The Rail Transit Boom in China and its Atypical TOD Projects by tonychen95

Newcastle University – School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

China has experienced an on-going rail transit mania during the last decades 1. Not only the megacities with existed mass transit system extended their operational lines but also other prefectural-level cities started the construction of their rapid transit system in this period. In 2008, there were ten cities with service lines, while this number tripled to 34 by the end of 2017; the operating length increased rapidly from 803.6 kilometres to 5032.7 kilometres at the same time 23. The transit-oriented-development (TOD), which emerged in the United States and widespread in North America and Europe, was also introduced into China in these years, as a measure to promote sustainable city development 456. However, due to the urban morphology of the Chinese cities and the municipal planning policy, which are different from those in Western developed countries 7, it is hard to institute a typical

TOD project via large-scale urban renewal. Then the local micro-scale optimisation employing the TOD concept becomes the third way between mass urban redevelopment and urban-transit separation 8. There was abundant literature related to the motive of the rapid development of rail transit system in China but lack the review of other literature and

7 8

Shutian Zhou, Guofang Zhai and Yijun Shi, ‘What Drives the Rise of Metro Developments in China? Evidence from Nantong’, Sustainability, 10 (2018), 2931-2950 (p. 2932). Kai Lu and others, ‘Urban Rail Transit in China: Progress Report and Analysis (2008–2015)’, Urban Rail Transit, 1880-1920, 2 (2016), 93-105 (p. 94). China Association of Metros, Chengshi Guidaojiaotong 2017 Niandu Tongji He Fenxi Baogao [2017 Annual Report of China Urban Rail Transit] (Beijing: China Association of Metros, 2018) p. 2. Yi Dou and others, ‘An Empirical Study on Transit-oriented Low-carbon Urban Land Use Planning: Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) on Shanghai, China’, Habitat International, 53 (2016), 379-389 (p. 380). Zekun Li and others, ‘Transit Oriented Development among Metro Station Areas in Shanghai, China: Variations, Typology, Optimization and Implications for Land Use Planning’, Land Use Policy, 82 (2019), 269282 (pp. 270-271). Fei Ye, ‘The Transit Metropolis Forum Sets Sustainable Transport Trends in China’, WRI China, 15 November 2014 <http://wri.org.cn/en/news/transit-metropolis-forum-sets-sustainable-transport-trends-china> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Li and others, p. 271. Ibid., p. 271.

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tended to neglect some significant factor 9

10 11

while the research on the following

optimisation projects was limited in megacities like Shanghai and tended to be quantitative analysis rather than case studies, lacking a detailed insight 12 13 . This essay will try to provide an integrated review of the motives for rail transit development based on the prior literature, along with information on new government policy and international cooperation. Then it will take Shanghai, and another prefectural-level city in the Yangtze River Delta, Suzhou as examples, offer a detailed insight into the related development project not complying the classical TOD guideline under a broader urban context.

Multiple motivations drive the mass construction of rail transit systems in China. The economic development is frequently associated with this mania. On the one hand, the growing gross domestic product (GDP) and revenue enable the municipal government implementing continuous mega-project investment; on the other hand, the rapid urbanisation, increasing automobile usage and the following traffic congestion related to the economic growth also force the local government launch new public transport system to restrain automobile usage. Loo and Li emphasised the correlation between the high foreign direct investment (FDI) and operational rail transit system in Chinese cities in the first decades of the 21st century, while the high FDI brought more foreign exchange to local government for importing technologies at this stage 14. According to Lu et al., the pattern of

Zhou, Zhai and Shi. Lu and others. 11 Becky P. Y. Loo and Dennis Y. N. Li, ‘Developing metro systems in the People’s Republic of China: Policy and gaps’, Transportation, 33 (2006), 115-132. 12 Dou and others. 13 Li and others. 14 Loo and Li, pp. 119, 124-125. 10

