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Copyright Š 2010 by Fred Duckworth. All rights reserved. This publication is copyrighted and may only be copied, distributed or displayed for personal use on an individual, one-time basis. Transmitting this work in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher is expressly prohibited. All copyright notifications must be included and you may not alter them in any way. Moreover, you may not alter, transform, or build upon this work, nor use this work for commercial purposes.
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Table of Contents Topic
Page
Introduction…………………………………………………………………...………… 4 Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points………………………………… 5 Commas………………………………………………………………………………… 6 Commas and Writing Style / Optional Uses for Commas ……………….....…….16 Colons …………………................................................................................…….18 Quotation Marks……………………………………………………...….……....….…20 Parentheses …………………………………………………………….……..….……22 Apostrophes Used to Show Possession……………………….……………..….…23 Apostrophes Used in Contractions…………………………………………………..25 Semicolons…….…………………….………………………………………………....27 Hyphens ………………………….……………………………………………………..31 Dashes ………………………………………...………………………………………..32 Braces and Brackets…………………………………………………………………..33 The Slash …………..………………...………………………………………………...34 Ellipses and Ampersands……………….…………………………………………….35
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Introduction Punctuation is an important part of written language. It is a symbolic system that includes periods, commas, and other visual cues which accompany words to form sentences and paragraphs—a collection of marks used to make it easier for a writer’s audience to understand what it is he or she is trying to say. When people have a conversation, they modify their speech in certain ways in order to clarify their messages. For example, they might...
raise or lower the volume at which they speak change their tone of voice or alter their pitch as they talk accelerate or decelerate the pace at which they converse leave short pauses or long gaps between certain words or word groups vary the expressions on their faces
However, when writing, you need punctuation marks to do all these things for you. Punctuation makes sentences easier to read by telling the reader how words are meant to be spoken, so you should get in the habit of reading through everything you write to see whether or not you can make it clearer by applying punctuation effectively. Use punctuation sort of like a traffic officer, to tell your readers when to stop, slow down, or when they are entering or leaving a particular part of a sentence. By learning how to use punctuation marks correctly, you will be mastering an important component of good grammar, which has to do with how sentences are formed. This may prove very helpful if you ever need to impress a teacher, college admissions office, of future employer. To help you use punctuation marks well, this handbook will explain each mark and provide you with directions and examples that clarify when and how to apply them, breaking down which particular application(s) should be taught at the various grade levels based on the academic standards adopted by California’s State Board of Education. However, mastering punctuation is more than simply memorizing a bunch of rules. There are some times when using a particular punctuation mark is optional and it’s up to the writer to decide how he or she is going to construct a particular sentence. Just keep in mind that the ultimate goal in punctuation is to always make things as clear for the reader as possible.
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Grade 1 PERIODS (.) A period lets you know where to pause (where to leave gaps) when you are reading. It is a small dot that is used to signal the end of a complete thought by marking the end of a sentence—or more specifically, by marking the end of a declarative sentence. A declarative sentence is a sentence that simply states a fact or argument. And what is a sentence? It is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate, and expresses a complete thought. The subject is the word or words that tell you what the sentence is mainly about. The predicate is the word or words that tell you what the subject is, what the subject does, or what the subject has.
QUESTION MARKS (?) A question mark, like a period, is used to signal the end of a complete thought. However, a question mark is used instead of a period, at the end of sentences that ask questions.
EXCLAMATION POINTS (!) An exclamation point (also referred to as an exclamation mark) is similar to both a period and a question mark in that it too can be used to signal the end of a complete thought. However, exclamation marks are also commonly used at the end of simple phrases. In either case, the purpose of the exclamation point is to signal surprise or excitement. (By the way, a phrase is a group of words that has a subject OR predicate, but NOT both.) 5
Grade 2 COMMAS (,) Generally speaking, a comma is similar to the previous three punctuation marks in that it also lets you know where to pause in order to enhance clarity and help prevent misreading in a sentence whose parts might otherwise run into each other. However, it marks a much shorter pause than a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and it is used in a large variety of different situations. EXAMPLE:
I was speaking to Bruce, not his older brother.
Another of the most common ways commas are used is to separate three or more items or words in a list or series. When used in this way, commas are basically standing in for the word “and.” EXAMPLE: Teachers, parents, students and administrators
were all in attendance.
