¾.hl n,mEu wvq lsÍu fkdj hï tla uQ,hla ls%hdj,sh flfrys wh:d n,mEï lsÍfï yelshdj wvq lsÍu h' mlaIj,g fyda ;ks ;ks jYfhka wfmalaIlhkag fokq ,nk mß;Hd.j,g iSud mekúh yels h' mß;Hd. iSudj kshu lrkq ,nk uÜgu tys id¾:l;ajh iïnkaOfhka m%uqL ld¾hNdrhla bgq lrhs' by< uÜgula kshu lsÍfuka l%uhg n,mEula isÿ fkdjk w;r ´kEjdg jvd my< uÜgula kshu l<fyd;a tys mrud¾:h bgq fkdjk mßÈ mß;Hd. lsÍfï úl,am l%u Ndú;h lrd mqoa.,hka fhduq úh yels h' fyd|u iSudj jkq we;af;a úYd, mß;Hd. u; hefmkafka ke;sj úúO uQ,hkaf.ka m%udKj;a mßÈ wruqo,a ,nd.ekSug foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iy wfmalaIlhkag bv fok w;r u" iSudj mekùfuka bgq lr .ekSug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk wruqKq imqrd .ekSug m%udKj;a iSudjls' mß;Hd. ;ykï lsÍu fyda iSud lsÍï ls%hdfõ fhoùu b;du;a ÿIalr jk ksid iy fndfyda úg kS;s úfrdaë ud¾.j,g fhduq ùug wdOdr fokakka fm<fUk ksid mß;Hd. ;ykï lsÍï fyda iSud y÷kajd §fï§ úfYaIfhka ie,ls,su;a úh hq;= h'

úhoï lsÍfï iSud kshdukh fkdjQ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uq,HlrKh ksid wiudk;d we;s fõ' ieug u idOdrK mßirhla ;=< idOdrK yd ;r`.ldÍ ue;sjrK l%uhla iy;sl lsÍu i|yd wfmalaIlhka fyda foaYmd,k mlaI u; úhoï iSudjla mekùu wjYH úh yels h' tjeks iSudjla fkd;sîu úia;r lrkq ,en we;af;a zmdmeÈhla ;sfnk ;eke;a;l=g iy l%Svd ;r.j,§ Ndú;d lrk fudag¾ r:hla ;sfnk ;eke;a;l=g tlu Odjk ;r.hlg iyNd.s jk f,i wdrdOkd lsÍulaZ32 jYfhks' mlaIj,g yd jHdmdrj,g úhoï iSud mekùfï wruqKq lsysmhls' tajd kï" mlaI foaYmd,kfha wêl úhou je<elaùu" md¾Yj w;r wiudk;d md,kh iy ue;sjrK jHdmdrj, § wh:d n,mEfï yd ¥IKfha m%udKh iSud lsÍu wdÈh h' wruqo,a i|yd m%fõYh ue;sjrKj,g w¨‍;ska tlajk md¾Yjhkag ndOlhla fkdúh hq;= h' Okfha widOdrK jdish o foaYmd,k wfmalaIlhka Okj;a odhlhska u; hemSu we;s lrjk ksid tjeks jdis 32 Keith D. Ewing, uqo,a foaYmd,kh yd kS;sh" Tlaia*¾â úYaj úoHd, uqøKd,h" 1992" 15 msgqj

wju l< hq;= h' foaYmd,k l;sldj fmdÿ jeo.;alula we;s lreKqj,ska fjk;a lreKqj,g fhduq ùu fyda úlD; ùu úhoï iSud u.ska je<elaúh yels h' wfmalaIlhkag úhoï iSud mekùu fjiaÜñkaiag¾ l%uh mj;sk rgj, iq,n ,laIKhls' 1833 ¥Is; yd kS;s úfrdaë Ndú;hka ms<sn| mk;ska ì%;dkH" wfmalaIlhdf.a ue;sjrK fldÜGdifha m<uq Pkaoodhlhska 2000g mjqï 710 l o" wu;r Pkaoodhlhska 1000 g mjqï 40 l o iSudjla m<uq jrg y÷kajd ÿkafka h' oeä kshdukhka yd n,d;aul lsÍu u.ska l%uh Yla;su;a lrk ,§'33 ue;sjrK kS;s" foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh u.ska fyda mlaI uQ,HlrK kS;s u.ska úhoï iSud mekùu isÿ l< yels h' tys§ iajdëk wëlaIK wêldßhla ;sîu wjYH h' úhoï iSudjka y÷kajd §u i|yd Wmßu iSudjla úfYaIfhka oelaúh hq;= h' th ksYaÑ; jákdlula fyda idudkH udisl fõ;kfha .=‚;hla jeks iQ;%hla úh yels h' lD;Su f,i my< iSud kshu lsÍfuka l%shdfõ fhoùu ÿIalr úh yels ksid;a"34 b;d by< iSudjlska mrud¾:h ksIaM, úh yels ksid;a Wmßu iSudj kshu lsÍfï § ie,ls,su;a úh hq;= h'

úhoï iSud mekùfï§ we;sjk .eg¨‍ úhoï iSud mekùug W;aidy lsÍfï § foaYmd,k wruqKq folla tlsfkl yd .efÜ' tkï" foaYmd,k iudk;ajh we;s lsÍfï jqjukdj iy foaYmd,k ksoyi we;s lsÍfï jqjukdj h' ksoyia ue;sjrK yd woyia m%ldYkfha ksoyi m%cd;ka;%jd§ l%uj, moku jk ksid úhoï iSud u.ska m%ldYkfha ksoyi widOdrK f,i W,a,x>kh jkafka hehs o iuyre l,amkd lr;s'35 flfia jqj o" th W,a,x>khla njg m;a jkafka ;uka m%odkhka ,nd fok ksfhdað;hka u.ska wfkl=;a whg jvd by< uÜgul woyia m%ldYkfha ksoyila iudcfha jvd fmdfydi;a fldgiaj,g ;sfíhehs 33 The Law Library of Congress, ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh( UK https;/www.loc.gov/law/ campaign-finance/uk.php#issues-2017 ckjdrs 19 Èk m%fõYh ,nd .kakd ,§' 34 bkaÈhdj" BY%dh,h" hqlaf¾kh' 35 ixia' Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, foaYmd,k mlaI iy ue;sjrK jHdmdr wruqo,a" foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh ms<sn| w;afmd;la" m%cd;ka;%jdoh yd ue;sjrK iydh ms,sn| wdh;kh" 47 msgqj

hful= l,amkd lrkafka kï mu‚' m%cd;ka;%jd§ iudchla wkq.ukh lrk tla mqoa.,fhla - tla Pkaohla hk l%uhg fuh mgyeks h'36 ta ksid úhoï iSud y÷kajd §u m%ldYkfha ksoyig t,a, jk myrla f,i oelsh fkdyels h' flfia jqj o" úúOdldr iq¿ mß;Hd.YS,Skaf.ka wruqo,a m%Njhka Ndú; lsÍu iSud lsÍfï wu;r n,mEula lsÍug úhoï iSudjlg yels nj i|yka l< hq;= h' ;j;a lreKla jkafka úhoï iSudjla mekùfuka wkdjrKh lsÍfï úêúOdk l%shdfõ fhoùu ÿIalr úh yels ùu h' úhoï lsÍfï wkqu; iSud blauùu iïnkaOfhka jdrKhla mekúh yels neúka" úhoï uÜgï ;lafiare lsÍu jvd wmyiq lrjñka ish úhoïj, iuyr me;s ieÕùug mlaI fyda wfmalaIlhka fm<ôh yels h' wfmaCIlhskaf.a iy foaYmd,k mlaIj, úhoï lsÍu kshdukh lsÍug;a" tlS wfmalaIlhka iy mlaI fjkqfjka ;=kajeks md¾Yjhla uqo,a úhoï l< yelsh hk .eg¨‍jg úi÷ula fkd,efí' hï lreKla m%j¾Okh lsÍfï Wkkaÿjla we;s wjHdc yd iajdëk f;jeks md¾Yjhka isáh yels ksid fuh ;j;a ixlS¾K fõ' ta ksid" úhoï iSud u.ska we;s lsßug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk iudk;ajh flfrys wys;lr f,i n,mE yels ;=kajeks md¾Yj úhoï y÷kd .ekSu yd iSud lsÍu wjYH úh yels h' úfYaIfhkau fuh kshdukh lsÍu fnfyúka ÿIalr jkq we;s nj i|yka l< hq;= h' úhoï iSud" lsis f,il;a w¨‍;a fohla fkdjk kuq;a tajd n,d;aul lsÍu wiSre h' tys§ i,ld ne,sh hq;= lreKqj,g we;=<;a jkafka" úhoï iSudjg wod< ld,iSudj" ue;sjrK jHdmdr úhoï jYfhka ie,lsh yels úhoï whs;u iy iSud wod< úh hq;af;a ldgo hk lrKq h' iSud mekfjk úg" l%uh ;=<g uqo,a we;=¿ lsÍu i|yd w¨‍;a l%u ks¾udKh jkq we;s nj i,ld ne,Su jeo.;a h' ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrKh kshdukh lsÍug W;aidy .kakjdg jvd f.ùï lrk ,o oekaùï m%pdrKhg ;ykula mekùu fnfyúka M,odhS iy wëlaIKhg myiq jk njg o ;¾l bÈßm;a ù ;sfí' úhoï iSud iïnkaOfhka cd;Hka;r ixúOdk lsysmhla u fhdackd yd ks¾foaY bÈßm;a lr ;sfí' jvd jeo.;a f,i" udkj ysñlï ms<sn| tlai;a cd;Skaf.a uy flduidßia ld¾hd,h37 ks¾foaY lrkafka Pkaoodhl f;aÍug 36 ixia' Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, foaYmd,k mlaI iy ue;sjrK jHdmdr wruqo,a" foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKh ms<sn| w;afmd;la" m%cd;ka;%jdoh yd ue;sjrK iydh ms,sn| wdh;kh" 51 msgqj 37 isú,a foaYmd,k whs;sjdislï ms<sn| cd;Hka;r iïuq;sfha 25 jeks j.ka;sh iïnkaOfhka tu.ska olajk ,o fmdÿ woyia ±laùfï §'

ydkshla fkdjk njg;a" hï foaYmd,k mlaI fyda wfmalaIlhka úiska wêl f,i úhoï lsßu u.ska m%cd;ka;%jd§ l%shdj,sh úlD; fkdjk njg;a iy;sl lsÍu i|yd úhoï iSudjla idOdrŒlrKh l< yels nj h' foaYmd,kfha § uqo,aj, ld¾hNdrh md,kh lsÍu i|yd úhoï lsÍfï iSud fyda udOH m%fõYh ,nd .ekSu i|yd iykodhS f,i wjia:dj ,nd §u jeks úl,am g%dkaiafmarkais bkag¾keIk,a ^TI&"38 wdh;kh o ks¾foaY lrhs' ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK l;sldfõ tla ñ:Hdjla kï úhoï iSudjlska mqoa.,fhl=f.a m%ldYk ksoyi W,a,x>kh fõh hkak h' jeäfhka uqo,a úhoï lsÍfuka jeä m%ldYk ksoyila hï mqoa.,fhl=g ñ,§ .; yels fõ kï ñi fuys i;Hhla ;sìh fkdyels h' ;j;a ñ:Hdjla kï oekg ;k;=f¾ isák whg we;s ms<s.ekSu ksid Tjqkag jeä uqo,a m%udKhla ,nd .ekSfï yelshdj we;s ksid úhoï iSud Tjqkag WmldÍ jkafka h hkak h' flfia jqj o" idOdrK ;r`. ìula ks¾udKh lsÍfï § úhoï iSud we;a; jYfhka u l%shd;aul jkafka wfkla md¾Yjhkag jeä jdis ie,fik wdldrfhks' ;=kajeks ñ:Hdj jkafka úhoï iSud ksid uyckhd fj; m‚jqvh .,d hEug ndOd we;s jkq we; hkak h' we;a; jYfhka u" wvq wdfgdamhlska jeäfhka lreKq we;=<;aj m‚jqvh ,nd fok fyhska f.ka f.g f.dia m%pdrKfha fh§u jeks l%u flfrys wjOdkh fhduq l< yels ue;sjrK w;r;=r ksoyia ld,hla tu.ska we;s fõ'39 úhoï iSud lsÍula hkak lsis f,ilskaj;a w¨‍;a woyila fkdjk w;r" th f,dj mqrd w;ayod n,d ;sfí' ue;sjrKj, ienE úhou l=ulao hkak iy Pkao fldÜGdij,g M,odhS f,i ikaksfõokh lsÍu i|yd wjYH uqo,a m%udKh ms<sn| m¾fhaIKj,ska ìys jk l%uhla flfrys wjOdrKh fhduq úh hq;= h' n,fha isák wdKavqjg úreoaO jk wh f;dard fírd f.k o~qjï lsÍfï ud¾.hla jYfhka úhoï iSud wjNdú; fkdlrkq ,nk njg m%fõYï úh hq;= h' ukdj is;d n,d fyd¢ka ilia lrkq ,nk l%shdfõ fhoùfï l%uhla iu`. taldnoaOj l%shd;aul fkdjkafka kï úhoï iSudjla mekùfuka m,la fkdjkq we;s nj wjOdrKh l< hq;= h'

38 TI m%;sm;a;s ia:djrh N 1$2005 39 ixia' Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finace Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, 51 msgqj

rdcH wruqo,a foaYmd,k l%shdj,sh ;=< uqo,a i;= jeo.;a ld¾hNdrh ms<s.ksñka f,dj mqrd oekg wkq.ukh lrkq ,nk uQ,sl hdka;%Khla jkafka foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iy tu.ska ue;sjrK jHdmdrj,g rdcH wruqo,a iemhSu h' —fuh j¾;udk foaYmd,k uQ,HlrKfha b;d u jeo.;a m%jK;dj˜40 f,i ;¾l l< yelshehs m%ldY ù ;sfí' rdcH wruqo,a Ndú;h 1920 .Kkaj, wdrïN ù m%Odk jYfhka 1940 .Kkaj,§ jHdma; jQ idfmalaI jYfhka w¨‍;a l%shdj,shls' rdcH wruqo,a ms<sn|j nrm;< f,i i,ld n,k f,i f,dal nexl=j iy g%dkaiafmarkais bkag¾keIk,a we;=¿ cd;Hka;r ixúOdk rdYshla u rdcHhkaf.ka b,a,d we;'41 f;dr;=re ,nd .; yels rgj,a 177 ka 68] la u hï wdldrhl rdcH wruqo,a Ndú; lrhs'42 jl% rdcH wruqo,a o ie,ls,a,g .;fyd;a rgj, m%;sY;h óg jvd jeä fõ' iudkqmd;sl ksfhdack Pkao l%u Ndú;d lrk rgj,a úiska rdcH wruqo,a Ndú;hg jeäfhka bv ;sfnk nj o ksÍlaIKh lr ;sfí' rdcH wruqo,a hkafkka woyia jkafka uQ,H fyda uQ,H fkdjk wdldrfhka l,ska ks.ukh lrkq ,nk fhda.H;d iy fjka lsÍfï ks¾Kdhl wkqj" foaYmd,k úhoï mshùu i|yd uqo,a fyda fjk;a iïm;a iemhSu h' jl% rdcH wruqo,aj,g we;=<;a jkafka rdcH udOH fkdñf,a m%fõYh ,nd §u" fmdÿ m%jdykh yd nÿ m%;s,dN h' rdcH wruqo,a iemhSfuka" foaYmd,k mlaIj, yd wfmalaIlhkaf.a yeisÍu kshdukh l< yels jk mßÈ iïm;a ms<sn| hï md,khla lsÍug rglg bv ,efí' l%shd;aul lsÍfï jeä bvlvla iys;j úksúoNdjh" ish,a,ka we;=<;a ùu ^wka;¾lrKh& iy wfkl=;a Okd;aul m%ñ;Ska fjkqfjka lghq;= lsÍug Bg lghq;= l< yels h' Pkaoodhlhskag lreKq oekqï §u i|yd Wmldrh ,nd §u u.ska foaYmd,k nyqjdoh ^pluralism& Èß.ekaùug;a" tu.ska Pkaoodhlhskaf.a f;aÍï jeä ÈhqKq fldg" ieug idOdrK ;r`. ìula we;s lsÍug Bg yels jk ud¾.hla we;s lsÍug;a" ue;sjrK jHdmdrfha by< hk msßjeh wvq lsÍug;a" foaYmd,k l%shdj,sh ;=< Okj;a wdOdr fokakka u; hemSu je<elaùug;a yels fõ' kshduk hdka;%Khla jYfhka rdcH wruqo,a Ndú;h ms<sn| úfõpk lsysmhla ;sfí' bka tlla kï th foaYmd,k mlaI ck;djf.ka wE;a 40 ixia' Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finace Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, 57 msgqj 41 f,dal nexl=j ^2001&" g%dkaiafmarkais bkag¾keIk,a ^2005&' 42 f,dal nexl=j ^2001&" g%dkaiafmarkais bkag¾keIk,a ^2005&'

