Study on Sustainable City Districts Good Practices from Ten European Reference Cases
Mitra Modarress-Sadeghi Tanja Konstari
City of Turku | Urban Planning | June 2015
City of Turku Environmental Publications 1|2015 Turun kaupungin ympäristÜjulkaisuja 1|2015
Study on Sustainable City Districts Good Practices from Ten European Reference Cases
© City of Turku 2015 Authors: Mitra Modarress-Sadeghi, Tanja Konstari Project team: Risto Veivo, Christina Hovi, Oscu Uurasmaa, Laurent Druey Acknowledgements: Siemens AG, City of Helsinki, City of Porvoo, City of Tampere, City of Freiburg, City of Malmö, City of Stockholm, City of Vienna, Petri Liski, Juha Lipponen Layout: Tanja Konstari, Samuli Saarinen Printed by: Printing Services, City of Turku, 2015
ISSN 2343-0222 (printed version) ISSN 2343-0222 (painettu) ISSN 2343-0710 (electronic publication) ISSN 2343-0710 (verkkojulkaisu)
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 7 1.1 Introduction of the study ........................................................................................... 7 1.2 Project goals and partners ........................................................................................ 7 1.3 Facts about Skanssi and Castle Town ...................................................................... 8 2 DEFINING A SUSTAINABLE DISTRICT ......................................................................... 11 2.1 The concept of sustainable development ............................................................... 11 2.2 Sustainability in the built environment ................................................................... 11 2.3 Sustainable urban areas in Finland......................................................................... 13 2.4 Pioneering sustainable cities in Northern and Central Europe ............................. 13 3 REFERENCE DISTRICTS ............................................................................................... 16 3.1 Process of choosing the reference districts .......................................................... 16 3.1.1 Reference districts in the first phase .................................................................... 16 3.1.2 Reference districts in the second phase ............................................................... 16 3.2 Presentation of the chosen reference districts ...................................................... 18 3.3 Good practices from the reference districts ........................................................... 70 3.4 Characteristics of the reference districts ............................................................... 74 4 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 76 4.1 Lessons learnt from the reference districts ........................................................... 76 4.2 Benchmarking of reference cases .......................................................................... 77 5 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 79
APPENDIX
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction of the study The City of Turku is aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to a sustainable level. An interim target for 2020 is a reduction of emissions by 30 per cent from the 1990 level and by 2040 the city should be carbon-neutral. The city has already cut greenhouse emissions by over 20 per cent mainly through increasing the use of renewable energy sources in district heating. Sustainable development is an important basis of city planning in Turku. A new master plan 2035 is under preparation, and sustainable development can be seen in many ways in its goals. One important goal of the city is to create a more attractive and sustainable city structure. Turku aspires to offer pleasant accommodation in comfortable residential areas and at the same time lower greenhouse gas emissions. This report introduces applicable sustainable solutions especially for two city districts in Turku – Skanssi and Castle Town. The study was conducted by the City of Turku in order to examine some of the successfully created sustainable city districts in Europe, as well as a number of districts that are still in the initial development phases. In addition to the presentation of examples of pioneering ecodistricts, a number of recent sustainable urban development projects with the focus on providing smart and sustainable solutions for living are introduced. The information on the reference districts is mainly based on publicly available data from official sources including published reports of the projects, information from the local city authorities and persons involved in the development projects, and internet pages of the cities and projects. Reports and articles related to the reference districts were used for the study as well. The information has been gathered mostly in 2012, but some parts of it have been updated in 2013 and 2015. Even if the aim of this study has been to find applicable solutions and strategies for the two sustainable districts of Skanssi and Castle Town in Turku, the findings present a general overview of how sustainable city districts are developed and what kind of issues are considered in the development process. Therefore, lessons learnt from these reference districts are not restricted to sustainable urban development projects in Finland, but can be utilized also in such projects elsewhere.