Commas are also used to separate two or more adjectives that appear directly before the noun they describe, but only if they describe that same noun equally. EXAMPLE 1: This is a rough, dangerous neighborhood. EXAMPLE 2: He ventured out into the cold, dark night.
NOTE: The only time we do not use commas to separate words in a series is when two or more adjectives appearing directly before the noun they describe do not describe that noun equally—when they cannot be rearranged because each modifies the entire concept that follows EXAMPLE 1: The two old fellows could hardly get out of their chairs. EXAMPLE 2: That rickety old antique car is going to break down any day now.
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COMMAS, LETTERS, AND DATES Commas may also be used in the greeting of a friendly or informal letter. EXAMPLE:
Dear Martha,
Moreover, commas must me used in the closure of a letter. EXAMPLES:
Yours truly,
Sincerely,
Commas are used in dates to separate the day of the week from the month, and the day of the month from the year. EXAMPLE:
Friday, May 9, 2008
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Grade 3 COMMAS IN LOCATIONS In the 2nd grade you learned that commas can be used (1) to signal pauses within a sentence, (2) in the greeting of a friendly or informal letter, (3) in the closure of a letter, (4) in dates (to separate the day of the week from the month, and the day of the month from the year), (5) and to separate a series of three or more words or items. Well, commas are also used to separate cities and states when giving addresses or locations. EXAMPLE:
Lincoln, Nebraska
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Grade 4 COMMAS IN QUOTATIONS In the 3rd grade you learned that commas can be used (1) to signal pauses within a sentence, (2) in the greeting of a friendly or informal letter, (3) in the closure of a letter, (4) in dates (to separate the day of the week from the month, and the day of the month from the year), (5) to separate a series of three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses of equal rank, and (6) to separate cities and states when giving addresses or locations. Well, we will now look at how commas are used in combination with quotation marks. A comma is used in front of direct quotes that follow expressions like he said: EXAMPLE: We told them, “You are always welcome here.”
A comma is used at the end of direct quotes that precede expressions like he said: (unless a question mark or an exclamation point is required): EXAMPLE 1: “I was there,” she said. EXAMPLE 2: “Were you?” he responded. NOTE: the comma, question mark, or exclamation point must be inside of the closing quotation mark.
Commas are used when both of the above situations occur together. EXAMPLE 1: “I believe,” he replied, “that I am right.” EXAMPLE 2: “No,” I said, “you are not.”
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COMMAS IN QUOTATIONS (continued) NOTE: When an expression like he said is placed within a quote (as above), the punctuation at the end of the expression could be a comma, or it could be a semicolon or period. It all depends on the closeness of the connection between the two halves of the quote: EXAMPLE 1: “We think,” they replied, “it was on Tuesday.” EXAMPLE 2: “No,” I said, “you can’t do that.” EXAMPLE 3: “She can afford it,” I replied; “she has plenty of money.” EXAMPLE 4: “We won’t go,” she said. “We weren’t invited.” EXAMPLE 5: “Why did he come?” She asked. “He hates this stuff!”
NOTE: A quoted word, phrase or expression that is introduced into a sentence informally does not require that a comma precede it… EXAMPLE: Everyone says the former champ is now “over the hill.”
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Grade 5 COMMAS, CLAUSES, AND PHRASES In the second grade you learned that one of the most common ways commas are used is to separate three or more items (or words) in a list or series Well, when the separated items are not words, they are very often either phrases or sometimes clauses. That’s right. Commas are used to separate three or more items in a list or series, including phrases. EXAMPLE: Julie opened the garage door, took out her bike, and began riding down the street (Remember, a phrase is a group of words that has a subject or a predicate, but NOT both.)
And again, commas are used to separate three or more items in a list or series when those items are subordinate clauses of equal rank. EXAMPLE: Dad said that we would have to go with him, that everything had already been arranged, and that we would have to wait until tomorrow to see the movie. (By the way, a clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. It may, or may not express a complete thought. In other words, it can either form part of a sentence or constitute an entire simple sentence.)