lsÍug fya;= jk njhs'43 ;j;a úfõpkhla kï tu.ska mj;akd mlaI m%.;s úfrdaë njg m;a fldg fjkia jk m%jK;d ie,ls,a,g .ekSug wiu;a ùug bv we;s njhs' úfYaIfhka u wvq wdodhï Wmojk rgj, rdcH wruqo,a foaYmd,k mlaIj,g fyda wfmalaIlhkag ,nd fokjdg jvd rchg tajd jvd fyd| fohlg Ndú; l< yels nj o m%ldY ù ;sfí' wkqu; wruqo,a m%udKhka wvq jk wjia:dj, § rdcH wruqo,a ,nd .ekSug jeä jeäfhka mlaI ;r. l< yels ksid mlaI l%uh len,sj,g lvd fkdjeo.;a mlaI msysgqùug tu.ska Èß.ekaùula ,efnk njo m%ldY ù ;sfí'44 we;a; jYfhka u" ;sfnk ;j;a wjodkula kï úmlaIh uev meje;aùu i|yd n,fha isák mlaIhla rdcH wruqo,a ;ukag ´kE yeáhg mdúÉÑ l< yels ùu h'45 tneúka" tjeks wdÈkj je<elaùu i|yd M,odhS n,d;aul lsÍfï hdka;%Khka ia:dmkh lsÍu b;d jeo.;a h'

iqÿiqlu mlaIj,g we;s iqÿiqlu rdcH wruqo,aj,g iqÿiqlï we;af;a ldgo hkak rduqjla ;SrKh lsÍfï§ mekk.sk uQ,sl .eg¨‍j,ska tlls' tla úi÷ula úh hq;af;a ,shdmÈxÑ jQ ish¨‍u foaYmd,k mlaIj,g wruqo,a iemhSu jk w;r tfia fkdjkafka kï" mlaI len,sj,g leã hEu iy foaYmd,k mlaI ys;+ uf;a msysgqjd .ekSu hk wfmalaId fkdl< m%;sM,h we;s lrjk ñ, wêl wNHdihla njg th m;aúh yels h' tys m%;sM,hla jYfhka WodyrKhla f,i md¾,sfïka;= ksfhdackh" wdik ixLHdjla"46 ke;fyd;a l,ska ue;sjrKfha § ,nd.;a Pkao ixLHdj"47 bÈßm;a lrk ,o wfmalaIlhska ixLHdj wdÈh u; mokï jQ kshñ; wruqo,a uÜgula fndfyda rgj,a wkq.ukh lrhs' fï l%u m%dfhda.sl fuka u hï rgl úfYaI ikao¾Nh wkqj ks¾udKYS,Sj Ndú; l< yels w;r u iuyr mqoa.,hska fyda mlaI foaYmd,k fCIa;%hg we;=¿ùu wjysr lsÍug o tajd fya;= úh yels h' 43 fuh kHdhd;aulj i;H jqj;a m%dfhda.sl ;;a;ajfha § wruqo,a i|yd idudkH wdOdr fokakka u; hefmkafka foaYmd,k mlaI b;d iq¿ ixLHdjls' 44 ixia' Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finace Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, 64 msgqj' wkqu; m%udKh jeäjk úg mlaI yjq,a we;s ùfï wjYH;djh by< hd yels w;r bka rglg Okd;aul fuka u iDKd;aul n,mEï o we;s úh yels h' 45 ixia' Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finace Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, 64 msgqj' 46 tlai;a rdcOdksh" *ska,ka;h" fko¾,ka;h' 47 ;=¾lsh" iaùvkh" c¾uksh'

tneúka kj foaYmd,k jHdmdr M,odhS f,i foaYmd,k ;r`.hg iyNd.s ùfuka neyer lsÍug tjeks fn§ula bjy,a fkdjk;dla ÿrg jeo.eïulg ke;s wfmalaIlhkag tfrysj hï m%udKhlg wdrlaIl mshjr .ekSu kS;Hdkql+, fõ'˜48

wfmalaIlhkag we;s iqÿiqlu úl,amhla jkafka fudieïìla iy ol=Kq fldßhdj hk rgj, lrk wdldrfha wfmalaIlhkag rdcH wruqo,a iemhSu h' tjeks l%uhl jdish jkafka th foaYmd,k lafIa;%h ;=< mlaIj, taldêldrh iSud lsÍu;a" fm!oa.,sl wruqo,a u; hemSu iy fjk;a m%Njhkaf.ka wruqo,a ,nd .ekSfï wjYH;dj wvq lsÍu;a h' wh:d n,mEu wju fldg foaYmd,khg w¨‍;ska we;=¿ jkakka Èß.ekaùfï Okd;aul n,mEula tu.ska we;s úh yelsh' flfia jqj o" mlaI úkh fuka u ish Pkaoodhlhskaf.a m‚jqvh M,odhS f,i ikaksfõokh lsÍug mlaIh i;= yelshdj o bka wvq ùug bv ;sfí'

fjka lsÍu bgq lr .ekSug wfmalaId lrk wruqKq mokï lrf.k Wmßu m%;sM, ,nd .ekSu i|yd ie,ls,af,ka i,ld ne,sh hq;= rdcH wruqo,a iïmdokfha ;j;a jeo.;a idOlhla kï wruqo,a fjka lsÍu h' tla úl,amhla jkafka mQ¾K iudk;ajh mokï lrf.k wruqo,a fnod §u h' wfkl hï mlaIhlg fyda wfmalaIlhl=g ish Pkao fldÜGdih ;=< we;s ck;d iyfhda.h mokï lrf.k tfia lsÍu h' iudk f,i wruqo,a fnod §fuka úYd, mlaIj, wêm;sNdjh wvq fldg w¨‍;ska tk wh Èß.ekaùug yels fõ' flfia jqj o" mlaIfha úYd,;ajh wkqj tla Pkaoodhlhl=g úhoï lsÍug mlaIhg yels m%udKfha nrm;< úIu;djla tu.ska we;s úh yels h' foaYmd,k mlaI w;r iudk f,i wruqo,a fnod §ug jvd wfmalaIlhka w;r fnod§u jvd iq,n h'49 fokq ,nk wruqo,a m%udKh ,efnk iyfhda.fha uÜgu hk mokñka ks.ukh lsÍfuka" ck;dj ienúka u iyfhda.h fok mlaIj,g rdcH wruqo,a hk nj iy;sl fõ' flfia jqj o" tu.ska foaYmd,khg w¨‍;ska tk wh neyerg ;,a¨‍ úh yels h' 48 Nassmacher (2003a) 14 msgqj 49 ixia' Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finace Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, 68 msgqj'

fndfyda rgj,a" hï ksYaÑ; wruqo,a m%;sY;hla iemhSu iy uyck iydh mokï lrf.k b;sß uqo,a wvq jeä lsÍu hk l%u fofla ixl,khla Ndú; lrhs'50 flfia jqj o tlai;a ckmoh" m%xYh iy lekvdj iïmQ¾Kfhkau iudk f,i fnod §fï mokula l%shd;aul lsÍu jeo.;a lreKls' Ndú; jk úl,am l%uhla kï mlaIhla fyda wfmalaIlhka úiska ,nd .kakd wruqo,a m%udKh rch úiska o ,nd §u h' fuh tlai;a ckmofha iy c¾uksfha iuyr m%foaYj, Ndú; jk l%uhls' fuu.ska wkdjrKh Èß .ekafjk w;r wruqo,a fokq ,nkafka ck;d iyfhda.h mokï lr f.kh hkak iy;sl lsÍu o isÿ fõ' flfia jqj o fuh l%shd;aul lsÍug jvd ÿIalr l%uhls' wjika jYfhka i|yka l< hq;af;a rdcH wruqo,a hkq Y%S ,xldfõ wuq;= ixl,amhla fkdjk njhs' by; olajk ,o mßÈ51 th b;d §¾> ld,hla ;siafia md¾,sfïka;= ue;sjrK kS;sfha fldgila jYfhka mj;S' ta ksid i|yka l< hq;= jkafka iïmQ¾Kfhka u rdcH wruqo,a iemfhk l%uhla l%shd;aul lsÍu fjkila úh yels kuq;a th foaYSh ikao¾Nhg WÑ; fkdjkakla f,i iïmQ¾Kfhka u neyer fkdl< hq;= nj h'

n,d;aul lsÍu M,odhS l%shd;aul lsÍfï l%uhla iu. tlaj fkdhkafka kï kshduk hdka;%Khla ykajd §fuka jeä m%fhdackhla fkd,efnkq we;' l%shdfõ fhoùu yd wëlaIKh fï l%shdj,sfha § bj;a fkdl< yels uQ,sl wx. fõ' fjk;a wdldrhlska kshdukhka yÿkajd §fuka kS;s moaO;sh flfrys we;s úYajdih m¿ÿ ù we;af;ka u th fkdi,ld yeÍula isÿ jkq we;' foaYmd,k idOl ks;r u ueÈy;a úh yels w;r u" M,odhS ls%hdfõ fhoùula we;s lsÍu iy;sl lsÍu ioyd ish¨‍ l%shdud¾. .ekSu b;d jeo.;a h' n,d;aul lsÍu isÿ l< hq;af;a meyeÈ,s ks, mejreula" iajdëk ;;a;ajhla' wjYH iïm;a iy tfia lsÍug lem jQ rdcH wdh;khla úisks'52 ue;sjrK fldÜGdY l<ukdlrK wdh;kh fï mrud¾:h b;d iq,n f,i n,hla mejfrk wdh;kh fõ'53 Y%S ,xldj iïnkaOfhka bka woyia jkafka ue;sjrK fldñIka iNdjhs'54 flfia jqjo" cd;Hka;r Ndú;h 50 f,fidaf;da" fldf,dïìhdj" fulaisfldaj 51 Refer 3.4 above 52 Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns, msgqj 31' 53 Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns, msgqj 31' 54 by; 3'5 n,kak'

fhdackd lrkafka wud;HdxY" ú.Kk wdh;k fyda fï mrud¾:h i|yd uq¿ukska u w¨‍;a wdh;khla hk fïjd o Ndú; jk m%fõYhka nj h'55 n,d;aul lsÍfï wdh;kh úksúoNdjh" j.ùu iy ia:djr;ajh hk lreKq iïnkaOfhka fyd|u Ndú;hka fhdod.; hq;= h'56 flfia jqjo" ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK kshduk hdka;%Kh u.ska imqrd .ekSug woyia lrk mrud¾: yels fyd|u whqßka imqrd .ekSug lghq;= lsÍu i|yd foaYmd,k mlaI jeks wod< md¾Yjhka iu."57 hym;a in|;djla ms<sn|j n,d;aul lsÍfï § wjOdkh fhduq úh hq;= h' W,a,x>kh ùï isÿjk úg ov iy ;ykï mekùu yd jkaÈ ,nd .ekSï wjYH úh yels h' flfia jqj o foaYmd,k mlaI mj;ajd f.k hd hq;= iyfhda.fha iajNdjh ie,lSfï §" wk;=re ye`.ùï ksl=;a lsÍï iy kï i|yka fldg wmlS¾;su;a Ndjhg m;a lsÍu jeks l%u wkql=,;dj iy;sl lsÍfï§ M,odhl úh yels h' mlaIj,g fyda wfmalaIlhkag rdcH wruqo,a ,nd fok úg th wysñ ùu M,odhS n,d;aul lsÍfï hdka;%Khla jkq we;'58 n,d;aul lsÍfï ;j;a m%uqL wx.hla kï isú,a iudch" udOH yd iuia;hla jYfhka ck;dj úiska uyck wëlaIKh l%shd;aul l< yels jk mßÈ ue;sjrK jHd‍mdr uQ,HlrK kshdukhka tfia n,d;aul lsÍfuka ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re uyckhdg ,nd .ekSug iy tajdg m%fõY ùug bv ie,ish hq;= ùu h'

55 54 56 78 57 78 58 78

mßÈ msgqj' msgqj' msgqj'

úúO rgj, WodyrK 59 wdishdfõ ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK ;;a;ajh ms<sn| läkï iudf,dapkhla mß;Hd. iSud 3' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g fok wdh;ksl mß;Hd.j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

4' wfmalaIl-¡ -hkag wdh;ksl mß;Hd.j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

1' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g úfoaY md¾Yjhka úiska lrk mß;Hd. j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

2' wfmalaIl-¡-hkag úfoaY md¾Yjhka úiska lrk mß;Hd. j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

nx.a,dfoaYh

Tõ

ke;

ke;' tla j¾Ihla ;=< iud.ï j,ska fyda ixúOdkj,ska ,efnk mß;Hd. gld ,laI 25 la fyda ta iudk fiajhla fkdblaujhs kï ;yku wod< fkdfõ'

ke;

ldïfndach

Tõ

ke;

bkaoshdj

Tõ

ke;' ;yku wod< jkafka jir ;=klg wvq meje;aula we;s iud.ï j,ghs'

59 International IDEA fj;ska .kakd ,§' - foaYmd,k uQ,HlrK o;a; moku

9' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g fok ks¾kdñl mß;Hd.j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

ke;' kuq;a úfYaI iSudjla' gld 5000 blaujk ks¾kdñl mß;Hd. j,g ;ykula

10' wfmalaIl-hkag fok ks¾kdñl mß;Hd.j,g ;ykula ;sfío@

Tõ' iDcq ;ykula ke;;a ish¨‍u mß;Hd. uQ,hkaf.a ku ,nd Èh hq;= ksid ;;ajdldr ;ykula

15' ue;sjrKhla iïnkaOfhka wdOdr fok wfhl=g foaYmd,k mlaIhlg Èh yels odhl;ajhg iSudjka ;sfío@

úêu;a iSudj wod< fõ' gld 20"000 g jeä mß;Hd. fplam;a u.ska l< hq;=h'

17' wdOdr fok wfhl=g wfmalaIlfhl=g Èh yels odhl;ajhg iSudjka ;sfío@

ke;

Tõ' iDcq ;ykula fkfõ' kuq;a jd¾;d lsÍu yd wdOdr fokakdf.a wkkH;dj jd¾;d lsÍfï wjYH;dj wkqj ;;ajdldr ;ykula

ke;'

úêu;a isudj wod< fõ' mqoa.,hska mß;Hd. iSudjkag hg;a fkdjk kuq;a jirlg ;u idudkH jd¾Isl wdodhfuka 7'5] lg jvd mß;Hd. lsÍï j,g fkdyels h'

ke;' ue;sjrKhla i|yd wfmaCIlfhl=g fok odhl;ajhka kshdukh lrk fyda iSud lrk kS;shla kek;

bkaÿkSishdj

Tõ

ke;' ;yku wod, jkafka tla iud. ulska wjqreoaola ;=, remsh,a 7"500"000"000 blaujk mß;Hd. j,gh'

ke;

fkamd,h

Tõ

ke;

mlsia:dkh

Tõ

ke;' wfmaCIlhkag wdh;ksl m%odkhka §ug kS;sfha ;ykula ke;'

Tõ

ke;

kek'

ke;'

kek'

ke;'

Y%S ,xldj

Tõ' ue;sjrK j,g iyNd.S jk ld,h ;=< ;yku wod< fõ'

Tõ

Tõ' ue;sjrK jHdmdr ld, iSudj ;=< ckdêm;s yd fifkÜ wfmaCIlhka i|yd

ke;' kuq;a úfYaIs; iSudjla' ks¾kdñl mß;Hd.j,g úfYaIs; ;ykula ke;' tfy;a re' 25000g jvd fok wdOdr lrejkaf.a kï mlaI úiska jd¾;d l, hq;=h'

ke;

o;a; ke;

ke;

