THE LEGACY OF THE BRITISH ON THE INDIAN PRINCELY PALACES MARI TAYLOR . N0750253
CONTENTS 1 3 6 8 26 44 76 78 79 81
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MARI TAYLOR . N0750253
Literature Review Methodology Introduction: Case Studies Case Study 1: Jaipur City Palace Case Study 2: Mysore Palace Visual Essay References: Literature Review and Methodology References: Case Studies References: Visual essay References: Image References
Interior design is the process of putting a building and its contents together and is strongly influenced by developments in society, culture and levels of industrialisation (Pile 2009). Research on the historical origins of interior design has identified Indian mythology as a critical influence. The Hindu god Vishwakarma is defined in the ancient writings of the Rig Veda as the “personification of ultimate reality and deity of the creative power” (Leeming 2005). Vishwakarma is regarded as the first architect who created and inspired ancient buildings in India before the advent of time (Leeming 2005). He is the god of the Vishwabrahmin or Brahmin Hindu social caste group in India that has five sub-classes: stonemasons, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, bronze smiths and carpenters, representing creators and designers of buildings. Over time, the Brahmin religion in India has continued to have a strong influence on architecture and design, and also worldwide, and in fact were the first to use ancient texts and drawings to decorate the walls of their palaces. This can be seen for example in the traditional mansions, townhouses or temples of India known as “Havelis” (Tillotson 1994). The design of the havelis laid the foundations for the interior design principles worldwide for example, ancient preachings of Vashu Sastra, the traditional preachings of the science of architecture, believed that all parts of a house should originate from a single point, which is the centre of the house, hence the first emergence of courtyards within buildings (Gautam 2006). The Indian subcontinent was originally part of the Mughal Empire, which is thought to have been founded in 1526. The Mughal empire was subsequently colonised by various European powers including Britain, Holland, Portugal and France, as these countries fought for trading powers, especially spices. The Portuguese were the first to trade followed by the Dutch, England, France, Denmark and Norway, leading
1 . Literature Review
to the eventual disintegration of the Mughal empire in the 18th century. Britain and France subsequently struggled for dominance, with the British expanding their powers in the 19th century, becoming the predominant colonisers from the late 1833 until independence in 1947, led by Mahatma Ghandi (Metcalf et al. 2006). Colonialism represents the colonisation of one country by another. The word “colony” originates form the Latin word “colonus”, which means farmer (Kohn, Reddy 2017). This analogy refers to the root practice of colonialism which was associated with the occupation of a new territory by foreigners who settled indefinitely but continued to be aligned politically and socially to their country of origin (Kohn, Reddy 2017). These colonisers were predominantly richer and more powerful than the colonised countries, which were typically poorer and disadvantaged such as India, Mexico, Morocco and the Congo. One of the major motivations of the colonising countries was to enhance merchant trading to strengthen their home economies (Hoffman 2015). Post-colonialism assesses the human consequences following the end of colonialism. It focuses on the effects of the colonised people and their land in terms of their culture, literature, politics, economy, architecture and society as a whole (Sharp 2009). Post-colonialism involves a variety of methods and approaches, and various contradictory theories have emerged that have discussed the effect of colonial life on colonised people. Colonialism was originally regarded as “an extension of civilisation” as it was argued that the European world was culturally and racially superior to the non-European world. This racialist view was mainly propagated by Joseph-Ernest Renan (Renan, Charvet 2015) and it dominated ideas of colonialism, providing justification for the actions taken by the invading European countries.
A major influence on subsequent cultural postcolonial theories was Edward Said who published a ground-breaking book named “Orientalism” (Kohn, Reddy 2017). His theories applied to oriental studies and the occupation of countries in the East which includes the middle East and the far East by Europeans. Through this book he criticised the “us and them” language and definition used by Western Europe and argued that Orientalism was “almost a European invention” (Said, Laade 1978). He concluded that colonialism was not about separate social representations but argued that the colonisers and colonised were not independent of each other either. The view of the colonisers is challenged as an inaccurate account of the effects of colonialism. After the emergence of Said’s theories about Orientalism, other theoreticians contributed to post-colonialism discussion. For example, Spivak challenged the use of the word “subaltern”, claiming that it essentially meant “oppressed” (Sharp 2009). Chakrabarty followed up on this by assessing the subaltern history of India linked with its struggle for independence. He countered the arguments of western scholars by suggesting that India is culturally equal as are many other cultures around the world (Chakrabarty 2000). Certainly, traditional Indian style is evident through much of Indian architecture, although hybridity as imparted by the legacy of the British Raj is also evident to a greater or lesser extent.