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Grade 6 COMMAS USED TO JOIN SENTENCES We’ve already seen that commas can be used (1) to signal pauses within a sentence, (2) in the greeting of an informal letter, (3) in the closure of any letter, (4) in dates (to separate the day of the week from the month, and the day of the month from the year), (5) to separate a series of three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses of equal rank, (6) to separate cities and states when giving addresses or locations, and (7) in combination with quotation marks. Well, commas are not only good for separating parts of a sentence. They can also bring sentences together to form bigger more beautiful compound sentences—sentences formed by joining two or more independent clauses. (Remember, a clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. It may, or may not express a complete thought. In other words, it either forms part of a sentence or constitutes a complete simple sentence. Clauses that constitute an entire simple sentence are called independent clauses.) A comma is used before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, nor, and yet) that joins two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. For instance, “The second door was thrown open,” is a complete sentence, and so is, “The visitors all walked into the grand hall.” Since they are two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction, a comma may be placed immediately before the word “and.” EXAMPLE: The second door was thrown open, and the visitors all walked into the grand hall.
NOTE: No comma is needed if the conjunction is merely being used to join a compound subject or compound predicate. EXAMPLE 1: Terry and Monica are in the same Spanish class. EXAMPLE 2: Victoria went to the mall and bought a new sweater.
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Grade 7 COMMAS AND INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS You’ve already learned that commas can be used (1) to signal pauses within a sentence, (2) in the greeting of an informal letter, (3) in the closure of any letter, (4) in dates (to separate the day of the week from the month, and the day of the month from the year), (5) to separate a series of three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses of equal rank, (6) to separate cities and states when giving addresses or locations, (7) in combination with quotation marks, and (8) in compound sentences formed by linking two clauses using a conjunction: Another time commas are used is after (to set off) introductory material in situations where we basically just want to separate introductory elements from the rest of the sentence—elements such as interjections, prepositional phrases, participle phrases, independent clauses, dependent clauses, or subordinate clauses. Writers sometimes choose to start a sentence with a clause or phrase before the subject and verb are introduced. These groups of words often provide additional information about the action of the sentence. Insert a comma after these types of introductory words (interjections, prepositional phrases, participle phrases, subordinate clauses, etc.) EXAMPLE 1: Oh, I forgot what I was supposed to do after school today. EXAMPLE 2: Although the weather was cold, we still enjoyed the football game. EXAMPLE 3: Because he was sick in bed, Kareem missed the chemistry test. EXAMPLE 4: In the lyrics of most rap artists, positive messages are nonexistent.
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COMMAS AND INTERRUPTING ELEMENTS Commas are also used to isolate (surround) an interrupting element from the rest of the sentence. Interrupters can take the form of interrupting expressions, nouns of direct address (when a person or group is being spoken to directly), appositive phrases (words used in apposition), and nonrestrictive clauses (clauses that are not essential to the meaning of the sentences in which they appear). Generally speaking, if and interrupting element can be removed from the sentence without changing the sentence’s meaning, we should use commas. EXAMPLE 1: Roscoe, your roommate called and wants you to call him back. EXAMPLE 2: Come, my dear friends, let us all rejoice. EXAMPLE 3: Carla, my sister, is leaving for Lake Placid today. EXAMPLE 4: In my experience, it pays to prepare ahead of time. Here are some “interrupters” that are frequently surrounded by commas:
additionally as a result furthermore in addition moreover in the same way likewise similarly however nevertheless in contrast first
second third finally meanwhile for example for instance indeed of course on the other hand consequently hence therefore thus
NOTE: When you use one of the above words or phrases to join two complete sentences, a semicolon must come before it and a comma must come after it. EXAMPLE: All of us left at six o'clock; however, Keisha refused to come.
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COMMAS, NONESSENTIAL ELEMENTS, AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES Set off nonessential elements (additional information about a noun that is not necessary in order to understand what person, place, or thing is being referred to) with commas. Place commas on both ends of this type of information. EXAMPLE 1: “Focus,” written by JD Webb, is my favorite song. EXAMPLE 2: I thoroughly enjoy my iPod, a wonderful invention indeed.
And finally, commas are used within an entry in a bibliography: EXAMPLE: A. Dodd, “The Eye,” Vol. II, p. 17.
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COMMAS AND WRITING STYLE / OPTIONAL USES FOR COMMAS Did you think that was it? Well, we can also use commas to make stylistic changes in our writing. We already mentioned that you can place a comma before a coordinating conjunction to form a bigger, more beautiful compound sentence (while making sure it is still easy for the reader to understand). However, some regard this as an option rather than a rule, and consider it to be a matter of stylistic choice.
