NANOCELLULOSE AND THEIR COMPOSITES

International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering Research and Development (IJMPERD) ISSN (P): 2249–6890; ISSN (E): 2249–8001 Vol. 10, Issue 3, Jun 2020, 793-800 © TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

NANOCELLULOSE AND THEIR COMPOSITES WILSON WEBO1, MAINA MARINGA2, PATRICK K. NZIU3 & LEONARD M. MASU4 1,3,4

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vaal University of Technology, South Africa

2

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Central University of Technology, South Africa

ABSTRACT Nanocellulose fibres are currently being considered as potential candidates for reinforcements in the production of composite materials. These fibres can be extracted from various sources such as plants and animals. The method used to extract these fibres can either be chemical or mechanical. This paper discusses recent developments in nanocellulose fibres and their composites. Hybridization with regards to nanofillers is also considered.

KEYWORDS: Nanocellulose & Hybridization

1. INTRODUCTION Nanoscience and nanotechnology are currently being considered in the development of fibre-reinforced composites.

Nanotechnology uses nano scale fillers as reinforcement in the manufacture of composites [1].

A composite consists of a reinforcement and a matrix. The reinforcement can either be biodegradable or

Original Article

Received: Mar 19, 2020; Accepted: Apr 09, 2020; Published: May 28, 2020; Paper Id.: IJMPERDJUN202071

non-biodegradable. Biodegradable fillers consist of plant fillers, while non-biodegradable fillers consist of synthetic fibres such as glass fibres [2]. With regard to environmental perspective, cellulose composites has numerous advantages including the ability to be recycled [3].

There are two main types of nano cellulose materials, including Nano Fibrillated Cellulose (NFC) and Cellulose Nano Crystals (CNC), which are sometimes also called as nanocellulose whisker [4].

Many researchers have mentioned that nanocellulose materials could be used in medicines, biocomposites, pharmaceuticals, batteries, tissue engineering, bio-sensors, aircrafts, paper coatings and many other applications [5]. Researchers seem to be more interested and more focused on NFC than CNC. More than 80% of scientific research papers published on nanocellulose materials includes research on NFC, and only approximately 20% include research on CNC [5].

Nanocellulose can be used as fillers in high strength composites. These fillers are always used in combination with matrices such as epoxy, in fields such as tissue engineering and cosmetics [6, 7].

2. CELLULOSE: ORIGIN The main source of cellulose are plants, animals, bacteria and some amoeba [8].The plant fibres are mainly composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins and waxes in different proportions [8]. These proportions also vary from plant to plant. Cellulose is the dorminant component of the plant fibres. The plant fibre with the highest

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composition of cellulose is cotton with cellulose content of between 90 - 99 % [9]. Due to environmental concerns, plant fibres are being preferred in the manufacture of composites. These fibres are readily available [10].

2.1 Cellulose Chemistry, Crystallinity, Polymorphism of Cellulose & Cellulose Properties Cellulose is made up of a linear homopolymer [11, 12, 13]. This homopolymer is a combination of an hydro-D-glucose units and beta-1-4-linkage [14, 15, 16, 17]. There are four allormophs of cellulose namely: Cellulose I which is the most abundant [18, 19]. It is also referred to as native cellulose [20, 21]. Cellulose II is also referred to as regenerated cellulose [22, 23]. It is extracted from cellulose I through mercerization followed by recrystallisation [24, 25]. The other allormophs of cellulose are Cellulose III and Cellulose IV [26, 27, 28]. The following are the properties of cellulose: It has neither taste nor smell; It does not dissolve in water and other organic substances [29, 30].

2.2 Cellulose Nanofillers Nanofillers have dimensions in the nano-scale [31]. These fillers possess large surface area to volume ratio. These fillers include nanocellulose. Other examples of nanofillers are nanoclay and carbon nanotubes. Researchers at Toyota found that a small amount of montmorillonite can increase the strength, stiffness and heat distortion temperature of Nylon [32]. There are two types of cellulose nanofillers namely MicroFibrillated Cellulose (MFC) and Cellulose Nanocrystals (CN). These two types are differentiated by the method used to produce them [33].

