Jamaica Uncut: Beyond the Image of Sun, Sea and Sand (Master Thesis by Toni-Ann Owens, ZHdK) by Toni-Ann Owens

TONI-ANN OWENS

JAMAICA UNCUT

BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND MASTER OF ARTS IN DESIGN, INTERACTION DESIGN ZÜRCHER HOCHSCHULE DER KÜNSTE MENTORED BY DR BJÖRN FRANKE AND MAX RHEINER

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

ABSTRACT “Let’s go on holiday, let’s go to Jamaica!” For decades Jamaica has been internationally associated with tropical “paradise”, a moniker inherited from the country’s colonial past. Colonial ideology has long shaped the country’s identity and has subsequently been a tool utilized by the country’s tourism industry to attract its predominantly western visitors. However, the lack of representation of the island’s omnipresent creole culture in tourism campaigns and media has begged the question, “What is life like for the residents of paradise?” “Jamaica Uncut” thus challenges the postcolonial mindset and stereotypes that limit Jamaica’s pursuit of a cohesive national and global identity; ultimately unmasking the nuanced realities of its people.

(DE) "Lass uns exotische Badeferien in Jamaika machen!" Jamaika ist seit Jahrzehnten international als tropisches „Paradies“ bekannt, eine Bezeichnung welche aus der kolonialen Vergangenheit des Landes stammt. Die koloniale Ideologie hat lange Zeit die Identität des Landes geprägt und war später ein Instrument der Tourismusindustrie des Landes, um seine überwiegend westlichen Besucher anzulocken. Die mangelnde Repräsentation der allgegenwärtigen kreolischen Kultur der Insel in Tourismuskampagnen und Medien hat jedoch die Frage aufgeworfen: "Wie ist das Leben für die Bewohner dieses Paradieses?“ "Jamaica Uncut" stellt die postkoloniale Denkweise und Stereotypen in Frage, welche eine ganzheitliche, nationale und globale Identität einschränken und versucht letztendlich ein enthüllendes sowie nuanciertes Abbild von den Realitäten der jamaikanischen Bevölkerung darzustellen.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank my program leaders Björn Franke and Max Rheiner of the Zurich University of the Arts for the invaluable feedback they provided me throughout the development of this project. Your assistance and creative challenges have been a source of motivation and encouragement that has guided this project. I would further like to extend a hearty thank you to my colleagues, Amir Garibovic, Anncharlott Berglar, and Isabel Huaman Diaz, who were a continuous source of motivation and creative inspiration. During the most tumultuous phases of this project, your kind words and creative feedback proved encouraging and invaluable. Finally, I would like to express my everlasting gratitude for my friends and family whose love and support have proven key to the successful completion of this project.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................................................... iii 1.

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.

Research Question and Thesis Statement .................................................................................... 2

1.2.

Methodology................................................................................................................................. 3

1.3.

Aims and Objectives...................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.

Motivation and Personal Contribution ......................................................................................... 5

IDENTITY................................................................................................................................................ 6 2.1.

What Is Identity? ........................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.

Birthing of a Nation: Colonialism and the Slave Trade in Jamaica................................................ 7

2.3.

Out of Many, One People: How Colonial Legacy Forms National (Cultural) Identity in Jamaica 11

2.3.1.

Language ............................................................................................................................. 12

1.1.2.

Musical Expression .............................................................................................................. 13

1.1.3.

Shame of Identity: The Negative Social Impact of Colonialism .......................................... 14

2.4.

“Yaad” and Abroad: A Visual Analysis of the Jamaican Identity Locally and Globally ................ 17

2.4.1.

Jamaica versus Paradise ...................................................................................................... 18

2.4.2.

Themes & Symbols .............................................................................................................. 19

2.5.

Identity and Stereotypes............................................................................................................. 20

2.6.

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 21

TOURISM ............................................................................................................................................. 23 3.1.

Travel and Tourism in the 21st Century ....................................................................................... 23

3.2.

Why do People Travel? ............................................................................................................... 25

3.3.

The Legacy of Colonization and Its Impact on Jamaica’s Tourism Industry ................................ 27

3.4.

Brand Jamaica: How Jamaica’s Tourism Industry Forms Its Global Identity............................... 28

3.4.1.

Nation Branding .................................................................................................................. 29

3.4.2.

The Sun, Sea and Sand Marketing Strategy ........................................................................ 30

3.4.3. The Case of The Exotic: Authenticity, Magic and Paradise as Recurring Themes in Brand Jamaica (Visual Analysis) ..................................................................................................................... 32 3.5. 4.

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 52

VOICE OF THE PEOPLE......................................................................................................................... 53 4.1.

Music as Expression of Identity .................................................................................................. 54

4.2.

The Voice of the People .............................................................................................................. 54

4.2.1.

Rebel Music: Reggae and Dancehall (Ragga) ...................................................................... 55 iii

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 4.3.

Visual and Lyrical Analysis: Expression of Identity in Contemporary Jamaican Music and Arts 57

4.3.1. 4.4. 5.

Analysis: “Dreams to Reality” by Kabaka Pyramid (Music Video)....................................... 57

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 64

JAMAICA UNCUT ................................................................................................................................. 65 5.1.

Artefact Exploration and Development ...................................................................................... 66

5.1.1.

What is the Jamaican Identity? ........................................................................................... 66

5.1.2.

Ole Time Sinting (Old Time Something) .............................................................................. 68

5.1.3.

“Mawnin” Radio (Morning Radio)....................................................................................... 72

5.2.

Artefact Exhibitions ..................................................................................................................... 75

5.2.1.

Method................................................................................................................................ 75

5.2.2.

Feedback ............................................................................................................................. 81

5.3.

Final Proposal .............................................................................................................................. 82

5.3.1.

“Inna Di Videolight” ............................................................................................................ 82

5.3.2.

Interactive Musical Showcase: Reggae Rockaz and Selecta’s Choice (Livestream) ............ 86

5.4.

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 88

5.4.1.

Brand Versus Identity: A Country Branding Alternative ..................................................... 88

5.4.2.

Complexity of Identity: 2,000,000 People, 2,000,000 Stories ............................................ 89

5.4.3.

Auditory Experience Versus Visual Experience ................................................................... 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................ 91

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

1. INTRODUCTION The issues faced by Jamaica today, particularly with respect to the country’s representation of its national and cultural identity, are influenced by its colonial past. In the combined processes of decolonization and modernization, the challenge for many Caribbean societies has been to define for themselves what their heritage and their history are all about. The cultural hegemony of European values under colonialism perpetuated a view that the Creole cultures, including languages, religions, histories, foods, and oral traditions, were inferior to European standards. 1 Within the country’s local tourism industry, this struggle has made itself apparent. Through its multiple marketing strategies aimed at attracting foreign interest, the industry has grappled with balancing its appeal to the West, through the idealized identification with sun, sea and sand tourism for a century (Cornwell and Stoddard, 2007) and the incorporation of elements of its own cultural identity. Apparent uncertainty and hesitance to display Creole cultures have been visible in its myriad tourism campaigns. The exoticization of Jamaican culture, too, has been an unintended result of the tourism brand marketing strategies Jamaica has used. These strategies have formed and often assist in reiterating stereotypical tropes about the island, which in turn create a simple and static view of the island’s multifaceted cultural offerings and, ultimately, its identity. In the opinion of the widely acclaimed Caribbean author, Jamaica Kincaid, “the tourist industry in Antigua, and, by extension, the wider

Grant H. Cornwell and Eve Walsh Stoddard, ‘Sugar, Heritage Tourism, and National Identity in the Caribbean.’, in Visions, Mission, and Misconceptions of Caribbean Tourism, Chandana Jayawardena, ed. (Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2007).

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Caribbean, as yet another neo-colonialist project that replicates the exploitative power relations of institutionalized underdevelopment.” However, while the “sun, sea and sand” form of tourism has dominated Jamaica, other elements of the country’s multifaceted cultural heritage have proven appealing to an increasing number of its visitors. One of the main propellants for the growth of interest in the island was the global recognition of the Jamaican music genre, reggae, in the 1960s. The genre provided useful insights into Jamaica’s cultural heritage, especially for interested island visitors. It subsequently opened the door for many more opportunities to include and showcase more of Jamaica’s rich creole cultural heritage and to possibly shift perceptions of Jamaican identity, especially on a global level. At this cross point of interest lies a unique opportunity for the country to capitalize on its use of creole culture to explore and express its cultural and national heritage, particularly through New Age media. This thesis ultimately discusses, in depth, the socio-cultural issues faced by Jamaica (with regards to its portrayed global identity) and potential resolutions via digital media channels.

1.1. Research Question and Thesis Statement The following three questions are explored in this thesis: 1. How has colonialism shaped Jamaica’s identity and how is it manifested in its tourism industry and the wider global media? 2. How can Jamaica’s nuanced Creole heritage and culture be holistically reflected in its tourism industry and wider global media? 3. What role can contemporary Jamaican art and digital media play in shifting cultural misconceptions and stereotypes? 2

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

1.2. Methodology Research is to see what everybody has seen and to think what nobody has thought. 2 -

The qualitative approach was the primary methodology used in this thesis. The qualitative approach is inductive and inferential by nature and often explores topics with little available information. 3 Due to the nature of the phenomenon observed in this thesis, I found this methodology to be better suited than the quantitative approach, which is deductive. Qualitative methods required that I constantly distinguish between my own world and that of others, yet become close enough to experience and analyse the lives of others. 4 It afforded me the opportunity to take an interpretive and critical stance, and to explore multiple sources of data in researching the phenomenon. The initial phase of my research involved the examination of reports and observation of the phenomena as they occur in everyday life 5, which ultimately helped me to define my interpretation of the phenomena and the formulation of a concrete output for this thesis. Apart from observation, some other qualitative methods used in this thesis were the phenomenological (interviews, observation, surveys etc.), narrative and historical techniques, as well as case studies. In the initial phase, in order to grasp a deeper understanding of the topic, various forms of media pertaining to Jamaican identity, travel and tourism were explored. The research was approached from two perspectives: (1) Jamaican, and (2) Non-Jamaican. Information was collected from various books, digital articles, and publications. In addition, several visual artefacts were explored, including:

Albert Szent-Gyorgy (1957). J.A Morse and P. Field, Nursing Research: The Application of Qualitative Approaches (Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1996, 11). 4 Morse and Field. 5 Morse and Field. 2 3

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 

Movies, films, documentaries and videos



Photography, digital and physical artwork (including flyers and posters)

These audio and visual media formats were initially selected as an introductory method of analysing and understanding the concepts of image and identity. This method proved useful as these media provided invaluable insight into the cultural interpretation and expressions depicted by their creators and those who interact with them. The audio-visual media, namely films, movies, documentaries, and videos, were capable of providing me with visual evidence (through assessment of verbal, non-verbal cues and culturally relevant symbolism) by way of capturing, visualising and chronicling motion sequences. Visual media (photographs, digital/physical artwork) similarly expressed cultural symbolism through shapes and figures relevant to the culture. Ultimately the assessment of such media displays the history of human ideas and desires, and since the nature of the phenomena being observed is subjective, I found it vital to my research. Banks argues in defence of visual elements being incorporated in qualitative research. He posits that there is a greater social and personal connection of the subject being studied with these same images.6 There will also be times that this writing may take a conversational tone because it is a narrative and personal journey.