Tõ' iDcq ;ykula ke;' kuq;a wdOdr fokakdf.a wkkH;dj jd¾;d lr ;eîfï fyda jd¾;d lsÍfï wjYH;dj wkqj ;;a;ajdldr ;ykula

Tõ' kuq;a wdOdr fokakdf.a wkkH;dj jd¾;d lr ;eîfï fyda jd¾;d lsÍfï wjYH;dj wkqj ;;a;ajdldr ;ykula

kek'

ke;'

kek'

ke;'

kek'

ke;'

úhoï lsÍfï iSud rg

31' foaYmd,k mlaIhlg úhoï l< yels uqo,a m%udKfha iSudjka ;sfí o@

32' foaYmd,k mlaIhlg úhoï l< yels m%udKfha iSudjla ;sfí kï iSudj l=ula o@

nx.,dfoaYh

Tõ' ue;sjrK úhoï j,g wod<h

wfmalaIlhska ixLHdj 200 fyda Bg jeä kï Wmßuh gld ñ,shk 45 wfmalaIlhka 101 - 200 w;r kï Wmßuh gld ñ,shk 30 wfmalaIlhka 51100 w;r kï gld ñ,shk 15 wfmalaIlhka 50 la fyda Bg wvq kï Wmßuh gld ñ,shk 7'5 u wfmalaIlfhl= ioyd mlaIhlg úhoï l< yels uqo, gld ñ,shk 1'5 fkdblauúh hq;=h'

ldïfndach

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

bkaÈhdj

ke;' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g úhoï iSud ke;s jqj;a mlaIhl úhou wfmaCIlfhl=g fyda wfmaCIlhkag fl<skau m%;s,dN i,ikafka kï úhoï lrk ,o uqo, wod, wfmaCIl;ajfha úhoï iSudjkag .efka'

wod< fkdfõ

bkaÿkSishdj

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

fkamd,h

Tõ' Wmßu iSudj wod< iSudj kshu lrkafka jkafka iudkqmd;sl ue;sjrK flduidßia úisks ksfhdack ue;sjrKj,§ mlaIfha úhoïj,gh

33' wfmaCIlfhl=g úhoï l< yels m%udKfha iSudjka ;sfí o@

34' wfmaCIlfhl=g úhoï l< yels m%udKfha iSudjla ;sfí kï úhoï iSudj l=ula o@

Tõ' ue;sjrK úhoïj,g wod< jk w;r wfmalaIlhd fjkqfjka ´kEu mqoa.,fhl= ord we;s ue;sjrK úhou we;=<;a fõ'

Pkao fldÜGdihl tla wfmalaIlfhl= ioyd Wmßuh gld ñ,shk 1'5 ue;sjrK úhoï mokï úh ' hq;af;a Pkao fldÜGdihl isák uq¿ Pkao odhl ixLHj u;h'

ke;

wod< fkdfõ'

Tõ' ksfhdað; uka;S% uKav,fha iy m%dka;hl jHjia:dodl iNdfõ ue;sjrKj,g wod< fkdfõ'

uOHu rch úiska ks.ukh lrkq ,efí' iSudj kshu lrkafka ue;sjrK fldñifï woyia úuid uOHu rch úisks'

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

Tõ

Wmßu iSudj ^ue;sjrK& fldñiu úiska kshu lrkq ,nkafka h'

mlsia:dkh

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

Y%S ,xldj

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

rdcH wruqo,a rg

19' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iDcq rdcH wruqo,a i|yd úêúOdk ;sfí o@

jákdlu

úia;rh

nx.,dfoaYh

ke;

ldïfndach

ke;

bkaÈhdj

ke;

bkaÿkSishdj

Tõ' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g jd¾Isl wruqo,a l%udiemfha kql+ ,j iemfhk wruqo,a

fkamd,h

ke;

mlsia:dkh

ke;

rdcH wruqo,a iemhsh yels hehs kS;s iïmdokfha m%ldY jk w;r tjeks wruqo,a iemfhk njg úê úOdkhla ke;

Tõ

cd;sl rdcH iNd ue;sjrK i|yd remsh,a 1"500"000 m<d;a uka;%K iNd ue;sjrKhla i|yd remsh,a 1"000"000

ke;

wod< fkdfõ

20' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iDcq rdcH wruqo,a i|yd úêúOdk ;sfí kï fhda.H;d ks¾Kdhl fudkjd o@

21' foaYmd,k mlaIj,g iDcq rdcH wruqo,a i|yd úêúOdk ;sfí kï" fjka lsÍfï .Kkh lsÍu l=ula o@

jákdlu

úia;rh

jákdlu

úia;rh

wod< fkdfõ

rdcH wruqo,a iemhsh yels hehs kS;s iïmdokfha m%ldY jk w;r tjeks wruqo,a iemfhk njg úê úOdkhla ke;

wod< fkdfõ

rdcH wruqo,a iemhsh yels hehs kS;s iïmdokfha m%ldY jk w;r tjeks wruqo,a iemfhk njg úê úOdkhla ke;

wod< fkdfõ

f;dard m;a lr .kq ,nk wdh;k j, ksfhdackh

cd;sl" m<d;a fyda Íckais $ kd.ßliNd ksfhdað; iNdj, ksfhdackh ,nd we;s mlaIj,g muKla wruqo,a ,nd .; yels h'

,enQ Pkao ixLHdjg iudkqmd;slj

ch.%yKh l< Pkao ixLHdjg iudkqmd;slj

wod< fkdfõ

Y%S ,xldj

TÃµ" ue;sjrK jHdmdrj,g wod<j

l,ska ue;sjrKfha Pkao fldgi b,a¨ï lsÍu

l,ska ue;sjrKfha § ue;sjrK Èia;%slalh ;=< wvq jYfhka Pkao 1] la ,nd .;a foaYmd,k mlaIj,g muKla wruqo,a ,nd .; yelsh'

,enQ Pkao wkqj fmdÿ wkqmd;h

l,ska ue;sjrKfha § Pkaohlg ,nd .;a fmdÿ wkqmd;h jYfhka wruqo,a fjka lrkq ,efí'

ks¾foaY ue;sjrK jHdmdr uQ,HlrK kshduk l%uhla yÿkajd §fï§ bgq lr .ekSug wfmalaIs; wruqKq iïnkaOfhka lghq;= lsÍfï wruq‚ka úia;rd;aul lreKq flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrkq ,efí' yqfola úfoaYSh l%uhla ke;fyd;a tlS wruqKq Tiafia ukdj is;d fkdn,k ,o l%uhla yÿkajd §fuka muKla th id¾:l jkafka ke;' l%shdj,shg ud¾f. damfoaY ,nd Èh hq;= md¾Yajldr woyia mq¿,a f,i úuiSu ta ioyd wjYH fõ' wod< foaYmd,k jHqyh" ue;sjrK l%uh" mlaIj, iajNdjh iy n, ino;d ms<snoj idlÉPdj, wjOdkh fhduq úh hq;=h' tfia u foaYmd,k l%uhla ;=< mj;sk ish¨‍ .eg¨‍j,g úiÿula fhdað; l%ufhka ,efí hehs wfmalaId fkdl< hq;= ksid th ish¨‍ foaj,g ms<s;=rla úh fkdyelsh' tys§ wjYH mßÈ l%uh fjkia lsÍfï leue;a;g hg;aj" wkdjrKh lsÍfï w;HjYHu idOlfhka mgka f.k kshduk l%u l%ufhka yÿkajd §u mjd wjYH úh yelsh' yÿkajd fokq ,eìh yels ljr fyda kshduk l%uhlg ue;sjrK jHdmdr odhl;ajhka" úhoï" foaYmd,k mlaIj, yd wfmalaIlhkaf.a j;alï yd nerlï hk lreKq idlÉPd u.ska fjkialïj,g Ndck fkdl< yels wdrïNl idOlhla jYfhka we;=<;a úh hq;=h hkak g%dkaiafmrkais bkag¾keIk,a wdh;kh ;Èka u ks¾foaY lrhs' Y%S ,xldjg jvd;a iqÿiq iy l%shdfõ fhoúh yels l%uh fj; t<öu ioyd md¾Yajlrejka iu. isÿ lrkq ,nk WmfoaYd;aul idlÉPd mokï lrf.k wfkl=;a kshduk hdka;%Khka w;r f;aÍu ie,ls,af,ka l< hq;=h' fmdÿfõ i,ld ne,sh hq;= jeo.;a u ldrKh jkafka kshduk hdka;%Khlska ksoyia woyia m%ldYkhg ndOd fkdmeñ‚h hq;= nj;a Pkaoodhlhska foaYmd,khg iïnkaOùu wvq fkdúh hq;= nj;a h' tneúka" foaYmd,k{hka ;ukag ,efnk uqo,a foi ne,sh hq;af;a j.lSfuka hq;a foaYmd,kfha kshe<Su u.ska ;uka úiska ;yjqre lr fmkaúh hq;= jrm%idohla jYfhks' yÿkajd fok ljr l%uhla jqj o kshduk hdka;%Khla ilia lsÍug mokï jk uQ,O¾u yd jqjukdjka ie,ls,a,g .kakd" ukdj i,ld n,d isÿ lrkakla úh hq;=h'

,yq;ifapy; NjHjy; gpur;rhu epjpaspg;G njhlHghd xU RUf;fkhd fz;Nzhl;lk;

l;uhd;];Ngud;rp ,d;lu;ne\dy; =yq;fh

cs;slf;fk; mwpKfk; .....................................................................................................87 Nehf;nfy;iy .............................................................................................89 cs;ehl;Lr; #o;epiy................................................................................91 murpay; #o;epiy ........................................................................91 xU jdpj;Jtkhd gpur;rpid ....................................................91 cl;fl;rpr; #o;epiy .....................................................................92 rl;lr; #o;epiy .............................................................................93 Nju;jy; Mizf;FO ...................................................................94 fpilf;ff;$ba njhpTfs; ....................................................................97 ntspg;gLj;jy; .....................................................................................97 mila KaYk;; jhHkPf KbTfs; .........................................98 ntspg;gilj; jd;ik ...................................................................98 jfhj nry;thf;iff; fl;Lg;gLj;jy;.........................................99 Nghl;bia Ngzpg; ghJfhj;jy; .............................................100 ahH ntspg;gLj;JtJ ................................................................100 vd;d ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; ..........................................................102 vg;NghJ ntspg;gLj;JtJ .......................................................103 ahUf;F ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; ....................................................104 vy;iy tpjptpyf;Ffs; .............................................................105 jilfs; ..........................................................................................105 ed;nfhil jilfs;/tiuaiwfs;..............................................107

nrytpLk; tiuaiwfs; .....................................................................109 nrytpLk; tiuaiwfis tpjpg;gjpy; cs;s ................110 gpur;rpidfs; murhq;f epjpaspg;G ...................................................................114 jifik ..........................................................................................116 xJf;fPL..............................................................................................117 epiyehl;ly; (mKyhf;fy;)..................................................................119 ehLfspd; cjhuzq;fs;........................................................................122 ed;nfhil tiuaiwfs;...........................................................122 nrytpLk; tiuaiwfs;.............................................................126 murhq;f epjpaspg;G ...................................................................130 tpjg;Giufs;...............................................................................................134

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xU jdpj;Jtkhd gpur;rpid ,uz;L fhuzq;fspdhy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G gpur;rpidf;Fhpajhf cs;sJ. 1. 2016Mk; Mz;bd; 12 Mk; ,yf;f rl;lj;jpd; Vw;ghLfSf;fika murpay; fl;rpfSk; Ntl;ghsHfSk; jfty; Nfhhpf;iffSf;F Mshtjpy;iy. vdpDk;> Nfhug;gLk; jftiyg; nghWj;J NjHjy;fs; MizahsH mr;rl;lj;jpd;fPo; jftYf;fhd Nfhhpf;iff;F gjpyspf;ff; flikg;gl;Ls;shH.

KjyhtJ gpur;rpid murpay;; fl;rpfSk; Ntl;ghsHfSk; jdpg;gl;l mikg;GfshFk; vd;gNjhL murhq;fj;jplkpUe;J XusT epjp Mjutpid ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; egHfSkhtH vd;gjhFk;.2 mtHfs; jdp mikg;GfshapDk;> mtHfs; kf;fspd; thf;Ffspdhy;; Nju;e;njLf;fg;gLtij ehbepw;fpd;wdH. vdNt> thf;fhsHfs; jhk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l Ntl;ghsUf;F thf;fspg;gjdhy; jkJ eyd;fs; gpujpepjpj;;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLkh vd;gijAk; mj;jifa Ntl;ghsH jfhj nry;thf;fpw;F cl;gLj;jg;gLfpwhuh vd;gijAk; - ,J eyd; Kuz;ghnlhd;iw Vw;gLj;Jk;- mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L xU Fwpg;gpl;l Ntl;ghsUf;F thf;fspg;gjh vd;gjw;fhd njhpit Nkw;nfhs;Sk;NghJ ,t;Ntl;ghsHfs; thf;fhsu;fspd; ghprPyidf;F cl;glNtz;batHfshfyhk;. ,uz;lhtJ> xOq;FgLj;jy; tiur;rl;lfnkhd;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy; mj;jifa xOq;FgLj;jYf;F cl;gLk; mikg;GfspdhNyNa Vw;gLj;jg;glNtz;bapUf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;. mj;jifa mikg;GfSf;F jk;ik MSfpd;w rl;lq;fspd; tpguq;fisg;gw;;wpj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; Rje;jpuKk; mjpfhuKk; ,Uf;Fk; vd;gNjhL> mj;jifa rl;lq;fis epiyehl;Lk; mikg;Gf;F toq;fg;gLk; epjp MjuitAk; mit jPHkhdpf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;.

cl;fl;rpr; #o;epiy ,yq;ifapYk; - rpyNtis cyfpd; ngUk;ghyhd gFjpfspYk; - murpay; fl;rpfs; [dehafj;Jtkw;wjhfNt fhzg;gLtNjhL> mur fl;Lg;ghl;bd; mjpfhu tuk;gpw;fg;ghy; mike;Js;sd. epjp kw;Wk; Vida jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;Sk; tplaj;jpy;; ntspg;gilahdJk;> nghWg;Gf;$wj;jf;fJk; gq;Nfw;Gkpf;fJkhd xU eilKiw xg;gPl;lstpy; ,irthf;fKWtjw;F xU Gjpa vz;zf;fUthFk;. xOq;FgLj;jy; tiur;rl;lfj;ij vjpHg;gjw;F xt;nthU murpay; fl;rpf;Fk; jdpj;jdp fhuzq;fs; ,Uf;Fk;. 2. (jpUj;jg;gl;lthwhd) 1981 Mk; Mz;bd; 1 Mk; ,yf;f ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;fs; rl;lk;> gphpT 127.

rl;lr; #o;epiy ,yq;if> 2005 ,y; eilKiwf;F te;jJk; Nju;jy; Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; murpay;; fl;rpfspdJk; epjpaspg;Gfspy;; ntspg;gilj; jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhd rl;l kw;Wk; epu;thf eltbf;iffis ifahs;tij ghprPypf;FkhW mur jug;Gfis tw;GWj;JtJkhd 2003 Mz;bd; If;fpa ehLfspd; CoYf;nfjpuhd rkthaj;jpy; (UNCAC) kpf Muk;g fhyj;jpNyNa ifr;rhj;jpl;l xU ehlhFk;. ,yq;if murpayikg;gpw;fhd 19 tJ jpUj;jj;jpd; cWg;Giu 156A(c)3 UNCAC iaAk; Coiyj; jLg;gJ njhlHghd Vida ru;tNjr rkthaq;fisAk; mKy;gLj;Jtjw;fhd nraw;ghLfis epiwNtw;Wtjd; Njit cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. vdNt> ,yq;if murpay; epjpaspg;gpw;fhd ed;F guprPypf;fg;gl;l xOq;FgLj;jy; nghwpKiwnahd;iw Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhd ghijapy; ,Uf;fpwJ my;yJ ,Uf;fNtz;Lk; vd;W njd;gLk;. 2015 bnrk;gH 16 Mk; jpfjp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l njw;fhrpahtpy; murpay; epjpaspg;ig xOq;FgLj;Jjy; njhlu;ghd GJby;yp gpufldKk; Nju;jypd;NghJk; NtW re;ju;g;gq;fspYkhd murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;fis mwpKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; ftdj;jpy;nfhs;sNtz;ba nfhs;iffisAk; tof;fq;fisAk; tpjpj;Jiuj;Js;sJ.4 ,Jtiu fl;rpfSf;F my;yJ Ntl;ghsu;fSf;F nrYj;jg;glf;$ba gq;fspg;Gfspd; msT njhlu;ghf ,yq;iff;F vt;tpj fl;Lg;ghLfSk; ,y;iy. nrytpLk; njhif njhlHghfTk; vt;tpj fl;Lg;ghLfSk; ,y;iy. mj;jifa tplaq;fspy; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikf;fhd rl;ltpjpfis ghprPypg;gjw;fhd vt;tpj jPtpu Kaw;rpfSk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gltpy;iy.