1.2 Project goals and partners Siemens and the City of Turku signed a ground-breaking three-year strategic cooperation agreement in 2012. This agreement launched a new type of cooperation model between a multi-national company and a mid-sized city, based on mutual contributions, transparency and involvement of stakeholders. One of the three initial focus areas of the cooperation agreement was sustainable development for the new residential areas in Skanssi and Castle Town. Siemens and the City of Turku worked together to determine innovative yet in five-years-time available technologies and other ways for creating not only the new Skanssi district and the Castle Town area but also other sustainable districts. Goals of the cooperation project included:1  Gaining an understanding of the impacts of various new technologies on the urban environment and planning of urban areas  Supporting the development of sustainable city districts in Skanssi and Castle Town and the growth of Turku as a pioneer of sustainable urban development in Europe by creating a toolbox which describes relevant technologies, policies and best practices regarding the planning and implementation of green city districts 1
City of Turku & Siemens AG (2013). 7

Producing a joint concept paper by City of Turku & Siemens as a guideline for development of sustainable districts describing general planning issues and specific practices for Skanssi and Castle Town.
In the process the focus was in surveying already existing and still developing sustainable districts which could be used as reference districts primarily for Skanssi and Castle Town and later for other city districts in Turku. The goal of studying and comparing other sustainable regions was to eventually find cost-efficient, significant practices which could be used in Turku as well.
1.3 Facts about Skanssi and Castle Town Skanssi and Castle Town are two city districts which are going to be developed to sustainable residential areas. The two areas are very different in nature, but the planning of both districts is going to be sustainable in many ways, and the process will focus on the integration of a variety of sustainable infrastructure technologies and solutions.2 Skanssi area is scheduled to be fully built approximately in 2030 and Castle Town around 2035. Skanssi is a greenfield area located between two forest ridges, two main roads of Helsinki highway and regional road 110. The distance from Skanssi to the centre of Turku is approximately 4 kilometres and there are already buses running from Skanssi to the centre. Construction of the first phase of the residential area of Skanssi started in 2011, and a new shopping mall, Skanssi, opened to public in 2009. Castle Town is located near the city centre. A bit more than a half of the planning area of Castle Town consists of so called brownfield areas. These abandoned or under-used industrial and railroad areas are challenging for the developing process because the contained soil requires vast measures before it can be used for housing, offices or business premises. Castle Town is still under planning, and the construction work is planned to start around 2016.
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City of Turku & Siemens AG (2013). 8
Photo: City of Turku
Skanssi Turku, Finland
Facts about Skanssi Construction area: 85 ha Construction started: 2011 Construction completed: 2030 Population: 8,000 Dwellings: 3,000−5,000 Distance from the city centre: 4 km
The overall goal of the Skanssi project is to create a modern and innovative district, which will be ecologically, economically as well as socially sustainable. Skanssi is envisioned to have a diverse population. A variety of public and commercial services as well as workplaces will be provided in the area, and the focus of the jobs will be on local services, home-based working and micro-businesses.3
Preliminary outline of the Skanssi area. (Picture: City of Turku)
Energy production from renewable energy sources will be supported in the area, and smart electricity grid applications are planned to be an important part of the new district to decrease energy usage. In cooperation with Turku Energia a low temperature district heating network and two-way heat trade are going to be developed in the area. In addition, different kinds of local solutions of heat production are piloted and developed in Skanssi. Public transport is going to be promoted in the area, and priority is given to cyclists and pedestrians as well. The possibility of a rail tramway line is considered, and a carpool system offering shared cars for residents is also under preparation. The overall need for transport will be decreased as there will be working places and a good level of services near the housing area including a school, a kindergarten, a grocery and leisure activities. There are many ecological goals set for Skanssi. Natural resources of the area are being valued, and stormwater is going to be treated locally and in a sustainable manner. The goal is to create attractive recreational areas which can also function as inspirational learning environments. A versatile mix of accommodation, ownership and residents is also important in the planning of Skanssi. Participation of the residents already in the planning phase is promoted, and possibilities for interaction of the residents in their future living environment will be taken into account.