John Michael 1998). British building materials were also introduced including poured concrete, iron and steel rods. Indo-Saracenic architecture particularly expanded during the British Raj and is evident in many public buildings within major cities such as Madras, Mumbai, and Delhi as well as in the palaces of rulers of the princely states. Hybridity is manifested in the post-colonial architecture of India although modernist ideas are now reflected through traditional Vashu Sastra methodology (Gautam 2006). Princely states in India were under local rule by members of the indigenous population but in alliance with the British Raj and thus they were regarded as “semi-sovereign principalities” (Markovits 2004). Palaces were constructed in each of these for the rulers to inhabit (Michell, Martinelli 1998). Some of the key British architects incorporating the Indo-saracenic style were Vincent Esch and George Wittet. IndoSaracenic revival architecture was predominantly employed in the construction of the princely palaces with these architects using features reminiscent of “Asian Exoticism” combined with British engineering innovations. Ornate features of Asian exoticism are evident for example in the onion or bulbous domes, overhanding eaves, horseshoe arches, pinnacles and minarets, contrasting colours and jails or openwork screens.
The rule of the Mughal Empire is regarded as the heyday of Indo-Islamic architecture and this style incorporated Arab, Rajhastani and Sikh influences and is evident, for example, by the construction of the Taj Mahal in 1632. During the occupation of India by colonial powers, many different European styles were introduced including neoclassical, gothic and baroque, leading to a merging of European and IndoIslamic styles, known as Indo-Saracenic (Gullick,
Literature Review . 2
The focus of this research project will be the Indian princely palaces. Therefore, my research question will be: To what extent did British styles influence the interior design of Indian princely palaces during the colonial phase? Deciding on a philosophy is an important step in the way I will research my question. Of the three philosophies (ontology, epistemology, axiology), my principle philosophy will be one of epistemology as this is concerned with addressing knowledge (Knight, Ruddock 2008). However, I will introduce elements of axiology throughout because it is important that my own opinions and judgement of my research is brought into play (Saunders et al. 2015). My approach is typically inductive, since I will use observations as a starting point and then use patterns in the data I collect (Bryman et al. 2019). I will adopt a more qualitative approach when researching so that I can develop questions throughout the process and establish meaning in my case studies (Saunders et al. 2015). Primary data is prohibitive and therefore I will rely solely on secondary data obtained from literature, internet sources and articles, which derive from the work and/or opinions of other researchers (Newman, Benz 1998). My research design will be descriptive, explanatory and exploratory of a representative segment of the lndian princely palaces with focus on sample characteristics and common features (Wang, Groat 2013).
3 . Methodology
4.
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CASE STUDIES Indian architecture, and particularly the architecture of Indian Princely palaces, is very diverse with a variety of cultural and traditional factors influencing the design of buildings. Key influential factors have been cultural differences between North and South India as well British colonialism (Michell, Martinelli 1998). Indian Princely Palaces were built between the 4th and 18th centuries, while British colonization of India occurred between 1833 until independence in 1947. The British influenced the design of princely palaces during this time, but there is great variation in their influence of different areas (Schaewen et al. 2004). North, South, Central, East and West India
6 . Introduction: Case Studies
were unique in their own ways, but the British overall has more influence in architecture of the North than the South (Schaewen et al. 2004). This differential influence has resulted in a hybrid style of architecture between traditional Mughal designs and the Indo-Saracenic style introduced by the British (Tillotson 1989). However, common features of all princely palaces are: essential security in terms of massive walls and defensive gateways, formal receptions known as durbars, courtyards in front of durbars, a place of religion such as temples and mosque, accommodation for the monarch and his entourage, a service section (Michell, Martinelli 1998).
Here are presented two case studies of princely palaces with different levels of British influence by the British: Jaipur City Palace and Mysore.
Introduction: Case Studies . 7
JAIPUR CITY PALACE Vidyadhar Bhattacharya was the architect of Jaipur’s City Palace. The grounds of the palace are vast with the most notable building being the Chandra Mahal, occupied currently to the present Maharajah of Jaipur. The palace although designed by Indian architects, gained influence by Britain over time (Malleson 1875). 8 . Jaipur City Palace
The palace itself was constructed at the same time as the city of Jaipur, and established by the Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II at the time who moved there in 1727 from Amber (Sachdev et al. 2008).
1 | The courtyard of Jaipur City Palace
Jaipur City Palace . 9
2 | Jaipur City Palace
10 . Jaipur City Palace
3| The courtyard of Jaipur City Palace
4 | The entrance to Jaipur City Palace
Jaipur City Palace . 11
5 | The hall of beauty or ‘Siobha Niwas’ in Jaipur City Palace
The palace is a fusion of traditional Indian styles and those of Europe effect. An example of a more traditional Indian style would be the “Siobha Niwas”, also known as “Hall of Beauty” and an example of a Darbar hall, which translates to ‘court’ (Schaewen et al. 2004). Specific details like columned halls, vaulted pavilions and cusped arches are evident in the space, ceremonial in style, belong to a Mughal influence of architecture and are common in most Rajput palaces . Other Mughal style influences in the Hall of Beauty include plenty of painted and inlaid wall decoration and structures of vaults and domes.