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the distribution of cities with urban rail transit in China also showed a relationship with economic development and local fiscal revenue during 2008 and 2015, as the investment for rail transit system depended on municipal government 15. The criteria from the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) on metro-construction approval in 2003 also set a requirement of local fiscal revenue with 10 billion RMB while this requirement tripled to 300 billion in 2018 1617. Loo and Li and Lu et al. also mentioned the attractivity of the rail transit system for cities in China to solve the traffic issues lead by rapid economic development and urbanisation 1819. Nonetheless, Zhou, Zhai and Shi pointed out that the launch of national rail transit construction was also associated with the world economic crisis and the pressure of the economic slowdown. They argued that accelerated

development of the rapid transit system after 2008 is fueled by the four-trillion (RMB) stimulus package after the international economic crisis 20. Figure 1 shows that ten of the twenty-seven cities gained the permission of rail transit construction got the approval between 2008 and 2009, shortly after the national stimulate project. The concentrated approval of the new construction schemes in the second half of 2018 after one-year suspension proved the correlation, as the economy slowed down in China this year 21.

15 16

18 19 20 21

Lu and others, pp. 95, 100. National Development and Reform Commission, Guowuyuan Bangongting Guanyu JIaqiang Chengshi Kuaisu Guidaojiaotong Jianshe Guanli De Tongzhi Guofaban [2003] 81 Hao [Announcement of the State Council on Strengthening the Development and Management of Urban Rapid Rail Transit Project, Document [2003] No.81] (Beijing: General Office of the State Council, 2003). National Development and Reform Commission, Guowuyuan Bangongting Guanyu JInyibu JIaqiang Chengshi Guidaojiaotong Guihua Jianshe Guanli De Yiajian Guofaban [2018] 52 Hao [Guiding Opinions of the State Council on Further Strengthening the Planning, Development and Management of Urban Rail Transit Project, Document [2018] No.52] (Beijing: General Office of the State Council, 2018). Lu and others, p. 93. Loo and Li, pp. 116-117. Zhou, Zhai and Shi, p. 2932. Gabriel Wildau and Yizhen Jia, ‘China’s Subway Building Binge is Back on Track’, Financial Times, 18 December 2018 <https://www.ft.com/content/90665d08-f915-11e8-af46-2022a0b02a6c> [accessed 26 January 2019].

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8 6 4 2 0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Number of cities getting metro approval

Figure 1 Annual statistics of cites getting metro approval between 2008 and 2016

Another factor suggested by Zhou, Zhai and Shi was the inter-city competition 22. Lu et al. revealed that a high-quality transit system would facilitate the city's competitiveness, including labour market performance and inward investments 23. The general public and municipal governors also related the metro system to the modernisation. With the trend of urban policy decentralisation and urban governance localisation, the competition between local governments became intensified seeking revenue maximisation. Though comments on the competition from local officers were vague, yet experts affirmed it. The consideration of taking the rail transit system as a brand of a modern metropolis, along with the inter-city competition, made the local leader unwilling to fall behind in rail transit development 24 . Moreover, the urban competition spread from municipal officers to the public; there were arguments about the definition of the rail transit system of Suzhou as the metro or light rail on the Jiangsu province local forum between residents from different prefecture-level cities, while the general public believed that the metro overweighs the light

22 23 24

Zhou, Zhai and Shi, p. 2932. Lu and others, p. 98. Zhou, Zhai and Shi, pp. 2921-2932, 2942-2943.

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rail 25. The argument between citizens in turn tense the urban competition, motivating the pursuit of rail transit system construction from the side of municipal leaders 26.