3. 2015 Nk khjk; 15 Mk; jpfjp rhd;Wg;gLj;jg;gl;l ,yq;if murpayikg;gpw;fhd 19 tJ jpUj;jj;jpdhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. 4. 2016 nrg;nlk;gH 12 Mk; jpfjp gjpNtw;wg;gl;l http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/IIIDEM-Files/NewDelhiDeclaration201506012016.pdf ,y; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;fspd;NghJ mjw;F Ke;jpa Nju;jypy; xU Nju;jy; khtl;lj;jpy; Fiwe;jJ 1% thf;FfisahtJ ngw;w murpay; fl;rpfSf;F kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l msT nghJ epjpNa fpilf;ff;$bajhf cs;sJ. murpay; fl;rpfs; mjw;F Ke;jpa NjHjypy; ngw;w thf;Ffspd; mbg;gilapy; thf;nfhd;wpw;F 50 rjk; vd;wthW nghJ epjp xJf;fPL nra;ag;gLtjw;F chpj;JilaitahFk;. xt;nthU murpay; fl;rpAk; my;yJ RNal;irf; FOTk; tpz;zg;gpg;gjd;Nghpy; thndhypapy; nkhj;jkhf 45 epkplKk; njhiyf;fhl;rpapy; 45 epkplKk; gad;gLj;j mDkjpf;fg;gLk;.5 Nju;jy; njhlu;ghd Mtzq;fis mDg;gpitg;gjw;F murpay; fl;rpfspd; nrayhsu;fSf;F ,ytr jghy; Nrit fpilf;Fk;. 19756 Mk; Mz;bd; nrhj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; nghWg;Gfs; gpuflzr; rl;lk; NjHjYf;F ngau; epakdk; nra;ag;gl;l Ntl;ghsHfs; nrhj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; nghWg;Gfs; gpuflzj;ij Nkw;nfhs;tijf; fl;lhakhdjhf;Ffpd;wJ. vdpDk;> NjHjy; epakdk; ngw;w %d;W khj fhyj;jpDs; khj;jpuNk xU Ntl;ghsH nrhj;Jf;fisAk; nghWg;GfisAk; gpuflzg;gLj;jf; flikg;gl;Ls;shH. jtpHf;f KbahjthW mj;jifa jpfjp Nju;jy; jpdj;jpw;F mg;ghy; nrd;W rk;ge;jg;gl;ltHfs; Ntl;ghsHfshf ,y;yhJ Nghdgpd;dUk; mtHfsJ gpuflzk; nry;Ygbahf ,Uf;Fk; epiyiaj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ. nrhj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; nghWg;Gfs; gpuflzj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; ahUf;F thf;fspg;gJ vd;gJ njhlHghd jPHkhdj;ij Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhd gpuirfspd; tha;g;igAk; ,J gwpf;fpd;wJ.

Nju;jy; Mizf;FO ,yq;ifapy; Nju;jy; Mizf;FO murpayikg;gpd; Vw;ghLfSf;fika jhgpf;fgl;Ls;sJ vd;gNjhL mjw;F 5. 2009 Mk; Mz;bd; 58 Mk; ,yf;f ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;f;s; (jpUj;jr;) rl;lj;jpdhy ;jpUj;jg;gl;lthwhd 1981 Mk; Mz;bd; 1 Mk; ,yf;f ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;fs; rl;lk;> gphpT 157. 6. gphpT 2(dc)

nghJr; nrhj;Jf;fis J\;gpuNahfk; nra;jiy jLg;gjw;fhd gzpg;GiufisAk;7 VNjDk; xypgug;G my;yJ xspgug;G epWtdj;jpw;F my;yJ VNjDk; Gjpdg; gj;jpupifapd; chpikahsUf;F my;yJ gjpg;gfj;jpw;F8 chpikahsUf;F9 tpLg;gjw;fhd mjpfhuk; mlq;fyhf Rje;jpukhdJk; NeHikahdJkhd Nju;jy;fs; eilngWtij cWjp nra;tjw;fhd tphpthd mjpfhuq;fSk; cz;L. Nju;jy;fs; kw;Wk; rHtrd thf;nfLg;G Mfpait njhlu;ghd rl;lq;fspd;fPo; tpjpj;Jiuf;fg;gl;l midj;J mjpfhuq;fisAk; gpuNahfpg;gjw;fhd Miz mjw;Fz;L.10 fle;j fhyj;jpy; ,t;thizf;FO rpy Ntisfspy; ntspg;gilahd murhq;fj;jpd; tpOkpaq;fisj; Nju;jy;fspy; cWjpg;gLj;Jtjpy; jhd; xU gykhd mikg;ngd;gij ep&gpj;jpUf;Fk; mNjNtis> mjd; jd;ik mg;gjtpapid tfpf;Fk; jdpkdpju;fspNyNa nghpJk; jq;fpAs;sJ. ,yq;ifapy; murpay; fl;rpfs; rl;lj;jpw;fika tUlhe;jf; fzf;Ffis Nju;jy;fs; Mizf;FOtpw;F ntspg;gLj;jNtz;Lk; vd;gJ Rtu\;akhdjhFk;.11 eilKiwapy; ,J> mj;jifa fzf;Ffis - mt;tg;Nghjd;wp rku;g;gpf;fhj murpay; fl;rpfis jilnra;tjhf cUg;ngWtjpy;iy. mjd; tpisthf ,J gaDWjpaw;w rl;lkhfNt cs;sJ. NkYk;> rku;g;gpf;fg;gLk; fzf;Ffspy; Kuz;ghLfs; my;yJ rl;ltpNuhj nraw;ghLfs; cs;sdth vd;gijf; fz;lwptjw;F ftdkhd Kaw;rpNaJk; ,Ug;gjhfj; Njhd;wtpy;iy. Vw;nfdNt cs;s nghwpKiw ntspg;gLj;Jjy; %yk; murpay; fl;rpfis rpwe;j Kiwapy; Nkw;ghu;it nra;tjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;w mNjNtis> Nju;jy; gpurhuj;NjhL tpN\lkhfj; njhlu;Ggl;l fz;fhzpg;gpw;fhd Vw;ghLfs; ,Ug;gJ mtrpakhFk;. 7 murpayikg;gpd; cWg;Giu 103(2). 8 murpayikg;gpd; cWg;Giufs; l04B (4) (a) kw;Wk; l04B (5)(c)(i) . 9 murpayikg;gpd; cWg;Giu 104B(5). 10 murpayikg;gpd; cWg;Giu 104B(1). 11 2009 Mk; Mz;bd; 58 Mk; ,yf;f ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;fs; (jpUj;j) rl;lj;jpdhy; jpUj;jg;gl;lthwhd 1981 Mk; Mz;bd; 1 Mk; ,yf;f ghuhSkd;wj; Nju;jy;fs; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT.

Nju;jy;fis elj;Jjy; njhlu;ghf ,t;thizf;FOtpw;F kpfg; nghUj;jkhd Miz (mjpfhuk;) cz;L. NkYk;> mJ jdJ %Nyhghaj; jpl;lj;jpy;12 gpurhu epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jiy mwpKfg;gLj;Jtijj; jdJ Kf;fpa ,yf;Ffspy; xd;whf ,dq;fz;Ls;sJ. ,e;jr; #o;epiyapy;> Nju;jy;fs; njhlHGgl;l rl;lq;fSf;fika ,t;thizf;FOtpw;fpUf;Fk; gue;;jstpyhd mjpfhuq;fis ghHf;Fk;NghJ> xOq;FgLj;jy; Nehf;fj;jpw;fhd xU xOq;FgLj;jy; kw;Wk; Kfhikj;Jt mikg;gpw;fhd xU ,ay;ghd njhpthf ,t;thizf;FO Njhd;Wfpd;wJ. vdpDk;> fzf;fha;thsH ehafj;ij my;yJ ,yQ;rk; Coy; gw;wpa Fw;wr;rhl;Lf;fis tprhhpg;gjw;fhd Mizf;FOit (CIABOC) xOq;FgLj;jy; eilKiwapd; xU gFjpahf <LgLj;Jk; rhj;jpaj;ijg; ghprPypg;gJ gaDs;sjhf mikAk;. NkNy tpsf;fg;gl;l #o;epiyahdJ> xOq;FgLj;jy; ve;j cs;ehl;Lr; #o;epiyapDs;Sk; murpay; fyhrhuj;jpDs;Sk; mwpKfg;gLj;jgl Kaw;rpf;fg;gLfpwNjh me;jr; #o;epiy kw;Wk; murpay; fyhrhuk; gw;wpa rpwe;jnjhU Ghpe;JzHtpw;Fk; mj;jifanjhU eilKiwapy; Kf;fpa gq;fPLghl;lhsu;fspd; gq;Nfw;gpw;Fkhd Njitia jPtpu ftdj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;LtUfpwJ. xOq;Ftpjpfis ntspapypUe;J '',wf;Fkjp" nra;a KbahJ. ntWikapy; mtw;iw mwpKfg;gLj;jTk; KbahJ. kpfg; nghUj;jkhd xOq;FgLj;jy; tiur;rl;lfnkhd;iw Vw;gLj;j ,yf;Fitf;Fk;NghJ> cj;Njr KiwiknaJTk; epiyehl;lg;glf;$ba> ,uj;Jr;nra;ag;glhj my;yJ Gwf;fzpf;fg;glhj xd;whf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. vdNt> ntspg;gLj;jYk; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikANk xU Kiwiik tpUj;jpnra;ag;gLtjw;Fk; mKy;gLj;jg;gLtjw;Fkhd mbg;gilahf mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. xOq;FgLj;jy; Kiwiknahd;W nraw;gLtjw;;F mJ xU Kd; epge;jidahFk; vd;gNjhL> rhu;Giu nra;ag;glNtz;ba Fiwe;jgl;r epakkhjYk; Ntz;Lk;. 12. 2017 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2020 fhyg;gFjpf;fhdJ.

gpurhu epjpaspg;ig Ms;tjw;fhd rl;lj;ij13 mwpKfk; nra;tjw;fhd xU gw;WWjpia murpay; jiyikj;;Jtk; mz;ikapy; mwptpj;Js;sJ. Nju;jy;fs; Mizf;FO gpurhu epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jiy mLj;j %d;W Mz;LfSf;fhd ,yf;fhf ,dq;fz;Ls;sJ.14 vdpDk;> mt;thW nra;tjpy; xg;gPl;L epakq;fs; kw;Wk; gbg;gpidfs; gw;;wpa VNjDk; jPtpu Ma;T ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sg;gLfpwjh vd;gJ njsptw;wjhfNt â&#x20AC;&#x201C; cz;ikapy; re;NjfkhdjhfNt - cs;sJ.

fpilf;ff;$ba njhpTfs; ntspg;gLj;jy;15 Njh;jy; njhFjp Ntl;ghsHfs;pd; my;yJ murpay; fl;rpfspd; epjpfis fl;lhakhf ntspg;gLj;jr; nra;tjhdJ XH Muk;g kw;Wk; Kjd;ikahd Nju;jy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jyhFk;. NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;lthW> UNCAC $l murpay; fl;rpfspdJk; Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; epjpfspy; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffis filg;gpbg;gJ njhlHghf ghprPypf;FkhW mur jug;GfSf;F flg;ghL tpjpf;fpd;wJ.16 cz;ikapy; nrytpLk; tiuaiwfs; kw;Wk; nghJ epjpaspg;G Kjypa Vida xOq;FgLj;jy; KiwikfSf;F ,iae;njhOFjiy cWjpg;gLj;j ntspg;gLj;jy; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.

13 khfhz rigfs; kw;Wk; cs;Suhl;rp mikr;R mz;ikapy; Fwpg;gpl;l rpy rptpy; r%f mikg;Gfs; NjHjy;fs; Mizf;FOTld; ,ize;J ,t;tplaj;ijf; ifahs;tjw;fhd rl;lnkhd;iw tiuaNtz;Lnkd Nfl;Lf;nfhz;Ls;sJ. 14 ,yf;F 3, NjHjy;fs; Mizf;FOtpd; %Nyhghaj; jpl;lk; 2017-2020 15 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. DC: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;.. 16 ~~xt;nthU murpay; fl;rpAk; ,e;jr; rkthaj;jpd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fSf;F mikthfTk;; mjd; cs;ehl;L rl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilf; Nfhl;ghLfSf;Nfw;gTk; njhpT nra;ag;Lk; nghJg; gjtpfSf;fhd Ntl;ghsHfspd; epjpaspg;GfspYk;;> nghUj;jkhdtplj;J> murpay; fl;rpfspd; epjpaspg;GfspYk; ntspg;gilj; jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;j nghUj;jkhd rl;l kw;Wk; epHthf eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;tJ gw;wp ghprPypf;fNtz;Lk;".

ntspg;gLj;jy; vd;w tplak; ahH ntspg;gLj;JtJ> vd;;d> ahUf;F kw;Wk; vg;NghJ vd;w Nfs;tpfis vOg;Gfpd;wJ. NtW tplaq;fspy; NghyTk;> mjpYk; rpwg;ghf ,e;j tplaj;jpYk; epiyehl;Ljy; kpf Kf;fpa gq;nfhd;iw tfpf;;fpd;wJ. xU tphpthd> Mdhy; Nkhrkhf epiyehl;lg;gLk; (mKy;gLj;jg;gLk;) ntspg;gLj;jy; KiwikahdJ> mk;Kiwikf;F ed;ikiaf; fhl;bYk; $ba jPq;ifNa tpistpf;Fk;.

mila KaYk;; jhHkPf KbTfs; filg;gpbf;fg;glNtz;ba ntspg;gLj;jy; KiwikahdJ> mj;jifa xU Kiwik mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLjiyj; Jhz;Lk; jhHkPf KbTfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. NkYk; rpwe;j ntspg;gilj;jd;ik> jfhj nry;thf;Ffisf; fl;Lg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; MNuhf;fpakhd Nghl;bia Vw;gLj;jy; Mfpad ntspg;gLj;jy; nghwpKiwnahd;wpd; mbg;gilia cUthf;ff;$ba KbTfshFk;.

ntspg;gilj;jd;ik ntspg;gilj; jd;ikjhd; ,Wjp tpisthapd;> ntspg;gLj;jy; fhyk;> mjDs; mlq;fpAs;s tpguq;fspd; msT kw;Wk; ntspg;gLj;jy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; epWtdq;fspdhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; gug;Gjypy; nra;ag;gLk; Kaw;rpfspd; msT Mfpad Kf;fpa gq;nfhd;iw tfpf;fpd;wd.17 Njh;jYf;F Kd;dH jPh;khdk; Nkw;nfhs;sYf;F trjpNaw;gLj;Jk; chpa fhyj;j;pyhd xU Kiwapy; jfty;fs; thf;fhsHfis nrd;wilaf;$bajhf ntspg;gLj;jy; fhyk; mikaNtz;Lk;. ,J ve;j tifapYk; Njh;jy; gpurhu epjpaspg;gpy; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikia cWjpg;gLj;Jtj;Jtjw;fhd Njh;jYf;Fg; gpe;jpa ntspg;gLj;jy;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpypUe;J tpyfpr; nry;yhJ. 17 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk> gf; 35.

ed;nfhilahsHfs; ahH vd;gJ gw;;wpa jfy;fs; toq;FtJ Kf;fpakhFk;. ntspg;gLj;jiyg; ngWk;; epWtdj;jpd; tfpghfk; ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;l jfty;fs; ,ae;jpuj;jpdhy; thrpf;ff;$ba tbtkhfTk;> ,ad;wtiu JupjkhfTk; vspjhfTk; nra;jpia mDg;Gtjw;F cjtf;$ba Vida KiwfshfTk; khw;Wtjw;fhd nrad;Kiwf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLtij cWjp nra;tjhFk;.