12 . Jaipur City Palace
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the British architect Samuel Swinton Jacob actively extended and enlarged Jaipur including the Jaipur City Palace (Metcalfe 1982). He influenced the style of certain rooms within the Chandra Mahal such as the dining room, also known as the “Sukh Niwas” or the “Hall of Rest”. It is an example of a much more formal style of architecture denoting that it is of British influence (Michell, Martinelli 1998). The double height room, furnished with silver tables and chairs and holes for ventilation in the walls which are “camouflaged” as painted gold leaf embellishment (Schaewen et al. 2004). 6 | The dining room in Jaipur City Palace
7 | The hall of rest or ‘Sukh Niwas’ in Jaipur City Palace
Jaipur City Palace . 13
8 | Formal, European style furniture seen in the Hall of Rest, Jaipur Palace
14 . Jaipur City Palace
9 | Bajot, traditional Mughal style furniture typical in Indian palaces and seen in the Hallf of Beauty, Jaipur Palace
Jaipur City Palace . 15
10 | Chabi Niwas in the Chandra Mahal
11 | Shri Niwas in the Chandra Mahal
16 . Jaipur City Palace
12 | Shri Niwas in the Chandra Mahal
“Pitam Niwas”, “Sukh Niwas”, “Chabi Niwas”, “Ranga Mandir”, “Mukut Mahal” and “Shri Niwas” make up the seven floors of the Chandra Mahal. They are all distinctively designed with “carvings, paintings and mirrors” and the flag of the Royal Family remains at highest point of the architecture (Schaewen et al. 2004).
13 | Where the city palace meets the Chandra mahal Jaipur City Palace . 17
Mandalas were determined by exact and calculated dimensions and proportions, which mirrored that of the cosmos. In plan this looks like a pattern of concentric squares (Lang 2004). Alternate levels of the universe are represented in each different zones. Thus, the central square of the palace is where the seat of the King is situated as it is the most powerful zone. The palace makes use of red sandstone and white marble which is reflective of Mughal architecture (Sachdev et al. 2008). It is also a design that adheres as a “cosmological construction” (Buswell 2004). This is the idea that the palace should function as a “mandala” or “sacred diagram”, as it was of the King’s beliefs that it be a microcosmic reconstruction.
14 | An example of a mandala
18 . Jaipur City Palace
15 | Cosmological construction of Jaipur City Palace and it’s situation within a 9 square plan
Jaipur City Palace . 19
The plan of Jaipur’s City Palace is an example of a sacred diagram design. The Royal palace is positioned in the central of 9 calculated squares, the surrounding streets, positioning and proportions of gateways/temples were considered in the mathematics of the design. The city’s founder, Jal Singh, was an astrologer and was heavily influenced by his designing of the city (Lang 2004).
20 . Jaipur City Palace
16 | Detailed cosmological construction of Jaipur City Palace and it’s situation within a 9 square plan
Jaipur City Palace . 21
17 | Red sandstone and pattern on Jaipur City Palace walls
19 | Jharokhas in Jaipur City Palace
18 | Courtyard of Jaipur City Palace 22 . Jaipur City Palace
The Palace of Breezes was constructed using a red sandstone and so defines its vivid colour. Screened boxes or “Jharokhas” were designed within it’s walls like a honeycomb of a beehive, so that the women of the court, in purdah, could view the world beyond the palace walls (Michell, Martinelli 1998). The Jharoka is a common characteristic of Mughal style architecture, as well as arches, vaults and domes.
However, in 1876, the ruling Maharajah at the time sided with the British Raj during the uprising and invited the Prince of Wales to Jaipur, changing the colour of the Palace to pink in his honour (Hugh 1910). This led to Jaipur being subsequently named the “Pink City”. This is an example of how the British - not by design in this case but rather default - influenced the style of an Indian princely palace.
Jaipur City Palace . 23
20 | Guard of Jaipur City Palace next to statue of Krishna in the Govind Dev Ji
24 . Jaipur City Palace
21 | Jaipur City Palace walls
In the Northern elevation of the palace, wide arches line and face the garden where the temple of Govind Dev Ji, a figure of Krishna is situated. The centre of an Indian palace is regarded as a holy space, which maintains a strong link between sacred/spiritual power and physical/spatial power (Michell, Martinelli 1998). It is a space in which the Gods, the Prince and the public can join as one.
Jaipur City Palace . 25
22 | Exterior facade of Mysore Palace
MYSORE PALACE Mysore Palace, also known as Amba Vilas palace, was constructed in the late 19th century and early 20th century, by an architect of British origin. It is located in the Indian state of Karnataka in the south west part of India. It is an example of an architecture and style
26 . Mysore Palace
hybrid of Victorian planning and Indian ornament and detail. It has a flamboyant revival Indo-Saracenic style with Hindu, Muslim, Rajput styles sitting alongside a Gothic influence (Michell, Martinelli 1998).