COMMAS AND ADVERBS Another way commas can be used stylistically is to set words on pedestals. Since commas tend to slow a reader down, you can use them to draw the reader's attention to a particular part of a sentence—a great way to add a hint of drama to your writing, as when surrounding an adverb in order to give it special emphasis. Whether you use a comma in such cases is a matter of style, not rule, so the decision about whether or not to use a comma is up to you. Take a look at this example: SENTENCE 1: He drew the shiny object slowly from his vest. SENTENCE 2: He drew the shiny object, slowly, from his vest. In the first sentence, no comma was used before or and after the adverb to separate it from the rest of the sentence. In the second sentence, the commas slowed down the reader and the visual pauses gave the word slowly a little more emphasis. Technically, whether or not you use commas with adverbs is up to you (since it’s optional and either way is correct). Moreover, when an adverb comes at the beginning of a sentence, it's just as common to use a comma as not to use one. However, when an adverb is in the middle of the sentence, nine times out of 10 you'll be better off not using commas, since slowing the reader down for no reason at all is a clear no-no.
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COMMAS AND SENTENCE VARIETY Long complicated sentences do not demonstrate good writing, and in fact, short sentences often pack the most punch. If all of your sentences twist and turn throughout your entire piece, you’ll need to break them up into smaller statements. But, if ALL of your sentences are short, your writing is apt to sound boring and stilted. The best writing contains sentences of varying lengths interspersed throughout the work. Thai food, spaghetti sauce, and even oatmeal with paprika, spice up our diet. Similarly, using a variety of sentence lengths within our writing will add interest to our work. By using a coordinating conjunction like or, and, or but, we can hook two independent clauses together, giving us a compound sentence. For example, here we have two sentences. SENTENCE 1: Clarice loves classical music. SENTENCE 2: Theodore hates it. Each one is an independent clause. Now, let's enter the coordinating conjunction “but.” COMPOUND SENTENCE: Clarice loves classical music but Theodore hates it. By sticking “but” in between the two sentences we fused them to form a compound sentence. Now we have to make a decision. Do we leave the sentence the way it is, without commas, or do we place a comma before the coordinating conjunction “but.” Some say that this is a matter of style and that there is no definitive rule—that it's optional and that the choice is yours. They would advise you to only use a comma before the conjunction if the first clause is really long, as in this example. EXAMPLE: Clarice loves classical music when it is performed well by highly trained musicians, but Theodore hates it. Without a comma this sentence is a lot harder to read, so you don't want to leave a sentence like the one above totally “comma-less.” At Vernondale Christian Academy, however, you are required to use a comma before a coordinating conjunction connecting two independent clauses, so please do so.
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Grade 2 COLONS (:) Use a colon to separate hours and minutes when writing times. EXAMPLE: 12:03 P.M.
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Grade 6 COLONS In the second grade you learned that a colon is used to separate hours and minutes when writing times. Well, a colon is, generally speaking, also used to introduce a list. For example, a colon is used to introduce a formal listing of details following a general statement: EXAMPLE The Old Testament has three divisions: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings.
A colon is also used before a specific explanation of a general statement: EXAMPLE Mother’s directions were clear: we were to turn off the television at ten o’clock, be in bed by ten thirty, and have the lights out by eleven. And if you don’t already know, a colon follows the salutation of a business letter. EXAMPLE: Dear Mr. Peabody:
DOUBLE COLONS Both colons and double colons are used in writing analogies. An analogy is a set of two word pairs in which the first pair of words is matched with a second pair of words, with the two words within each pair being related in the same way (logically speaking). EXAMPLE: large : big :: triumph : victory The colons between the words mean, “is related to,” and the double colon means “in the same way as. So, the analogy above is read: “Large is related to big in the same way as triumph is related to victory.” (If you like, you can simply shorten the sentence to say, “Large is to big as triumph is to success.”)
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Grade 3 QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”) Use quotation marks when you write the exact words that someone has spoken. We told them, “You’re always welcome here.”
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Grade 5 MORE ABOUT QUOTATION MARKS We already learned that you use quotation marks when you write the exact words that someone has spoken. But, quotation marks are also used when a quoted phrase or word is informally introduced into a sentence. (Such situations do not call for a comma to precede the quoted material.) EXAMPLE: I hear your uncle Pete is a “Jack of all trades.”