3
City of Turku & Siemens AG (2013). 9
Photo: City of Turku
Castle Town Turku, Finland Facts about Castle Town Construction area: 270 ha Construction starts: around 2016 Construction completed: 2035 Population: 10,000 new ones (plus 3,000 existing) Distance from the city centre: 2–3 km
The main goal of the planning of Castle Town is to create a residential area planned under the principles of ecological, economical and both social and cultural sustainability. Castle Town is going to be a vibrant and innovative district offering various opportunities for an urban lifestyle and businesses.4 Master plan of Castle Town. (Picture: City of Turku)
Castle Town is located near the city centre of Turku, but at present the area is not connected to the centre as well as it could be. Integrating Castle Town to the centre by building new footpaths and cycling networks and by connecting the harbour area to its surroundings, for example, are important targets of the planning process. Public transport connections are going to be developed in the district, and the possibility of a rail tramway line is taken into account in the detail plans of the area. Also car sharing possibilities are taken into account in the planning process. Substantial improvement in the built environment of Castle Town is one essential goal of the planning. The general appearance of the dispersed brownfield areas is going to be improved and the built areas are going to be transformed to a more urban appearance. However, several historically valuable buildings such as the medieval Turku Castle and its surroundings are going to be preserved in the future as well. There is going to be a variety of residents in Castle Town. Both owner occupied dwellings and rented apartments are going to be built in the area, and especially child families are targeted to move into the area. Different services such as schools, a health care centre and a library are planned for the district as well, and there will be some 10,000 or more new work places in the area. The buildings in Castle Town are going to be built in a sustainable manner. Solar energy will be used in the buildings when possible and there will be green roofs in the flat roof houses. There will also be open squares, parks and water in different forms placed in the area, and stormwater is going to be treated in a sustainable way.
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City of Turku & Siemens AG (2013). 10
2 DEFINING A SUSTAINABLE DISTRICT 2.1 The concept of sustainable development Sustainability and sustainable development have many definitions. The most frequently used definition is from United Nations report Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report5: ‘Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’ The definition dates back to 1987 when the document was published for the first time. Another definition by the World Conservation Union6 states that sustainable development means “improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems”. In the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED or the Rio Summit) held in 1992, a declaration of 27 principles of sustainability was listed. These sustainable development goals (SDGs) included, for example, poverty eradication, environmental sustainability and sustainable consumption and production.7,8 Twenty years later, in Rio+20 conference held in 2012, the focus was on two themes: ‘green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication’ and ‘the institutional framework for sustainable development’9. UNEP10 defines a green economy as one that creates ‘improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities’. In a green economy, carbon emissions and pollution are being reduced, both energy and resource efficiency are being improved and the economy is socially inclusive overall. In addition, the conservation of biodiversity and different kinds of ecosystem services is being paid attention to in green economies. Public and private investments are targeted to these aspects which ultimately result as a growth of income and employment in the economies. Generally, sustainable development is perceived to consist of three parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and socio-political sustainability. Later a fourth part or pillar of cultural diversity and sustainability has been added to the definition.
2.2 Sustainability in the built environment Sustainability has an important role also in the built environment, as it is created by a balance between ecological, societal and economic factors in a living area11. The environmental dimension of sustainability is often one of the main points of concern related to housing districts. Issues of energy efficiency and preservation of biodiversity and ecosystems are considered practically in all residential areas that represent sustainable or green building. The societal side of sustainability in housing districts can consist of social equity, sense of community and well-being of residents. Also the economic side is important in sustainable building, for all the solutions used are most often targeted to be cost-effective. The lifespan costs of these solutions are normally a part of evaluating the overall cost-effectiveness. The environmental dimension of sustainability is important to be recognised, for the world is fighting today with the possible and already existing impacts of environmental change. Cities are in an extremely important role in decreasing the climate-threatening emissions because today over 50 per cent of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and over 73 per cent of all energy is consumed and 69 per cent of carbon dioxide emissions are produced in urban environments.12
5
United Nations (1987). World Conservation Union (1991). 7 UNEP (1992). 8 IGES (2012). 9 United Nations (2011). 10 UNEP (2012). 11 Sitra, Tekes & VTT (2011). 12 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 6
11