However, the requirement for a sustainable society as a national strategy and a hot spot of international cooperation played a much more significant role in urban rail transit construction in recent years. China has launched the Transit Metropolis Project in 2011, as a part of the 12th Five-Year Development Plan for Transportation, emphasising an integrated public transport system, and chose 30 cities as the pilot city 27. The list of pilot cities then expanded in followings years 28 and introduced broad cooperation. In addition to the international conference such as the Transit Metropolis Forum involving local

leaders, transport experts and NGOs focusing on the transit development in China 29 , municipal governments had in-depth cooperation with organisations, for instance, the World Bank and the World Resource Institute (WRI). Suzhou, as one of the pilot city of the Transit Metropolis Project, had inked the MoU with the WRI for the launch of series cooperation on demonstration of the project 30, while Urumuqi received support from the

Yucongjingyuyanguidongfan (Screen name) and others, ‘Ruoruo De Wen Yixia Suzhou Kaitong De Nandao Bushi Ditie Ma? Zenme Lao Youren Shuo Shi Qinggui? [May I ask if the rail transit system operating in Suzhou should be considered the metro? Why someone calls it a light rail?]’, Xici Forum, 15 May 2015 <http://www.xici.net/d202841118.htm> [accessed 26 January 2019]. 26 Zhou, Zhai and Shi, p. 2942. 27 Tian Jiang and others, ‘Toward Transit Metropolis: Status Quo Analysis for Chinese Major Cities’, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 96 (2013), 2621-2634 (p. 2621). 28 Ministry of Transport, Jiaotongyunshubu Guanyu Gongbu Gongjiao Dushi Jianshe Shifan Gongcheng Dierpi Chuangjian Chengshi De Tongzhi Jiaoyunfa [2013] 652 Hao [Announcement of the Ministry of Transport on the Second Phase of Pilot Cities of Implementing National Transit Metropolis Project, Document [2013] No.652] (Beijing: Ministry of Transport, 2013). 29 Ye. 30 Lulu Xue, ‘WRI China and Suzhou Municipal Government Partner Together for Sustainable Urban Mobility’, World Resources Institute Ross Centre, 14 September 2015 <http://wrirosscities.org/news/wrichina-and-suzhou-municipal-government-partner-together-sustainable-urban-mobility> [accessed 26 January 2019].

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World Bank for its urban transport project 31. Although some of these programmes focused on the bus system, which was more practical and effective for average cities, they also mentioned the rail transit as a critical component of the public transport system.

Nevertheless, the demand for restraining automobile dependence and economy stimulation, the requirement of facilitating city competitiveness and the hope of increasing the modal share of public transport, all call for a comprehensive urban planning scheme to make the transit node more attractive and increase the ridership of the rail transit system. Then the transit-oriented-development (TOD) was introduced to those Chinese cities.

Vale and Wey et al., cited in Li et al., described the nature attempts of TOD projects to achieve integrated urban landscape and encourage walking, cycling and public transit rather than private cars 32 . The architects in the United States firstly promoted it as a measure against urban sprawl; then it was introduced to North America, South America, Europe and Asia since the 1990s 333435. The definition of TOD projects varies but shares the similar concept of a high-density, mixed land use and a walkable environment around the mass transit node 363738.

32 33 34

35 36 37 38

The World Bank, ‘China: Project Launched to Strengthen Public Transport System in Urumqi’, The World Bank, 30 May 2016 <http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/05/30/project-launched-to-strengthenpublic-transport-system-in-urumqi> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Li and others, p. 269. Dou and others, p. 380. Becky P.Y. Loo, Cynthia Chen and Eric T.H. Chan, ‘Rail-based Transit-oriented Development: Lessons from New York City and Hong Kong’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 97 (2010), 202-212 (p. 203). Li and others, p. 270. Ibid., p. 269. Dou and others, p. 380. Loo, Chen and Chan, p. 203.

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However, the practices and studies on it were limited in Western developed countries, while it may not be suitable for the different urban morphology and social context of China 39. One crucial difference should be urban density. Compared with Western countries, many Chinese cities have the natures of high population density and development density 40. Figure 2 shows the land use layout along the rail transit line one of Suzhou in 2011, which revealed a diversified land use, including commercial, residential and educational areas. Most of the residential areas were graded in R2 as multi-level, well-equipped, high-density residences, according to the Code for Classification of Urban Land Use and Planning Standards of Development Land (GB50137-2011) 41. There were also R3 residences in this

area, which were identified as poor-equipped housing, while most of they were vernacular dwellings in the constraint zone 42. According to Pan et al., cited in Fan et al., the inner city of Shanghai, also shared the nature of high-density residence and mixed land use for its compact community 43. The street networks of the core of the two cities are different from those Western cities, especially cities in North America. They are both characterised by narrow roads and a high number of intersections, which are more friendly to