1.3. Aims and Objectives With this thesis I intend to contribute to the achievement of these objectives: 

Creating a discussion around and an understanding of the effects of Western ideas and beliefs on the cultural identities of post-colonial nations; specifically, through detailed case studies of music and tourism in Jamaica;

M. Banks, Using Visual Data in Qualitative Research (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2007, 67).

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 

Bridging the cultural gap between Western and non-Western cultures, primarily through assessment of the Jamaican culture;



Normalising instead of fetishising and exoticising the Jamaican identity; and



Reducing the long-held beliefs of limiting Jamaican stereotypes.

1.4. Motivation and Personal Contribution The motivation for pursuing this research topic derived from my interest in the Jamaican cultural identity and its perception overseas. As a Jamaican-born woman with dual nationality (Jamaica and the United Kingdom), the issue of identity plays a significant role in my daily life. Since I was born and raised in Jamaica, initially, it seemed obvious that I was “Jamaican.” However, the topic of my personal and perceived identity first shifted with my migration to Switzerland. I was able to leverage the title of “British citizen” to assist in the migration process despite not personally identifying as “British.” This marked a watershed with regard to the significance of my dual national identity, and particularly, the social implications. The observations I made in the time I have spent living outside of Jamaica have led me to question the concept of national and cultural identity and what it meant to be truly “Jamaican.” The recognition of contrasting perceptions of identity among Jamaicans and non-Jamaicans quickly piqued my interest. This recognition led me to question and analyse the sources that influence such perceptions, specifically tourism and music, and how they subsequently impacted Jamaica’s image globally among non-Jamaicans. I consequently grew curious about whether there were ways to broaden the scope of knowledge about the Jamaican creole culture that, to me, was more dominant and nuanced than the general media showcased. Ultimately, I hope to contribute a body of work that offers alternative outlooks on the Jamaican identity by exploring visual and auditory mediums. 5

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

2. IDENTITY

“Out of many, one people” 8

8 Jamaican national motto established on April 3, 1962, and announced on the authority of the premier, Norman Washington Manley and Cabinet leader of the Opposition, Sir Alexander Bustamante. https://travelnoire.com/1962-jamaica-motto-out-of-many-one-people

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

2.1. What Is Identity? In its social sense, Identity is often defined on the bases of gender, sexuality, race, religion, ethnicity, nationality (national identity) and language. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, the term “identity” was largely characterised as “particular and personal,” 9 although the word (identity) was never termed as such. In fact, the modern understanding of the word “identity” was not developed until the post-World War II period in the field of developmental psychology. 10 In its modern context, one of the first appearances of the term was in Erikson’s book, “Childhood and Society.” 11 In his book, Erikson examined “social roles and group memberships in shaping one’s sense of self.” 12 Through this redefinition, not only did identity describe personal particularities of the individual but was now reclassified also to include the ways in which individuals could identify with their external social surroundings. In the context of this thesis, the term identity will be framed through the social aspect of its definition, particularly through race, national identity, and language.

2.2. Birthing of a Nation: Colonialism and the Slave Trade in Jamaica The topic of colonialism, I know, is a difficult and nuanced topic to discuss. Many distinguished authors, philosophers and relevant scholars have all broached the controversial issue. Whether they were successful or unsuccessful in adding to the discussion is, of course, subjective and wholly dependent on the economic and social background of the individual. In order to discuss the topic of Jamaican identity throughout this thesis, it is imperative for me first to acknowledge the events of history which proved to

K.A. Appiah, The Lies that Bind: Rethinking Identity, Creed, Country, Color, Class, Culture (New York, NY: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2019). 10 Appiah, 3. 11 Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1950). 12 Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1950). Quoted in K.A. Appiah, The Lies That Bind: Rethinking Identity: Creed, Country, Colour, Class, Culture (New York, NY: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2019).

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND be the catalyst for the country’s current socio-cultural and political composition. However, in the interest of this thesis, which in itself is subjective, I will define the term from possibly its only objective standpoint. Colonialism, as defined by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, is “a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another.” 13 The encyclopaedia further defines its characteristics as “the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin.” 14 With both elements of this definition in mind, the history of Jamaica becomes even more relevant to the discussion that follows. In reviewing the earliest known history of Jamaica, it is essential to start by mentioning its original inhabitants—the Amerindian peoples of South America. Despite the earlier arrival of two tribes of Amerindian peoples to its shores, it was the third tribe—the Arawaks (also known as Tainos), who made the island their final land of settlement between 650 AD-900 AD. 15 The Tainos are documented as being a peaceful people who had their own cultural practices and cultivated fruits and vegetables among other agricultural products. They named the island “Xaymaca.” European conquest of the region, now recognised as the Caribbean, first began in the 15th century by the explorer, Christopher Columbus. It was not until his second voyage to the region that he came upon the island of Xaymaca on May 5, 1494. The Tainos, who initially resisted the new settlers, were quickly subjugated by Christopher Columbus and his Spanish sailors when Spain finally claimed the island. The Tainos were used primarily as slave labourers while being subjected to torture and killed. Eventually, the

‘Colonialism,’ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Stanford: Stanford University, 2000. ‘Colonialism.’ 15 Glenn Woodley, ‘Arawak/Taino Cave Art of Jamaica’, Jamaicans.com, n.d. https://jamaicans.com/0102_arawak_art/ 13 14

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Taino population became extinct due to the stress of overwork, as well as European diseases, ultimately leaving only a few Africans who too were enslaved.16 The Spanish continued to occupy the island, with its first set of colonists arriving in 1509, until the English, who were also seeking new colonies in the region, attacked on May 10, 1655. Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables successfully conquered the island and thenceforth claimed it for England. 17 Once conquered, the English used the island of Jamaica primarily for the growth of crops that would prove profitable for England. Many crops (e.g., indigo, cocoa and tobacco) were all grown on the island; however, sugar cane proved to be the most profitable. The sugar cane industry in the 17th century grew rapidly as the crop was used to produce goods such as sugar and rum. In order to meet the demand for such goods in a quickly developing sugar cane industry, labour became an increasingly important element within the trade.18 Although the Spanish did have a few enslaved Africans, it was under English rule that the development of the African slave trade rose to prominence. The trade route, known as “The Atlantic Triangular Trade,” consisted of three legs: 1. The route from England and Europe in which ships carried goods for trade such as guns, ammunition, and copper among other items. 2. Once these goods were traded for enslaved Africans, who were tightly packed onboard, the ship would embark on the second leg of the journey to the Americas and the West Indies. 3. Enslaved Africans were then sold to plantation owners who would use them as cheap labour to mind the sugar cane fields and process the plants into their final product (e.g., sugar, rum).

‘The History of Jamaica,’ Jamaica Information Service (JIS), n.d., https://jis.gov.jm/information/jamaican-history/. ‘The History of Jamaica.’ 18 ‘The History of Jamaica.’ 16 17

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND The ships on this leg of the route would then transport these final products back to England and Europe. The practice of the slave trade continued for years, but not without issue. The enslaved Africans who, of course, were not pleased with their status as free labourers and who endured much inhumane treatment, began to rebel. Some escaped their plantations, and, despite the imminent peril of being recaptured and tortured by plantation owners, fled to the mountains. These escaped Africans would form a group known as the Maroons. The Maroons often waged wars against the English soldiers from their advantageous tactical location in the mountains, with which the English were unfamiliar. One famous leader of the Maroons was a woman popularly named Nanny of the Maroons (one of seven Jamaican national heroes). 19 There are also many documented instances of slave plantation rebellions in Jamaica; however, the largest and most notable was the Baptist War Slave Rebellion (Christmas Rebellion) which lasted eleven days from December 25, 1831. Led by an enslaved man named Sam Sharpe (another one of Jamaica’s national heroes), this rebellion is considered a key contributor to the eventual abolition of slavery on the island in 1838. However, despite the abolition of slavery, life for the formerly enslaved still proved to be challenging. Many did not own their property and struggled with the now low wages they received for their continued labour on the sugar cane fields. This strife, combined with the continued disregard for their rights by the ruling English class, led to another slew of rebellions on the island. 20 Plantation owners, too, struggled with the dwindling number of labourers and the waning profitability of the sugar cane industry. As a result, they sought a new labour force from the Asian continent. These workers are now known as indentured labourers and came predominantly from India and China. Eventually, the sugar cane industry was completely abandoned by the English with many

19 20

‘The History of Jamaica.’ ‘The History of Jamaica.’

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND returning to Britain. However, this was not before initiating the constitution for the Crown Colony system. This system assisted in the social, constitutional, and economic recovery and development of the island. For many more years, Jamaica would endure British rule but, again, not without social and political disruptions by Jamaican figures such as Marcus Mosiah Garvey (Jamaican national hero) who advocated for unionized labour forces. Continued political unrest on the island in the twentieth century would eventually launch the initiative for independence from Britain. Two prominent figures in this push were Norman Manley and his cousin, Sir Alexander Bustamante, who would each later form the two leading political parties on the island. 21 Jamaica’s independence from England was finally granted on August 6, 1962, thereby giving the country its own constitution and the mandate to govern its people with freedom, equality, and justice. While Jamaica is recognized today as an independent nation, it is difficult to divorce its past from its present and quite possibly even its future. As will be further discussed in this chapter, the country’s tumultuous past has defined much of its current national and (socio)cultural identity.

2.3. Out of Many, One People: How Colonial Legacy Forms National (Cultural) Identity in Jamaica Undoubtedly, Jamaica’s history of colonization has had a significant impact on the country we recognize today, particularly through its resulting ethnic, social, and cultural patterns. 22 However, the disruptive and transformative nature of colonization and the slave trade is most evident in the country’s demography and culture. As a result of the mass, forced transfer of population from the African continent, a predominantly black community emerged despite the (demographic and cultural) influence and

‘The History of Jamaica.’ H. Adlai Murdoch, ‘A Legacy of Trauma: Caribbean Slavery, Race, Class, and Contemporary Identity in “Abeng”’, Research in African Literatures 40, no. 4 (2009). 21 22

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND presence of the Indian and Chinese. Consequently, the most notable manifestation of cultural exchange occurred between the practices of the colonial metropole (due to its power) and the African continent (due to the sizeable number of peoples). This exchange has resulted in an “ethnocultural creolization” of these customs, ultimately forming its own recognizable characteristics. As Murdoch states, the “initial duality of Caribbean-European or Caribbean-African exchange is translated and transformed into plural patterns of hybridity and simultaneity, articulating what can be called a distinct, and distinctive, third space, one drawing on but simultaneously extending and transforming its very African foundations.” 23 The sociocultural transformation experienced through these newly formed patterns is mostly evidenced through the areas of culture, language, musical expression and folklore. However, the focus of this thesis, is on the areas of language and musical expression, as these are the most distinctive qualities of Jamaican culture.