Quotation marks often enclose slang words: EXAMPLE: That metallic green paint simply “rocks.”
Quotation marks enclose the titles of poems, songs, magazine articles, and short stories (that appear within another publication): EXAMPLES: Take out your anthologies and read “By the Brook” on page 196. She recited “The Peace Within” by Walter Falter. Alyssa read an article titled “Persuading Adults.”
A quote within a quote is enclosed by a single quotation mark. EXAMPLE: “When she said, ‘I was there,’ she wasn’t telling the truth,” Mother explained.
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Grade 4 PARENTHESES ( ) Parentheses are frequently used to indicate an interruption in a sentence, or to signal a break in a line of thought: EXAMPLE: The prince (we call him that because he is extremely conceited) is actually the principal’s son. (Please note however that most of today’s writers generally prefer to use the dash instead.)
Use parentheses to enclose certain minor explanations or details, as in the following two examples. EXAMPLE #1: See the accompanying diagram (Fig. 7) on page 235. EXAMPLE #2: The district is represented by Senator Tim Ryan (Democrat).
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Grade 4 APOSTROPHES USED TO SHOW POSSESSION (‘) An apostrophe looks like a comma, but it is placed near the top of the letters instead of at the bottom. One of its uses is to form a possessive noun.
SINGULAR POSSESSIVE NOUNS A possessive noun shows ownership of things or qualities (it shows that a thing or a quality belongs to someone or something else). In the case of singular nouns that do not end with an s, you form the possessive by adding an apostrophe along with the letter s (-‘s). EXAMPLES:
cat's food
VIP’s seat
In the case of singular nouns that do end with an s, as well as x, z, ch, or sh, the possessive is still formed by adding an apostrophe along with the letter s. EXAMPLE: witness’s testimony However, if a singular noun ending with s, x, z, ch, or sh is directly followed by a word beginning with s, you form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe. EXAMPLE:
witness’ story
EXCEPTIONS TO THE ABOVE If a singular noun has two sibilant sounds (consonants that hiss—especially “s” and “z”) then only an apostrophe is added. EXAMPLE: A rhesus’ cheeks have pouches. Also, when a singular proper noun ends with an s, you add only an apostrophe to form the possessive. EXAMPLES:
Achilles’ heel
Chris’ shoe
And finally, if a singular noun is plural in its form, then only the apostrophe is added. EXAMPLE: mathematics’ formulas. 23
PLURAL POSSESSIVE NOUNS When a plural noun ends with s or es, form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe. You add the apostrophe to the very end of the word, after the final s (-s’). EXAMPLES:
teachers’ lounge
girls’ movies
However, when you have a plural noun that does not end with an s, it is treated exactly the same as a singular noun that does not end with an s. In other words, you form the possessive by adding an apostrophe along with the letter s (-‘s) EXAMPLE:
women’s rights
people's court
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children’s toys
Grade 4 APOSTROPHES USED IN CONTRACTIONS An apostrophe is also used to show that you have left out one or more letters in a contraction A contraction is two words combined into one, with an apostrophe taking the place of a missing letter or letters. Since the apostrophe indicates a missing letter or letters, do not make the mistake of placing the apostrophe between the two words. WRONG:
should’nt
The above spelling is incorrect because the apostrophe is not taking the place of the missing “o” in the word “not.” The correct spelling is as follows: EXAMPLE: shouldn’t Contractions are most often used in informal or personal types of writing, but usually not in more formal types. Here are some common contractions: 1. Verb with “not” contracted or shortened aren't don't isn't wasn't can't weren’t doesn't hasn't haven’t couldn't
wouldn't
(Note: The word “won’t” is a contraction of “will not.” In older dialects the word “will” was often spelled with an “o.” 2. Pronouns with “will” I'll you'll he'll she'll
they'll
3. Pronouns and with the verb “to be” I'm you’re who's (i.e., who is) he’s they’re 4. Pronouns with the verb “to have” I’ve he’s she’s you’ve we’ve
she's
they’ve
5. Pronouns with “would” or ”had” contracted I’d he’d she'd you'd we'd they’d
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it's
we’re
Please note these four confusing contractions:
who’s
it’s
you’re
they’re
Don’t confuse who’s (who is/has) with the possessive pronoun whose. Don’t confuse you’re (you are) with the possessive pronoun your. Don’t confuse it’s (it is/has) with the possessive pronoun its. Don’t confuse they’re (they are) with the possessive pronoun their or with the preposition there.
