Tom Sutherland, Dissertation by Tom Sutherland

An investigation into how colour is used to communicate in advertising

08245585 Tom Sutherland BA (Hons) Graphic Communication The University of Northampton 2011

Contents

Introduction p.1

Chapter one/ Identity p.2-11

Chapter two/ motion p.11-13

Chapter three/ Print Vs Screen p.13-18

Conclusion p.19

Acknowledgements p.20

References p.21-22

Picture References p.23-24

Bibliography p.25-28

An investigation into how colour is used to communicate in advertising Introduction

“Colour is what we associate automatically with feeling: age-old metaphors about “red anger”, “the blues” and so on seep out from the language into our eyesight.” (Edison, 1999, p.146) When you bear this in mind, the word colour can unravel all sorts of mysteries. This dissertation is just a brush on the surface of the complexities of how colour is used to communicate in advertising. It will concentrate mostly on design in advertising. Advertising is a word that describes the act of promoting products or services; it can involve still or moving images and also audio. Advertising is used a lot to persuade the viewer to form an opinion. In theory it is there to make people invest their money and time into something. Advertising is a way of communicating, be it for good or for bad, it is there to tell you something. Communication can be done in many ways, some of which can be honest and straightforward, where other ways can psychologically convey a piece of information. The use of colour can be used in a variety of ways. At first it can be used to grab the viewer’s attention. It can then be used to keep them engaged and then also to leave a lasting impression. Colour is a word that is hard to describe without an example of what it is and even then, anyone can view it differently. Because the name of a colour is merely a description

of a hue, there is no guarantee that some else’s eyes will read the colour in the same way. In fact, even if they did see exactly the same colour, they could then see the colour in a different way. Experiences of colour can vary from one person to the next. With this in mind, it is clear to see that colour is more than just a hue on paper, it effects everything from our everyday lives to our subconscious thoughts. In the first chapter this dissertation will discuss how a company’s identity becomes an advert in itself. It will also discuss how colour has associations attached to it. In the second chapter it will analyze moving advertisements and also how lack of colour affects advertising. Lastly this dissertation will argue the importance of print and how the current digital age is overtaking.

Chapter one / Identity

For something to communicate it must firstly catch the attention of the viewer and advertising is all about grabbing people’s attention. This can be done in numerous ways, but one of the most successful ways of achieving this is by careful use of colour. A piece of advertising has a small amount of time to catch the viewer’s attention; it has been psychologically proven that colour can be the first thing to catch someone’s eye. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.6) A company’s identity is a key part of any business, as a company in itself is a piece of advertising. Companies use their logo and their consistent use of colour as part of their identity. Having a positive reception from their identity can be a vital part of a company’s success. A surprising amount of this positive reception can be down to a colour choice. This simple use of a colour can swiftly change the feel of a whole company and if the feel of a company is wrong, it can subconsciously put people off. This subconscious state of mind is an important aspect to bear in mind when choosing a colour. As people tend to form an opinion of something fairly quickly, it is important to give the correct impression. “It is no coincidence that the strongest use of colour is often found where someone is trying to sell you something. If you think of a well-known brand, you will probably automatically think of the colour or colours that identify it. Some would argue that colour is the most important brand recognition device, and it certainly is hard to think of a brand that does not have a colour or colour combination associated with it.” (Wilson, 2010, p.12)

Careful consideration has to be taken during the design process, because using an inappropriate colour can leave people with the wrong impression, as all colours have certain associations attached. People gather their own personal opinions of colour as they develop as a human. There is also such a thing called colour harmony. In basic terms it is “the premise that certain colours go together well. These are said to be pleasing to the eye or easy on the eye. Colours are said to have relativity to other colours. For example, an orange square stands out more when it is on a black background than if it is displayed on a white background.” (Greenwood, 2011) Colours can stimulate us by directly acting upon some aspects of our bodies or brains and not always necessary through association. A lot of scientists seem to suggest that emotional or subconscious responses to colour are associated to linguistics, were others claim that colour affects us naturally and influences us regardless of social and cultural surroundings. (Wilson, 2010) There are natural aspects of life that can suggest that nature plays a big part in colour association. Such as red being the colour of blood, which is usually seen as a negative aspect of life, in some cases the end of it. Red also signifies danger. “So perhaps there is no need for semiotics in order to explain why this colour can make people feel anxious, passionate, or angry.” (Wilson, 2010, p.22) The same can be said with blue, such as blue sky’s and seas. Them being vast open areas conveying freedom and perspective, which are said to make people feel calm but also cold and lonely. All these associations can be applied to both the colour blue and also the natural areas, which are blue in colour. (Wilson, 2010)