World’s developing economies are still urbanizing rapidly, and this makes sustainable development in urban areas even more important in the future. Despite of this challenge cities are also concentrations in which a lot of economic, social and innovative activity flourishes. Cities are the places where innovations of newest sustainable practices often develop. Cities also have the financial opportunities to create and develop sustainable investments and solutions.13 According to a study by the McKinsey Global Institute14, the building sector is the most energyconsuming sector with a share of 31% of global energy demand. Residential housing alone is responsible for approximately 25% of global energy use.15 In Europe, urban construction and demolition also produce more than half of all the waste.16 In addition to the high level of energy consumption and vast amount of emissions of buildings and construction, transport is another factor contributing to the large amount of emissions in built environments.17 Decreasing greenhouse gas emissions produced by the burning of fossil fuels and increasing overall energy efficiency is crucial when trying to address the climate change. The reduction of emissions requires increasing energy efficiency in production and consumption of energy, which calls for adapting to new energy management practices. Inefficient energy policies have been a part of the development of Europe and North America for many years, but now developed countries have started to pay attention to the need of reducing CO2 emissions and other pollutants. In Europe, for example, a lot of improvement in reducing greenhouse gases has already been achieved.18,19 The high energy consumption and the resulting high level of greenhouse gases of the built environment contribute to its essential part in the goal of mitigating climate change and increasing sustainability of the living environment20. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is not, however, the only priority for sustainable areas. Healthiness, attractiveness and economical successfulness are all important as well. There are many factors that can together create a functioning sustainable residential district. The most important themes that should be focused on in sustainable residential areas are:21
Governance o Well managed o Effective participation Transport and mobility o Functioning transport linkages o As many as possible services etc. at walking distance o Good public transport limited car usage Environment o Low energy consumption o Minimizing the production of waste o Recycling o Environmental friendly materials o Minimizing water consumption Economy o Prosperous local economy Services o Public, private, community & voluntary services accessible to all residents Equity o Equal opportunities for all (affordable dwellings and services, public open spaces etc.) Diversity o A mixture of social categories and generations
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Wood (2011). McKinsey Global Institute (2009). 15 Pinkse & Dommisse (2010). 16 European Commission (2004). 17 Sitra, Tekes & VTT (2011). 18 World Conservation Union (1991). 19 Siemens AG (2009). 20 Pinkse & Dommisse (2010). 21 Energy Cities (2012). 14
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Mixed use o A mixture of functions: for living, working, recreational and commercial purposes Identity o A strong local culture o Sense of community o A clear centre is needed in a district Citizens’ and residents’ participation, cooperation and involvement
Urban areas can reduce the ecological footprint and create a more sustainable global economy by investing in green practices in energy, transport, buildings and technology as well as in water and waste management systems. All this can be achieved by using sustainable development strategies in both existing city districts and greenfield areas.22
2.3 Sustainable urban areas in Finland In Finland, the northern location and cold climate conditions create special requirements for built environments. Due to the cold weather, energy efficiency needs to be considered in all buildings. The buildings in Finland are rather young and well-maintained in comparison with many other countries, and other features of Finnish urban areas include the relatively small size of populated areas and long distances between them. The long distances result in longer work trips and high construction and maintenance costs for the infrastructure.23 Finnish buildings have actually been constructed in an energy efficient manner already for decades. The level of knowledge and technologies in the field is high, and in recent years, sustainability has become a part of the building practices in Finland. The demand for sustainability has been altering the construction industry and market, as both customers and decision makers are starting to support the increase of low-carbon building.24 Finland used to be a pioneering country in energy efficiency after the energy crisis of the late 1970s. Today, Finland is committed both internationally and nationally to some challenging targets of reducing greenhouse gases, increasing renewable energy usage and improving energy efficiency overall. The goal is to reach the energy efficiency requirements set for 2020 already in the year 2017 and at the same time to reclaim the leading position in energy efficiency of built environments. This ambitious goal is guided by an action plan ERA17 for an Energy-Smart Built Environment 2017 created by the Ministry of Environment, The National Technology Agency Tekes, The Finnish Innovation Fund Sitra and a work group consisting of many notable Finnish experts.25, 26 The transition towards a low-carbon and even a carbon-free built environment is proceeding in Finland. There have already been some exemplary pilot projects promoting sustainable solutions. The planning of Eco-Viikki, the first ecological residential area in Finland, started already in the 1970s, and the project has over the years implemented several pioneering ecological solutions.