Mysore Palace . 27
39 | Mysore Palace in plan with context
28 . Mysore Palace
Mysore Palace . 29
23 | Original palace of Mysore
The original palace complex was destroyed in a fire in 1897 and a new palace was then commissioned (Ikegame 2013). Since this was during the era of the British raj, a British architect - Henry Irwin - was commissioned to build the new palace but he worked alongside an
24 | Henry Irwin, architect of the new Mysore Palace 30 . Mysore Palace
Indian engineer, Raghavulu Naidu, in constructing the building, completing it in 1912. As a consequence of this, Mysore palace has considerably more British influence than Jaipur (Nair 2011).
25 | Early construction of Mysore Palace
Mysore Palace . 31
Unlike Jaipur, European influence is also evident in the materials used for construction. For example, stained glass is used within the Mysore complex as “industrially manufactured cast iron� (Michell and Martinelli 1998). The furniture is also more typically European including the use of chandeliers, mirrors, and carpets.
26 | Stained glass window detail inside Mysore Palace
32 . Mysore Palace
27 | Formal, European style interiors of Mysore Palace
Mysore palace has a flamboyant revival Indo-Saracenic style with Hindu, Muslim, Rajput styles sitting alongside a Gothic influence. It is a typical hybrid of Victorian planning and Indian ornament and detail.
Mysore Palace . 33
28 | Exterior of Mysore Palace
The palace is a three-storey extensive building surrounded by a large garden. It has a central tower projecting up like a Gothic cathedral in the UK but the top of the tower is a domed Chhatri of Rajput style. It has many domes, turrets, arches and colonnades that are visible from the outside. These are made out of stone and marble and, the type is often compared to Buckingham Palace because of its grandeur (Michell and Martinelli, 1998). 29 | Gardens of Mysore Palace
34 . Mysore Palace
The entrance to the palace is a cusped archway and combines the presence of imposing colonnades with fine detailing. This is followed by a beautiful gallery featuring Indian and European sculpture and ceremonial objects. Inside the palace, a ceremonial staircase, typical of a British royal household, is made of different marbles and there is an intricate teak ceiling with numerous Hindu divinities carved in white marble.
30 | Public Durbar hall in Mysore Palace
31 | Roofline of Mysore Palace
Mysore Palace . 35
32 | The marriage pavilion or ‘Kalayana’ inside the Mysore Palace 36 . Mysore Palace
A fusion of Indian and British architecture is visible in the durbar halls of which there are two in Mysore. These are beautifully decorated with tapering columns and the centres of the halls are completely roofed with glass, set in and supported by cast iron. The ceilings have a great deal of plasterwork of native and gothic styles. Immense glass chandeliers cascade downwards and floor panels are inlaid with precious stones of Mughal style.
33 | Traditional plasterwork of cusped arches inside Mysore Palace 34 | [below] The central durbar hall, Mysore Palace
To the south is the Kalyana or marriage pavilion which has cast iron pillars with an octagonal dome of stained glass with peacock designs and the floor is covered with multi-coloured Victorian tiles in a geometrical pattern.
Mysore Palace . 37
35 | Exterior of Mysore Palace
38 . Mysore Palace
The use of Indo-Saracenic architecture is evident in Mysore’s palace, and is heavily prominent with the gilded arches in the darbar hall, the concentration of domes and pinnacles which line the roof of the palace from the exterior. 36 | The durbar hall, Mysore Palace
Mysore Palace . 39
European influence is also evident with the use of stained glass within the complex which are made to order from areas like Glasgow in the UK due to their “industrially manufactured cast iron structures� (Michell, Martinelli 1998).
40 . Mysore Palace
37 | [left] Interior, Mysore Palace 38 | [below] Stained glass, Mysore Palace
Mysore Palace . 41
42 .
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VISUAL ESSAY Defining the Princely states Before being able to understand how the princely palaces were influenced by the British occupation, it is first important to define the “Princely states”. A Princely state is also referred to as an “Indian state” or “native state” and originally emerged during the Mughal empire from semi-independent principalities linked to various religious groups, clans or empires (Ramusack et al. 2004). For example, the Rajputs emerged in the 13th-14th centuries and occupied the North-West part of India in a region now known as Rajasthan. In the south of India, the empire of the Hindu Vijayanagara clan was pre-eminent and was the precursor for the Mysore Kingdom. However, it is following the occupation by the British of India that the term “Princely state” became more widely used. Following the treaty and occupation by the British in 1857, existing Indian states became divided into two parts: a) States under direct administrative control by the British Crown and Government often referred to as “British India”. 44 . Visual Essay
b) States that continued to be administered by the Indian princes, covering 40% of India (Nangia, 2004). Although the princes controlled these regions, they were watched over by British agents so that their power was relatively limited and they were known as “semi-sovereign principalities” (Markovits et al. 2002). The era of India’s great rulers had come to an end and thereafter they were referred to as Princes. The map on the following page indicates the British administered states and the Indian Princely states, during the British Raj. It can be seen that the British administered states and the Indian Princely states are intermixed with each other throughout the whole of the country, and there is no regional segregation.