A lot of early use of colour was for aesthetic purposes, including body decoration. Before the industrial revolution in the 18th century (Gascoigne, 2001) there was a limited range of colour used for art and decoration. (Collins, 2010) But during the industrial revolution various technologies gave birth to new and exiting colour experiences, which allowed art to expand dramatically. “It brought a new clientele to the painting market and a new awareness of the daily lives of those who now, thanks to the machine age, can afford the time and money to collect art.” (Lane, 1998) This natural taste for art inspired people to explore creativity in every area possible. Different styles and movements have been developed over the years. Examples of these range from Cubism, to Abstract Expressionism, to Futurism, To Surrealism to Pop Art. (USC, 2011) These styles and philosophy’s of art gave birth to distinctive imagery and fashionable traits, which are the core source of inspiration for the majority of design. One major influence in identity design is the Bauhaus school in Germany. The ideas and philosophies that were developed in the Bauhaus can still be seen in a lot of current design. In the Bauhaus they tried to fuse art with craft, “they often preached the idea of art as a spiritual activity divorced from the outside world.” (Dempsey, 2002, p.132) Some of Bauhaus’s ideology’s talk about staying true to its form, “Form follows function” and also “Forget the unnecessary”. (Mr P, 2004) These approaches’ have created a structural guide for designers to adhere to. The “forget the unnecessary” rule has urged people to keep things simple and limit certain things, such as shape and colour. A good example of a modern logo that has been hugely inspired by Bauhaus, is the phone operating system Android. Its clear to see that the logo’s type has been simplified using the reductive minimalism approach, but kept so that it is still legible. When it is side by side with Herbert Bayer’s Universal Typeface from 1925, it can then be easy to see how they correspond.

Google Android Logo

Herbert Bayer’s UniversalType, Bold face, 1925

In advertising different feelings can be achieved depending on the temperature of the colour. As colours have heat values attached to them. There are different shades on the colour wheel that help to explain this. The greens and blues on a colour wheel appear cooler than the warmer reds, oranges and yellows that are on the opposite side. There is nothing physical about the colour that has a temperature, it is something far deeper than this; it is a psychological feeling that the colour gives off.

Painters have used this knowledge for centuries. A good example of this is when Pablo Picasso went though his blue period from 1901 to 1904. Picasso changed the temperature of his paintings to a colder colour after the suicide of his close friend Carlos Casagemas. (Warncke, 2010) This horrific event left the 20 year old Picasso rather melancholy. He expressed this by using cold shades of blue and some green. The monochromed use of blue paint was used to express his feeling of sadness. Picasso did this as a way of dealing with the tragedy, but this does not necessarily mean if you use blue, everything is negative. There are positive uses of the colour blue. An example of this is the painter Yves Klein, who excessively used a specific shade of blue, which he had patented. “Yves Klein felt that blue had the power to reveal the undefinable, the unknown. His blue pictures have a powerful impression of silence and spiritual depth. Klein focused on the positive qualities of blue.” (Richmond, 2010)

Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist, 1903

International Klein Blue, 1960 This shows that colours can be very emotional in advertising and can reach people at different levels. Some may associate blue with sadness and depression and others may see blue as a powerful and positive impression. One theory of colour is that “in vision we start with colour and then move to form, but in painting we start with feeling and likewise move on to form. It follows that colour relates to form as feeling relates to form. Take away the middle term, we converge on the obvious equation, colour = feeling.” (Edison, 1999, p.148) So if colour conveys feelings, then the choice of colour is very important for one to communicate the correct feeling. A good example of this is the use of colour in packaging design. Advertising can be easily misunderstood as merely just television commercials and pages in a magazine that sell something. However, if advertising is examined deeper you can then see that a product is advertising itself by simply existing. If a product is understood it will usually register in the viewers brain and possibly come back in to thought at a later time. So with this in mind it is easy to see how packaging design is a form of advertising and its colour can be vital for a company’s success. The temperature of a colour is also very important in packaging design, as the customer will have to be attracted, held, understand and, remember the product in a matter of seconds. If a warm shade is used when a cool shade is more appropriate, the customer can easily get confused as to what the product does. “Cool shades of blue and green evoke ideas of water, snow, ice, exposure to the elements, cleanliness and Hygiene.” (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.18) So cool shades are very appropriate when packaging winter wear, frozen foods or health products. Silver and white are also good cool shades to package products of a clean nature, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, bathroom products and kitchen utensils. All these associations are commonly played within