2.3.1. Language One of the defining characteristics of a nation-state is the ability of its members to communicate among themselves. Thus, language plays the role of the common unifier in achieving this feat, whether written or oral. In the case of Jamaica, the English language (inherited from England) has been adopted as the official language of its people. However, as was revealed, the impact of colonialism is far-reaching, resulting in cultural hybridity of which language is a constituent. Although the country deems the English language as its official means of communication, an oral dialect—Jamaican creole, otherwise referred to as “patois”—is prevalent among its citizens. This patois developed from a mishmash of the English language and the various languages of its enslaved African population. However, this linguistic duality does not exist without public debate. In their efforts to define

Murdoch.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND a distinct Jamaican identity, many Jamaican linguists seek to classify Jamaican creole as a separate language. However, they are often greeted with protests against its viability as such. As is the case in other countries characterized by diglossia, the debate stems from the concept of a “high” and “low” language. The “high” language (English) is used in formal, written, and literary contexts while the “low” language (patois) is used in informal and private contexts. Due to the oral nature of patois and an underdeveloped body of written literature, many argue that patois does not fulfil the criteria of a language despite its prevalent use among citizens. One also realizes that diglossia creates a hierarchy which manifests not only linguistically but also socially. Oftentimes, persons who are unable to articulate in the “high” language are deemed “uneducated” and of a lower class, while those able to articulate in the “high” language represent the opposite. As a result, society is stratified, based on one’s linguistic capabilities. Regardless of one’s stance, it is irrefutable that patois acts as a defining feature of Jamaica’s national identity.

1.1.2.

Musical Expression

Music has proven to be another cultural arena in which Jamaica exhibits a strong sense of national identity. Jamaica’s musical expression, too, developed as a result of the country’s cultural hybridity. As Bilby observes, the creolisation process brought into contact a variety of European and African musical traditions, with the resulting sounds being an indicator of this phenomenon. 24 The practice of lyric-based social critique and satire is another characteristic that has remained present in Jamaica’s current musical expression. It can be traced to a plantation-based tradition of social protest in which the core social values and figures of the colonising power are ridiculed and undermined. 25 To date, Jamaica has produced some

Kenneth Bilby, ‘Africa’s Creole Drum: The Gumbe as Vector and Signifier of Trans-African Creolization’, in Creolization as Cultural Activity, Robert Baron and Ana C. Cara, eds. (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2011), 137–77. 25 Murdoch. 24

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND six to seven genres of music that are recognised globally, with Reggae and Dancehall being the most notable.

1.1.3.

Shame of Identity: The Negative Social Impact of Colonialism

While Jamaicans exhibit immense pride in their culture, there exists shame in identity stemming from the remnants of Jamaica’s colonial past. As previously mentioned, colonialism includes the “practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another.” 26 As a result, Jamaica has inherited colonial-era hierarchal systems which influence ideologies, power and social class. These hierarchies weave their way through the fabric of Jamaican society and ultimately sew patterns of prejudice and division among its people. Particularly relevant is the complex and nuanced relationship between race and class. For island nations and territories like Jamaica, the inescapable fact of their blackness has always marked a tangible and material link with their origins in Africa. Also, the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic traces and patterns of the continent in the daily lives and intersections of these communities had long played a central role in the articulations and affirmations of Caribbean cultural identity. 27 In the context of race, one’s proximity to “blackness” (otherwise “African-ness”) has been likened to inferiority whereas proximity to “whiteness” places one in higher esteem. Subsequently, one’s social class and wealth are assumed based on one’s racial classification (with whiteness representing a higher social class). The social impact of such a hierarchy has resulted in negative deep-rooted psychological issues. Evidence of this prevalently presents itself in current public discussions, with one such example occurring on the social media platform, Twitter. The initial question posed sought to discover the types of experiences Jamaicans had with classism, prejudice and discrimination.

26 27

‘Colonialism.’ Murdoch.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: Initial question posted on Twitter. Retrieved May 4, 2019 at 17:22.

Image: Respondent 1. Retrieved May 4, 2019 at 17:24

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: Respondent 2. Retrieved May 4, 2019 at 17:24

Image: Respondent 3. Retrieved May 4, 2019 at 17:26

Image: Respondent 4. Retrieved May 4 2019 at 17:27 16

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Although there were many responses, a pattern became apparent, highlighting existing racial, class and wealth stigmas. Society’s perception of one’s identity is determined by racial attributes. Most included racial, class and wealth stigma and indicated a connection to a broader social ranking system based predominantly on external appearances. These hierarchies, which link to one’s perception of identity and self-worth, reflect a society that has internalized a value system and continues to perpetuate the ideologies which themselves are rooted in prejudice and division. Ultimately it hints at a country where not all wounds from the past have been healed.

2.4. “Yaad” and Abroad: A Visual Analysis of the Jamaican Identity Locally and Globally Jamaica, though by virtue of being an island metaphorically represents isolation and independence due to its geographic attributes, has proven that its shores have indeed been porous. As history demonstrates, foreign influences have long shaped the island’s identity and so too does the phenomena of globalization. With the advancement of modern technologies, most notably personal computers and the World Wide Web (Internet), these foreign influences have shapeshifted allowing the global marketplace to grow increasingly smaller, rendering boundaries to information almost nonexistent. The democratization of information through this process thus makes it easier to access and produce knowledge pertaining to countries like Jamaica. As such, it was pertinent to gain an understanding of Jamaica’s identity in the global context. Visual analysis was the research tool utilized for this initial probe as it allowed for exploring and identification of non-verbal aspects and symbols of the phenomena. This approach consisted of collecting, organizing and observing existing visual material from various sources. The media varied widely from photographs, digital illustrations and paintings, flyers, posters films and music videos. 17

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

2.4.1. Jamaica versus Paradise Since the internet provides a gateway to information in the digital era, an initial query was conducted using the Google image search engine, on the keyword “Jamaica.” Immediately, from the first three rows of the results, a striking colour palette of images in blues and greens was observed. Nature (tropical) proved to be the predominant theme of the images, mostly depicting bodies of water (sea, beaches, rivers and waterfalls) as well as shrubbery and trees (most notably palms). The Google-suggested searches also revealed common search terms related to the keyword “Jamaica.” The terms suggested included the names of some of the island’s popular tourist locations (Montego Bay, Negril, Ocho Rios), popular Jamaican resorts, as well as general terms such as “beautiful” and “paradise.”.

Image: Google search engine image results for keyword "Jamaica." Retrieved June 1, 2019, 14:48. These observations prompted a further Google image search using the keyword “paradise.” The image results bore striking similarities to those presented by the keyword search “Jamaica” with images portraying similar colour palettes of blues and greens. Nature scenes, particularly those in tropical regions, 18

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND were prevalent. Google’s suggested search terms, too, bore a resemblance to those found in the “Jamaica” keyword query.

Image: Google search engine results for the keyword "Paradise." Retrieved June 1, 2019, 14:58

2.4.2. Themes & Symbols This initial visual analysis led to the following conclusions: 

There exists a correlation with Jamaica, tourism, and paradise.



Untouched nature, particularly that of tropical landscapes and regions, plays a strong role in perceiving a destination as “paradise.”



Tourism is one of the major channels through which persons form perceptions of and engage with Jamaica.



Common imagery such as palms, the sea/beach and sunshine seemingly represent symbols of “paradise.”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

2.5. Identity and Stereotypes “Who are you?” While Western popular culture dominates the mainstream media, it leaves gaping holes in the identities of smaller countries such as my homeland of Jamaica. A few recurring narratives became evident through the visual assessment of the Jamaican identity in the (mainstream) media. Many, through the pattern of repetition, solidified a collective image of Jamaica, which confirmed an existing relationship between identity and stereotypes. By definition, a stereotype is “a fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality.” 28 According to Appiah, 29“once identities exist, people tend to form a picture of a typical member of the group. Stereotypes develop. They may have more or less foundation in reality, but they are almost always critically wrong about something.” Appiah further provides three reasons why identity matters: 1. Every identity comes with labels and ideas about why and to whom they should be applied 2. Identity shapes our thoughts about how we should behave 3. It affects the way people treat us 30 As a Jamaican expatriate in Switzerland, a few of the common perceptions of Jamaica have been observed. Often these tend to stem from typical Jamaican stereotypes propelled by mainstream media and propagated by Jamaica’s tourism industry. As a result, Jamaicans are often bombarded with questions such as: -

“Do all Jamaicans smoke weed?”

“Do Jamaicans only listen to reggae?”

“Does everyone have dreadlocks in Jamaica?”

'Stereotype,' Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/stereotype_1?q=stereotype. 29 A British-Ghanaian philosopher, and author of The Lies That Bind: Rethinking Identity. 30 Appiah. 28

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND -

“Can all Jamaicans dance?”

As a Jamaican, the best possible answers to these common questions are provided, but with some apprehension and awareness that one individual is not equipped to answer for all Jamaicans. However, knowledge stemming from personal observations can be offered. As Appiah states, “having an identity doesn’t, by itself, authorize you to speak on behalf of every person of that identity. The privilege of representing a group has to be granted somehow.” 31 He further claims that “while your identity affects your experience, there’s no guarantee that what you’ve learned from it is going to be the same as what other people of the same identity have learned.” This feeling, described by the term intersectionality, is not unknown to scholars. Intersectionality is “the theory that various forms of discrimination centred on race, gender, class, disability, sexuality, and other forms of identity, do not work independently but interact to produce particularized forms of social oppression. As such, oppression is the result of intersecting forms of exclusionary practices.” 32

2.6. Conclusion A few ideas have become apparent through the assessment of identity as both a general and topically specific concept. Firstly, identity is no longer classified as solely related to one’s personal and specific interpretations of self but rather extended to include the ways in which wider society perceives individuals and groups of people. It is important, therefore, to assess how a collective image is created in order to gain knowledge of the root issues in this thesis. Past experiences with colonialism and the slave trade have heavily influenced the Jamaican identity. Both proved to be defining moments in the country’s history and the impacts on Jamaica’s people

Appiah. ‘Intersectionality,’ Dictionary of Human Geography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199599868.001.0001/acref-9780199599868-e975?rskey=BB5BFD&result=1. 31 32

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND are felt and seen to this day—politically, culturally and socially. It is apparent that some elements of this identity have been portrayed also on a global scale, as evidenced by the visual assessment of Jamaica’s image in the global media, as well as in the national context. Also, the formation of stereotypes indicates that mediums exist through which this identity is created and portrayed, thus begging the question, how? The following two chapters will take a more in-depth look into tourism and music as identity creators in the international sphere. This thesis examined the main sources contributing to the creation of Jamaica’s image production from two angles: (1) tourism (as a significant international player in creating imagery) and (2) music and the voice of the people (the arts).