jfhj nry;thf;Ffis fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; jfhj nry;thf;F vd;gJ> "xU egH jd;idtpl $ba mjpfhuk; nfhz;l rf;jpapdhy; gzpaitf;fg;gl;L> jhd; nra;a tpUk;ghj> my;yJ Rje;jpukhf nraw;gl mDkjpf;fg;gl;lhy; nra;ahj my;yJ nra;Ak; xU nraiyr; nra;tjw;F my;yJ nghWj;Jf;nfhs;tjw;F Jhz;lg;gLjy" vd;W 18 tiutpyf;fzg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,J> xU Ntl;ghsH my;yJ murpay; fl;rp ntw;wpngWtjw;F cjTKfkhf Nju;jy; gpurhuj;jpd; xU gFjpahf my;yJ NjHjYf;fpilapy; ,yQ;rkhf gzk; toq;Ftjd;%yk; ,lk;ngwf;$Lk;. nry;te;j eyd;fspdhy; toq;fg;gLk; ed;nfhilfspd; nry;thf;fhdJ> "xU Fwpg;gpl;l tplak; Nju;jy; njhFjp KOtjw;Fk; nghUe;Jk; NjHjypy; kw;wtUf;F Nkyhd Kd;Dhpikia vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk" vd;W nghUs;gLk;. ,e;eilKiwapd; NeHikj;jd;ik tpl;Lf;nfhLf;fg;glf;$ba ,d;ndhU top xU Ntl;ghsH my;yJ murpay; fl;rp mur tsq;fis gad;gLj;jJtjw;fhd tha;g;igf; nfhz;bUg;gjhFk;. ,e;j toq;fs; thf;FfSf;F gpujpgydhf mikAk; Clfk;> thf;FWjpaspf;fg;gl;l njhopy;fs;> xg;ge;jq;fs; kw;Wk; mDruiz (thf;Ffis tpiynfhLj;J thq;Fjy;) – gjtpapypUg;gij J\;gpuNahfk; nra;jy; vd;W mwpag;gLgit Mfptw;Wf;fhd jilaw;w tha;g;Gfspd; %yk; thf;fhsHfspd;kPJ nry;thf;F nrYj;Jtjw;F gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;. 18. Black’s Law dictionary, 5th edition, 1979.

mtjhdpf;fg;gl;L NghJkhd msT epiyehl;lg;gl;lhy;> NjHjy; gpurhu epjpaspg;Gfspd; ntspg;gLj;Jif mj;jifa elj;ijia murhq;f kw;Wk; xOq;FgLj;jy; fz;fhzpg;Gfspd;%yk; jLj;J epWj;jf;$ba xU topahf mikAk;.

Nghl;biag; Ngzpg; ghJfhj;jy; fl;rpfSf;Fk; Ntl;ghsHfSf;FkpilNa MNuhf;fpakhd Nghl;bia cWjpg;gLj;Jtjw;F rk kl;lkhd MLfsk; (rk tha;g;G) xd;W ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. xU fl;rpf;F my;yJ Ntl;ghsUf;F jkJ nra;jpfNshL Nju;jy; njhFjpia nrd;wiltjw;Fg; NghJkhd tsq;fs; ,y;yhjpUf;fyhk; my;yJ jkJ Fuy;; mkpo;e;JNghFk; mstpw;F gpwpnjhU Nghl;bahsUf;F mt;tsT gzj;jpw;fhd tha;g;G ,Uf;fyhk; vd;gNj gpur;rpidahFk;. vdNt> MLfsj;ij \\kl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;" vd;gJ midj;J rkj;Jtkpd;ikiaAk; mopj;njhopg;gJ my;yJ tsq;fSf;fhd NghJkhd tha;g;ig cWjpg;gLj;JtJ vd;W nghUs;gLk;. tpupthd ntspg;gLj;jy; Kiwiknahd;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; nghwpKiwnahd;W ,q;F Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.

ahH ntspg;gLj;JtJ ntspg;gLj;Jk; nghWg;ig tfpg;gJ fl;rpahf ,Uf;fNtz;Lkh my;yJ Ntl;ghsuh vd;gJ ve;j mikg;G epjpaspg;gpw;fhd Clfkhf nraw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjpYk; Njh;jy; KiwikapYNk jq;fpAs;sJ.19 vdpDk;> ,jpy; VNjhnthd;W khj;jpuk; ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> kw;iwaJ epjpia fglj;jdkhf mDg;Gtjw;fhd nghUj;jkhdnjhU KiwahftpUf;Fk;. vdNt> ,uz;Lk; ntspg;gLj;jy; epge;jidf;F cl;gLj;jg;glNtz;Lk;. 19. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpasg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk> gf;28.

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ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; fzf;Ffs; rkHg;gpf;fg;gLtjw;F Kd;dH fl;rpapdhy; my;yJ Ntl;ghshpdhy; RahjPdkhff; fzf;fha;T nra;ag;gLtJ nghUj;;jkhdjhFk;. jdpnahU tq;fpf;fzf;fpD} lhf murpay; fl;rpfs; mj;Jld; / my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfs; epjpaspg;igg; ngw;;Wf;nfhs;thHfshapd;> epjpaspg;gpd; topiag; gpd;njhlHtJ vspjhdjhFk;. ,J> Njh;jypd; tif kw;Wk; xOq;FgLj;jy; top Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J NtWglf;$Lk;. ,iae;njhOfiy cWjpnra;tjw;fhd XH ,ul;il mZFKiwahdJ> NjHjy; gpurhuj;jpw;fhd ed;nfhilahsHfspdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mwpf;ifapLjiy Cf;Ftpj;J mjd;%yk; fl;rpfspdJk; Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; ntspg;gLj;jy;fis cWjpg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd nghwpKiwnahd;iw Vw;gLj;JtjhFk;. ,jidr; nra;tjw;fhd xU Kiw NjHjy; gpurhuq;fSf;F ed;nfhilaspg;gtHfSf;F thp Cf;Ftpg;Gs; mspg;gjhFk;.20 ,e;j Kiw kf;fs; thp nrYj;Jtjw;;F tpUk;GgtHshfTk; mjw;Fg; gof;fg;gl;ltHfshTk; ,Uf;Fkplq;fspNyNa ntw;wpaspf;Fk;. ntspg;gLj;Jif> mila KidAk; Fwpf;Nfhs; NjHjy; NeHikj;jd;ikia cj;juthjg;gLj;JtjhFk; vd;gNjhL> thf;fhsHfspd; njhpit Nkk;gLj;JtJ mjd; Kf;fpa Fwpf;Nfhs; my;y. mJTk; xU Jiz tpisthf ,Uf;fyhk;. mJ> (Fwpf;Nfhs;) NjHjy; eilKiwfspy; ntspg;ilj;jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;jy;> Ntl;ghsHfs; kj;jpapy; jdpg;gl;l Neh;ikia Cf;Ftpj;jy; kw;Wk; murpay; fl;rpfspd; nghWg;Gf;$Wk; jd;ikia mjpfhpj;jy; Mfpad gw;wpajhFk;. Kiwahd> rhpahd kw;Wk; gad;kpf;f ntspg;gLj;Jifia milAKfkhf murpay; fl;rpfSk; Ntl;ghsHfSk; fpukkhd mwpf;ifaply; nra;a mwpTiu $wg;gLfpwJ. 20. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky (2002) \\murpaYf;F epjpaspj;jy;: XH cyfshtpa fUj;J."> N[dy; xg; bNkhfpw]p> ,jo; 13 ,y 4 Njh;jy; Mizf;FO UK,: murpay; fl;rpfspd; epjpaspg;G. gpd;dzpg; gj;jpuk; 2003

101

vd;d ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; tUkhdk;> Njh;jy; gpurhuj;jpd; kPjhd nryT> nrhj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; nghWg;Gfs; Mfpad ntspg;gLj;jg;glNtz;Lk;. tUkhdk; ed;nfhilahsHfs; ahH> vt;tsT ed;nfhil mspf;fg;gl;lJ> ahUf;F kw;Wk; vd;d Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf vd;gij Fwpg;gplNtz;Lk;. ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; nryT NjHjy; gpurhuj;jpd;kPjhd midj;J nryTfisAk; cs;slf;;fNtz;Lk;. fl;rpfspdJk; Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; nrhj;Jf;fSk; nghWg;GfSk; ntspg;gLj;Jifapd; xU gFjpahf mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. ntspg;gLj;Jif mwpKfg;gLj;jg;glf;$ba VNjDk; vy;iyfSf;Fl;gl;L> gpurhuj;jpw;F ed;nfhilaspg;gthpd; ngaH> Kfthp kwWk; mtuJ njhopy;nfhs;NthH Mfpa tpguq;fis epjpay;yhj gq;fspg;Gis cs;slf;fpapUf;f Ntz;Lk;.21 mtw;wpd; re;ijg; ngWkjpapy; ntspapLtJ NkYnkhU mj;jpahtrpa epge;jidahf mikAk;. ,J mila tpUk;Gk; KbTfspd; mbg;gilapy; vLf;fg;glNtz;ba xU jPHkhdkhFk.; Fwpg;gpl;l rpy fl;rpfSf;F tHj;jfhPjpapy; tof;fkpy;yhj tPjq;fspy; jhuhskhd fopTfs; toq;fg;gLk; re;jHg;gq;fSk; ntspg;gLj;jg;glNtz;Lk;. ghuhSkd;w cWg;gpdHfs; kw;Wk; Njh;jy; Ntl;ghsHfs; MfpNahhpd; nrhj;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; nghWg;Gfs;pd; tUlhe;j ntspg;gLj;jy; Kiwiknahd;iwf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,yq;if cz;ikapy; Njitahd ntspg;gLj;jy; mk;rq;fspy; rpytw;iw Vw;fdNt nfhz;bUf;fpwJ vd;W thjplyhk;. vdpDk;> ,e;j Kiwikapy; epyTk; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikiaAk; nghWg;Gf;$Wk; jd;ikiaAk; mjpfhpf;FKfkhf jw;NghJs;s Kiwikia my;yJ xU Gjpa Kiwikia fhj;jpuG+Htkhd xU Kiwapy; gad;gLj;jNtz;Lk;. 21. fPNo gf;. 105 I ghHf;f

102

vg;NghJ ntspg;gLj;JtJ ntspg;gLj;jy; my;yJ mwpf;ifaply; Njitg;ghl;by; ve;jf; fhyg;gFjp cs;slf;fg;gLfpwJ vd;gJ ,d;ndhU Kf;fpa tplakhFk;. mj;jifa epge;jidapy; cs;slf;fg;gLk; fhyg;gFjpia mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L murpay; fl;rpfs; my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfs; ed;nfhilfis NjHjy; jpdj;jpw;F Kd;dNu Vw;Wf;nfhs;syhk; my;yJ Vw;Wf;nfhs;tij Njh;jy; jpdj;j;pw;F gpd;dHtiu jhkjg;gLj;jyhk;. ntspg;gLj;jy; MSifapd; ntw;wp murpay; fl;rpfs; my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfSf;F nfhLf;fy; thq;fy;fspd; gjpTfs; gpd;dH tUk; ntspg;gLjjYf;F trjpahf mikAk; tifapy; Ngzg;gLtij cWjp nra;tjw;F chpa fhyj;jpy; mj;jifa ntspg;g;Lj;jy; Njit vd;gij mtHfSf;F njuptpg;gjpNyNa jq;fpAs;sJ. ve;j Neuj;jpy; ntspg;gLj;jy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glNtz;Lk; vd;gJ mJ vd;d eltbf;ifia cs;slf;fpapUf;fpd;wJ vd;gjd; mbg;gilapy; jPh;khdpf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j MSifapd; epahaG+Htj;jd;ikapdJk;; rhj;jpag;ghl;bdJk; mbg;gilapy; ,j;jPHkhdk; mike;jpUf;Fk;. thf;fhsHfs; jPh;khdnkhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf22 Ntl;ghsHfSk; fl;rpfSk; chpa fhyj;jpYk; NjHjy; Row;rp KOtJk; ntspg;gLj;jNtz;Lk;.23 xU rpy Ntl;ghsHfNs Nghl;bapLtjdhy; ,J rhj;jpakhf mikaf;$ba rdhjpgjpj; Njh;jypy; jtpu> vy;yhj; NjHjy;fspYk; mwpKfg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; mKy;;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; vspjhd xU Kiwikay;y vd;gij ehk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;. vdpDk;> ,yq;;ifapy; epyTk; kpfTk; eypthd gpd;njhlH nghwpKiwfisg; ghHf;Fk;NghJk;> thf;fhsHfs; thf;fspg;gjw;F 22 NjHjYf;F kpf mz;ikapy;. 23 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009 murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf; 34. nrhj;Jf;fs;> nghWg;Gfs; ntspg;gLj;jy;> tq;fpf; fzf;Ffs; Kjypad mlq;fyhf.

103

Kd;dH gpurhuj;jpd; jd;ikiag;gw;wp mtHfSf;F mwptpf;f Ntz;ba Njitiag; ghHf;Fk;NghJk; Njh;jy; fhyj;jpd;NghJ mwpf;ifaply;jhd;; - mJ ed;nfhilfspd; ntspg;gLj;jYf;F khj;jpuk; kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;L nryTfs; gw;;wpaJ NjHjYf;Fg; gpd;dH gpd;njhlug;gbDk; - ,yq;ifapy; Njh;jy; gpurhu epjpaspg;Gfspd; xOq;FgLj;jiy Muk;gpf;Fk; xU Kiwikapy; mwpKfg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd kpfr;rpwe;j njhpthFk;.

ahUf;F ntspg;gLj;jy; nra;ag;gLk; ntspg;gLj;jy;; murhq;f xOq;FgLj;JeUf;F my;yJ xU RNar;irahd mikg;gpw;fhftpUf;fyhk;. ,yq;ifapy; Njh;jy; gpurhu epjpaspg;Gfis fz;fhzpg;gjw;fhd xU njhpT NjHjy;fs; Mizf;FOthFk;. ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;l jfty;fs; NjHjy;; NeHikia cWjpg;gLj;JtJ kw;Wk; thf;fhsh; njhpit mwptpg;gJ Mfpa mjd; ,ul;ilg; gad;fisf;; nfhz;bUf;FKfkhf nghJkf;fisr; nrd;wilaNtz;Lk; vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpLtJ Kf;fpakhFk;. mJ %d;W topfspy; nghJkf;fisr; nrd;wilayhk;: jfty; Rje;jpuj;jpw;fhd rl;lq;fs;>24 tHj;jkhdp gjpg;gpj;jy;. my;yJ ,izak;; kw;Wk; Vida Clfq;fs; %yk;.25 ve;j mjpfhugPlj;jpw;F ntspg;gLj;jy;fs; nra;ag;gLfpwNjh me;j mjpfhugPlk; kf;fs; jfty; Rje;jpujpw;fhd rl;lq;fis ehbr;nry;tjw;F mtHfis tpl;Ltplhky; vspjpy; milaf;$ba xU Kiwapy; Kd;djhfNt ,e;j jfty;fs; fpilf;ff;$bajhf;Ftij cWjp nra;tjw;fhd midj;J Kaw;rpfisAk; Nkw;nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. ,q;F mur rhhgw;w epWtdq;fSk; nraw;ghl;lhsHfSk; mt;thW ngw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l jfty;fis nghJkf;fs; ghtidf;fhTk; EfHtpw;fhfTk; fhj;jpuG+HtkhdJk; rPuzpf;f$baJkhd 24. NkNyAs;s Fwpg;G 1 Ig; ghHf;f. 25. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. DC: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf; 33.