advertising, as they help to create an appropriate identity. An example of this in packaging design, is Nivea for Men Shaving Conditioner. All of the colours used are cool and clinical. Not only have they used blue and green, but also they have made the bottle silver. Another good example of this use of colour in advertising is the 7up billboard that can be seen to the right. It specifically uses cool shades to communicate the coolness of the drink. A large amount of the surface area is covered in a light blue swimming pool and then the woman is sunbathing in a red costume on a yellow inflatable. 7up has used the warm red shades in contrast with the cool blues as an eye catching quick method of reading a message. Without using words the advert subconsciously reads that 7up is a cool and refreshing drink that is a perfect refreshment for when you are hot. Even the colour of the can is a cool green shade further backing up the point about using the temperature of a shade to communicate a message. One of the main reasons advertisers try to use colour before or instead 7up billboard, photo by Robert Walker of writing, is because a colour can be read a lot quicker than writing can be. Communicating to a higher volume of viewers will be more effective if the message is read quickly, thus enabling the viewer to recognize the identity and hopefully remember it. Then on the flip side there are warm shades of red, yellow, orange, brown and gold that are more appropriate for goods, such as summer cloths, hot drinks, baked goods, hairdryers, microwave ovens, fan heaters and cuddly toys. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.19) A good way of seizing people’s attention quickly is by contrasting colours, using two or more can be effective in advertising. Using two colours that are opposite on the colour wheel can also give off an alarming effect. “Some highly contrasting colours can cancel each other out and optically can irritate and repel rather than attract.” (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.6) Nivea for men, Shaving Conditioner

An example of this high-saturated contrasted colour is the typography on the Pocket Study Skills book Getting Critical. The strong contrast from the red background and the blue type can optically strain your eyes. One could argue that therefore it is unsuccessful as an image. However on the other hand, the confusion of the colours grabs your eye; makes you form an opinion about it and therefore it could be regarded as a successful image. One way for better legibility in typography is using a dark shade next to a light shade, this will make the shapes easily distinguishable. This knowledge about colour can be vital when trying to communicate something, as a logo’s legibility can be essential for a company’s identity to be successful. Type on an advert can often be found to be dark on a bright background or vice versa. As can be seen from the photo to the Right, clear use of white text on black, white on blue and also the black on yellow on the taxi, are all specifically designed this way for a quick easy read. When you consider how much time someone has to read a road sign, it can be then seen how important specific colours are used, these colours will also then help to create an identity of the road. With combinations such as black on yellow, white on blue, white on green, red on white, black on white and white on red commonly seen. These combinations of colours offer maximum legibility. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.6) Road signs are not the only place where this knowledge is valuable. Anything where type needs to be read easily, clearly and quickly is worth remembering about contrast and colour. Another thing to consider is if the surface will be viewed in light or dark, because in the dark, colours can be viewed very differently than in the light. It is worth knowing about what colour combinations work well in the dark as well as considering using lights or reflective materials. Even when using reflective strips, “life jackets still tend to be an orange colour, as this gives the greatest contrast to the deep blue sea.” (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.6) When using colour to communicate something, worldwide beliefs and associations is something to think about. “A shade of red may be considered as masculine in France, but to the rest of the world it can seem feminine”. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.7) As well as class and warmth a colour can also contain associations such as gender. All advertisements have

Pocket Study Skills, Getting Critical a target audience, so the identity is essential for it to communicate to the correct gender. Some colours can seem more feminine than others. “Using pale-toned and desaturated colours usually appeals mostly to the feminine sensitivity, but colour preferences do vary with age for both sexes”. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.50) Women of today are more self-confident than their mothers as they are less home-based and rely less on men. This feminist change has naturally attracted young women to deeper saturated and brighter colours. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.50) Softer contrast appears more feminine as contrast can represent strength and therefore symbolizing masculinity. Using a grey or a blue for type can mute the contrast down slightly to avoid an aggressive black. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.50) Design for the feminine market can appear more delicate and soft, using a clear representation of the female form. Masculine design uses more contrast between shades, uses sharp edges, bold and all caps type to communicate an impression of strength and power. Diesel Jeans adverts are a great example of the bold type that is used.

Diesel Jeans, Be Stupid Campaign.