39 | Map showing: The princely states; British India
Visual Essay . 45
40 | The separate states of Bombay, Madras and Bengal as it was in British India, 1937
The British-administered states, collectively called ‘British India’, covered 175 of the largest and most important provinces including Bengal, Madras, Bombay while Princely states covered 400 regions including Hyderabad, Mysore, Benares, Travancore, Gwalior and Rajasthan.
Palaces were traditionally established in the Indian princely states for their rulers to inhabit (Michell, Martinelli 1998). However, other princely palaces were built during the British period of occupation and Indian rulers (the princes) were able to affirm their royal status and cling on to their heritage through these ambitious building projects (Morris, Winchester 2005). Large residences were erected during the period up and down the country up until Independence in 1947 and involved some key British architects such as Edwin Lutyens, Vincent Esch and George Wittet. British imperialism left a legacy in the masonry and architecture they established and often reflected styles and techniques from the homeland (Morris, Winchester 2005).
46 . Visual Essay
41 | The states of Bombay, Madras and Bengal as it was in British India, 1937
42 | Architect Vincent Esch’s design of colonial building in Calcutta
43 | Gateway to India designed by George Wittet located in Mumbai Visual Essay . 47
A number of palaces are to be compared and contrasted under this research project. They have been chosen in order to address the research question of the extent to which the British Raj influenced the princely palaces. The palaces studied here are; Mysore palace and Jaipur City palace, which are the subject of my case studies. I have also investigated the Viceroy’s palace in Delhi since this was newly built by the British in comparison to the traditional palace at Padmanabhapuram in Kerala. Finally, I have investigated two palaces at Gwalior; the Man Mandir palace and the Jai Vilas Palace since these are examples of two palaces in the same city, but received different levels of influence by the British (Sasi 2018).
44 | Amba Vilas Palace, Mysore, Karnataka (Mysore Palace)
48 . Visual Essay
45 | City Palace, Jaipur, Rajasthan
46 | Viceroy’s Palace, New Delhi, Delhi
47 | Padmanabhapuram Palace, Tamil Nadu
48 | Jai Vilas Palace, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh
49 | Gwalior Fort, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh (Man Madir Palace)
Visual Essay . 49
50 | A map showing the locations of each palace that I will discuss.
50 . Visual Essay
Visual Essay . 51
WHAT FACTORS AFFECTED THE BRITISH INFLUENCE ON THE PRINCELY PALACES? My research into this topic found three key factors that influenced the degree to which the British Raj affected the Princely Palaces. a) Whether princely palaces existed before or after British occupation. Firstly, an important factor in the degree of influence of the British was whether the princely palaces were already existing before British occupation or not. Existing ones were modified and influenced to some extent by the British when they underwent renovations. However, many other princely palaces were newly constructed under British occupation and were often designed and built by British architects. These latter palaces therefore had much more British influence than existing palaces. An example of this can be seen by comparing Jaipur City Palace and Mysore. These palaces are the subject of my two case studies. Both Jaipur and Mysore palaces are located in semi-sovereign princely states. However, it can be seen that they have very different levels of British influence. Jaipur is a very traditional Indian palace that was designed according to a sacred diagram constructed by the astrologer Jal Singh (Lang 2004). After the British occupation, the British architect Samuel Swinton extended and enlarged Jaipur City Palace and simultaneously introduced British features such as a dining room with classic formal-type British chairs and tables. By contrast, Mysore was newly built during the time of the British Raj, completed in 1912. Henry Irwin, a British architect, was commissioned to build Mysore but he worked alongside Indian 52 . Visual Essay
engineer Raghavulu Naidu. As a consequence, the palace was built according to the Indo-saracenic style but with many materials obtained from Britain such as iron and stainedglass windows. 51 | British style formal dining room, Jaipur City Palace
52 | British style stained glass window, Mysore Palace
Visual Essay . 53
Even within the same city, the differential influence of the British can be seen in palaces that were either pre-existing or were built during the British Raj. This can be seen in the contrasting palaces at Gwalior. Gwalior is located in Central India and was a sub-servient Princely state of the British empire. Man Mandir palace at Gwalior comprises a fort with 4 palaces. The fort is located on a 300 foot high sandstone hills and is said to have been built in the 6th century and was the seat of power for the Rajput rulers (Manchanda 2006). Gwalior was captured by the Tomars in 1398 and, in 1486, the Tomar king Raja Man Singh, built the four palaces adjacent to the fort. Man Mandir as it is called is decorated with beautiful blue and yellow tiles with figures of animals and birds such as peacocks, parrots, ducks and crocodiles (Manchanda 2006). Figures representing the Jain apostles are carved into the rocks.