104

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vy;iy tpjptpyf;F Ntl;ghsHfspd>; fl;rpfspd; my;yJ epHthfj;jpd; jug;gpy; tsq;fs; ,y;yhj epiyapy>; nefpo;Tj; jd;ikapd;nghUl;L ntspg;gLj;jy; tpjpf;F Fwpg;gpl;l rpy tpyf;Ffis mDkjpg;gJ gaDs;sjhf mikayhk;. ve;j vy;iyf;F Nky; KO ntspg;gLj;Jif nra;ag;glNtz;bAs;sNjh me;j vy;iyg; gq;fspg;nghd;iw toq;FtJ ,jw;nfhU njhpthf mikAk;. maHyhe;J kw;Wk; u\;ah Nghd;w ehLfs; ve;j vy;iyf;F mg;ghy; ntspg;gLj;jy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glNtz;LNkh me;j vy;iyiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.27 rHtNjr mDgtj;jpy; ,e;j vy;iy Mg;fhdp];jhdpYs;s 100 USD ypUe;J If;fpa ,uhr;rpaj;jpy; epyTk; 8000 USD tiu NtWgLfpd;wJ.28 cz;ikapy; vy;iynahd;iwf; nfhz;bUg;gjpYs;s ,lH vd;dntdpy;> nghpa ed;nfhilahsHfs; jhk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLtijj; jtpHf;FKfkhf jkJ ed;nfhilfis rpW rpW gFjpfhsfg; gphpg;gH.

jilfs; ,ad;wsT murpay; eilKiwfspypUe;J ghJfhf;fg;gLgtUk; epakdk;> tsq;fs; Kjypatw;Wf;fhf mtw;wpy; jq;fpapUf;fNtz;bapy;yhjtUkhd RNar;irahd xOq;FgLj;JeH xUtiu jhgpg;gNj ntspg;gLj;jy; Kiwiknahd;iw epWTtjw;fhd Kjw; gbahFk;. ,J njhlHghf epyTk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rthy; vd;dntdpy;> rl;lq;fis Mf;FgtHfs; vd;w tifapy; murpay; fl;rpfspd; cWg;gpdHfs;jhd; xOq;FgLj;Jk; Kiwiknahd;iw MSk; 26. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. Political Finance Regulation: The Global Experience, Washington, DC: International Federation for Electoral Systems, p.33. 27. Ed.Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk> gf; 30 28 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf; 35.

105

rl;lq;fis epiwNtw;;Wk; mjpfhuj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wdH vd;gjhFk;.29 vjpHfl;rpfis ,yf;Fitg;gjw;fhf gjtpapYs;s fl;rpfspdhy;; ntspg;gLj;jy; J\;gpuNahfg;gLj;jg;gLtNj ,d;ndhU jilahFk;. Kw;Nghe;j tpsf;fk; thf;fhsH njhpit Nkk;gLj;Jk; Rje;jpukhdJk; NeHikahdJkhd NjHjy;fSf;fhd xU Kd; epge;jidahf tphpthd ntspg;gLj;jYf;fhd xU tiur;rl;lfj;jpd; Njitia vLj;Jf;fhl;l cjTfpwJ. mJ> nrytpLk; vy;iyfs;; kw;Wk; murhq;f epjpaspg;G Kjypa NtW VNjDk; xOq;FgLj;jy; Kiwikfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;glNtz;Lkhfpy;> mtw;iw epiwTgLj;JtNjhL> cz;ikapy; mtw;wpd; XH Kf;fpa mk;rkhfTk; mikAk;. tphpthdnjhU ntspg;gLj;jy; tiur;rl;lfnkhd;wpy;yhky; nrytpLk; kw;Wk; gq;fspg;G vy;iyfs; Kjypa NtW nghwpKiwfs; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;wdth vd;gij epr;rapf;f KbahJ. vdpDk;> NjHjy; gpurhuq;fspy; gzj;jhy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; gpur;rpidfSf;F ntspg;gLj;jy; kl;Lk; jPHthfhJ. ntspg;gLj;jy; ntWkNd Vida jdpkdpjHfs; my;yJ rptpy; r%f mikg;Gfs; Nghd;w FOf;fs; jkJ gzpfis ftdkhfTk; gw;WWjpNahLk; njhlHtjw;fhd jfty;fis toq;Fk; fUtpahfNt mikAk;. ntspg;gilj;jd;ik kw;Wk; nghWg;Gf;$wy;jd;ik Nghd;w fhuzq;fs;; gaDWjpkpf;ftifapy; Mjutspf;fg;gl;lhy; gadilAk;. rpwe;jnjhU ntspg;gLj;jy; tiur;rl;lfk; nghUj;jkhdjhftpUf;FKfkhfTk; gaDWjpkpf;f tifapy; epiyehl;lg;ggLKfkhfTk; chpa gq;fPLghl;lhsHfspd; gq;Nfw;Gld; tbtikf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ kdjpy;; itj;Jf;nfhs;sg;glNtz;Lk;. me;j Kiwik rthy;fSf;Nfw;g 29 Refer 3.2 above.

106

jd;id khw;wpaikj;Jf;nfhs;SKfkhf mbg;gilapy; tsHr;rpAwyhk;.

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107

MjuT ,Uf;fpd;wnjd;gij cWjpg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd XH ,d;wpaikahj mk;rkhifahy;> mj;jifa ed;nfhilfis jilnra;ahJ tpLtNj tof;fkhd eilKiwahFk;. murpay; fl;rpfis mtw;wpd; nghJkf;fs; MjuTj; jsj;jpypUe;J Jz;bg;gJ mwpTG+Htkhdjy;y vd;gNjhL> mJ xspT kiwthd ed;nfhilfis Cf;Ftpf;Fk;.31 tiuaWf;fg;gl;l ed;nfhilfs; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; gpwpnjhU mZFKiwahFk;. ,e;j mZFKiw xU Fwpg;g;pl;l tifapyhd nry;thf;iff; Fiwg;gij Nehf;fkhff; nfhs;stpy;iy. vdpDk;> VjhtnjhU %yk; ,k;Kiwikapd;kPJ jfhj nry;thf;iff; nfhz;bUg;gijf; Fiwg;gNj mjd; Nehf;fkhFk;. fl;rpfSf;F my;yJ jdpg;gl;l Ntl;ghsUf;fhd gq;fspg;Gfs;kPJ tiuaiwfs; tpjpf;fg;glyhk;. ve;j kl;lj;jpy; ed;nfhil tiuaiwfs; epHzapf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gJ mjd; ntw;wpapy; xU Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ. caHthd kl;lnkhd;iw epHzapg;gJ me;j Kiwikf;F vt;tpj gaDk; toq;fhJ vd;w mNjNtis> kpff; Fiwthd kl;lk; gq;fspg;G nra;tjw;F khw;W topfis gad;gLj;j kf;fisj; J}z;b mjd; Nehf;fj;ij rpijj;JtpLk;. tiuaiwfis epHzapg;gjd; %yk; milaKaYk; ,yf;Ffis miltjw;Fg; NghJkhd kl;lnkhd;iw epHzapf;Fk; mNjNtis> murpay; fl;rpfs; kw;Wk; Ntl;ghsHfis ghhpa ed;nfhilfspy; jq;fpapuhJ gy;NtW %yq;fspypUe;J NghJkhd epjpiag; ngw;Wnfhs;s mDkjpg;gNj nghUj;jkhd tiuaiwahf mikAk;. gq;fspg;Gj; jilfis my;yJ tiuaiwfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; tpN\l ftdk; vLj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. Vnddpy;> mit mKy;gLj;Jtjw;F kpfTk; rpukkhdit 31. Ed. Falguera, E., Jones, S. and Ohman, M, murpay;fl;rpfs; kw;Wk; Njh;jy gpurhuq;fSf;F epjpaspg;G: murpy; epjpaspg;G njhlHghd xU ifEhhy;> [dehafj;jpw;Fk; NjHjy; cjtpfSf;Fkhd epWtfk;> gf; 21;..

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vd;gNjhL> ed;nfhilahsHfs; rl;lj;jpw;F Kuzhd topfis ehLtjw;Fk; mth;fis epHg;ge;jpf;Fk;. fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLtijj; jtpHg;gjw;fhd mj;jifa cj;jpfs; ntspg;gilj;jd;ikapy; vjpHkiwahd jhf;fnkhd;iwf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; vd;gij Fwpg;gpLtJ Kf;fpakhFk;.

nrytpLk; tiuaiwfs; xOq;FgLj;jg;glhj gpurhu epjpaspg;Gfs; Vw;wj;jho;nthd;iw Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;. rkkl;l MLfsnkhd;Wld; NeHikahdJk; Nghl;bj;jd;ikkpf;fJkhd NjHjy; Kiwiknahd;iw cWjpnra;AKfkhf Ntl;ghsHfs; kw;Wk; murpay; fl;rpfs;kPJ nrytpLk; vy;iynahd;W tpjpf;fg;glyhk;. mj;jifa vy;iynahd;W ,y;yhjpUg;gJ> 'xUtH irf;fpspYk; ,d;ndhUtH ];g;Nghl;]; fhupYkhf ,uz;LNgiu Xl;lg; ge;jankhd;wpy; gq;Fgw;WkhW miog;gijg; Nghd;wJ" vd;W tpghpf;fg;gLfpwJ.32 fl;rpfs;kPJk; Ntl;ghsHfs;kPJk; nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; tpjpg;gjpy; fl;rp murpaypy; msTf;fjpfkhd nryitj; jtpHj;jy;> fl;rpfSf;fpilNa Vw;wj;jho;Tfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; gpurhuj;jpy; Kiwaw;w nry;thf;F kw;Wk; Coy; Mfpatw;wpd; gug;ngy;iyia kl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; Kjypa gy Fwpf;Nfhs;fs; mlq;fpAs;sd. epjpaspg;gpw;fhd tha;g;Gtop NjHjy;fspy; Gjpjhfg; gpuNtrpg;gtHfSf;F xU jilia Vw;gLj;jf;$lhJ. nry;t tsj;jpd; NeHikaw;w mD$yk; Ntl;ghsHfs; nry;te;j gq;fspg;ghsHfspy; jq;fpapUg;gijj; Njhw;Wtpf;f$Lkhifahy;> mJ Mff; Fiwe;j mstpw;Ff; Fiwf;fg;glNtz;Lk;. nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; nghJthd Kf;fpaj;Jtk;tha;e;j tplaq;fspypUe;J murpay; fye;Jiuahly;fs; jpirkhw;wg;gLtij my;yJ jphpGgLj;jg;gLtij jLf;Fk;. 32 Keith D. Ewing, gzk; murpay; kw;Wk; rl;lk;> xf;];gHl; gy;fiyf;fof gjpg;gfk;.

1992> gf;. 15.

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nt];l;kpdp];lH Kiwikiaf; nfhz;l ehLfspy; Ntl;ghsHfs;kPJ nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; tpjpg;gJ ed;fwpag;gl;l Xu; mk;rkhFk;. Kjw; jlitahf gphpl;ld; 1883 Mk; Mz;bd; Coy;kpf;f kw;Wk; rl;ltpNuhj tof;fq;fs; rl;lj;pd;fPo; nrytpLk; vy;iyfis Ntl;ghshpd; njhFjpapYs;s Kjy; 2000 thf;fhsHfSf;F £710 vd;w mstpYk; xt;nthU Nkyjpf 1000 thf;fhsUf;Fk; £40 vd;w mstpYk; mwpKfk; nra;jJ.33 nrytpLk; vy;iyfis tpjpj;jy; NjHjy;; rl;lq;fs;> murpay; epjpaspg;G my;yJ fl;rp epjpr; rl;lq;fs; Mfpatw;wp;d;%yk; nra;ag;glyhk;. ,q;F RNar;irahd fz;fhzpg;G mjpfhugPlnkhd;W ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. nrytpLk; vy;iynahd;iw mwpKfk; nra;tjpy; cr;r tuk;nghd;W Fwpj;Jiuf;fg;glNtz;Lk;. ,J xU jpl;ltl;lkhd ngWkjpahf my;yJ ruhrhp khj Ntjdj;jpd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l klq;F Nghd;w xU #j;jpukhf ,Uf;fyhk;. nraw;ifahd jho;e;j cr;rtuk;Gfs; mjid epiyehl;l rpukkhdjhf;Fk;;>34 msTf;fjpfk; caHthd cr;rtuk;Gfs; ,e;Nehf;fj;ij ngWkjpaw;wjhf;fptpLk;.

nrytpLk; vy;iyfis tpjpg;gjpy; cs;s gpur;rpidfs; nrytpLk; vy;iyfis tpjpg;gjpy; ,uz;L murpay; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W Kuz;gLk;: murpay; rkj;Jtj;ij miltjw;fhd Njit kw;Wk; murpay; Rje;jpuj;ij ghJfhf;Fk; Njit. Rje;jpukhd NjHjy;fSk; fUj;J ntspapLk; Rje;jpuKk; [dehaf Kiwikapd; mbg;gilia Njhw;Wtpg;gjhy;> rpyH nrytpLk; vy;iyfis fUj;J njhptpf;Fk; Rje;jpuj;jpd; epahakw;w kPwnydf; fUJfpd;wdH.35 vdpDk;> jhk; md;gspg;G toq;Fk; gpujpepjpfs; %yk; r%fj;jpd; nry;te;jg; gphptpdH 33. The Law Library of Congress> gpurhu epjpaspg;G: UK https://www.loc.gov/law/help/campaign-finance/ uk.php#issues – 2017 [dthp 19 Mk; jpfjp gjpNtw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. 34. India, Israel, Ukraine. 35. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.47.

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VidatHfistpl mjpfsT fUj;J ntspg;gLJjy;; Rje;jpuk; nfhz;bUg;gijg; ghprPypj;jhy; khj;jpuNk ,J xU kPwyhf mikAk;. ,J [dehaf ehLfs; jOTfpd;w 'xUtUf;F xU thf;F" vd;w Kiwikf;F khwhdjhFk;. vdNt> nrytpLk; vy;iynahd;iw mwpKfk; nra;jiy fUj;J ntspapLk; Rje;jpuj;jpd; kPwyhf ghHf;fKbahJ.36 vdpDk;> nrytpLk; vy;iy gy rpwpa ed;nfhilahsHfsplkpUe;jhd epjpaspg;G %yq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; Nkyjpf jhf;fj;ij nfhz;bUf;ff;$Lk; vd;gJ mtjhdpf;fg;glNtz;Lk;. ,d;ndhU gpur;rpid nrytpLk; vy;iynahd;iw tpjpg;gJ ntspg;gLj;jy; Vw;ghLfis mKy;gLj;Jtjw;Fr; rpukkhdjhf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;. nrytpLk; vy;iyia jhz;Ltjdhy; jilfs; tpjpf;fg;gLkhifahy; fl;rpfs; my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfs; jkJ nrytpdq;fspd; xU rpy mk;rq;fis kiwf;fj; J}z;lg;gLtH. ,J nrytpdj;jpd; msit kjpg;gpLtij rpukkhdjhf;Fk;. Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; murpay; fl;rpfspdJk; nryit xOq;FgLj;Jjy; mj;jifa Ntl;ghsHfs; kw;Wk; murpay; fl;rpfs; rhHghf %d;whk; jug;Gfs; nryT nra;Ak; gpur;rpidia jPHf;fhJ. xU Fwpg;gpl;l gzpia Cf;Ftpg;gjpy; MHtq;nfhz;l xU Neh;ikahdJk; RNar;irahdJkhd %d;whk; jug;Gfs; ,Uf;ff;$Lk; vd;gjdhy; ,e;j gpur;;rpid NkYk; rpf;fyhfpwJ. vdNt> nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; %yk; epWt KaYk; rkj;Jtj;ij Nkhrkha;g; ghjpf;ff;$ba %d;whk; jug;Gfspd; nryit ,dq;fz;L kl;Lg;gLj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;. Fwpg;ghf ,J xOq;FgLj;Jtjw;F kpfTk; rpukkhdjhFk; vd;gJ ftdpf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.

36. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk> gf;.51.