An example of contrasted type, photo by Robert Walker

Pullman rail car

Masculine design differs from feminine as it uses deeper shades such as wine red, maroons, and reddish earthy browns. (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.51) “Deeper saturations of blue – the navy blues are symbolic of masculine order, reliability and authority.” (Berry; Martin, 1991, p.51) So when we think, we examine how colours are associated with different things, we then have to be very careful with our colour choice as something as simple as a colour can communicate the wrong message. From researching a company’s identity’s it is clear to see that successful businesses strongly use one or more specific colour shades throughout their deliverables. This shows consistency and also helps to give a business a sense of character. People can then start to create a psychological bond with a company, like they would do with a person. Another reason to be consistent with a colour scheme is because people start to associate a specific colour with companies. One colour can then make people think about a whole company from simply seeing a single shade. For example, if you see this shade of brown, the parcel delivery company UPS might spring to mind. According to “Co-founder James Casey he wanted his delivery trucks to be yellow, but partner Charlie Soderstrom protested that yellow vehicles would be impossible to keep clean and noted

that Pullman railroads cars were brown for precisely that reason.” (Lukas; Overfelt, 2003) Pullman rail cars were also associated with luxury (Thelin, 2011) so that association was key to UPS’s image. Because of UPS’s success, Pullman brown has been associated with UPS as much as the Pullman Company, if not more so. “But advertisers frequently use colour in ways designed to resonate with the consumer’s unconscious desires. The British based mobile phone company Orange appropriated a colour in both name and hue to create one of the most successful new brands of the 1990s. Its slogan “the future’s bright. The future’s Orange” spelt out the message of optimism and progress that the company hoped would be conveyed.” (Wilson, 2010, p.12) Colour can be so important to a company that they usually copyright their specific colour code, so that no one else can use it. Unfortunately, the copyright laws usually only stretch to stop others from using that colour in the same area of business. One example of this is the mobile phone company T-Mobile, who have copywrited a shade of magenta; “The plaintiff, Deutsche Telekom AG, which uses the colour “magenta” for designating its services and in its advertisements and/or commercials, has been the owner of the colour mark No. 395 52 630 “magenta” (RAL 4010) since September 12, 2000 which was registered on the basis of a proven secondary meaning (i. e. for goods and services in the field of tele-communications). Furthermore, the plaintiff is also the proprietor of Community colour mark “magenta” registered on August 3, 2000.” (WUESTHOFF & WUESTHOFF, 2007) Colour can easily affect the successfulness of a company. “Consider the phenomenal success Heinz EZ Squirt Blastin’ Green ketchup has had in the marketplace. More than 10 million bottles were sold in the first seven months following its introduction, with Heinz factories working 24 hours a day, seven days a week to keep up with demand. The result: $23 million in sales attributable to Heinz green ketchup [the highest sales increase in the brand’s history]. All because of a simple colour change.” (Morton, 2008)

Popular styles of art have been a big influence on advertising. For example, the success of Pop art gave birth to various parodies of famous practitioners. For instance the household soap brand Sunlight, is a good example of this. Their 1987 and 1988 advertising for their dishwasher liquid is a clear copy of Roy Lichtenstein’s earlier pieces of art. Lichtenstein’s art was famous for using a comic book style of illustration and his key trait was the use of Ben-Day dots. His style uses solid areas of colour, mostly highly contrasted with solid black. He also uses quite high-saturated colours, for the most part yellow, red and blue. (LucieSmith, 1999) The Sunlight advert uses high saturated colours just like Lichtenstein. It uses the Ben-Day dots as dirt on a glass; it uses comic book bubbles and also red type with a black stroke, just like Lichtenstein’s painting titled “Blam.” (Aaron art prints,no date) The 1988 advert uses the same bright yellow hair as Lichtenstein but an additional green background to correspond with the packaging design that is also yellow and green. They both also depict a crying woman like a number of Lichtenstein’s work. Another instance of the Lichtenstein style in advertising is DKNY’s Be Delicious campaign. In July 2009 DKNY commissioned illustrator Brad Hamann to design a limited edition version of their Delicious Perfume. The limited edition version uses Ben-Day dots in the design of the packaging; the poster campaign also incorporated a comic book aesthetic to it, applying it throughout the accompanying deliverables. (Raićević-Petrović, 2009) Brad Hamann shows a great deal of evidence of pop art inspiration throughout his portfolio. He includes Illustrations of Andy Warhol’s “Campbell Soup” and copious Roy Lichtenstein style women. (Hamann, 2010)

Sunlight soap, 1987, 1988

Litchensein’s Blam, 1962

DNYK, Art Series, 2009

DNYK, Be Delicious Comic, 2009

Chapter two / motion

Advertising is not always static. In fact “television still remains the most memorable form of advertising. More than half (52%) of respondents said television was more memorable than any other form of advertising medium, followed by 10% who said newspapers and just 2% for online video adverts and 1% for online banner ads and on iPhones and iPads. While digital or personal video recorders have increased the amount of television people watch, the research suggested that 86% of people always fast-forward through adverts while watching time shifted shows.” (Plunkett, 2010)