39 40

Li and others, p. 271. Weizhou Xiao, Shusheng Wang and Fumin Huang ‘Influence of Land Use Variation along Rail Transit Lines on the Ridership Demand’, 2009 Second International Conference on Intelligent Computation Technology and Automation (Changsha, 10-11 October) (Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society, 2009). Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, Chengshi Yongdi Fenlei Yu Guihua Jianshe Yongdi Biaozhun (GB50137-2011) [Code for Classification of Urban Land Use and Planning Standards of Development Land] (Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press, 2011). Han Gong and Yue Li, ‘Pingjiang Lishi Jiequ: Suzhou Gucheng Baohu De Yangben [Pingjiang Historic Street: The Example of Suzhou Old City Protection]’, China Today, 13 June 2010 <http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/ctchinese/second/2010-06/13/content_279468.htm> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Peilei Fan and others, ‘Walkability in Urban Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Four Large Cities in China’, Landscape Ecology, 33 (2018), 323-340 (p. 327).

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Figure 2 Land use around rail transit line 1 in Suzhou old city, 2011

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pedestrians 4445. Moreover, distinct from the US metropolis, the cores of Chinese cities still accommodate large populations for their better urban amenities 46, preventing the trend of urban sprawl. On the contrary, the municipal government of Chinese cities tend to introduce polycentric strategy before the rail transit development. Suzhou launched its masterplan with two new towns along its east-west axis in 2000 47, while the first rail transit line along the axis operated in 2012 48 . Shi and Chen suggested that the rapid transit system development in Shanghai lagged far after the new city construction as well 49. In other words, the intention of a typical TOD project and its required urban landscape has achieved in Chinese cities, then the aim of the redevelopment project instituting TOD concept becomes integrated the new rail transit system into existed urban context 50.

9 Another distinct difference should be the planning system of Chinese cities. Fan et al. and Guan pointed out the impact of urban planning policies in the distribution of high-rise building and change of walkability in Shanghai 5152, while the building height restriction in the old city of Suzhou also affects its urban morphology and pattern of development 53. The

44 45

46 47

48 49

50 51 52

Fan and others, p. 327. Weizhen Chen, Songshan Li and Wen Ma, ‘Huoli Yu Zhixu De Zhiheng: Yi Suzhou Laochengqu Yu Suzhou Gongyeyuanqu Weili [Balance Between Vitality and Order: Study on Suzhou Old Town and Suzhou Industrial Park]’, Urban Planning International, 32 (2017), 50-56 (p. 52). Fan and others, p. 325. Suzhou Planning Bureau, Suzhoushi Chengshi Zhengti Guihua (1996-2010) [Master Plan of Suzhou (19962010)] (Suzhou: Suzhou Planning Bureau, 2011). Lu and others, p. 97. Yishao Shi and Yongjian Chen, ‘New City Planning and Construction in Shanghai: Retrospective and Prospective’, International Journal of Urban Sciences, 20 (2016), 49-72 (p. 65). Li and others, p. 270. Fan and others, pp. 334-337. Chenghe Guan, 'Spatial Distribution of High-rise Buildings and Its Relationship to Public Transit Development in Shanghai', Transport Policy, 9.4 (2018) <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.09.004> [accessed 26 January 2019] p. 9. Xiaozhao Li and others, ‘Multiple Resources and Their Sustainable Development in Urban Underground Space’, Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, 55 (2016), 59-66 (p. 60).

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influence of a powerful municipal government is twofold. On the one hand, as WRI suggested, the rigid regulatory zoning codes around the transit code limit up-zoning and mixed land use, and the government overweighing multi-stakeholder may split the project and the market demand 54. On the other hand, the government as the rail transit investor, public transport system operator and urban planner enable it to cement a comprehensive development project and make full use of current resources.