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3. TOURISM The tourism industry in Jamaica is one of the country’s strongest sectors and plays a crucial role in its economic viability. Its interactions with the international world form a unique and interesting communication channel/access point to the world. As such, in this thesis, an assessment from the perspective of tourism industry was deemed important. This chapter investigates how Jamaica’s local tourism industry plays a role in the country’s image creation and perpetuation. Do these representations reflect the thoughts and values held by the people? It will also explore the limitations the industry experiences, if any, in representing the country’s national and cultural identity. Furthermore, the chapter aims to consider these issues of identity through the lens of cultural studies by examining the relationship between nation branding and the issues of authenticity, representation, and cultural commodification.

3.1. Travel and Tourism in the 21st Century First, before delving into the topics related to the Jamaican tourism industry, it is important to discuss travel and tourism from a holistic point of view. As defined by the Oxford Learner’s dictionary, to travel is “to go from one place to another, especially over a long distance.” 33 When considering this definition, humankind has been participating in travel for centuries. Originating in Africa, the first Homo Sapiens embarked on their early migratory travels almost 70,000 years ago in the hope of colonizing new parts of the world. As Gould affirms, if a small and tenuous population of protohumans had not overcome outrageous fortune (and potential extinction) on the savannas of Africa, it is unlikely that Homo Sapiens would have emerged to spread throughout the globe. 34 Homo Sapiens moved from continent to continent

‘Travel,’ Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020). https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/travel_1?q=travel. 34 S.J. Gould. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 2011). 33

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND (Europe and the Americas) colonizing new lands, eventually establishing civilizations and empires such as those in Greece and China. Despite exploring and forming civilizations around the globe, travelling as a form of education and leisure is a relatively modern concept. 35 The Renaissance period of the sixteenth century birthed a renewed interest in classical European literature and art and was instrumental in ushering in the new era of travel as we recognize it today. The renewed interest led young male English aristocrats in the 17th century to embark on what is now known as “The Grand Tour.” On the Grand Tour, these young men (later known as Grand Tourists) would travel to countries within the European continent to gain classical knowledge of ancient Roman and Greek civilizations. The tour often involved visiting European countries like France and Italy in order to study language, fine arts, ancient architectural structures, and socialize, among other things. 36 This form of travel was reserved for the more privileged in European society. However, the Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, soon made travel more accessible to those less financially endowed. With the development of the railway system, travel became much more accessible to the average person. However, the pioneering idea of Thomas Cook, an Englishman, helped launch travel to its modernday status. Cook’s idea to invite his colleagues to travel to another destination for a leisurely get together soon spawned a business model that later be developed into an industry called tourism. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism is “a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal, business or professional purposes.” 37 Another definition provided by the Oxford Learner’s dictionary states that tourism is “the business activity connected with providing

Will Jones, ‘A Brief Visual History of Travel,’ Gapyear.com, 2015, retrieved December 20, 2019. Jones. 37 ‘About Us,’ United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), n.d. 35 36

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND accommodation, services and entertainment for people who are visiting a place for pleasure”. People who indulge in this form of travel are called visitors (which may be tourists or excursionists; residents or nonresidents). Tourism has to do with their activities, some of which imply tourism expenditure. 38 However, the more common term for these visitors is “tourists.” A tourist is “someone who travels at least 80 km from his or her home for at least 24 hours, for business or leisure or other reasons.” 39 According to the UNWTO, a tourist can be: 

Domestic (residents of a given country travelling only within that country)



Inbound (non-residents travelling in a given country)



Outbound (residents of one country travelling in another country) 40

In the twenty-first century, the tourism industry is one of the fastest growing industries, contributing US 8.8 billion dollars to the global gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018. With the increasing number of people travelling, the question is, why?

3.2. Why do People Travel? As previously discussed, humans have been travelling for centuries in hopes of colonizing new lands. However, never was the concept adapted in a manner that elicited a sense of wonder and escape. As Sinclair suggests, the sense of wonder is integral to tourism and adds much spiritual fulfilment to the experience of travel. 41 Aside from the economic reasons for travel (easier access to transportation via aeroplanes, trains, and other modes), it was important to me to assess the factors that motivate

UNWTO. Morgan Westcott, ed., Introduction to Tourism and Hospitality in BC (Capilano University, n.d.), http://open.bccampus.ca. 40 UNWTO. 41 M. Thea Sinclair. ‘Tourism and Economic Development: A Survey’. The Journal of Development Studies (2007). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389808422535. 38 39

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND individuals to travel. Using Facebook, the social media platform, friends and family were questioned to garner initial responses to the following questions: “What is the purpose of travel for you? What makes you (want to) travel?” The following are some of the responses obtained: •

“Introspection – I love to travel to countries where I don't know the language, where my other senses are heightened to understand the world around me. I love being able to communicate in other ways than speech to interact with locals. I love learning more about each culture, how they live their daily lives as well as noticing what is different or similar to places I've already been to, and especially to places I've lived in. Experiencing the changes in landscape and nature, being able to notice the different plants and animals. The sunset! In every country, enjoying the sunset is a must do! I also love to learn about the history of the country and understand how it is different from place I've lived as well as why it differs and how the history shaped the current state of the country and attitude of the people.” 42

•

“Enlarge my personal horizon and getting to know myself better by getting to know a different world” 43

•

“The desire to meet new interesting people and of course FOOD!” 44

•

“Food, beaches, nature attractions, pictures” 45

Alene Küpper, interview with the author, May 2019. Killian Koller, interview with the author, May 2019), 44 Itay Blaish, interview with the author, May2019). 45 Yohance Lindsay, interview with the author, May 2019). 42 43

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND The essence of all the responses, though slightly varied, could be quickly summed up in one-word— “escape,” in keeping with Cooper’s observation that “indeed, tourism is often packaged in travel brochures as ‘escape’ from the everyday anxieties of real living.” 46

3.3. The Legacy of Colonization and Its Impact on Jamaica’s Tourism Industry Although present-day Jamaica is seemingly synonymous with “paradise,” a tropical Eden to escape mundane routines for many of its visitors, this was not always the case. As previously discussed in Chapter Two, Jamaica welcomed many new inhabitants to its shores. With the influence of European colonial power and the mass population transfer of enslaved Africans, Jamaica became a business, economic, and financial hub for the trade of goods. This remained the island’s primary purpose for those Europeans who ventured to its shores. The concept of Jamaica as a destination for enjoyment was far removed from the minds of most Europeans at the time. Due to illnesses such as malaria, which induced life-threatening fevers, and the ensuing high death rates, the country was deemed a “graveyard for Europeans.” 47 The medical beliefs of the time attributed the main source of these illnesses to the tropical atmosphere, advising most to avoid low lying coastal areas and beaches. Other factors characteristic of tropical regions such as the intense sun as well as insects such as mosquitos, were all deterrents for most. As one might discern, the endearing characteristics that make Jamaica a tourist hotspot today were the very characteristics that repulsed its European inhabitants of the time. However, with the development of industry, medicine and infrastructure came a slow transformation in Jamaica’s tourism prospects. This was particularly important for the island, as with the diminishing of the once-lucrative sugar industry and few other resources deemed valuable, the country

C. Cooper, Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Frank Fonda Taylor, To Hell with Paradise: A History of the Jamaican Tourist Industry (Pittsburgh; London: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993, 16). 46 47

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND required another industry to support the economy. 48 The initial phase of change involved visitors, still cautious of coastal locations, seeking respite in the island’s cool mountains. The island was soon marketed by wealthy private investors as a place for affluent Europeans and North Americans to seek tropical health spa retreats, particularly during harsh winters. The catalyst for Jamaica’s tourism industry occurred, however, in 1890 when plans to host the premier Jamaica International Exhibition were materialized. This represented the first time that the government pledged its commitment to the tourist sector by providing finances and laws to stimulate growth. This shift in the country’s image as a “graveyard” brought forth change in perception of the island. 49 Despite having several organizations created to promote Jamaica as a burgeoning tourist destination, it was not until 1955 that an official consolidated board was created to operate the tourist industry, the Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB). 50 Today tourism in Jamaica represents a thriving industry, receiving over 4 million visitors in 2018 alone and proving to be the economy’s most lucrative financial contributor.

3.4. Brand Jamaica: How Jamaica’s Tourism Industry Forms Its Global Identity As one might discern, image and perception play an important role in a country’s ability to engage successfully in a competitive global industry such as tourism. The establishment of an official body such as the Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) had proven beneficial in projecting a seemingly unified image of Jamaica. Thus, their development of “Brand Jamaica” plays a primary role in influencing the country’s

United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and Caribbean Development and Cooperation Committee (CDCC), Restructuring Caribbean Industries to Meet the Challenge of Trade Liberalisation (UN ECLAC, 2005), https://books.google.tt/books?id=yWgSMwEACAAJ, retrieved November 29, 2020 at 12:20 pm. 49 Taylor. 50 Jamaica Tourist Board, 2016, https://www.jtbonline.org/. 48

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND sense of national identity, both domestically and globally. As is stated on the Jamaica Tourist Board’s website, “The organization markets the uniqueness of destination Jamaica through creative programmes and advertisements worldwide.” 51 But while the strategies of the JTB are undeniably beneficial from an economic and business standpoint, these strategies produce questionable social implications which are discussed further below.