Steven Spielbergs Schindler’s list, 1993

“On July 1, 1941, the world’s first television commercial aired on NBC, at that time known as WNBT-TV. The 10-second advertisement for Bulova clocks and watches consisted of the image of a clock and a map of the United States, with a voice-over that announced, ‘America runs on Bulova time.’ The ad was broadcast before a game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies and cost the Woodside-based company less than ten dollars.” (Miller, 2007) This shows that colour is not essential for advertising, as colour television was not broadcasted until The 25th of June 1951. (The iSchool at Illinois, 2003) In theory black and white adverts are not as successful as colour ones. “If a picture is worth a thousand words, a picture with natural colours may be worth a million, memory-wise. Psychologists have documented that “living colour” does more than appeal to the senses. It also boosts memory for scenes in the natural world. By hanging an extra “tag” of data on visual scenes, colour helps us to process and store images more efficiently than colourless (black and white) scenes, and as a result to remember them better.” (Morton, 2008) As the years have gone by, black and white advertising can give off the impression of age. Black and white video is now looked on as history as since the 1970s the majority of films have been filmed in colour. One of the current main reasons for filming in black and white is to give the impression of age. A good example of this is the film Schindler’s list. Steven Spielbergs 1993 film about the holocaust would not have been the same in colour. In Joseph McBrides book about Steven Spielberg, he states that “the decision to shoot the film mainly in black and white lent to the documentary-style of cinematography, which cinematographer Janusz Kamiński compared to German Expressionism and Italian neorealism. Kamiński said that he wanted to give a timeless sense to the film, so the audience would “not have a sense of when it was made.” (McBride, 1997) Spielberg also explained that “Virtually everything I’ve seen on the Holocaust is in black and white, so my vision of the Holocaust is what I’ve seen in documentaries and in books, which have largely been stark black and white images.”(English@kkc, 2008)

Another good example of use of black and white footage to give the impression of age is the Apple television advert first seen in 1997 named “Here’s to the Crazy Ones.” (Segall, 2010) In this advert it shows short clips of famous people all in black and white. The lack of colour is used to show that these people are the past and that they have made an impact on the world. Once again if it was colour footage in the advert, it wouldn’t have had the same sort of understanding. Some would argue that adverts can still work just as effectively without colour, as we still see colour in our minds even if it isn’t present in physical form in front of us. A good example of this is if you close your eyes and think of the colour green, you can see it in your head. So it must be possible to watch something in black and white and image it in colour. It is also hard to know if we all would picture the same shade of green. We know that we remember colours and associate them to different things according to our life experiences. So does this mean that we only will only argue with someone on what a colour is, due to our experiences of language and that we do not in fact see colours differently. Gemma Perl (2010) suggests, “There may be some minor variances, but unless one person involved in the thought experience is colour blind you will see green essentially the same. You can describe colour as a physical property of light, as its wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is a property, which does not depend on your perception, you can compare what names people give to light of the same wavelength. Generally they all regard the colour green as green. One colour that people may disagree with is the colour aqua, cyan or turquoise but essentially we all see the same if we have normal vision.”

Here’s to the crazy ones, Apple, 1997

Another place where advertising exists is on the radio. As we know the radio is limited to just audio. So therefore colour has no place on the radio. But it can be argued that colour is in fact on the radio. Colour still exists in our thoughts. And our thoughts are affected by what we hear. So if we think in colour and we imagine things when we listen to the radio, colour can then be said to be on the radio. The idea of colour on the radio has actually inspired a number of people. In 1990 there was a radio show on BBC Radio 4 called And Now in Colour, (Scott; Tyler, 2000) which is clearly playing on the fact that colour isn’t visually there, but through their words it can be psychologically. There is also a band called Color Radio, which are inspired by the concept of colour on radio. In this media driven world that we currently live in, it can be hard to see one advert though all the colourful, cluttered, frenzy of advertising that surrounds us. There are so many people that want to be seen in the world we live in, it is literally plastered with colour. One modern way of standing out from all the colourful adverts is to keep it simple and remove all colour from the palette and the contrast between black and white can be quite staggering. Sometimes if there is only one thing that isn’t colour then that will stand out from the rest. DF from the website Businnessknowledgesource.com agrees with this observation. He/she says “If you were to look over a black and white ad and a coloured ad side by side, they would probably have a lot of the same attributes. For example they would both probably have some kind of business name or logo on the ad. They would probably both list what they were trying to sell, but the black and white advert might stand out more than the coloured ad does. Colour does not always get the point across, sometimes colour is too loud and just adds disturbance to an advert more than anything. There is just something about black and white ads that sometimes stand out more than coloured ads. Take for example the black and white ads on television, do you stop and take a second look at the television when they come on? Most people take a minute to stop and watch the television because there is something about these black and white ads that are intriguing, and that makes the black and white ads stand out.” (DF, 2010)