53 | Man Mandir, Gwalior Fort in Gwalior
54 . Visual Essay
The whole concept of Man Mandir is based on a design to keep away enemies and it has a daunting effect on an approaching visitor. The forbidding entrance is the Hathi Pol or “Elephant Gate�, a huge a highly-fortified structure. Apart from the fort, the eastern side of the palace rises up by 100 feet and the ascent to the palace passes through six gates. The palace walls are flat and punctuated by round towers, making them impossible to penetrate. The royal residence itself at Man Mandir has two courtyards with elaborate facades and decorated tiles and there are many secret passages interconnecting parts.
54 | Figures of animals, birds and Jain apostles carved into the rocks at Man Mandir (Gwalior Fort)
The typical residence of the Rajput maraharaja that can be found in the Rajput palaces of Gwalior, Udaipur and Chittor, is the mardana. The mardana is a fortified square or rectangular palace with suites of apartments on four sides of a central court known as the chowk. Immediately inside the Hathi Pol at the Man Mandir palace is the Gujari Mahal. This was originally erected in around 1510 for Man Singh’s wife, Mriganayana, but is now an archaeological museum. This palace follows the mardana pattern and and consists of exterior solid walls many storeys high, strengthened by buttresses. This is broken up by adhorning Jharokas (projecting balconies) in the middle of each side and chattris (open pavilions) at the corners. The balconies have serpentine brackets that support angled eaves with sculptured elephants standing inside each other. Man Mandir’s interior is intricate with passageways between apartments that are aligned symmetrically within the two inner courts and designed with eaves and vaults that are intricately patterned. The facades are very elaborate with jalis (latticed screen) being suspended from some of the columns that are decorated with animals, birds or flowers such as lotuses and peacocks. The eaves are angled and upper balconies project from many of the sides of the courts. The apartments are also very elaborate containing screens with dancing women holding sticks and lotus petals or merlon motifs carved into the walls. 56 . Visual Essay
55 | The palaces of Man Mandir (Gwalior Fort) in plan Visual Essay . 57
56 | [above] The first court of Man Mandir: in the hall on the north side. Dancing figure detail carved into the stone screens columns and broad capitals 57 | [right] The Hathi Pol, aka. Elephant Gate is the main entrance to Man Mandir
The overall impact of the Man Mandir palace is one that is highly fortified and designed so it cannot be penetrated. It is also one that is highly ornate to demonstrate the wealth of its creators – the Tamor kings. There is very little British influence on the Man Mandir fort and palace since it was built a long time before the British occupation and also resides within a princely state that was only partially administered by the British and still retained its own autonomy. 58 . Visual Essay
58 | Old Jain sculptures inside the Man Mandir Fort
59 | The first court of Man Mandir: in the hall on the south side. Brackets connect in the form of beasts
60 | The second court of Man Mandir: the hall facing the east, showing carvings of the lotus flower
Visual Essay . 59
The Man Mandir fort and palace at Gwalior contrasts sharply with the neighbouring Jai Vilas Palace (Manchanda 2006). The Jai Vilas palace was built below the fort by the Scindias of Gwalior, who were part of the Hindu Maratha dynasty, to celebrate the visit of the Prince of Wales in 1876. It was designed by the British architect Colonel Michael Filose who constructed this vast Indo-saracenic palace laid out on a big square court with cast iron gates and rooftop turrets and many kinds of furniture and accessories from different European countries.
60 . Visual Essay
61 | View of Jai Vilas Palace
It is evident that, in the design of Jai Vilas, traditional forms of an enclosed and fortified palace that are prevalent in Man Mandir, has been replaced by buildings with elaborate facade and interior style that have clearly been adapted to that of the British.
63 | The Durbar hall in Jai Vilas Palace, Gwalior
62 | [left] Facade of Jai Vilas Palace from the front gardens
Visual Essay . 61
The facades of Jai Vilas contain attached columns and pilasters which have been painted white in order to be reminiscent of marble while rooftop turrets also confer Elizabethan English influence. The state apartments contain a huge Darbar Hall, which is approached by a double staircase with crystal chandeliers. This chamber is decorated in a Victorian style with gilded detail and golden curtains. There is also a Banquet Hall which contains a huge silver tabletop train which was used to serve after-dinner drinks and cigars to Royal guests, reminiscent of practices in Victorian and Edwardian Britain. Dining rooms such as this reflected the triumph of European eating habits over Indian traditions amongst the Indian princely families.
64 | [above, left] The durbar hall inside Jai Vilas Palace 65 | [above, right] The drawing room inside Jai Vilas Palace 66 | [right] A cannon in the palace lawns
62 . Visual Essay
b) Whether Princely palaces were located in “British India” or within a princely state. A second key factor is whether the palace in question was part of “British India” or located in a semi-sovereign state that was in principle run and administered by the Indian princes. An example of this can be seen by comparing, for example, the Viceroy’s palace in Delhi, which was constructed by the British, compared to the preexisting palaces at Jaipur and Padmanabhapuram.