3.4.1. Nation Branding Simon Anholt coined the term "nation branding" to describe “the sum of people's perceptions of a particular country, using the areas of culture and heritage, exports, governance, tourism, investment, and immigration as key markers.” 52 In other words, nation branding “is a marketing strategy that is used for the main purpose of targeting external markets, with the end goal being to establish and communicate a specific image of national identity.” 53 The term “image,” as it pertains to marketing, is widely accepted to mean “what consumers perceive an organization to be visually and otherwise.” 54 In an increasingly competitive global marketplace, it is understandable that the JTB strategically employs the concept of nation branding. However, where nation branding proves even more crucial to the success of the Jamaican tourism industry is its implied role “as a powerful equalizer, providing a way for lesser-known and economically weaker countries to compete with their powerful counterparts.” 55 While these efforts have successfully garnered international attention, there are drawbacks in utilizing the nation branding concept. As Aronczyk posits, “nation branding has negative consequences that surface with the unaccountability of marketing experts in decision making; downplaying of components

Jamaica Tourist Board, 2016, https://www.jtbonline.org/. Simon Anholt, ‘Nation Brand as Context and Reputation,’ Place Brand Public Dipl (2005, 224–28). 53 Somogy Varga, ‘Collective Identity and Public Sphere in the Neoliberal State’, Philosophy and Social Criticism 39 (2013, 825–45). 54 A. Ferrand and M. Pages, ‘Image Management in Sport Organisations: The Creation of Value’, European Journal of Marketing 33, no. 3/4 (1999, 387–402). 55 Anholt. 51 52

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND of national identity which do not project the desired image; and the reduction of national identity to a single configuration.” 56 Through the process of simplification, many of Jamaica’s complex, layered culture is ignored and thus leaves room for the formation of stereotypes by foreign onlookers. As Dinnie aptly states, “What should prevail over stereotypes in successful nation branding is amplification of the existing values of the national culture rather than the fabrication of a false promise.” 57

3.4.2. The Sun, Sea and Sand Marketing Strategy As Cornwell and Stoddard observe, “the Caribbean region, with close ties to both North America and Europe, has for a century been identified with sun, sea and sand tourism.” 58 Jamaica, as part of the Caribbean region, is no different. This is evident in the responses to the question, “what do you think of when you hear of Jamaica?” Most often, the immediate response of non-Jamaicans is “its warm, tropical climate and its beaches.” In other words, its “sun, sea and sand.” This seemingly flippant response, however, did not emerge by chance, but rather is the result of persistent and evidently successful brand marketing by the JTB. Initially, Jamaica’s tropical climate had been disparaged by propaganda laced with prejudicial undertones. Many wealthy North Americans and Europeans suffering from maladies visited the island as a way to recuperate from their ailments. 59 Intense campaigns to alter this perception were later launched to reframe its warm climate as a health and wellness haven. These campaigns primarily focused not on Jamaica’s coastline beaches, but rather its interior mountains and springs. Hence, Jamaica was now deemed to be the new Riviera. Further attempts at redeeming Jamaica’s image and the viability of its tourism were later pushed into marketing the country as a “winter get-away” in the premier 1891 Jamaica International Exhibition. Thus, the “sun, sea and sand” model was birthed. As Taylor states, “the

Melissa Aronczyk, ‘Nation “branding” to Promote States in the Global Market Has Serious Consequences for Social Diversity within European Countries’, Blog. London School of Economics (LSE), 2014. 57 Keith Dinnie, Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice (Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2016, 93). 58 Cornwell and Stoddard (2007) 59 Taylor. 56

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND winter season was advertised as the best time to visit the island. With its perpetual summer Jamaica offered a haven, boasting few days in the year when some form of outdoor exercise cannot be taken.” 60 Despite the Jamaica Tourist Board’s changing campaign strategies throughout the years, the “sun, sea and sand” model has always remained. However, this model does not come without its consequences, particularly those facing the Jamaican people themselves. It is in this regard that Nettleford opined “Is the Caribbean thus blessed? Some feel not. For one thing, visitors do not normally come, and are not encouraged to come, to the region to “soak up” its culture. The marketing strategies have themselves been soaked in something called ‘Paradise.’” 61 The introduction of the all-inclusive (AI) holiday concept further bolstered the development of the “sun, sea and sand” marketing strategy. By definition, an allinclusive holiday includes travel, accommodations, and a substantial amount of food and drink, together with activities such as entertainment, trips or sports coaching, which are booked when the reservation is made. 62 As White stated, “The all-inclusive model was introduced to Jamaica by hotelier John Issa and was inspired by the Club Mediterranean resort concept on the Spanish island of Mallorca during the 1950s.” 63 Since then, AI has become one of the leading concepts dominating the island’s tourism industry today. Much of the JTB’s overseas campaigns primarily promote its AI hotels and ultimately aim to target a specific demographic with its allure of luxury and convenience. However, despite the convenience and luxury appeal of AI hotels, other visitor demographics indicate a growing interest that is seemingly less addressed by the JTB, but evidenced by the emergence of new business models in the visitor accommodation sector.

Taylor, 31. Nettleford. 62 P.W. White, ‘Stepping out from the Crowd: Re(Branding Jamaica’s Tourism Product through Sports and Culture,’ Eastern Illinois Institutional Repository, 2015. 63 White. 60 61

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3.4.3. The Case of The Exotic: Authenticity, Magic and Paradise as Recurring Themes in Brand Jamaica (Visual Analysis) As was abundantly clear from the visual analysis in Chapter One, Jamaica’s image is intricately linked with lush, untouched tropical nature and landscapes, otherwise associated with “paradise.” As may be discerned from the historical analysis of the Jamaican tourist industry in the earlier sub-section, it has taken some time to create this image of “tropical paradise.” In fact, it results from the successful implementation of nation branding and marketing strategies adopted by the Jamaica Tourist Board. It was pertinent to assess these images and representations from a sociocultural perspective. As such, samples were selected from previously run advertising campaigns (consisting of videos, posters and flyers) for a critical examination of their meanings and significations. According to Barthes (1977) “in advertising, the signification of the image is undoubtedly intentional.” It can thus be understood that the JTB, through its campaigns and advertisements, have selected images that it believes showcases “attributes of the product being advertised.” 64 Since its establishment it has spearheaded quite a few campaigns to attract visitors to the country, namely: 1. Come to Jamaica- It’s no Place like Home (1955-1963) 2. Come Back to Jamaica, Come Back to Yourself /Make It Jamaica Again (1963-1975): 3. Discover Jamaica / We are More than a Beach (1975-1984) 4. One Love (1994-2003) 5. Once You Go, You Know (2003-2007) 6. Once You Go… (2008-2011) 7. Home of All Right (2012- present)

Barthes, 1977, quoted in Nickesia S. Gordon, Memories from Home: A Brief Collection of Jamaican Short Stories (Independently published, 2019, 32).

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 8. Heartbeat of the World From the images which follow, it is apparent that each campaign era, although marked by different slogans, all bore a similarity through their use of recurring themes—“Jamaica as authentic and Jamaica as magical.” 65 These ideas were solidified through the use of imagery, dialogue, text and music.

Gordon, 37.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: 1950s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

Image: 1970s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

Image: 1960s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

Image: 1980s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: 1990s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

Image: 2000s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board

Image: 2000s Flyer created by the Jamaica Tourist Board 35

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 3.4.3.1. Jamaica as Authentic As Lee states, the idea of authenticity is “usually presented as an important part of the valueadded chain that tourist destinations can capitalize on in order to draw visitors to their product.” 67 This has been the strategy of the JTB as the concept of Jamaica as authentic has appeared in multiple ways. However, this marketing approach presents problematic issues as “the search for authenticity in tourism is based around myth and fantasy about a cultural ideal.” 68 Explicitly stated, authenticity is staged, much like the campaigns undertaken by the JTB. Using more specific references, I will highlight two advertisements launched by the JTB in its 1970s “Come back to Jamaica. Come back to Yourself” campaign. Both videos, although highlighting varying aspects of Jamaica, feature similar visual and linguistic strategies. The (video) concept centres around showcasing various people (presumably from different (socioeconomic) backgrounds, professions, and ages), each occupying different geographical locations in Jamaica. Throughout the videos, each person recants short catchphrases in what can be assumed to be enticing to its viewer while an underlying melody guides the videos’ transitions. In the opening scene of Video #1 (see images shown below), a group of polo players are seen riding horses. As the scene progresses, one of the players addresses the viewer with the statement “Come back to gentility.“ The video proceeds with an additional seven persons making different statements of a similar nature such as “come back to our people” and “come back to romance.” However, the video’s

67 68

Lee et al. 2016, quoted in Gordon, 38. Sharpley, 1994:127, quoted in Gordon.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND penultimate statement made by an elderly man surrounded by children is most noteworthy. He states in a cheerful tone “Come back to the way things used to be. Make it Jamaica again and make it your home.” 69

Information and images for this section retrieved June 3, 2019 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pokFsD1VHew&list=PLZADfMBb6_aSYNtAkAre1tYOoAr8BKkK8&index=2&ab_ channel=commercialclassics1975-1985 69

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Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video # 1-Scene 01: “Come back to gentility”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 03: “Come back to our people”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video # 1-Scene 02: “Come back to our beauty”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 04: “Come back to hospitality”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 05: “Come back to our bounty”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 06: “Come back to tranquillity”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 07: Come back to romance”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #1-Scene 08: “Come back to the way things used to be. Make it Jamaica again and make it your home”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND While Video #1 seemed to focus on capturing the alluring qualities of Jamaica’s people, Video #2 seemed to focus on the country’s natural landscapes. The first scene greets the viewer with a mountainous terrain covered in lush greenery. The video continues by introducing eight different individuals, all in different natural backdrops, making statements which seem to be aimed at enticing the viewer with the offerings of Jamaican natural landscapes. Statements such as “Come climb up a cool mountain and “Come walk up a waterfall” bear witness to this attempt. 70

Image: Opening scene from the Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial

Information and images in this section retrieved June 3, 2019 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r5QZTL7jP3c&list=PLZADfMBb6_aSYNtAkAre1tYOoAr8BKkK8&index=1&ab_c hannel=retrorocker 70

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Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 02: “Come climb up a cool mountain”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 04: “Come back to romance”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 03: “Come let your spirit soar

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 05: “Come walk up a waterfall”

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Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 06: “Come skim the prowess of blue waters”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 07: “Come play in our playground”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 08: “Come feast on our friendship”

Image: Jamaica Tourist Board 1970s commercial: Video #2-Scene 09: “Come to a place that could make your body feel cool and your spirit feel warm”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND The linguistic codes for authenticity can be found in statements such as “Come back to the way things used to be. Make it Jamaica again and make it your home.” Declarations like these are positioned to evoke a sense of belief in the genuineness of what the country and its people have to offer its viewer. Another notable statement was “come revel in unspoiled spaces.” Visually, the theme of authenticity is hinted at through the proliferous representations of Jamaican landscapes- typically displayed as untouched and virginal. Such visual depictions invite the viewer to imagine Jamaica as a pre-discovered space, much like it was prior to the country’s history with European conquest and colonization. In fact, this visual tactic reflects much of the ideologies expressed in travel writing emanating from Europe about postcolonial spaces- one which Pratt refers to as “the imperial eye.” 71 These writings often highlight “Europe’s obsession with binary representations of place and space that perennially casts them in the role of civilized versus uncivilized, developed versus underdeveloped…” 72 Use of imperial terminology is expressed even more explicitly on the website of one of Jamaica’s most successful chain hotels, Sandals Royal Plantation. 73 The choice of name for the hotel is already quite indicative of its marketing strategy as the use of the term “plantation” is a direct reference to the properties on which Jamaica’s enslaved African people were forced to labour. Throughout the website, the hotel presents itself as having “British colonial charm” and boasts that it is renowned for its “British traditions of a bygone era”. When perusing the Sandals website, one would find prevalent use of descriptions such as “colonial charm” and “colonial-inspired.”

Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 2007). Gordon, 39. 73 The Sandals hotel chain was created by Butch Stewart and is a partner of the JTB. See http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/observer-west/sandals-partners-with-jtb-to-market-brandjamaica_207515?profile=1434 71 72

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Image: Sandals Hotel website, retrieved July 19, 2019

Image: Sandals Royal Plantation website, retrieved July 19, 2019

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Image: Sandals Royal Plantation website, retrieved July 19, 2019

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Another notable observation that reiterates colonial ideology is the presentation of Jamaican people as passive characters. As Gordon states, There is a perennial sense of waiting and being waited upon…Jamaica is waiting to be discovered, waiting for the tourist to come, and once they arrive, they can expect to be served, not unlike how colonial elites were once waited upon. The servitude of the locals becomes a part of the authentic experience tourists can expect when they visit. 74

Image: A white couple being served by a male butler at the Sandals Resort. 75

74 75

Gordon, 41. Images sourced from the Sandals website, retrieved July 19, 2019.

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Image: A female butler prepared to serve the guest at Sandals Royal Plantation.

Image: A worker at a hotel opens the glass entrance door at a hotel

Image sourced from a 2020 JTB commercial, retrieved February 21, 2020 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=3TOAIvia2sI&ab_channel=VisitJamaica 76

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Image: An illustrated image of an enslaved African woman serving a drink to a white man, Retrieved June 5, 2019 from Google search

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 3.4.3.2. Jamaica as Magical

“Jamaica, No problem!” “Jamaica, Home of All Right” “Jamaica, One Love” These phrases all represent slogans that the JTB has adopted throughout its years of marketing campaigns. The latter two, in particular, have been noticeably acquired from reggae Rastafarian singer Bob Marley’s global hit song, “One Love.” Capitalizing on the song’s success, the JTB has utilized these memorable lines from the hit tune to help encapsulate Brand Jamaica’s sense of “magic.” Denotatively, it announces a country free of problems; one that represents, peace and unity, which are all notably ideals that would appeal to visitors. Indeed, the claim of problem-free “magical” experiences can be defined as the production of “the myth of place and space sold as reality.” 77 However, this is misleading and stands in stark contrast to the lived experiences and realities of many Jamaicans, especially those who participate in the tourism industry’s ecosystem. Gordon states, in reference to an ethnographic study conducted and published by Johnson (2014), “many of the local residents encountered (who participated in the study) seemed to occupy the periphery of a largely profitable industry that mostly disrupted rather than contributed to their livelihoods.” She goes further to add, “These people occupy a space at the periphery of the all-inclusives. The space between resorts, on the beach, where they spend their days waiting for brief opportunities to get in on the immense profitability of tourism here in Negril.” 78

77 78

Gordon, 46. Johnson, 2014, 950, as cited in Gordon, 44.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Further bolstering the JTB’s insinuated claims of “magic” is the concept of Jamaica as paradise. “Paradise”, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is “a place that is extremely beautiful and that seems perfect, like heaven.” 79 Ironically, the example which the dictionary uses to demonstrate the term’s use is “tropical paradise.” Nevertheless, based on this definition, one can recognize how the JTB has framed Jamaica as “paradise” through its use of linguistic and visual representation of the island. This can be witnessed through the use of enticing dialogue in the videos previously described. Sayings such as “come back to our beauty” or “come play in our playground.” Aside from titling one of its earliest campaign commercials “Jamaica Paradise”, the JTB has perpetuated the concept in more recent commercials as well. In one of its recent video series—“Join Me in Jamaica”—internationally recognized Jamaican Reggae/Dancehall artiste Sean Paul can be seen in an interview describing Jamaica. 80 He says: There is so much beauty in the land here, not to mention the people. All of a sudden if you look down this way you’ll be at the beach, sand sea and the beautiful waters. It’s a very calm, cool place. A lot of natural beauty…There’s so much words people can say but when you experience it for yourself, you will know. 81 Here his words are used to seductively describe the beauty of Jamaica’s beaches as well as its natural terrain, unwittingly portraying it as a form of tropical paradise. Another instance occurs in one of the JTB’s commercials entitled “Jamaica: The Home of All Right” (2012), in which the narrator can be heard saying:

‘Paradise,’ Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2020). Sean Paul, Join Me in Jamaica, Video, retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wqrE-yzmkT4 81 Sean Paul, Join Me in Jamaica. 79 80

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND There’s something in the people; there’s something in the sand; there’s something in the air; there’s something in the water; there’s something in the night. It’s called “all right,” and it’s something you can only find here. Jamaica: Home of “all right.” 82 One might ask oneself, “what is this elusive ‘something’?” By intentionally eliminating a description, the commercial allows the viewer to speculate on what “magic” awaits them. In actuality, “the JTB’s commercial campaigns are engaging in mythical speech that distorts the historical and contemporary realities of the country…” 83 “Myth hides nothing and flaunts nothing…myth is neither a lie nor a confession: it is an inflexion.” 84 “They do so by mystifying and obscuring their origins and thus their political and social dimension.” 85 Undoubtedly, these expressions of colonial ethos by Jamaica’s tourism industry are cause for alarm, particularly since the country attained its independence in 1962. It presents “the anthropology colonization as innocuous and even natural” 86 However, as Barthes notes, “What we accept as being ‘natural’ is in fact an illusory reality constructed in order to mask the real structures of power obtaining in society.” 87 In actuality, “what appears to be natural, is in fact, determined by history.” 88 These images do not represent Jamaica as a self-governing nation, thus creating a questionable false representation of the country’s cultural identity and the contemporary realities of its people. Perhaps the JTB should strive to establish a vision of Jamaica that is more nuanced, multidimensional, and

Jamaica: The Home of All Right, Video, 2012, retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LJqZpVA-Kaw Gordon, 47. 84 Barthes, 1972, 116, cited in Gordon, 2019, 47. 85 Roy 1998, para. 18, cited in Gordon, 2019, 47. 86 Gordon, 38. 87 Gordon, 41. 88 Moramollu, 2016:456-57, cited in Gordon 2019, 41). 82 83

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND accurate. “The national brand should not be reduced to myth, bearing in mind that national identities cannot be reduced to a single element.” 89

3.5. Conclusion At its core, the global tourism industry engages with mythmaking, creating a sense of escape for those it hopes to allure. However, it becomes uniquely complicated for post-colonial nations such as Jamaica whose history is so deeply tied with the British’s legacy of colonialism. Despite the decades that have separated slavery from modern times, one could hardly distinguish the metaphorical differences between the modern tourism industry and the country’s former plantation system. The subsequent realities tourism has formed has allowed for a large collective of people to continue to serve in such roles as bartenders and waiters, seemingly caught in a perpetual cycle of servitude. The industry further portrays through its numerous marketing campaigns an image of Jamaica and Jamaican incongruent with the multifaceted cultural attributes it possesses. Thus, it begs the question, how does a country with such a layered, complicated history begin to reshape the narratives long created and upheld by its colonial past?

Buarque, 2015, cited in Gordon, 2019, 49)

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4. VOICE OF THE PEOPLE …globalization must never be read as a simple process of cultural homogenization; it is always an articulation of the local, of the specific and the global. Therefore, there will always be specificities of voices, of positioning, of identity, of cultural traditions, of histories, and these are the conditions of enunciation which enable us to speak. 91

Stuart Hall

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4.1. Music as Expression of Identity In Chapter One, the significance of musical expression as a strong depiction of national identity was highlighted. It was mentioned that music is one of Jamaica’s strongest depictions of national identity. The indigenous music of the island has not only been impactful on the country itself but also has a major presence globally. As a form of cultural expression deriving from the people of the country, Jamaican music contrasts with the tourism industry in three primary ways: 1. Tourism curates the diverse elements of Jamaican culture and condenses them into a singular image which one might consider monolithic. Conversely, music represents multiple accounts of individual experiences of the people. 2.

Tourism is curated to highlight the “best” aspects of the culture, whereas music and art, depict these aspects not addressed in the tourism industry.

3. Whereas tourism portrays Jamaicans as passive subjects in the depicted narrative, music highlights them as active subjects within their surroundings and subsequent realities. As such, music lends a voice to the people to express their perceived realities, however varied these perceptions might be. This thesis argues that music is very effective in highlighting the complex layers of identity as it allows Jamaican people to be at the fore of their own narratives.

4.2. The Voice of the People In contemporary Caribbean music, one will often hear songs laced with politically charged lyrics, often calling on the masses to demand social change. The lyrical satire and social and political critique which define contemporary Caribbean music are not unfounded as they reveal the region’s historical ties to its colonial era and past. Much like the slave rebellions of the 1800s, which ultimately contributed to the abolishment of slavery in Jamaica, music too, metaphorically represents rebellion. Despite the oppressive conditions of the plantation system, enslaved Africans found alternative methods of ridiculing 54

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND and undermining the values of social and political authority figures of the colonizing power. Often this manifested in the form of folktales as well as musical expression. 92 Murdoch contends that “Traditions of commentary, satire and social protest, have their roots in the practice of parody and dissent that emerged among the displaced African slaves on the plantations; the folktales of the conteur masked the ability to ridicule the blissfully unaware plantation owner to his face in song.” 93 Thus, music has always metaphorically served as the voice of the disenfranchised majority. In Jamaica, the crossbreeding of many cultural and musical influences has birthed several musical genres, however, I will examine the two most influential – Reggae and Dancehall (also known as Ragga).