furthermore the freelance designer Franz Jeitz says that “When using only these 2 colours all that matters is the composition which makes it so much harder to produce something beautiful. You can’t rely on any colour schemes to stimulate a feeling or speak to your audience. This makes it that much more special when you discover a gorgeous black and white design.” (Jeitz, 2008) Calvin Klein have used a heavy amount of black and white photos throughout their advertising, and occasionally using subtle shades of red. It’s safe to say that Calvin Klein is a successful brand and this shows that their lack of colour in their advertising has worked for them. Candice from SchoolNet News Network comments that “Most of Calvin Klein’s ads are in black and white and in their own way are unique. I like the idea that they are kind of dull and colourless because it is so different than anything else in the magazine.” (B, 1999)

Calvin Klein advert

Chapter three / Print Vs Screen There are many debates that the technology of screen-based media will completely overtake print based media. This paper will endeavour to show that there are advantages on both party’s and that it is a sad thought that print could die out, due to the modern popularity of digital media. The first main difference when it comes down to colour is, that print uses ink and usually consists of a four-colour process. Whereas screen based colour is made up of light, which is formed by three-colours. Screen-based media can be a great way of advertising as the markets for screen-based electronics are dramatically increasing. Computer screens, television, portable devices like mobile phones and media players are a just a few of the mediums that can be used to communicate a message. As technology is advancing the practicality of mobile phones is rapidly increasing. Mobile phones are no longer just a device to call people. They now have all sorts of practical and luxurious features, such as text and picture messages, cameras for video and pictures, music playing capability, including radio, email, calculator, calendar, games, satellite navigation and you can even watch a film on one. The list is practically endless for the amount of things a new mobile phone can do. This has increased the demand to advertise on mobile phones. With the current craze for applications on phones, it is easy to see how a screen is a huge opportunity for advertising. With the current climate change and global warming issues, the demand for eco friendly products has never been so high. A screen is considered to be less damaging to the environment, due to the reduction of paper waste. However, there is a debate that screens are more expensive and more difficult to produce and resulting in just as much environmental harm, if not more. Apple’s latest creation, the iPad, has had difficulties producing enough to meet the

demands, due to the complexities of such a process. The marketing company iSuppli said, “We understand that the yields on the display have been low and that they’re creating a production bottleneck,” Rassweiler (director of the teardown service) said in an interview. “That they have been doing it for the iPhone for some time is great, but once you go to 9.7 inches, it is a much more complicated process.” (Guglielmo; Hesseldahl, 2010) So although there is a huge advertising slot on such devices as the iPads, it is still only hitting a small target audience. Although as smart phones increase in popularity, more and more people are accessing the current craze of apps. The screen space for an advertisement on an app is relatively small, but when you bear in mind that the user could possibly look at it numerous times a day, the chance of it being memorable is dramatically increased. Although as the economical crisis hits, companies are finding it more important to advertise. Advertising has been predicted to gradually increase. Juniper Research has released a study which estimates that “by 2014, total ad spend on mobile services will exceed $6 billion annually. This represents a 34% annual growth rate.” (Juniper Research, 2009)

Apple’s iPad, 2010 Colours on screen use three hues, red, green and blue or RGB for short, whereas printed advertisements use four colours, cyan, magenta, yellow and black or CMYK for short. Interestingly CMYK is still made up from RGB. Because red and green light in equal proportion produces yellow: red and blue, magenta; and green and blue, cyan. Combining all three colours equally gives a neutral grey, which at its brightest, is white. (Wilson, 2010) This RGB and CMYK knowledge is important for a graphic designer to know, as when a document is ready for print all colours must be CMYK. If the designer does not do this he/she runs the risk of the colours changing dramatically. One thing to consider is the advantages of colour made from light, RGB allows a larger colour range and can seem more vivid than if it would have been printed. There are shades of colour that just cannot be obtained with CMYK, due to the restricted mix of colours. (van Holten, 2009) “The main advantage of CMYK print is the ability to reproduce the continuous tones necessary for colour photographs.” (Arah, 2003) Screen brightness, resolution and amount of colour can vary dramatically from screen to screen. It would be easy to assume that CMYK is then accurate from one printer to another, but Arah (2003) argues, “that is simply not the case. The CMYK gamut varies depending on the press and printing conditions and the translation from RGB needs to take this into account. What this primarily boils down to is the actual inks and paper used. Different regions of the world and different press setups tend to use slightly different inks and combine them slightly differently to produce different gamut’s.”