67 | “Lutyen’s Delhi”, Viceroy’s House in New Delhi, the east facade
Delhi was ruled by British India and is an example of a city that was completely rebuilt during the occupation. Delhi operated as the political centre in the Indian subcontinent for many centuries and as a consequence was fought over by different dynasties, leading to it being destroyed and rebuilt many times over (Jagmohan 2005). In 1803, Delhi was captured by the East India Company but there was a subsequent rebellion which led to parts of Delhi being destroyed. The British obtained direct rule of Delhi in 1857 and then set about rebuilding the inner city of Delhi, calling it New Delhi and simultaneously shifting the capital of India from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911 (Mayaram 2003). New Delhi was a massive new area within Delhi designed by the British Architect Edward Lutyens including government building and palaces such that the city was often referred to as “Lutyen’s Delhi”.
Visual Essay . 63
68 | Viceroy’s Palace in plan
In 1912, Edward Lutyens designed a vast Viceroy’s palace for the new capital of India built on Raisina Hill on the outskirts of Delhi. This is known as the Viceroy’s palace and is the largest of all Indian palaces. Lutyen had established his reputation as a designer of large English country houses and worked with Sir Swinton Jacob who was an expert on Indo-saracenic art. However, Lutyens was largely dismissive of this merging of styles describing indigenous architecture as “childish” (Morris, Winchester 2005) and set about his own design. He created ballrooms and state drawing rooms, guest
64 . Visual Essay
bedrooms, arched corridors and panelled walls. His garden rooms contained squashy sofas and fireplaces, similar to rooms in England. A particular feature was a wide vestibule and stairway off one of the ballrooms which is roofless and exposed to the Indian sky. In the end, the Viceroy’s palace bore little of India’s traditional architecture but resembled more of a British royal palace. However, a few mogul cornices are evident as well as a copper dome, giving a hint of Indian influence. The Viceroy’s palace is now known as Rashtrapati Bhavan and is the official residence of the President of India.
69 | [far left] Exterior facade of Viceroy’s Palace 70 | [left] External elevation sketches
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71 | The section of the first building in the Royal Compound, it houses a reception hall and an audience hall in Padmanabhapuram Palace
66 . Visual Essay
The architecture of Delhi contrasts sharply with that of Kerala in South West India. Before Indian independence in 1947, Kerala existed as two separate states of Travancore and Cochin. Padmanabhapuram is the former capital city of Travancore and its palace provides an example of a traditional palace that was largely resistant to British influence. Travancore and the British had a rather
unique relationship that was not replicated in other areas of India, but the overall result was that the region had relative autonomy during the British occupation in India as it was led by progressive princes (Sreedhara Menon 2017). There were also many antiBritish movements in this region with many rebellions being initiated and there were several organised expressions of discontent against the British.
72 | [right] The audience hall and interior of Padmanabhapuram Palace 73 | [below] Exterior facade of the palace
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74 | Paintings that line the walls of the Padmanabhapuram palace
75 | A painting in the palace hanging in the King’s private prayer room
Padmanabhapuram palace was constructed in 1601 by Kin Iravi Varma Kulasekhara Perumal, a long time before British occupation. The palace complex is one of the best examples of traditional Kerala architecture, combining wood framing with steeply sloping typed roofs and is very different from other princely palaces. 68 . Visual Essay
76 | The King’s private prayer room in Padmanabhapuram palace
77 | [left] The dance hall or Navaratri Mandapam in the palace 78 | [right] A privy in the women’s quarters of the palace
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79 | Padmanabhapuram Palace in plan
The palace is laid out in an array of four walled compounds adjoining each other with no overall axial pattern commonly found in other palaces. There are many interconnecting mazes, corridors, colonnades and interconnecting courtyards. The main entrance is reached after crossing a large courtyard and the main gate at the entrance is a traditional structure with a decorated gabled roof. Next to the second courtyard is an audience hall which is supported by wooden columns and a carved wooden ceiling with many different flower designs. The dance hall is supported by stone columns with carvings of female figures and a small shrine to Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge. Many other rooms are constructed with intricately carved wooden pillars and floors polished with hibiscus flowers to give a red gloss. There is no British influence evident in this unique palace. 70 . Visual Essay
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c) The length of time following British occupation Thirdly, the degree of influence of the British on Indian Princely palaces was also affected by the time following British occupation. For example, the British influence was bold and innovative in initial stages following occupation as can be seen through the new palace Jai Vilas in Gwalior, completed in 1876, but was less adventurous towards the end of the occupation as seen in Viceroy’s in Delhi, which was completed in 1911.