4.2.1. Rebel Music: Reggae and Dancehall (Ragga) To understand how intimately related both Reggae and Dancehall (“Ragga”) are to the people who created the genres, one can examine the etymology of both terms. Both share a similar etymological origin which points to its roots in the urban ghettoes of Jamaica. Reggae, a modern spelling of the word rege-rege is defined by the 1967 Dictionary of Jamaican English as “rags, ragged clothing” or “a quarrel, a row.” Similarly, “Ragga” is “an abbreviation of the English “ragamuffin,” meaning “a ragged, dirty, disreputable man or boy;” also “rough, beggarly, good for nothing, disorderly.” 94 When asked by author Stephen Davis for a definition of Reggae, singer Toots Hibberts of Toots and the Maytals (one of Reggae’s founding bands) replied,

Murdoch. Murdoch, 69. 94 Cooper, 237. 92 93

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Reggae means comin’ from the people, y’know? Like a everyday thing. Like from the ghetto. From majority. Everyday thing that the people use like food, we just put music to it and make a dance out of it. Reggae means regular people who are suffering, and don’t have what they want. 95 Reggae, the predecessor of “Ragga,” first emerged in the late 1960s as a mishmash of musical styles, namely Jamaican Mento, Ska, American Jazz, and Rhythm and Blues. In its earliest days, songs predominantly featured themes of love, specifically of a romantic nature. However, as the genre entered the 1970s, the sounds began transforming due to the heavy influences of Rastafarianism. It is also important to note that the 1970s marked a decade in Jamaica’s political history rife with high-tensioned conflict. Violent clashes occurred between Jamaica’s two political parties, carried out by their respective supporters. Against this backdrop of civil unrest, Reggae became a channel for musicians to voice their disdain for the violence, often calling for peace, love for humankind, resistance, and social reform. As such, Reggae became synonymous with rebel music, which it is also colloquially named. Of course, the most famous musician emerging from this era of Reggae was Bob Marley, 96 who was both Rastafarian and against political warfare. This decade proved to be a catalyst for the future of the genre as it laid the blueprint for the Reggae we still hear today. As the 1970s ended, a new style of music emerged at the start of the 1980s, the genre we now recognize as Dancehall (“Ragga”). Its sound derives from the musical evolution of Reggae, which is characterized by a slow tempo, to now become “more rhythmically aggressive and, significantly, much more violent and sexual in nature.” 97 Particularly definitive to this new genre was the “increasing

Hibberts, as quoted in Cooper, Soundclash Jamaican Dancehall at Large, 2004, 237. Jamaican singer, musician and songwriter, Robert Nesta Marley, OM (1945-1981), is considered to be one of the pioneers of Reggae music. 97 Rick Anderson, ‘Reggae Music: A History and Selective Discography’, Notes 61, no. 1 (2004), 206–14.Retrieved May 6, 2020 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4487345?seq=6#metadata_info_tab_contents 95 96

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND emphasis on deejays over singers” 98 and the “electronically produced rhythms over traditional instrumentation.” 99

4.3. Visual and Lyrical Analysis: Expression of Identity in Contemporary Jamaican Music and Arts As previously discussed, the lyrical and musical expression of Reggae and Dancehall entail elements of social and political critique. Both Reggae and Dancehall share themes such as oppression, poverty and spirituality. Lyrically and musically, they address these issues via different approaches, with the beats per minute (bpm) as an objective difference between the two genres. However, the visual arts also play a significant role in helping to express these themes, which contrast with the images portrayed by tourism. Alongside the musical artistry, elements such as album artwork, flyers, posters and music videos play a crucial role in depicting the lyrical messages held within music. In order to understand the intimate relationship between music and visuals within the Jamaican context, it can be useful to assess visually and lyrically the themes being portrayed in contemporary music. As such, a lyrical and visual analysis was conducted of the song “Dreams to Reality” by the artiste, Kabaka Pyramid.

4.3.1. Analysis: “Dreams to Reality” by Kabaka Pyramid (Music Video) Upon first engagement with the song, the listener forms an idea about the content of the song through its standard English title, “Dreams to Reality.” However, upon listening to the song, the standard English song title which greeted the listener is transformed to its patois equivalent as Kabaka sings “tun dreams inna reality”.

98 99

Anderson, 211 Anderson, 211

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND One can speculate that the use of the English title and ultimate patois expression evidences a conflict of identity. While it can be assumed that the aim of titling the song is to communicate with its potential listener, the most natural form of self-expression for Kabaka occurs in the patois language. This is a nod to his self-identification as Jamaican, and points to a duality in self-perception: (1) by identifying with the socially approved presentation of an “educated” member of society, and (2) the actual perception of self, as one who engages with the everyday realities of his Jamaican surroundings—a strong factor in which language plays an important role. Lyrically, the song tells the story of the aspirations of the greater part of the population, who hope to find their way out of poverty and (financial) hardships to live a better life. In the song, Kabaka Pyramid boasts of his accomplishments such as frequently flying and conducting business successfully. This lauding of accomplishments is based on Western or global standards of achievement, which harkens to the desire to escape these hardships. A similar message is conveyed visually, as we see a clearer image of the values and goals. In the initial scene of the music video, 100 Kabaka is seen alighting from an old model of a Toyota Sunny car (as shown in the sequence of images below). However, as he and the passenger alight from the vehicle, it swiftly transforms into a newer model – a white Honda Civic. As Kabaka throws the keys for the car to his passenger and he catches them, he too makes a similar transformation to newer clothes. The passenger becomes elated as he marvels at both transformations.

Music video by Kabaka Pyramid Dreams to Reality. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYMe8nCDK7E 100

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Images: Scenes from Kabaka Pyramid’s music video “Dreams to Reality”

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Images: Scenes from Kabaka Pyramid’s music video “Dreams to Reality”

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Images: Scenes from Kabaka Pyramid’s music video “Dreams to Reality”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Another striking moment in the video occurs as Kabaka strolls past a seemingly destitute man, sitting on the curb in a struggling community. However, like the driver, he also makes a transformation into a graduation gown and cap as Kabaka walks past him. The moment is particularly striking as it highlights the desire of many within the population to acquire tertiary or a higher level of education. However, for some, due to financial constraints, they are often denied the opportunity. It also showcases the recognition of education as a channel to escape the limitation of poverty and the chance to achieve self-autonomy and acquire opportunities in life. Where the video may have led the viewer to engage subconsciously with commonly perpetuated scenes of poverty-stricken communities, it swiftly breaks this preconceived imagined reality with visual transformations as Kabaka interacts with each “character” of the video.

Image: Scenes from Kabaka Pyramid’s music video “Dreams to Reality”

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Images: Scenes from Kabaka Pyramid’s music video “Dreams to Reality”

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND Unlike the imagery often perpetuated in tourism advertisements, which often portrays Jamaicans as passive characters in the overall narrative, videos such as “Dreams to Reality” are able to capture not just the existing realities of Jamaicans, but more importantly their desires and aspirations outside of the glaring eyes of the media and its expectations and views (stereotypes of them). It, too, lends a voice to the people whose stories and realities are often never prioritized, if ever acknowledged, in mainstream media and tourist campaigns.

4.4. Conclusion Music ultimately serves as a creative medium that shapes national image and identity while also raising social awareness. It encourages Afro-descendants, Caribbean peoples and the wider African diaspora to build and grow from the injustices their ancestors faced, thus changing the value systems indoctrinated in them. Much like the famous words of Jamaican reggae singer Bob Marley, “Emancipate yourselves from mental slavery, none but ourselves can free our minds,” 101 music embodies a sense of rebellion and ultimate separation from colonial ideologies. The lyrical and visual content represents the voice of a disenfranchised majority, still governed, and oppressed by the elite minority, reflecting a similar power structure of the colonial era. This thesis advocates that the music industry can serve as a case study that contrasts the strategies utilized in the tourism sector. Much can be observed and subsequently implemented to portray a more nuanced and representative depiction of the creole Jamaican identity.

Lyrics from “Redemption Song,” a single by Bob Marley and the Wailers, which is the final track on the Uprising album that was released in 1980. 101

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5. JAMAICA UNCUT “it is increasingly important that future development be controlled by the Caribbean people themselves if the region is to be genuinely sold without loss to its dignity, authenticity and existential reality.” 106

106

Nettleford.

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5.1. Artefact Exploration and Development 5.1.1. What is the Jamaican Identity? After analysing the many ways in which Jamaica has been portrayed in the media, the next phase of this master project development aimed to explore what a more nuanced representation of Jamaica would appear like. “What is the Jamaican identity? Are there aspects that are less represented/hidden?” These questions guided my creative exploration into the topic 5.1.1.1. Ah Day Inna Mi Life (A Day In My Life) 107 While reflecting on the statements made by my mentors at the Zurich University of the Arts about being unable to recognize certain Jamaican traits because of my own proximity to the culture, I asked myself “What is the average day for me in Jamaica?” In order to search for hidden clues in my own Jamaican existence, I found it fitting to record an entire day of my life in Jamaica to see what I could find. Did I match the media portrayal of Jamaicans? Or were these generalizations false? The final video is satirical in nature, juxtaposing a few international music videos and song portrayals with what an actual day in the life of a Jamaican is like. It also subtly speaks to other stereotypes of the Jamaican lifestyle, proving that, in fact, some were true while others were false. Ultimately, the aim of this experiment was not only to discover my own Jamaican traits but also to address, both verbally and visually, misconceptions of the island as portrayed in the media and by the local tourism industry.

107

The video series referenced may be retrieved from https://vimeo.com/497722643

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Images: Scenes from the ‘Ah Day Inna Mi Life’ video

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Image: Scenes from the ‘Ah Day Inna Mi Life’ video

5.1.2. Ole Time Sinting (Old Time Something) 108 As Anderson and MacLeod affirm in their research paper, “the “real” Jamaica would not be contained, reduced or narrated for the benefit and pleasure of outsiders” but instead would focus on “exposing Jamaicans themselves to different facets of Jamaican life.” 109 With this in mind, I pondered ways in which I could uncover common Jamaican experiences. ‘Ole Time Sinting,’ a colloquial way of saying “old time something” in Jamaica’s dialect, patois, was one way in which I sought to achieve this. As the name may suggest, this aspect of my Jamaican identity exploration aimed to unearth memories of both old and young Jamaicans alike. This experiment takes the form of a mini-interview series and intends to

108

The video series referenced in this section may be retrieved from https://vimeo.com/showcase/7270797

109

M. Anderson and MacLeod.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND reveal frequently overlooked memories of Jamaican childhood; memories that may not have been highlighted as being a part of the shared Jamaican experience in modern media. 110 When conducting the interviews, I prompted each interviewee with the question, “What are some fond childhood memories you have that you would consider to be distinctly Jamaican?” The responses were varied, but all spoke to different facets of Jamaican life.

110

The video series referenced in this section may be retrieved from https://vimeo.com/showcase/7270797

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Images: Scenes from ‘Ole Time Sinting’ video series

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Images: Scenes from ‘Ole Time Sinting’ video series

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 5.1.2.1. Observation 1. Many of the interviewees were quite happy when asked these questions as they do not often come up in everyday conversations. This indicates to me that there are layers of Jamaican history that are overlooked. In discussing these topics, we could identify important yet still latent aspects of our own Jamaican identity. 2. While conducting the interviews, I realized that Jamaica has a strong oral history that is often not showcased. I believe that doing such an experiment could bring back a piece of this history that can hopefully be restored.

5.1.3. “Mawnin” Radio (Morning Radio) In exploring what it meant to be Jamaican, I realized that an often-overlooked ritual in Jamaican culture is listening to morning-time radio. Each morning it is typical to hear radios blaring in households and vehicles as each person kick-starts their day. Adults and children alike consume these radio programs, which ultimately help to form the Jamaican narrative. Inspired by this recognition, as well as Ballard’s poem “A Guide to Virtual Death,'' 111 I decided to record what a day in the life of a Jamaican would be like through that of morning-time radio. For this experiment, I recorded radio programs from the first half of a random day in order to analyse the topics and discussions being held in Jamaica. This provided important insight into the lives and minds of Jamaicans, as radio programs highlight current interests, issues, and discussions within the Jamaican society. 112

111 112

Ballard's (1992) The video series referenced in this section may be retrieved from: https://vimeo.com/428283815

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Images: Scenes from the ‘Mawnin Radio’ video

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Image: Scene from the ‘Mawnin Radio’ video 5.1.3.1. Observation 1. Many of the advertisements aired on local radio took the form of a comedic skit and a musical style, which is consistent with Jamaica’s strong ties to its local music genres—reggae and dancehall. This signified to me that in any exploration or discussion of the portrayal of Jamaicans in tourism-related promotions cannot exclude the importance of music. 2. Advertisements were also often in patois. This indicated the significant role language played in communicating effectively with most Jamaicans. 3. News reports and formal discussions were in standard English. However, in contrast, in programs that involved interaction between radio hosts and regular citizens, patois was the preferred form of communication. Radio hosts often spoke in a mix of standard English and patois, proving to me that language can be a contentious topic to address in discussing Jamaican identity.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 4. International topics were often discussed (mostly from Britain and America). This highlights Jamaica’s access to and influence by globalization, which ultimately indicates a blended identity.