FINAL WORD ON APOSTROPHES Actually, an apostrophe—generally speaking—can be used not only in a contraction, but also to take the place of any omitted letters or numbers: class of ’72
the roaring ’20s
rock ’n’ roll
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Grade 6 SEMICOLONS (;) \
A semicolon is used to show balance between two ideas. That is to say, it connects two independent clauses that are related and balanced, but not joined by a conjunction. In other words, it separates—but also links—independent clauses in place of a coordinating conjunction or ellipsis. EXAMPLE 1: She is the silly one; her sister is the studious one. EXAMPLE 2: The check was due today; it will arrive tomorrow.
A semicolon may also be used between clauses that are connected by a conjunction—provided they are long clauses—especially if there are commas within these clauses: EXAMPLE: She had studied Greek philosophy, befriended the greatest modern thinkers, and traveled throughout the continent of Asia; but now she was coming back home to Skokie, Oklahoma. And we’re not just limited to clauses. You can use a semicolon to avoid confusion when separating any long list of items where commas simply can’t get the job done on their own, such as multiple phrases that already contain commas. Again, in such situations, semicolons are used to separate the items to ensure clarity. For example, if we wanted to use commas to separate the four chores that Reginald’s mom made him do, we’d have no problem. It would simply be a matter of joining four simple phrases: EXAMPLE 1: Reginald's Mom made him clean up his room, pick up some things at the grocery store, wash the car, and feed the lampreys. But suppose we changed the construction of the items in our list. Now we have:
clean his room, remembering to vacuum under his bed pick up some things at the grocery store, especially milk and juice wash the car feed the lampreys
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Some of the above items already have commas. So, if we use more commas to try to separate them we get… Reginald's mom made him clean his room, remembering to the vacuum under his bed, pick up some things at the grocery store, especially milk and juice, wash the car, and feed the lampreys. That’s pretty confusing to read, don’t you think? When we are listing a bunch of phrases like this—ones that already contain commas—we can use semicolons to separate them. EXAMPLE 2: Reginald's mom made him clean his room, remembering to the vacuum under his bed; pick up some things at the grocery store, especially milk and juice; wash the car; and feed the lampreys. Do you see how the semicolons make it so much easier to read? And notice that when we decided to go the semicolon route, we have to use them all the way through the sentence, even though the last two items in our list did not have commas. Once you start using semicolons in a list, you have to use them all the way through to the end. Here is another example where a semicolon may is used between a bunch of phrases that already contain commas: EXAMPLE: In front of us we saw a tired, wrinkled woman, leading a mangy dog with shaggy grayish hair; two cats, gaunt and underfed; and a spry young man of the cloth, who had evidently taken this pitiable group in hand.
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Grade 8 SEMICOLONS AND CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS We learned that a semicolon is used (1) between two or more main clauses that are not connected by a conjunction, (2) between clauses that are connected by a conjunction—provided they are long clauses—especially if there are commas within them, and (3) between multiple phrases that already contain commas. However, a semicolon is also used to join clauses beginning with other connectives, which are referred to as conjunctive adverbs, such as words like therefore, likewise, and nevertheless. This is regardless of the length of such clauses (see p. 14). In these cases, the second independent clause usually explains or summarizes preceding material or constitutes some kind of transition. EXAMPLES: We were told that you wanted us to come at once; nevertheless, we were sure this would have been a fatal mistake. You do not have to worry about my grades; in fact, I am doing better this year than I have ever done before. Additional conjunctive adverbs…
accordingly all the same also as a result besides by the same token consequently furthermore hence Indeed in that case likewise moreover on the other hand otherwise still then, and thus 29
SEMICOLONS AND COMPARISONS Semicolons are used for separating comparisons as well: EXAMPLE 1: A photographer produces copies; a painter creates interpretations. EXAMPLE 2: I was born a talker; I have been remade a listener.
SEMICOLON RULE: A semicolon should be placed outside quotation marks and parentheses.