80 | Exterior of Viceroy’s Palace, New Delhi
By the end of the 18th century, going into the 19th century, neoclassicism was in fashion and the first new palaces tended to be inventive styles with local builders trying to impress British architectural principles, containing more fanciful, ambitious and decorative styles as can be seen at Jai Vilas or indeed Mysore. In contrast, the Viceroy’s
72 . Visual Essay
palace follows a much more conventional British style and is essentially very similar to an English country house. In part, this is due to Lutyens who believed that Indian effects tacked on to Western shapes were generally more ‘pictures on a wall’ and dismissed indigenous architecture as “childish” (Morris, Winchester 2005).
81 | Exterior of Jai Vilas Palace, Gwalior
83 | Interior of Viceroy’s Palace, New Delhi
82 | The durbar hall of Jai Vilas Palace, Gwalior
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SUMMARY This research has identified three defining factors that have had significant impact on the extent to which the British influenced the Indian princely palaces. Firstly, a comparison of Mysore palace and Jaipur City palace has been undertaken as well as the two palaces at Gwalior, Man Mandir and Jai Vilas. They illustrate that a key determining influence was whether a particular Indian palace was built before or during British occupation. Man Mandir is an example of a very traditional Indian palace, built in the 1400s, that, to this day, shows no British influence in contrast to Jai Vilas and Mysore. Although Jaipur City palace was built before the British occupation, it was modified to some extent by the British and so contains some British features. Secondly, the location of a Princely palace was found to be a defining feature. The semi-sovereign Indian states were far less controlled by the British than the states within British India. Kerala, separated at the time into two states of Travancore and Cochin, was a semi-sovereign principality that had a high level of autonomy and expressed a large degree of anti-British sentiment, even during the British Raj. This is manifested in the appearance of the Princely palaces at Travancore - Padmanabhapuram palace - which, as illustrated, is a very distinct palace, retaining all of its traditional features with no evident British influence. Thirdly, this research found that a less influential but still relevant factor, was the time of construction of a new palace during the British Raj. Palaces built early on such as Jai Vilas at Gwalior, had a strong
74 . Visual Essay
adventurous British influence, linked with traditional Indian styles, but this waned over time such that the later palaces, for example, that at Delhi were quite conventional and more reminiscent of English country houses. FINAL COMMENTS Legacy of the British on the princely palaces: implications for post-colonialism Indian independence from the British occurred in 1947 country after a movement led by Mahatma Ghandi and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, with Nehru subsequently becoming the Indian prime minister (Metcalf et al. 2006). Independence led to many changes within the country and these adjustments often meant that India and its people struggled with its sense of identity. Furthermore, the peace between Muslims and Hindus began to break down after the British left, leading to the eventual division of the Indian subcontinent into three states: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. A special law in 1962 allowed citizens of the “Commonwealth of Nations” to emigrate to Britain. However, many were victims of discrimination and racism after immigration. Overall, this collection of events created a crisis for British Indians and this legacy of colonialism is to some extent still evident today (World Policy Conference, Racine 2008). Many scholars have researched the impact of colonial rule in India and the consensus is that it had a negative effect, with many factors involved in this such as excessive exploitation of colonised people, drain of resources and the growth of a “dependency” complex (Frank 1978; Bagchi 1982). After the end of
colonial rule, all the India states were integrated into independent India, and then became part of a uniform administrative, legal and political structure. The Indian Princes were no longer sovereign rulers but many of them played active roles in politics after independence. They were given granted annual incomes by the Indian government to compensate for a loss of state income, but this practice along with their princely titles were stopped in 1971 (Iyer 2010). Evidence has now become clear that the directly-ruled British areas have significantly lower availability of public goods such as schools, health centres and roads in the postcolonial era, and are also worse in terms of agricultural investment and productivity (Iyer 2010).
of the permanent nature of the British architectural influence, act as a definitive and daily reminder of the colonial era that cannot be eradicated until the palaces themselves are destroyed, which is probably a long way off. They will therefore continue to affect the post-colonial psyche of the Indian people. Thus, Said’s postcolonial theory of “orientalism” which states that colonisers and colonised cannot be independent of each other (Said, Laade 1978), is very applicable with respect to the legacy of the princely palaces.
British occupation will therefore continue to affect the post-colonial psyche of the Indian people. Thus, Said’s post-colonial theory of “orientalism” which states that colonisers and colonised cannot be independent of each other (Said, Laade 1978), is very applicable with respect to the legacy of the princely palaces. With regard to the Princely Palaces, there has been a gradual adjustment in the postcolonial era such that the majority of palaces are now tourist destinations, hotels or provide film sets for cinematic scenes. After independence, the Princely Palaces became state-owned although some transferred to private enterprises. The British learned a lot architecturally in India and in fact there were many successful attempts to commandeer various Indian palace precious items for transfer to British stately homes or museums. Many of these items have since been returned (Jhala 2015). The Princely Palaces, because
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