5.2. Artefact Exhibitions Two opportunities arose to exhibit the progress of the research findings for this master’s thesis project. The first occurred on October 12, 2019 at a music hall in St. Gallen, Switzerland named ‘Grabenhalle’ while the second took place on December 17, 2019 at the Zurich University of the Arts. These were the first public exhibitions of the project, hence making them ideal opportunities to initiate topic-related discussions and receive external feedback. The audience for both exhibitions varied as the nature of the venues attracted different demographics of people distinguished primarily by interests and attendance intent. Whereas the audience at the Grabenhalle consisted of partygoers (in attendance of a reggae party), those of the Zurich University of Arts consisted of university colleagues, lecturers as well as external visitors. Both audiences did share, however, a commonality in that the language primarily spoken was German with most speaking English as a secondary language. I was particularly interested to observe Their interests in the musical and cultural offerings of Jamaica were varied.

5.2.1. Method The first exhibition was set up in the Grabenhalle’s foyer area. It was strategically placed between the main entrance and the door to the main hall to capture the interest of the partygoers before and after they entered the building. The display consisted of both physical and digital elements, including: 1. Two 4x8m display boards that showcased a pinup comprising 12 A3 sheets of paper. These sheets highlighted the visual analysis conducted throughout the first semester.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND 2. Two televisions that each displayed different video projects (“Ole Time SInting” and “Mawnin Radio”) that I created during the summer research period. Printed descriptions of each video project were also placed beside each screen to provide the viewer with context.

Image: Visitors interacting with the exhibition at the Grabenhalle

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Images: Visitors interacting with the exhibition at the Grabenhalle 77

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND The second exhibition at the Zurich University of the Arts featured a different approach in terms of its display set-up. The showcase was fashioned in the style of a living room area, consisting of: 1. A primary central interaction space demarcated by a carpet, used as a unifying visual centrepiece, and a wingback chair oppositely facing a television which served as the main display medium for the project’s main video display. 2. Secondary interaction sub-areas modelled to replicate: a. A radio hub where visitors could listen, with headphones, to audio from the “Mawnin Radio” experiment b. A workspace which featured a small desk and chair where viewers could interact with a tablet (modelled to appear as a picture frame) that displayed “Ole Time Sinting” videos.

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Images: Exhibition at the Zurich University of the Arts

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Image: Exhibition at the Zurich University of the Arts

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Image: Exhibition at the Zurich University of the Arts

5.2.2. Feedback In the case of the videos, I asked whether the use of German subtitles was effective in bridging the language barrier between Jamaican patois and German. The feedback I received primarily indicated that people were comfortable with listening to the English-speaking interviewees in the videos and only occasionally referred to the subtitles when unfamiliar with particular terms. Most persons who interacted with the exhibition were intrigued by the relatability of the topics discussed in the ‘Ole Time Sinting’ interviews. The ‘Mawnin Radio’ video also garnered a similar response, as the visitors felt they were able to better understand the Jamaican context through the various vignette views of the subjects being discussed. 81

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND I considered the exhibitions successful since one of the primary aims of the project is to display Jamaican narratives in order to bridge cultural gaps which often lead to the formation of stereotypes.

5.3. Final Proposal Due to the development of a newly discovered strain of coronavirus (Sars-CoV-2) resulting in the declaration of a global pandemic, the final iteration of this project, which would have manifested physically, had to be reimagined digitally. Despite the limitations faced by restrictions, it provided fresh opportunities to explore and expand on previously explored concepts. As such, the final proposal manifested in two different virtual formats, which can be accessed on the project’s website (www.jamaicauncut.com): 113 1. Inna Di Videolight (Video Series) 2. Interactive Musical Showcases (Online Livestreams)

5.3.1. “Inna Di Videolight” Following the favourable responses to my previously explored audio-visual experiments, ‘Ole Time Sinting’ and ‘Mawnin Radio’, I decided to further pursue video and audio as a channel to explore the Jamaican identity. Audio and visuals play a distinct role in forming image, particularly in the digital era. This has been clearly witnessed through the targeted use of video advertisements by Jamaica’s tourism industry. The music industry, too, has made a significant impact on global audiences through its successful use of music videos. The undeniable fact that Jamaica has a strong visual and auditory culture further allowed me to recognize that an artefact which appeals to both senses would be a natural path to pursuit.

113

Available at: www.jamaicauncut.com or https://vimeo.com/showcase/8052199

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND The resulting video series, “Inna Di Videolight” introduces Jamaicans from differing backgrounds within the Jamaican cultural and creative industries. Each video offers a snapshot into not just the individual’s craft but also highlights and reveals their perspectives on broader topics relevant to the Jamaican culture through the lens of music and the arts. Since music and the arts have historically represented significant channels through which Jamaicans have been able to express themselves and necessary social critique, I deem this video series a further reflection and medium for such expression.

Image: Scenes from the “Inna Di Videolight” video series, which may be accessed at www.jamaicauncut.com or https://vimeo.com/showcase/8052199

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Images: Scenes from the “Inna Di Videolight” video series, which may be accessed at www.jamaicauncut.com or https://vimeo.com/showcase/8052199

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Images: Scenes from the “Inna Di Videolight” video series, which may be accessed at www.jamaicauncut.com or https://vimeo.com/showcase/8052199

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

5.3.2. Interactive Musical Showcase: Reggae Rockaz and Selecta’s Choice (Livestream) Since the new restrictions of the Sars-CoV-2 virus have rendered many individuals stranded or at home, the idea to host online sessions developed was a good opportunity to garner interest. The concept behind the showcase is to engage participants through an already familiar medium, music. It takes the format of a livestream through the digital music platform, Mixcloud and is hosted twice weekly (Thursdays and Sundays) by two different disc jockeys. 114 Each disc jockey highlights Jamaican music from different eras ranging from the 1960s to the current music of the 2000s. The interactive nature of this showcase is achieved through the use of chat features where participants are welcomed to interact with the show’s host and among themselves. Discussions are often prompted through the songs’ lyrical and musical components. As previously discussed, the local language, patois is mostly heard in these songs which might be unfamiliar for non-Jamaican participants. Interestingly, however, encoded into the music are the various forms of self-expression and social commentary that capture various elements of the Jamaican culture. The presenter (DJ), through use of these lyrical prompts creates conversations around the song’s themes while also revealing current events and topical issues. The shows, titled ‘Selecta’s Choice’ and ‘Reggae Rockaz’ thus serve as channels not only for entertainment but also as a means of engaging, on a deeper level, with the culture surrounding the music, ultimately achieving one of main aims of this thesis.

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The virtual platform Mixcloud may be accessed at www.mixcloud.com/jamaicauncut

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

Images: Scenes from the Selecta’s Choice and Reggae Rockaz livestream shows

5.4. Conclusion 5.4.1. Brand Versus Identity: A Country Branding Alternative As Anderson and MacLeod stated in their research paper, 115 one of the main issues with the modern approach to tourism is the portrayal of a highly complex society and, furthermore, its identity as homogenous. Due to a complexly layered history of race and power as a result of the legacy of colonialism, much of Jamaica’s history has been told through the lens of the empowered minority as opposed to the disenfranchised majority. These traits have been further perpetuated today in the Jamaican tourism industry’s current marketing approach. Another major issue stems from placing Jamaican citizens as secondary beneficiaries. That said, I have proposed an alternative approach to tourism’s approach by addressing citizens as subjects, as 115

M. Anderson and MacLeod (2017)

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND opposed to objects of the tourism industry. I believe that, in order to achieve this, it is critical to ascertain the narratives from individual Jamaicans and to expand and expose the stories of Jamaica from the perspective of the majority, by adding nuance and complexity to the simplistic, generalized perspectives.

5.4.2. Complexity of Identity: 2,000,000 People, 2,000,000 Stories Identity is a complicated topic as one may discern throughout this thesis. It entails, like Appiah mentions, not just elements of individuality but also social factors. 116 In researching, observing and conducting various creative explorations within the topic, it became apparent that it would be difficult to “categorize” each individual I encountered. In seeking an alternative to the current approach to narratives, endeavoured to avoid the creation of new generalizations. In my quest to avoid creating new stereotypes, it was important for me to approach the topic from two angles: 1. My own personal perspective as a Jamaican, and 2. An individualized perspective of each Jamaican I encounter

5.4.3. Auditory Experience Versus Visual Experience The two main things I noticed in producing the final artefact was the significance of Jamaica’s auditory identity as well as its visual identity. Although the tourism industry predominantly focuses on the visual aspect of the tourist experience, I concluded that the auditory experience plays a significant role in depicting a truly Jamaican narrative. Jamaica, by nature, has a strong auditory history ranging from its dialect, patois, to its tradition of oral storytelling, and of course its music. This was made clear to me especially after executing the “Ole Time Sinting” and “Mawnin Radio” audio-visual experiment. This awareness bolstered my idea that an alternative approach to image (identity) creation in tourism should be to continue with the visuals, while placing more emphasis on auditory methods. Thus, I explored

116

Appiah.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND narrating new perspectives on the country’s identity through the recreation of soundscapes as well as visuals. The final artefact ultimately represent the culmination of these endeavours. Through the use of familiar mediums, both the vignette video series as well as the music showcases I have been able to unlock a more meaningful cultural dialogue between Jamaicans and non-Jamaicans alike. By no means is this the end of my explorations in the topic of identity. Indeed, it actually feels like I have just managed to scratch the surface of this highly layered and complex topic. However, it has proven to be a revelatory experience from not only a social perspective, but also an introspective and personal one as well.

JAMAICA UNCUT: BEYOND THE IMAGE OF SUN, SEA AND SAND

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TONI-ANN OWENS MASTER OF ARTS IN DESIGN, INTERACTION DESIGN ZÜRCHER HOCHSCHULE DER KÜNSTE

Jamaica Uncut: Beyond the Image of Sun, Sea and Sand (Master Thesis by Toni-Ann Owens, ZHdK)

Articles inside

Jamaica (Visual Analysis

4. VOICE OF THE PEOPLE