Take the Lindun Lu Station of Suzhou Rail Transit Line 1 as an example. It is one of the four stations set in the old city on this route 55. As a result of the height constraint, it was impossible to initiate a typical TOD project with high-rise buildings recommended by American scholars

. However, the concepts of TOD still influence the urban

redevelopment surrounding the station. The quantitative research of Loo, Chen and Chan on the TOD of Hong Kong and New York indicated that the rail transit patronage, which was a critical index of TOD projects evaluation, was associated with commercial and parking areas and the integration with bus systems 57. Papa argued that the accessibility to the transit nodes played a significant role in a successful TOD project 58 . Then the development scheme became an optimisation programme divided into several phases based on these concepts. The first phase was launched in 2011, along with the

54 55

57 58

Ye. Rifeng Xu, Suzhou Guchengqu Gonggong Zixingche Xitong Guihua Yanjiu [Public Bicycle System Planning Study Based on Suzhou's Ancient City] (unpublished master's thesis, Southeast University, 2016), p. 11. Kheir Al-Kodmany, ‘New Suburbanism: Sustainable Spatial Patterns of Tall Buildings’, Buildings, 8 (2018), 127159. Loo, Chen and Chan, p. 210-211. Enrica Papa and Luca Bertolini, Accessibility and Transit-Oriented Development in European Metropolitan areas’, Journal of Transport Geography, 47 (2015), 70-83 (p. 72).

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construction of the rail transit line. The primary measure should be the comprehensive development of Ganjiang Road, where the metro goes beneath. The evolution included street furniture, underground pipelines and, which was more significant, traffic circulation 59. As an alternative means of commuting between the final destination and transit nodes instead of automobiles, a public bicycles system went into service in the same year, based on the urban context of Suzhou 60. According to the operating company, there are three parking areas capable of 98 public bicycles within 50 meters from the Lindun Lu station up to now, along with more space for personal bikes 61 . The research conducted by Xu revealed the correlation between public bike and working time during weekdays 62, prove it a practical alternative of park-and-ride mode. Regard to surrounding commercial land,

as the station was already near the high street and the most prosperous commercial area, the mission for planner became integrating the station into existed commercial space. As Figure 3 shows, the designer accomplished the mission by setting Exit 3 in a shopping mall, Heji Plaza, while Exit 1 was set in an existed building as well 63. After the operation of the rail transit in 2012, the government introduced feeder bus connecting surrounding communities and the stations in 2014. One of the loop lines stops at the adjacent bus stop

62 63

Jing Gao, Jin 30 Nian Suzhou Ganjiang Lu Jiedao Kongjian Geju Yanbian Yanjiu [The Study on the Spatial Pattern Evolution of Suzhou Ganjiang Road in the Recent 30 Years] (unpublished master's thesis, Soochow University, 2017), pp. 30-31. Haitao Liu, ‘Suzhou 30 Ri Qi She Gonggong Zixingche Gong Shimin Mianfei Yong, Bianmin Huanjie Yongdu [The Public Bicycle of Suzhou Will Go into Service on 30th August, Restrain the Traffic Congestion]’, China National Radio, 27 August 2010 <http://china.cnr.cn/gdgg/201008/t20100827_506960092.html> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Youon Technology, ‘Zhandian Ditu [Station Map]’, Youon Technology CO., LTD Suzhou Branch, 2019 <http://www.subicycle.com/Home/Station> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Xu, pp. 17-21. Min Huo, Guidaojiaotong Churukou Zhoubian Huanjing Zhenghe Yu Pingjia Yanjiu: Yi Suzhou Guidaojiaotong 1、2 Hao Xian Weili [Assessment of Metro Entrances Integrated with Surrounding Urban Space: Take Suzhou Rail Transit Lines 1, 2 as Examples] (unpublished master's thesis, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, 2015), p. 86.