2.4 Pioneering sustainable cities in Northern and Central Europe A number of cities in Europe have been internationally acknowledged for their strong efforts in the field of sustainable urban development. These cities have achieved sustainability with a comprehensive approach; by taking into account not only the ecological and environmental issues, but also social and economic aspects of urban living. Thus, they have succeeded in becoming celebrated examples of sustainable urban development. Three of these European cities are presented in this report: Stockholm and Malmö in Sweden and Freiburg in Germany.
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Sustainable Cities (2012a). Sitra, Tekes & VTT (2011). 24 Sitra, Tekes & VTT (2011). 25 Martinkauppi (2010). 26 Sitra, Tekes & VTT (2011). 23
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Stockholm – the first European Green Capital Stockholm, the capital city of Sweden with some 850 000 residents, is one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in Europe. At the same time, the city has managed to develop into a sustainable city offering a versatile and attractive environment for the people living and working there. The city has also been focusing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions for a long time and has already achieved impressive results. Stockholm was even the first European Green Capital – a title awarded to the city by the EU Commission in 2010. The title showcased that Stockholm was, and continues to be, a role model for other European cities in environmental standards. The reasons behind the awarding of Stockholm included the fact that the city had approved the target of being fossil fuel free by 2050, the success of the city in cutting carbon dioxide emissions by 25 per cent/inhabitant since the year 1990 and the integration of environmental issues into the city’s general operations.27 There are several building processes planned and going on in Stockholm as a result of the fast growth of the city. One of Sweden’s biggest urban development projects, Hammarby Sjöstad, is world-known for being a sustainable housing and working area in the heart of Stockholm and the area has played a major role in the city’s plans for sustainable growth. The previously industrial area has been converted into one of the world’s most recognized sustainable urban areas, and there are around 10,000 specialists and policymakers visiting Hammarby Sjöstad every year.28,29 Stockholm Royal Seaport will be another large-scale urban development area where environmentally friendly ambitions and a variety of homes, services and businesses will be mixed in a unique way. International collaboration is the key to making Stockholm Royal Seaport a leading example of a sustainable and successful economic and environmental urban project. A sustainable development project such as Stockholm Royal Seaport can also strengthen the position of Stockholm as an innovative and environmentally oriented city.30,31 Malmö – Sustainable City Development Malmö, a city in the Öresund Region in southern Sweden, has become an internationally known flagship of sustainable urban development. The transformation of the city into a leading example of sustainable development started with the redevelopment of the formerly industrial harbor area in Västra Hamnen. The European housing exhibition Bo01, held in 2001, was the first development stage of Västra Hamnen, which has later been followed by the development of the Flagghus housing area. Bo01 is the first city district in Sweden that is climate neutral and is supplied with 100 per cent renewable energy. The city still continues to develop the Västra Hamnen district in the third part of the harbor area and the largest residential development with passive and low-energy housing in Sweden, Fullriggaren. Today, Västra Hamnen is an international model of incorporating sustainability into an urban district, and thousands of city planning professionals from around the world visit Malmö for learning about sustainable urban development.32 33 After the success of Västra Hamnen, Malmö has extended environmental construction to the sustainable districts of Augustenborg and Sege Park. The most recent sustainable city district project carried out in the city is Hyllie. The successful large scale projects undertaken in Malmö have also contributed to the overall sustainability targets set for the city.34 In addition to the environmental endeavours, Malmö has been making notable progress in other areas of sustainability as well. There are, for example, several projects aiming at enhancing social sustainability in the city. Malmö has received numerous prizes for its efforts for achieving sustainable development. One of the recent awards was the election of Malmö as a climatic ideal Earth Hour Capital 2011 by the World Wildlife Fund WWF. The city has also received the World Habitat Award for 27
City of Stockholm (2013). GlashusEtt (2007). 29 Stockholms stad (2010). 30 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 31 City of Stockholm (2013). 32 City of Malmö (2011). 33 Buildipedia (2011). 34 Buildipedia (2011). 28