2.3 Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC) The main method of obtaining MFC is called the mechanical homogenization process [34]. This method results into long and flexible fibrils with lengths being in the nanometre scale, and width ranging from 10 – 100 nm [35, 36]. The MFC usually maintains the cellulose structure with alternating crystalline and armophous regions. They also have a web-like structure [37].

The gaulin homogenizers and the microfluidizers are the main machines which are used to obtain the MicroFibrillated Cellulose (MFC) [38, 39]. These equipments are usually operated at very high pressures and require several passes in order to achieve high degree of homogenization [40].

2.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals The main method of obtaining cellulose nanocrystals is referred to as acid hydrolysis [41, 42]. The main acids which are used in this process are sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid [43]. Acid hydrolysis usually attacks the armophous regions of cellulose, leaving behind the crystalline regions [44]. The cellulose nanocrystals are usually rod-like structures [45]. The acid hydrolysis process can either be done through protonation of glycosidic oxygen or addition of water to cyclic oxygen in order to break down the glycosidic bonds [46, 47, 48]. The concentration of the acid and the duration of performing the hydrolysis, have an effect on the cellulose nanocrystals which will be produced [49, 50, 51, 52]. It has been reported that the optimum concentration of the acid between 60-70 wt% [53, 54]. It has also been reported that the finer nanocrystals are produced when they are performed for a longer period of time [55].

3. HYBRID COMPOSITES/ NATURAL FIBRE-HYBRID COMPOSITES Hybrid composites arises when the reinforcement is combined with two different types of matrices [56, 57]. It also arises when two different reinforcing fibres are combined with a homogeneous matrix [58]. The reinforcements which are used in hybrid composites are usually a combination of both synthetic fibres and natural fibres [59, 60, 61]. The properties of Impact Factor (JCC): 8.8746

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hybrid composites are determined by the length of the fibres, their orientation, the bonding of the matrix and the intermingling of the fibres [62, 63].

Natural fibre-reinforced polymer composites are currently being considered for use in many applications. In spite of these many applications, their use in many industries has been limited. This has therefore, led to innovating ways of improving their physical, mechanical as well as impact properties of their composites [64]. Hybridisation is currently being used as one of the ways of improving the properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites. Nanoclay is being considered as one of the reinforcements in these composites [65].

Other fibres which have produced fantastic results with natural fibres are mica and carbon. These improved properties include a reduction in water absorption and thickness swelling. Other methods of improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites includes the use of coupling agents [66]. Researches have been done on reed-polypropyline-nanoclay hybrid composites. Other researches have been done on nanoclay-HDPE-rice husk composites. These researches observed an increase in the stiffness and flexibility of these composites. Furthermore, the mechanical properties were observed to have increased [67].

The use of compatibilisers has also been considered as a way of improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre-reinforced composites. In this vein, organo-clay has also been considered as a compatibilizer in wood flour-HDPE composites. This has led to an improvement of properties of these composites [68].

When 5% of nanoclay-cellulose-ethylene propylene co-polymer was considered, an increase in youngs modulus was recorded from 1.04 GPa to 1.24 GPa [69]. Other researchers considered wood-plastic-nanoclay hybrid composites whereby there was an improvement in the mechanical properties of these composites. A reduction in the youngs modulus was reported on pine cone fibre-hybrid polymer composites [70].

4. APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 

In automotive industry for the manufacture of bumpers and gas tanks [71]



In construction industry for structural panels manufacture



In cosmetic industry [72]



In food-packaging industry for manufacture of wrapping films [73]



In aerospace industry for manufacture of flame retardant panels [74]



In electronics industry for printed circuit boards manufacture [75]

5. CONCLUSIONS 

Compatibilizers and coupling agents are used to improve mechanical properties of natural fibre-reinforced composites.



Nanocellulose fibres when used as reinforcements in composites, results into an increase in mechanical properties of the resulting composites.



Sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, are the main acids which are used to perform acid hydrolysis in order to form cellulose nanocrystals.

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6. CONFLICT OF INTEREST There is none to be disclosed

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The review was supported by the Vaal University of Technology, South Africa.

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