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Figure 3 The situation of four exits of Lindun Lu Station

of Lindun Lu Station, in addition to other long-ride buses, while another feeder bus line stops at the same stop since 2016 6465. Although Loo, Chen and Chan supposed that other land use type like open space which may benefit the aesthetic values on the station had little correlation in the TOD evaluation 66, the government of Suzhou still keep the urban green space above the station. The green space reopened in 2015 after a seven-year closure resulted by the rail transit development, with newly planted trees and a new pavilion 67. In last year, a new round of optimisation of the surrounding area of Lindun Station accelerated along with the preliminary planning of the new Rail Transit Line 6. The new metro line will interchange with Line 1 at Lindun Lu Station, bringing the station more patronage 68 . A new car park with 500 parking space and an overall redevelopment including protecting the historic fabric and improving living standard on the adjoining R3 64

66 67

Youming Guan, ‘Naoshi Chuansuo, Xiaodian Geng Linghuo: Suzhou Jinnian Tian Le 96 Liang “Wei Gongjiao” [The Smaller, the Easier to Run in the City: Suzhou Introduced 96 Feeder Bus this Year]’, City Post, 18 December 2014 <http://www.szdushi.com.cn/news/201412/2014116318.shtml> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Juncong Zhao, ‘Shequ Bashi 9003, 9004 Lu Kaixing, Gongjiao 261, 960 Lu Youhua Tiaozheng [The Operation of Community Bus Line 9003 and 9004 and the Optimisation of Bus Line 261 and 960]’, Suzhou Evening, 28 June 2016 <http://www.subaonet.com/2016/0628/1757228.shtml> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Loo, Chen and Chan, p. 210. Guanqun Tao, ‘Suzhou Fenghuang Guangchang “Biguan” 7 Nian Xin Liangxiang, Xin Zai Jin 800 Shumu [The Suzhou Phoenix Square Reopened after 7 Years of Closure, with 800 New Planted Trees]’, People’s Daily Online, 26 May 2015 <http://js.people.com.cn/n/2015/0526/c360302-25010632.html> [accessed 26 January 2019]. ‘Suzhou Guijiao 6 Hao Xian, S1 Xian Kaigong, Wanshan Guidaojiaotong Wangluohua Yunying [The Suzhou Rail Transit Line 6 and S1 Started Construction, Optimising the Rail Transit Network]’, Suzhou Social News, SBS2, 27 November 2018, 12.00 <http://csztv.com/doc/2018/11/27/369333.shtml> [accessed 26 January 2019].

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neighbourhood are also on the agenda 6970, while both of them will benefit the ridership of the station according to the TOD theory. Compared with the typical TOD project, the evolution of the Lindun Lu Station make little difference in the urban morphology but make full use of the TOD concepts. The shift of transit modal share proves the achievement of the amendment, the report from the local government in 2018 indicated that public transport accounts for over sixty per cent of all person trips in the central city, while forty per cent of the ridership is from the rail transit system 7172.

The inner city of Shanghai provides similar examples. One of these should be People's Park Station. However, both the surrounding urban space and the station itself developed

much earlier than the case in Suzhou. The People's Park was the former racecourse of the Shanghai Concession, and the surrounding area was one of the most prosperous section of Shanghai since then, while the racecourse was transformed into a public park after 1949 73. The construction of the People's Park Station began in 1988, along with the building of public architectures such as the Shanghai Museum, Shanghai Grand Theatre