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nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; vt;tifapYk; xU Gjpa tplaky;;yntdpDk;> mit mKy;gLj;Jtjw;Fr; rpukkhditahFk;. ,jpy; ftdpf;fg;glNtz;ba tplaq;fSs; nrytpLk; vy;iyf;Fhpa fhyg; gFjp> 'gpurhu nryTfs;" vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLk; nryT tplaq;fs; kw;Wk; ahUf;F ,e;j vy;iyfs; nghUe;Jjy; Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ Mfpait mlq;Fk;. vy;iyfs; tpjpf;fg;gLk;NghJ> ,k;Kiwikf;F gzj;ij GFj;Jtjw;fhd Gjpa Kiwikfs; cUthf;fg;gLk; vd;gJ ftdpf;fj;jf;fjhFk;. fl;lzk; nrYj;jg;gl;l tpsk;guq;fs;kPjhd jilfs; NjHjy; gpurhu epjpaspg;Gfis xOq;FgLj;j KaYtijtpl kpfTk; gad;kpf;fJk; fz;fhzpg;gjw;F vspjhdJkhFk; vd;Wk; thjplg;gLfpwJ. nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; njhlHghf gy rHtNjr epWtdq;fs; MNyhridfisAk; ghpe;JiufisAk; Kd;itj;Js;;sd. Fwpg;ghf> kdpj chpikfSf;fhd Ieh caH];jhdpfH mYtyfk;37 Fwpg;gpl;l fl;rpfspdhy; my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfspdhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; msTfle;j nryTfspdhy; thf;fhsH njhpT FopNjhz;b Gijf;fg;glhjpUg;gijAk; [dehaf eilKiw jphpTgLj;jg;glhjpUg;gijAk; cWjpnra;tjw;F nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; epahakhditahf mikayhk; vd;W tpje;Jiuf;fpd;wJ. nrytpLk; l;;uhd;];Ngud;\p ,d;lne\dy; epWtdKk;38 vy;iyfs; my;yJ Clfj;jpw;fhd khdpakspf;fg;gl;l tha;g;G Kjypa njhpTfs; murpaypy; gzj;jpd; tfpghfj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jgitahff; fUjg;glNtz;Lk; vd ghpe;Jiuf;fpwJ. NjHjy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G fye;Jiuahly;fspy; epyTk; xU Gidf;fij nrytpLk; vy;iy xUtuJ fUj;J ntspapLk; Rje;jpuj;ijkPWk; vd;gjhFk;. mjpf gzk; xU epWtdj;jpw;F 37 rptpy; kw;Wk; murpay; chpikfs; njhlHghd rHtNjr rkthaj;jpd; cWg;gGiu 25 w;fhd mjd; nghJ fUj;Jiuapy; 38. TIP Policy Position N 1/2005.

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mjpf fUj;J ntspg;gLj;jy; Rje;jpuj;ijg; ngw;Wj; je;jhnyhopa ,J cz;ikahfhJ. gjtpapypUg;gtHfs; jkf;fpUf;Fk; mq;fPfhuj;jpdhy; ngUksT gzj;ijg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; tha;g;igf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; mtHfSf;F cjTk; vd;gJ ,d;ndhU fijahFk;. vdpDk;> nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; cz;ikapy; rk kl;l MLfsnkhd;iw Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; Vida fl;rpfSf;F rhHghftpUf;fNt gad;gLfpd;wd. %d;whtJ fij nrytpLk; vy;iyfs; nra;jp kf;fisr; nrd;wiltijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; vd;gjhFk;. cz;ikapy; mJ Fiwthd gfl;LlDk; $ba cs;slf;fj;NjhLk; nra;jpfis nfhz;L NrHf;Fk; 'tPl;Lf;F tPL" gpurhuk; Nghd;w Kiwikfspy; $ba ftdk; nrYj;jg;gLk; Njh;jy;fSf;F ,ilapyhd fhyj;ij tpLtpf;fpwJ.39 nrtptpLjy;kPjhd XH vy;iy vt;tpjj;jpYk; xU Gjpa rpe;jidahf ,y;;yhjNghJk; mJ cynfq;Fk; ghpNrhjpj;;Jg; ghHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ - Njh;jy;fspd; cz;ikahd nryT vt;tsT> njhFjp kf;fNshL gaDs;s tifapy; njhlHghly;;nfhs;tjw;F Njitahd gzj;jpd; msT Mfpad njhlHghd Muha;r;rpapypUe;J vOk; xU KiwikkPJ mOj;jkplg;gglNtz;Lk;. gjtpapypUf;Fk; murhq;fj;ij vjpHg;NghH njhpT nra;J jz;bf;fg;gLtjw;fhd xU topahf nryT nra;Ak; vy;;iy J\;;gpuNahfpf;;fg;glhjpUf;Fk; tz;zk; ftdk; nrYj;jg;glNtz;Lk;. nrytpLk; vy;iyia tpjpg;gNjhL $lNt ed;F Ma;e;jwpe;j kw;Wk; ed;F cgfuz trjp nra;;ag;gl;l mKyhf;fy; topKiwnahd;Wk; NrHe;J tuhtpby; mjdhy; vt;tpj gaDk; tpistjpy;iy vd;gJ typAWj;jg;glNtz;Lk;.

39 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. DC: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.51.

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murhq;f epjpaspg;G murpay;; eilKiwapy; gzk; xU Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wnjd;gij Vw;;W cynfq;Fk; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; xU Kf;fpa nghwpKiw vd;dntdpy;> murpay; fl;rpfSf;Fk; mjd;%yk; NjHjy; gpurhuq;fSf;Fk; mur epjp toq;FjyhFk;. ,Jjhd; 'jw;fhy murpay; epjpaspg;gpy; epyTk; kpf Kf;fpakhd Nghf;fhFk;"40 vd;W $wg;gLfpwJ. murhq;f epjpiag; gad;gLj;;Jjy; vd;gJ> 1920fspy; njhlq;fp gpujhdkhf 1940fspy; gutpa xU Gjpa tplakhFk;. vdpDk;> mJ ghprPyp;f;fg;glhJ epuhfhpf;fg;glNtz;ba xd;wy;y. cyf tq;fp kw;Wk; rHtNjr ntspg;gilj; jd;ik epWtdk; cs;spl;l gy rh;tNjr epWtdq;fs; murhq;f epjpaspg;igj; jPtpukhfg; ghprPypf;FkhW muRfis typAWj;jpAs;sd.41 jfty;fs; fpilf;ff;$bajhftpUf;Fk;> 177 ehLfSs; 68% khdit VNjh xU tbtpyhd Neub murhq;f epjpaspg;igg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.42 kiwKf murhq;f epjpaspg;GfSk; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sg;gLkhapd; gad;gLj;Jk; ehLfspd; tPjk; ,d;Dk; mjpfkhftpUf;Fk;. tpfpjhrhu gpujpepjpj;Jtj; NjHjy; Kiwiag; gad;gLj;Jk; ehLfs; murhq;f epjpaspg;ig gad;gLj;Jk; $ba rhj;jpak; nfhz;litahf cs;sd vd;gJk; mtjhdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. murhq;f epjpaspg;G vd;gJ> Kd;jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l jifik kw;Wk; xJf;;fPl;L epge;jidf;fika murpaypd; nryT murhq;fj;jpdhy; epjptop my;yJ epjptopaw;w tbtpy; kPsspf;fg;gLtjw;fhf gzk; my;yJ NtW tsq;fs; toq;fg;gLjyhFk;. kiwKf murhq;f epjpaspg;gpy; mur Clfq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd tha;g;G> nghJ Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; thpr; rYiffs; Mfpad mlq;Fk;. murhq;f epjp toq;FjyhdJ> murpay; fl;rpfspdJk; 40. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.57. 41 cyf tq;fp (2001), Transparency International (2005). 42 Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. DC: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.60.

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Ntl;ghsHfspdJk; elj;ijiaf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; tsq;fspd; tfpghfj;jpd;kPJ XusT fl;Lg;ghl;ilf; nfhz;bUg;gjw;F xU murhq;fj;jpq;F ,lkspf;fpwJ. mJ ntspg;gilj;jd;ik> mutizg;G kw;Wk; mj;jifa Vida rpwe;j epakq;fis epiyehl;Ltjw;fhd $ba tha;g;Gld; Mjhpj;J fhg;gjw;F jPh;khdpf;fyhk;. thf;fhsHfSf;F mwptpg;gij Mjupg;gjd;%yk; mJ murpay; gd;ikj;Jtj;ij Cf;Ftpf;fTk; mjd;%yk; thf;fhsH njhpit mjpfhpj;J rk kl;lkhd MLfsnkhd;iw Vw;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; mjpfhpj;JtUk; gpurhu nryitf; Fiwg;gjw;Fk; murpay; eilKiwapy; nry;te;j ed;nfhilahsHfspy; jq;fpapUj;jiyf; fl;Lg;gLj;;Jtjw;Fkhd xU topia toq;fTk; KbAk;. murhq;f epjp tuyhk;. xOq;FgLj;Jk; xU nghwpKiwahf murhq;f epjp gad;gLj;jg;gLtJgw;wp gy tpkHrdq;fs; epyTfpd;wd. mJ kf;fis murpay; fl;rpfspd; njhlHgpypUe;J Jz;bj;Jtplf;$Lk; vd;gJ mtw;Ws; xd;W.43 mJ jw;Nghija fl;rpfis khw;wKbahjhf;FtNjhL> khWk; Nghf;Ffis ftdj;jpy;nfhs;s jtwptplTk;$Lk; vd;gJ ,d;ndhU tpkHrdkhFk;. Fwpg;ghf Fiw tUkhdkPl;Lk; ehLfspy; mur epjpia murpay; fl;rpfSf;F my;yJ Ntl;ghsHfSf;F toq;Ftijtpl rpwe;j Kiwapy; murhq;fk; gad;gLj;jyhk; vd;Wk; thjplg;gLfpwJ. murhq;f epjpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;F mjpfkhd fl;rpfs; Kz;babj;Jf;nfhz;L tUtjhy;> Fiwthd vy;iy ,Uf;Fkplj;J mJ fl;rpfis Jz;lhLtjhfTk; mw;gkhd fl;rpfs; cUthtij Cf;Ftpg;gjhfTk; $wg;gLfpwJ.44 murhq;f epjpaspg;G gjtpapypUf;Fk; xU fl;rpapdhy; Vida vjpH fl;rpfis mlf;fpnahLf;f jdf;F Ntz;bathW ifahsg;glyhk; vd;gJ NkYnkhU ,luhFk;;.45 43. jj;JthHj;j hPjpapy; ,J cz;ikahftpUf;Fk;NghJ> ajhHj;jpy; kpfr;rpy fl;rpfNs epjpfSf;fhf rhjhuz ed;nfhilahsHfspy; jq;fpAs;sd. 44. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.64. A high threshold may increase the need for mergers, which may have positive or negative consequences for a country. 45. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf.64.

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vdNt> mj;jifa tpisTfisj; jLj;J epWj;Jtjw;F gaDWjpkpf;;f epiyehl;ly; nghwpKiwfs;; jhgpf;fg;gLtij cWjp nra;tJ kpf Kf;fp;akhFk;.

jifik fl;rpfSf;F ahH murhq;f epjpf;F chpj;JilatH vd;gJ tiur; rl;lnkhd;iw tbtikg;gJgw;wp jPHkhdpf;Fk;NghJ vOg;gg;gLk; Kf;f;pa Nfs;tpfSs; xd;whFk;. gjpT nra;ag;gl;l midj;Jf; fl;rpfSf;Fk; gpurhuj;jpw;fhd epjpaspg;G toq;FtJ xU jPHthf mikAk; mNjNtis> ,J fl;rpj; Jz;lhly; kw;Wk; mw;gkhd murpay; fl;rpfs; cjakhjy; Mfpa vjpHg;ghHf;fg;glhj tpisTfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; nryTkpf;fnjhU eilKiwahfyhk;. mjd; tpisthf> ghuhSkd;w Mrdq;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahd ghuhSkd;w gpujpepjpj;Jtj;;jpd;46 my;yJ Ke;jpa NjHjypy ngw;Wf;nfhz;l thf;Ffspd; vz;;zpf;ifapd;>47 fskpwf;fg;gLk; Ntl;ghsHfspd; vzzpf;ifapd;; mbg;gilapyhd xU vy;iyia ngUk;ghyhd ehLfs; gpd;gw;Wfpd;wd. ,e;j Kiwikfs; eilKiwr; rhj;jpakhditahfTk; xU rpy ehLfspd; Fwpg;gpl;l #o;epiyfSf;Nfw;g gpd;gw;wf;$baitahfTk; ,Uf;Fk; mNjNtis> mit rpy egHfs; my;yJ fl;rpfs; murpay; muq;fpDs; gpuNtrpg;gij jLf;fTk;$Lk;. vdNt> 'Xustpw;F mw;gkhd Ntl;ghsHfSf;nfjpuhd Kd;ndr;rhpf;iffs; mj;jifa ghugl;rk; GJ murpay; ,af;fq;fs; murpay; Nghl;bapy; gad;kpf;ftifapy; gq;Nfw;gjpypUe;J mtw;iw xJf;fpitf;fhjtiuapy; epahaG+HtkhdjhFk;".48 46. United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands 47. Turkey, Sweden, Germany.

48 Nassmacher (2003a) p. 14

116

Ntl;ghsHfSf;F ,jw;fhd xU khw;Wtop nkhrhk;gpf; kw;Wk; njd;nfhupahtpy;; cs;sJNghd;W Ntl;ghsHfSf;F murhq;f epjp toq;FtjhFk;. mj;jifa xU Kiwikapd; mD$yk; mJ murpay; muq;fpy; fl;rpfspd; VfNghfj;Jtj;ij kl;Lg;gLj;Jk;> jdpg;gl;NlhH epjpaspg;Gfspy; jq;fpapUj;jiyiAk; Vida %yq;fspypUe;J epjp jpul;lNtz;ba NjitiaAk; Fiwf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;. ,J jfhj nry;;thf;iff; Fiwg;gjpy; rpwe;j jhf;fj;ijf; nfhz;bUg;gNjhL murpaYf;fhd Gjpa gpuNtrq;fisAk; Cf;Ftpf;Fk;. vdpDk;> mJ fl;rp fl;Lg;ghl;ilAk;; thf;fhsHfSf;F jdJ nra;jpia njhptpg;gjw;fhd mjd; Mw;wiyAk; Fiwf;fTk;$Lk;.

xJf;fPL murhq;f epjpaspg;gpy; xJf;fPLk; - mila epidf;Fk; ,yf;Ffspd; mbg;ilapy; kpf mjpfkhd ngWNgWfisg; ngWtjw;F kpff; ftdkhfg; ghprPypf;;fg;glNtz;ba xd;W ,d;ndhU Kf;fpa fhuzpahFk;. KOikahd rkj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; epjpia gfpHe;jspg;gJ ,jpy; xU njhpthFk;. kw;iwaJ Fwpg;gpl;l xU fl;rp my;;yJ Ntl;ghsH jkJ Njh;jy; njhFjpapDs; nfhz;bUf;Fk; kf;fs; Mjutpd;; msit mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L mjidr; nra;tjhFk;. epjpia rkkhfg; gfph;e;jspg;gJ nghpa fl;rpfspd; Mjpf;fj;ijf; Fiwg;gNjhL> murpaypy; Gjpa gpuNtrq;fisAk; Cf;Ftpf;Fk;. vdpDk;> fl;rpapd; msitg; nghWj;J xU fl;rp thf;fhsnuhUtUf;Fr; nrytplf;$ba njhifapy; jPtpu Vw;wj;jho;Tfis Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;. Ntl;ghsH kj;jpapy; epjpiar; rkkhfg; gfpHe;jspg;gJ fl;rpfs; kj;jpapy; rkkhfg; gfpHe;jspg;gijtpl kpfg; nghJthdjhf cs;sJ.49 49. Ed. Ohman M. and Zainulbhai, H., 2009. murpay; epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;.: cyfshtpa mDgtk;> thrpq;ld;. BrP: NjHjy; KiwikfSf;fhd rHtNjr rk;Nksdk;> gf;.68.

117

toq;fg;gLk; epjpapd; njhifia MjuT kl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;; jPHkhdpg;gJ> kf;fs; cz;ikahf Mjhpf;Fk; fl;rpfSf;F murhq;f epjp nry;tij cWjpnra;Ak;. vdpDk;> murpaypy; Gjpjhfg; gpuNtrpg;gtHfis mJ jLf;ff;$Lk;. gy ehLfs; ,uz;L KiwfSk; NrHe;j xU fyg;G Kiwikiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd - xU Fwpg;gpl;l tPjj;jpy; epHzapf;fg;gl;l epjpia toq;FjYk; kpFjp nghJ kf;fspd; Mjuit mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L jsk;GjYk;.50 vdpDk;> mnkhpf;fh> gpuhd;]; kw;Wk; fdlh Mfpa ehLfs; KOikahd rkj;Jtg; gfpHe;jspg;G mbg;gilapy; nray;gLfpd;wd. xU fl;rpapdhy; my;yJ Ntl;ghshpdhy; jpul;lg;gLk; njhiff;F <lhd xU njhifia murhq;fk; toq;FtJ ,jw;fhd xU khw;W KiwikahFk;. ,e;j Kiwik mnkhpf;fhtpd; rpy gFjpfspYk; N[h;kdpapYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,J epjpaspg;G ntspg;gLj;jg;gLtij Cf;Ftpg;gNjhL> nghJkf;fs; Mjutpd; mbg;ilapNyNa epjp toq;fg;gLtijAk; cWjp nra;fpwJ. vdpDk;> ,J mKy;gLj;Jtjw;Ff; fbdkhd xU KiwikahFk;. ,Wjpahf> murhq;f epjpaspg;G ,yq;iff;F xU Gjpa vz;zf;fUty;y vd;gijf; Fwpg;gplNtz;Lk;. NkNy 51 tpsf;fg;gl;lthW> mJ kpf ePz;lfhykhf ghuhSkd;wj; NjHjy; rl;lj;jpd; xU gFjpahf ,Ue;J tUfpwJ. ,q;F> KOikahf xU murhq;f epjpaspg;G Kiwiknahd;iw mKy;gLj;JtJ xU khWjyhf ,Uf;ff;$Lk; vd;w mNjNtis> cs;ehl;Lr; #o;epiyf;F mJ nghUj;jkw;wjhf ,Uf;ff;$Lk; vd;gJ KOikahf epuhfhpf;;fg;glTk;$lhJ.