One popular way of letting people know that a colour is relatively accurate is to use something called a Pantone shade. Pantone is a company that is largely known for standardizing colour reproduction. By standardizing the colours, different manufactures in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system. This standardized system makes communicating a colour less complicated and colours match accurately without direct contact with one another. They did this by creating the Pantone Matching System also known as the Pantone formula guide. (World Lingo, 2010) Initially it “consisted of a large number of small (approximately 6×2 inches or 15×5 cm) thin cardboard sheets, printed on one side with a series of related colour swatches and then bound into a small flipbook. For instance, a particular “page” might contain a number of yellows of varying tints.” (World Lingo, 2010) Pantone produced this guide “to allow designers to ‘colour match’ specific colours when a design enters production stage—regardless of the equipment used to produce the colour.” (World Lingo, 2010) The Pantone colour guide is still widely used today with designers and printers. Pantone has become an iconic name for graphic designers and has become an item of self-satisfaction as well as usefulness. Pantone is also advertised by selling various items with colour swatches on them, such as mugs, pencil cases, scissors and even socks. Using the Pantone system allows company’s not only to keep the colour of their advertising consistent, but also it allows them to pick and choose the colours that they want, more accurately and by flicking though a book.

Another difference between screen and print is the resolution values. Screen based media uses pixels per inch (ppi) and printed documents consisting of dots per inch (dpi). When printing an image it is important to have a relatively high dpi for a good quality print, anything less than 300dpi can result in some poor results. As far as monitor screens go, they tend to be roughly 96 ppi or sometimes 72ppi for Macintosh computers.(fbcontrb, 2005) Some people say that monitor screens use a 72dpi(or 96dpi.) The fact of the matter is that monitor screens do not use dots per inch, they use pixels per inch (ppi), so setting an image to 72 dpi does not affect anything on screen. It will only affect the image if you then print it. Doing this can cause the picture to become too grainy or too colour blotched. (Fulton, 2010) Since 2006 a Swedish company developed a music-streaming program called Spotify. The program allows the user to play music instantly from a huge selection of music from most major record labels. (Salmon, 2009) There is a catch though, unless you pay for it monthly, the user is forced to listen to advertising, similar to radio. It only happens every once in a while, but from experience it does stick in your head. The lack of colour through audio is present at this stage. But Spotify are obviously aware of the use of colour in advertising, because if you have Spotify open in front of you during the adverts, they have displayed a big highly coloured image that corresponds with audio advert. These highly saturated images are there to attract the user and to hopefully get them to click on the advert. The use of colour does break away from the normal grey interface. Even Spotifyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s logo and related graphics are usually in a bright green colour, which once again are quick to grab initial attention. A lot of Internet based advertisements used to be based on pop ups. This is when an advert would just suddenly appear on the users screen. The user would then be forced to look at the advert placed in front of them, until they can close it; some are even programmed to not let it be closed. These can also cause people to get irritated by adverts and put people off something completely. With popup blockers becoming ever increasingly more advanced, the appearance of pop ups are dramatically decreasing. There are still the occasional poker adverts that seem to sneak though the pop up blockers, which tend

to be just a mass of green. General Internet browsing is a lot easier at the current time. Advertisers rely on specific advert spaces that are used to help pay for the website. Different websites will charge different rates, depending on the generosity of the site and also on the size of screen it takes up. Advertising can easily turn a simple website in to a huge money making organization; a great success story of this is the Million Dollar Homepage. Alex Tew, a student from Wiltshire, England, wanted to raise money for his university education. He created a website 1000 x 1000 pixels and sold each pixel for one dollar, with a minimum order of 100 pixels. The adverts were then placed on the area that was purchased. The result was a mass of adverts that when clicked, links straight to the corresponding website. Alex Tew was praised for his entrepreneurial idea and of course earned himself over a million dollars in the process, but more importantly became famous for it. This example shows the power of advertising via the Internet and also shows the mass of colour in logos as an interesting visual sight. (Jones, 2005)

Million Dollar Homepage, Alex Tew

It also becomes clear that apps can present potential for a mass of digital advertising. Where there is space for selling something there is always space for advertising it. Not only are there banners within apps, such as the advertising within games like Trade Nations, but there are also adverts to advertise the apps themselves. For example, the Tesco’s app can be seen being used on a television advert. One ever growing contemporary way to advertise something is to have an app created with the soul purpose of promoting a product. Some examples of this include, Angry Birds Rio addition for the film Rio, Nike+ GPS promotes Nike in general, GoodFood one-pot recipes promotes the BBC’s magazine and annual show, the list is practically endless. A great deal of companies have got on the bandwagon of creating an app that corresponds with further sales. A considerable amount of the time it is created as a quick simple ephemeral game whose primary function is to put the name of the company in the viewer’s head. The BBC is a prime example of this, they have created a considerable amount of silly games to remind you of a television program, in the hope that you will either watch it on T.V, or increase the BBC’s DVD sales. Great examples of this are such apps as Only Fools and Horses, Fawlty Towers, Blackadder, Numerous Top Gear apps, a Mighty Boosh game and also apps for children with Teletubbies, In the Night Garden and Doctor Who. All of which are clearly just filling an advertising space in a fashionable media. (Apple, 2011) Furthermore, they all use colourful pictures to grab your attention, with good use of colour throughout the app itself.