‘Shiqu Fenghuang Guangchang Jiang Jian Dixia Tingchechang, Renfang Tingchechang Jiang Tui Zhinenghua Guanli [A New Underground Car Park Will be Set underneath the Phoenix Square, Government Will Promote Intelligent Management in Underground Car Parks]’, Suzhou News, SBS1, 24 May 2018, 18.30pm <http://k.sina.com.cn/article_1703691672_m658c4598033008lbr.html?cre=tianyi&mod=pcpager_focus&loc=3 &r=9&doct=0&rfunc=100&tj=none&tr=9> [accessed 26 January 2019]. Suzhou Planning Bureau, Suzhou Gucheng 20, 21, 22, 28, 29 ,30 Hao Jiefang Chengshi Sheji Gongshi [Announcement of Urban Planning of the No. 20, 21, 22, 28, 29 and 30 Neighbourhoods in Suzhou Old City] (Suzhou: Suzhou Planning Bureau, 2018). Suzhou Transport Bureau, Suzhou Shi Jiaotongyunshu Ju Guanyu “Gongjiao Dushi” Jianshe Shifan Gongcheng Chuangjian Qingkuang De Baogao [Report of Suzhou Transport Bureau on the Current Situation of the Implement of the ‘Transit Metropolis’ Pilot Project] (Suzhou: Suzhou Transport Bureau, 2018). Suzhou Statistics Bureau, Suzhou Statistical Yearbook 2018 (Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2018), pp. 607-609 <http://www.sztjj.gov.cn/SztjjGzw/tjnj/2018/zk/indexeh.htm> [Accessed 26 January 2019]. Yuezhi Xiong, ‘From Racecourse to People’s Park and People’s Square: Historical Transformation and Symbolic Significance’, Urban History, 38 (2011), 475-490 (pp. 475-476).

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and Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Center 74

75 .

Therefore, some of the initial

intentions of the design may diminish with the transformation of urban morphology and socioeconomic context; nonetheless；it is a long-term optimisation scheme similar to Suzhou and shows the attempt to institute TOD concepts. In contrast to Lindun Lu Station in Suzhou focusing on the connection of different commute mode on the street level, the People's Square Station emphasised on an integrated underground space instead. Cui et al., based on previous literature, included the benefits of the underground pedestrian system on easing traffic congestion and encouraging metro ridership 76, which were also mentioned in the aforementioned studies on TOD theories. In addition to simple underground walkways, the designer introduced three underground shopping street, including Hong Kong Street, Shanghai 1930 Street and Huasheng Street, with a total footprint of 45,000 square meters, providing different retail formats 7778. Figure 4 shows the sections of these three shopping streets, demonstrating their complicate connection with surrounding roads and the People's Park. The station also provides underground access to the surrounding shopping malls including the New World Shopping Centre and Raffliers Plaza, as well as the Shanghai Urban Planning Exhibition Center 79. The commercial land and the accessibility, as specified in the case of Suzhou, are critical indicators of a success

77 78 79

Mengdi Guan, Chengshi Dixia Shangye Kongjian Sheji Yanjiu: Yi Shanghai Weili [Research on the Design of Urban Underground Commercial Space: Take Shanghai as an Example] (unpublished master's thesis, Soochow University, 2018), p. 55. Yi Zhong, ‘Duoyuan Chuanbo Shijiao Xia De Chengshi Goutong: Shanghai Renmin Guangchang “Ke Goutongxing” Yanjiu [Urban Communication under the View of Multi-Channel Communication: The Research on ‘Communicativity’ of Shanghai People’s Square’, Modern Communication, 266 (2018), 56-62 (p. 58). Jianqiang Cui and others, ‘Developing Shanghai Underground Pedestrian System under Urbanization: Mobility, Functionality and Equity’, Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 36 (2013), 383-397 (p. 284). Ibid., p. 286. Guan, pp. 55-58. Cui and others, p. 286.

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Figure 4 From top to bottom: the section of Hong Kong Street, Shanghai 1930 Street and Huasheng Street

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TOD project. However, the underground commercial space of the station faced serious challenging on attracting costumers in these years, and the cause, as Guan suggested, may be rooted in original design making traffic circulation overweigh shopping experience 80. The station has a strong connection with the city bus system as well, offering 42 bus lines in the surrounding area 81 , attributing to the patronage of the station. Nevertheless, its feature as an interchange station is also conducive to its patronage, suggested by Loo, Chen and Chan 82. A government report in 2018 illustrated that People's Square Station was one of the busiest metro stations in Shanghai with a daily ridership of 255,000 83. The statistic may be related to its location, but the development employing the TOD concept also had a positive effect.