50. Lesotho, Colombia, Mexico. 51. Refer 3.4 above.

118

epiyehl;Ljy; (mKyhf;fy;) xOq;FgLj;jy; nghwpKiwnahd;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy; gaDWjpkpf;f mKy;gLj;jy; Kiwiknahd;Wld; ,ize;J nra;ag;glhtpby;> mjdhy; kpff; Fiwthd ngWNgWjhd; fpilf;Fk;. mKy;gLj;jYk; Nkw;ghHitAk; ,e;j eilKiwapy; tpl;Lf;nfhLf;fg;glKbahj mk;rq;fshFk;. mt;thwd;wp xOq;FgLj;jy;fis mwpKfk; nra;jy; rl;lKiwikapy; epyTk; ek;gpf;ifia mhpj;jopg;gNjhL> cz;ikapy; mtw;iw cjhrPdg;gLj;JjiyAk; Cf;Ftpf;Fk; murpay; fhuzpfs; vg;NghJk; jiyaPL nra;af;$Lk; vd;w mNjNtis> gaDWjpkpf;f mKyhf;fy; ,lk;ngWtij cWjp nra;tjw;fhd midj;J Kaw;rpfSk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLtJ kpf Kf;fpakhFk;. mijr; nra;tjw;fhd njspthdnjhU Miz> Rje;jpuk;> tsq;fs; kw;Wk; flg;ghL Mfpad nfhz;l XH mur epWtdj;jpdhy; mKy;gLj;jy; nra;agg;lNtz;Lk;.52 Njh;jy; Kfhikj;Jt mikg;Gjhd; ,e;Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf kpfg; nghJthf Mizaplg;gLk; mikg;ghFk;.53 ,yq;ifiag; nghWj;jtiu ,J Njh;jy;fs; Mizf;FOthFk;.54 vdpDk; mikr;Rf;fs;> fzf;fha;T epWtdq;fs; my;yJ ,e;Nehf;fj;jpw;nfdNt cUthf;fg;gLk; Kw;wpYk; Gjpa epWtdq;fs; Mfpatw;iwg; gad;;gLj;JtJk; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; KiwikahFk; vd;gij 55 rHtNjr tof;fq;fs; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. mKy;gLj;Jk;; epWtdk; ntspg;gilj;jd;ik> nghWg;Gf;$Wk; jd;ik kw;Wk; njhlUWjp Mfpad njhlHghf kpfr; rpwe;j tof;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.56 vdpDk;> mKyhf;fkhdJ> NjHjy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy; nghwpKiw %yk; mila epidf;Fk; KbTfis ,ad;wtiu kpfr; rpwe;jtifapy; miltjw;F murpay; fl;rpfs; Nghd;w 52. Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns, p. 31. 53. Same. 54. See 3.5 above. 55. Same as 54. 56. P.130

119

rk;ge;jg;gl;l gq;fPLghl;lhsHfNshL57 rpwe;j Kiwapy; ,ize;J nray;gLtjpy; $ba ftdk; nrYj;jNtz;Lk;. kPwy;fs; Vw;gLkplq;fsp;y; jz;lizfs;> jilfs;> kw;Wk; Fw;wg;gzk; Mfpad tpjpg;gJ mtrpakhfyhk;. vdpDk;> murpay; fl;rpfs; NgzNtz;ba Mjutpd; jd;ikiag; ghHf;Fk;NghJ> vr;rhpf;if tpLg;gJk; ngaH Fwpg;gpl;L ntl;fkilar; nra;tJk; ,iae;njhOfiy cWjp nra;tjw;F mNjasT gaDs;sjhf mikayhk;.58 epiyehl;Ljypd; ,d;ndhU Kf;fpa mk;rk;> NjHjy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G xOq;FgLj;jy;fspd; mj;jifa epiyehl;Ljypd; %yk; ngwg;gLk; jfty;fs; nghJkf;fs;; fz;fhzpg;G - rptpy; r%fk;> Clfk; kw;Wk; nghJthf nghJkf;fs; MfpNahhpdhy; - ,lk;ngWk; Kfkhf mtHfSf;Ff; fpilf;ff;$bajhfr; nra;ag;glNtz;Lk;.

57. P.130 58. P.130

120

ehLfspd; cjhuzq;fs; * Mrpahtpy; gpurhu epjpaspg;G gw;wpa Jupj NkNyhl;lnkhd;iwg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; Kfkhf mJgw;wpa tpgu ml;ltiznahd;W ,jd;fPo; jug;gLfpwJ.

*Drawn from International IDEA - Political Finance Database

121

ed;nfhil tiuaiwfs; ehL

murpay; Ntl;ghsHf- murpay; fl;rpfS- Ntl;ghsHffl;rpfSf;F Sf;F f;fhd $l;L Sf;fhd ntspehl;L ntspehl;L ed;nfh$l;L eyd;fspypeyd;filfs; kPJ ed;nfhUe;J spypUe;J jilnahd;W ilfs; fpilf;Fk; fpilf;Fk; cz;lh? kPJ jil ed;nfhil ed;nfhilnahd;W -fs;kPJ fs;kPJ cz;lh? jilnjilnahd;W ahd;W cz;lh? cz;lh? g q ; f s h Mk; Nj\;

,y;iy

,y;iy. xU ,y;iy fyz;lH Mz;by; fk;gdpfs; my;yJ epWtdq;fspypUe;J fpilf;Fk; ed;nfhil ,Ugj;ije;J kpy;yÃ&#x2030;djhf;fhit (Tk 2,5 million [I$ 98,000]) tpQ;rhjtiu jil nghUe;jjhJ.

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122

Mk;

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10'

15'

17'

murpay;

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vy;iynahd;W cz;lh?

Fwpg;gpl;l vy;iyiaj; jtpu NtW ,y;iy. Tk 5>000 I tpQ;Rk; ngaH Fwpg;gplg;glhj ed;nfhilfs;kPJ jil.

Mk;. Neub jil ,y;iy. Mdhy; vy;yh ed;nfhilfspd; %yq;fsdpd; ngaHfSk; toq;fg;glNtz;Lkhifahy;> rl;lgbay;yhtpbYk; tof;fj;jpypUf;Fk; jil.

tof;fkhd ,y;iy vy;iy nghUe;Jk;. vdpDk;> 20,000 taka [I$ 790] tpw;F Nkw;gl;l ed;nfhilfs; fhNrhiy %yk; toq;fg;glNtz;Lk;.

,y;iy

123

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124

Mk;

Mk;. Mk; murpay; fl;rpfs; Nju;jypy; Nghl;bapLk; NghJ> jil nghUe;Jk;

,y;iy %d;W tUlq;fSf;Ff; Fiwthd fhyk; tof;fj;jpypUe;j fk;gdpfSf;F jil nghUe;Jk;

,y;iy

1 (xU) tUl fhyg;gFjpapDs; Rs. 7.500.000.000 [I$ 1,380,000] vDk; njhifia tpQ;Rfpd;w fk;gdpf;F/ $l;Lj;jhgdj;jpw;F jil nghUe;Jk;.

%d;W tUlq;fSf;Ff; Fiwthd fhyk; tof;fj;jpypUe;j fk;gdpfSf;F jil nghUe;Jk;.

Mk; ed;nfhilahsu; ahu; vd;gij gjptjw;Fk; mwptpg;gjw;Fkhd NjitapDhlhd rl;lg;gbay;y - htpl;lhYk; tof;fpYs;s jil jtpu;e;j NtW Neub jil ,y;iy.

,y;iy

tof;fkhd vy;iy nghUe;Jk;. jdp kdpju;fs; ed;nfhil vy;iyfSf;F cl;gLtjpy;iy. vdpDk;> fk;gdpfs; Mz;nlhd;wpw;fhd ruhrup tUkhdj;jpd; 7.5%; w;F Nky; ed;nfhil toq;f KbahJ.

,y;iy. Nju;jy; Ntl;ghsu; xUtUf;F nra;af;$ba gq;fspg;ig kl;Lg;gLj;Jk; my;yJ xOq;FgLj;Jk; rl;lk; vJTkpy;iy.

Mk; NjHjy;fspy; gq;Nfw;Fk;NghJ jil nghUe;Jk;.

Mk;

Mk; gpurhu fhyg; gFjpapy; [dhjpgjp gjtpf;fhd Ntl;ghsHfSf;Fk; nrdl; rig Ntl;ghsHfSf;Fk;;.

125

Neghsk;

Mk;

,y;iy Ntl;ghsu;fSf;fhd $l;L ed;nfhilfspd;kPJ rl;lj;jpy; jil VJk; ,y;iy.

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31.murpay; fl;rpnahd;W nrytplf;$ba njhifapd; kPJ vy;iyfs; cz;lh?

32. murpay; fl;rpnahd;W nrytplf;$ba njhifapd;kPJ vy;iyfs; cz;lhapd; mt;nty;iy ahJ?

gq;shNj\;

Mk;.

NjHjypy; 200 Ntl;ghsHfs; my;yJ mjw;F Nky; ,Ug;gpd;> Mff; $baJ Tk 45 kpy;ypad; [I$ 1,770,000]. 101-200 Ntl;ghsHfs; ,Ug;gpd;> Mff; $baJ Tk 30 kpy;ypad [I$ 1,180,00]. 51-100 Ntl;ghsHfs; ,Ug;gpd;> Mff; $baJ Tk 15 kpy;ypad; [I$ 588,000] . 50 my;yJ mjw;F Fiwthd Ntl;ghsHfs; ,Ug;gpd;> Mff; $baJ 7,5 kpy;ypad; [I$ 294,000] . Ntl;ghsnuhtUf;F xU fl;rp nrytplf;$ba njhif Tk 1,5 kpy;ypaid [I$ 59,000] tpQ;rf; $lhJ. BLANK

fk;Nghbah

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126

Mk; ed;nfhilahsu; ahu; vd;gij gjptjw;Fk; mwptpg;gjw;Fkhd NjitapDhlhd rl;lg;gbay;yhtpl;lhYk; tof;fpYs;s jil jtpu;e;j NtW Neub jil ,y;iy.

,y;iy

33. Ntl;ghsu; xUtu; nrytp lf;$ba njhifapd; kPJ vy;iyfs; cz;lh?

34. Ntl;ghsu; xUtu; nrytplf;$ba njhifapd;kPJ vy;iyfs; cz;lhapd>; mt;nty;iy ahJ?

Mk.;

xU njhFjpapYs;s Ntl;ghsu; xUtUf;F Mff;$baJ Tk 1,5 kpy;ypad; [I$ 59,000] vd;w tPjj;jpy;.

njhFjpr; nrytpdq;fSf;F nghUe;Jk;. mj;Jld;> mt; Ntl;ghsu;fs; rhu;ghf ve;jnthU egupdhYk; nra;ag;gLk; Nju;jy; Nju;jy; nrytpdq;fs; xU nrytpdq;fisAk; cs;slf;Fk;. Nju;jy; njhFjpapYs;s thf;fhsu; njhifapd; nkhj;j vz;zpf;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; mike;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

,y;iy

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127

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,y;iy.

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murpay; fl;rpfSf;F nrytpLk; njhif kPJ vt;tpj vy;iyAk; fpilahJ. vdpDk;> xU fl;rpapd; nryTfs; Ntl;ghsu; xUtUf;F my;yJ Ntl;ghsu;fSf;F Neubahf gadspf;Fkhapd;> nrytplg;gLk; mj;njhif> rk;ge;jg;gl;l Ntl;ghsu;fspd; nrytpLk; vy;iyfSf;F Neubahf cl;gLk;.

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Neghsk;

Mk;.tpfpjhrhu gpujpepjpj;Jt Nju;jy;fs; njhlu;gpy; fl;rpapd; nrytpdj;jpw;F cr;rtuk;G nghUe;Jk;.

vy;iy EMB ,dhy; tpjpj;Jiuf;fg;gLk;.

ghfp];jhd; ,y;iy.

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128

,y;iy.

nghUe;jhJ.

Mk.;

kj;jpa murpdhy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk;.

kf;fsitf;Fk; xU khepyj;jpd; rl;lrigf;Fkhd Nju;jy;fSf;Fg; nghUe;Jk;.

,t;nty;iy Nju;jy; Mizf;FOTld; fye;jhNyhrpj;J kj;jpa murpdhy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk;.

,y;iy.

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vy;iy “Nju;jy; Mizf;FOtpdhy; (EMB) tpjpj;Jiuf;fg;gl;lthW mikjy; Ntz;Lk;”.

Mk.;

Njrpa Nguitf;fhd Nju;jYf;F: 1,500,000 &gh.[I$ 51,000]. khfhz Nguitnahd;Wf;fhd Nju;jYf;F: 1,000,000 &gh [I$ 34,000].

,y;iy.

nghUe;jhJ

129

murhq;f epjpaspg;G ehL

19. murpay; fl;rpfSf;F Neub murhq;f epjpaspg;gpw;fhd Vw;ghLfs; cz;lh?

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,y;iy

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Mk;. murpay; fl;rpfSf;F tUlhe;j epjpaspg;G fpukkhf toq;fg;gLk;. toq;fg;gLk; epjpaspg;G

Neghsk;

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130

murhq;f epjp toq;fg;gl KbAnkd;W rl;lk; $Wfpd;w mNjNtis> mj;jifa epjpaspg;G toq;fg;gLk; vd;w Vw;ghL vJTkpy;iy.

20. murpay; fl;rpfSf;F Neub murhq;f epjpaspg;gpw;fhd Vw;ghLfs; cz;lhapd;> mjw;F jFjp ngWtjw;fhd epge;jid ahJ?

21. murpay; fl;rpfSf;F Neub murhq;f epjpaspg;gpw;fhd Vw;ghLfs; cz;lhapd; xJf;fPl;il fzpg;gpLtJ vt;thW?

ngWkjp

fUj;Jiu

ngWkjp

fUj;Jiu

nghUe;jhJ.

murhq;f epjp toq;fg;gl KbAnkd;W rl;lk; $Wfpd;w mNjNtis> mj;jifa epjpaspg;G toq;fg;gLk; vd;w Vw;ghL vJTkpy;iy.

nghUe;jhJ.

murhq;f epjp toq;fg;gl KbAnkd;W rl;lk; $Wfpd;w mNjNtis> mj;jifa epjpaspg;G toq;fg;gLk; vd;w Vw;ghL vJTkpy;iy.

nghUe;jhJ.

njupTnra;ag;gl;l mikg;gpy; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;.

Njrpa> khfhz my;yJ gpuhe;jpa/ khefu gpujpepjpj;Jt rigfspy; gpujpepjpj;Jtk; ngw;w fl;rpfSf;F kl;Lk; epjpaspg;G fpilf;Fk;.

ngw;Wf; nfhz;l thf;Ffspd; tpfpjhrhuj;jpw;Nfw;g.

ngw;Wf;nfhz;l thf;Ffspd; tpfpjhrhuj;jpw;Nfw;g

nghUe;jhJ

131

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132

Mk;> gpurhuk; njhlHghf

# Kd;ida NjHjypy; ngw;w thf;Ffspd; gq;fpw;Nfw;g # tpz;zg;gj;jpd;gb

,jw;F Ke;jpa NjHjypy; NjHjy; khtl;lnkhd;wpy; Fiwe;jJ 1% thf;FfisahtJ ngw;Wf;nfhz;l murpay; fl;rpfSf;Fkl;Lk; epjp fpilf;Fk;.

ngw;Wf;nfhz;;l thf;FfSf;F xU Fwpj;j tPjj;jpy;.

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133

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