Honda Jazz, This Unpredictable Life advert, 2011 Another increasing trend is to encourage people to use their smart phones during television advertising, sometimes called an “iMercial” (G, 2011). This innovative idea is getting people to interact with advertising, rather than the usual case of barely watching it. This way people are more switched on when being brainwashed and also slightly impressed with the creativity of the brand. If the viewer’s are hooked and intrigued, then an advert can be more memorable. A fantastic example of this is an advert by Axa insurance. In Belgium they commissioned an advert to be made for their home insurance, where the viewer is shown a quick video to entice them, they are then encouraged to scan a quick response code (QR Code) with their mobile phone, which then allows them to find out what happens next. (G, 2011) Another example of an iMercial is Hondas interactive advert for the Honda Jazz car. In this advert Honda encourages you to download their specific app for iPhone and then when you watch their new advert you then treat it as a game. The app allows you to catch the characters in the film by waving your iPhone in front of the film, in a net like fashion. This can be really fun and

addictive. Some would argue that it doesn’t sell the car particularly well as it hits the wrong target audience, but the idea is to promote the brand as a whole to be a fun and innovative company. Some comments include “An unoriginal idea beautifully executed” APJ, “Quite a misleading ad (no-one under 70 seems to drive a Honda Jazz!). I do appreciate the quality animation though.” James and also “Ok TV ad. Don’t know what the iPhone-app is doing there.” (Creative Review, 2011) But overall people seem like the animation and are left intrigued. The Honda advert uses a lot of highly saturated colours. Everything seems to be glowing either red, yellow, blue or purple. The advert also has a surreal element to it, using colourful clouds and floating people. The colours flow nicely throughout with constant changes. It uses the power of colour to draw in your emotions and make you feel connected with the Hondas passion. These iMercials are becoming ever more common as digital technology increasingly develops and they really do what they are targeted to do, which is, grab peoples’ attention.

Conclusion To conclude this research and findings into the investigation of the use of colour in advertising, It is clear to see the power of colour and its persuasive tendencyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Colours have various associations attached to them and advertisers use the knowledge to their advantage to place ideas and products into peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brains, for one reason and one reason only, to earn money. Advertising can use colour to entice people to feel a certain way about a product or a company and, if done well can make the difference between a successful business and an unsuccessful one. A companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity is a key part of any business, as a company in itself is a piece of advertising. Companies use their logo and their consistent use of colour as part of their identity; this careful use of colour impacts advertising dramatically as their chosen colour shades are usually used consistently throughout. Different trends and styles vary throughout time and advertising reflects this. Early art movements have also significantly inspired design and use of colour in advertising. For example, as mentioned before, the simplified use of type on the Android logo.

Advertising on television has been a hugely important space for advertisers and has been proven to be the most memorable form of advertising. The use of colour is still clear to have an impact in the communication of the advert and an advert in colour boosts the memory of our senses, more so than a black and white one. Though it is said that black and white imagery still has a place in advertising, as it brings on a nostalgic feeling that colour cannot achieve. It can also be said that in this world plastered in colour sometimes by not using colour can stand out more so from the mess of colours. Advertising can still communicate without colour as audio media proves in such places as the radio and Spotify. Colours can be kept consistent by using a Pantone Formula guide; this allows the user to print a colour anywhere with relatively informal results. It is also fair to say that as digital devices are increasing, the particularity of digital advertising is ever more important. The craze of apps that have been forced upon us have given way to unique and interactive ways of advertising. It uses colour to either give us a sense of reality or sometimes to provoke a creative surreal idea. Apps allow the user to get involved and potentially the advert can mean more to the user. Therefore in summary the use of colour can dramatically intensify for greater or for poorer the communication within advertising.

Acknowledgements

â&#x20AC;&#x153;

I would like to give a big thank you to all the people that have been so patient with me in my persistent struggle to complete my dissertation. I have found it a very educational experience and am thankful for it. I would like to thank the people who read though it all and had a good laugh at my poor spelling and grammar. Thank you also to the printers and binders who fit me in last minute over the bank holidays, without them you wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be reading this. Tom Sutherland

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