16 However, both cases in Suzhou and Shanghai are close to the trunk road of the city. The Lindun Lu Station is on the Ganjiang Road, which links the new town on the east and west of the old city; while People's Park Station is close to Yan'an Road connecting Puxi and Pudong, as Figure 5 demonstrated. The broad trunk road may reduce the accessibility of the two stations.

80 81 82 83

Guan, pp. 58-59. Cui, p. 285. Loo, Chen and Chan, p. 210. Shanghai Pudong New Area Government, ‘Shanghai Ditie Keliu Zuixin Tongji Shuju: Shiji Dadao Zhan Yi Cheng Zuida Keliu Huanchengzhan [The Latest Statistics on the Ridership of Shanghai Metro Showed Century Avenue Station Had Become the Station With Largest Ridership]’, Shanghai Pudong, 23 August 2018 <http://www.pudong.gov.cn/shpd/news/20180823/006004_1ae0cbc2-f7cd-4a6f-9b67-7066b2c63026.htm> [accessed 26 January 2019].

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Figure 5 The distance between People's Square Station and Yan’an Road

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In conclusion, economic development enables local governments to launch rail transit development, while the effort of restraining traffic congestion and avoiding an economic slowdown, the pressure of inter-city competition, and the new policy on the sustainable city and transit metropolis push the municipal officers to institute rail transit construction. As a high modal share is essential, then the transit-oriented-development was introduced to China. However, the urban morphology and socioeconomic context of Chinese cities have enormous differences with those in the United States, especially in the inner city. The high density, mixed land use which TOD projects try to achieve is the nature of Chinese cities, while the Chinese cities are still concentrated and have no urgent need for preventing urban sprawl. The role of the local government in urban development also differ from Western cities. Therefore, there are more long-term, sectioned optimisation projects importing TOD concepts in China rather than a comprehensive urban redevelopment, and these projects are various based on its location and surrounding urban context. These atypical, localised TOD projects are entirely different from those in Western developed counties, with little change on the urban morphology and highly depending on municipal government, but successfully achieve their task of improving the ridership of the rail transit system.

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List of Figures Cover Accessed from: http://i1.hdslb.com/bfs/archive/be8901ff5545aff12a1a8a3a33e49a1b 60dc6c71.jpg [accessed 27 January 2019].

Text Figure 1 Statistics from Zhou, Shutian, Guofang Zhai and Yijun Shi, 'What Drives the Rise of Metro Developments in China? Evidence from Nantong', Sustainability, 10 (2018), 2931-2950 (pp. 2946-2947), drawn by the author.

Figure 2 Suzhou Planning Bureau, 1 Hao Xian Xianzhuang Tu [Map of Current Land Use along Rail Transit Line1] (Suzhou Planning Bureau: unpublished, 2014), translated by the author, based on GB50137-2011.

Figure 3 Huo, Min, Guidaojiaotong Churukou Zhoubian Huanjing Zhenghe Yu Pingjia Yanjiu: Yi Suzhou Guidaojiaotong 1ă&#x20AC; 2 Hao Xian Weili [Assessment of Metro Entrances Integrated with Surrounding Urban Space: Take Suzhou Rail Transit Lines 1, 2 as Examples] (unpublished master's thesis, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, 2015), p. 86, translated by the author.

Figure 4 Guan, Mengdi, Chengshi Dixia Shangye Kongjian Sheji Yanjiu: Yi Shanghai Weili [Research on the Design of Urban Underground Commercial Space: Take

Newcastle University â&#x20AC;&#x201C; School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

Shanghai as an Example] (unpublished master's thesis, Soochow University, 2018), pp. 56-58, translated by the author.

Figure 5 Base map accessed from: http://map.baidu.com/?newmap=1&ie=utf8&s=s%26wd%3D%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%B9%BF%E5%9C%BA%20%E4 %B8%8A%E6%B5%B7 [accessed 27 January 2019], drawn by the author.

Newcastle University â&#x20AC;&#x201C; School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

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