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Grade 7 HYPHENS (-) The hyphen is a short, horizontal mark used most often to combine compound words. However, you also use a hyphen to show the division of a word at the end of a line. When doing so, always divide the word between syllables. EXAMPLE: The scientist began writing a great number of extremely com – plicated plans to prepare for his experiments. And as already mentioned, hyphens are used to form certain compound words. EXAMPLES: twenty-six
four-fifths
self-evident
Hyphens are used to separate non-inclusive numbers such as phone numbers and Social Security numbers. EXAMPLE: 555-555-5555 When using the hyphen, you should not leave a space before it or after it, with the one exception being a hanging hyphen, which has a space after it, but not before it. EXAMPLE: I greatly enjoy twelfth- and eleventh-century art.
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Grade 7 EN DASHES ( – ) The en dash is the length of the width of a typesetter’s letter N. It is slightly longer than the hyphen, but not quite as long as the em dash. The en dash simply means “through.” We use it most commonly to indicate inclusive dates and numbers. EXAMPLES:
May 11–June 16
pp. 45–51
When using the en dash you should not leave a space either before or after it.
EM DASHES ( — ) The em dash is about twice as long as the en dash. We use the em dash to signal a break in a line of thought or to indicate an emphatic interruption in a sentence. EXAMPLE: The prince of Jefferson High School—we called him that because he was such an arrogant jerk—was really an undercover cop.
An em dash is particularly useful in a sentence that is long and complex or in one that has a number of commas within it. EXAMPLE: Dashes can be used in pairs like parentheses—that is, to enclose a word, phrase or clause, as in this example—or they can be used alone to detach one end of a sentence from the main body.
Did you catch that? An em dash can be used to detach one end of a sentence from the main body.
As with the en dash, when using the em dash you should not leave a space either before or after it 32
Grade 7 BRACES { } Braces are used to enclose words or figures when showing the relationship of elements in a group.
BRACKETS [ ] Brackets, which are also used to enclose words or figures, are most commonly used as “parentheses” within parentheses—when parentheses themselves need to be enclosed. EXAMPLE: My uncle was excoriated by his critics (for an article published in the Times [December 2, 2001] in which he said the soon-to-be bankrupt company was flourishing) because he failed to get his facts straight. Another use is to insert missing letters or to enclose insertions that take the place of or slightly alter the original text. EXAMPLE: [They] may replace a long list of items previously mentioned. Brackets may also be used to insert words in quoted matter for explanatory, correctional, or commentary reasons. (They are also used in unquoted material for the same reasons.) Brackets are used in mathematical expressions to show matter to be treated as a unit. EXAMPLE: [(3 x 4) + (2 x 9)] – 16 = ___
And finally, brackets are used for chemical formulas and to enclose phonetic symbols.
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Grade 8 THE SLASH ( / ) A slash (or stroke) is a punctuation mark most commonly used to separate numbers in dates, fractions, and telephone numbers, e.g. 2/7/2008. Another common use of the slash is to represent “or” or “and/or” in alternatives such as: his/hers. Closely related to the use that appears directly above, a slash may also be employed to separate expressions that indicate a choice, e.g. pass/fail, on/off. When set off by spaces, a slash can be used to separate parts of an address (e.g. Workman Publishing / 708 Broadway / New York, New York) or to divide lines of poetry that is either written as continuous text or quoted within sentences. In some instances, a slash represents the word “and” (e.g. 1990/91, Minneapolis/St. Paul).
A slash can also be used to represent prepositions such as at, for, versus, and with, as illustrated below: o o
c/o Clark and Associates (in care of Clark and Associates) w/dressing (with dressing)
A slash may be used to represent “per” or “to” in measures and ratios, as in these examples: o o
2 ft / min price / earnings ratio
And finally, slashes are used for chemical formulas and to enclose phonetic symbols, e.g. /ă /.
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Grade 8 ELIPSES (…) The ellipsis is a series of three dots that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the original text. It can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an unfinished thought or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence.
AMPERSANDS (&) The ampersand is a symbol for the word “and” and is used when it is part of a formal name (as for a company). EXAMPLE: Baltimore & Ohio Railroad It can also be used in place of the word “and” in extremely informal writing situations. And finally, the ampersand can be used in “initialisms” as well. In such cases, no spaces are placed between the ampersand and the letters it joins. EXAMPLE: R&D
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