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its contributions in the field of social sustainability especially in the eco-district of Augustenborg and has been selected as the best environmental municipality of Sweden in 2010 by the publication Miljöaktuellt.35 Freiburg – Green City The City of Freiburg, located in southwestern Germany, is famous around the world for its sustainable approach especially regarding the use of renewable energy sources such as solar energy. The city has had experience and expertise in sustainable energy management already for years. Freiburg has also been promoted as the Green City, incorporating environmental thinking in the fields of transportation, energy, waste management, land conservation and green economics.36 Freiburg’s way towards a green city started already in the 1970s with the Green Movement and a protest against a nearby nuclear power plant, which was followed by the leaders of the city and the vast academic community taking a serious interest in sustainability. In the 1990s, the city started the development of the two sustainable residential districts, which have become pioneering examples of green communities and sustainable urban development. These districts are also good models of how to use a participatory way of planning and to involve the local residents in the decision making regarding their living environment. 37 Vauban, the internationally well-known eco-district has been a celebrated model of a sustainable district for more than 10 years. This brownfield district has successfully reduced private car use in the residential area and is known for its extensive use of solar energy. Vauban’s success has attracted a great number of international experts and other visitors to Freiburg.38 Rieselfeld is another successful sustainable city district in Freiburg. In the Rieselfeld project, the City of Freiburg has achieved its ambitious goals of sustainable urban development in terms of integrating environmental policy and sustainability in residential district building and creating an attractive housing area for its citizens. Sustainable urban district can also have an important role in decreasing or preventing the expansion of urban development around a city, and Rieselfeld has been a good example of how the redevelopment of brownfield areas can make them attractive places to live and at the same time bring inhabitants of low-density suburbs back to the city.
35
City of Malmö (2011). Freiburg Green City (2013). 37 The EcoTipping Points Project (2011). 38 Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2010). 36
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3 REFERENCE DISTRICTS 3.1 Process of choosing the reference districts 3.1.1 Reference districts in the first phase Many sustainable housing areas were studied during the process, but only some could be chosen for closer analysis. The analysis was early on restricted to European city districts because the climate, legislation and other factors would have been rather different in other continents. The amount and quality of available information was important in choosing the reference districts as well. Based on a preliminary survey of available information on the Internet about sustainable neighbourhoods, a number of districts that could be researched more thoroughly were found. Some Internet-pages contained plenty of sustainable areas, such as the Energy Cities web-page.39 The sustainable district projects of Nordic countries turned out to be the most comparable to the projects in Turku especially due to the similar climatic conditions and legislation. Also some of the districts in the Central Europe were chosen because of their reputation and the vast amount of information available. In the first phase there were altogether 17 sustainable residential areas chosen for closer analysis (excluding Skanssi and Castle Town): Vuores (FI), Eco-Viikki (FI), Skaftkärr (FI), Hammarby Sjöstad (SE), Bo01 (SE), Stockholm Royal Seaport (SE), Norra Älvstranden (SE), Vauban (DE), Rieselfeld (DE), Kronsberg (DE), Scharnhauser Park (DE), BedZED (UK), Nordhavn (DK), Valby (DK), Vesterbro (DK), GWL-Terrein (NL) and Leidsche Rijn (NL). There were different attributes studied about the districts. These attributes were collected in several matrices concerning the following topics: 1. Information about some general facts about the districts 2. Objectives and financing of the projects and 3. Results of the projects in the districts (success of the projects, difficulties faced and possible next steps of the projects)
3.1.2 Reference districts in the second phase In the next phase of the process the number of analysed districts was supposed to be cut down to 6−10 reference districts. 13 different criteria (Appendix 1) were created from the basis of Eco-themes in Skanssi (Appendix 2), which were part of the planning process of Skanssi district. The goal of the criteria for choosing the reference districts was to find those districts which fulfilled as many aspects of the criteria list as possible. The chosen districts would be studied more profoundly to see, if the methods used in them would fit to Skanssi and/or Castle Town. Legislation was one important criterion for choosing the reference cities. Some districts and cities have such a different legislation than the one in Finland that the methods used cannot be easily compared with the Finnish legal system. Another major factor in the selection of reference districts was the location of the city. This is because the technologies and other solutions are very different in southern Europe than in the north due to warmer climates. Size of the district, including the number of dwellings and inhabitants, was also one criterion used for choosing the reference districts. The districts were supposed to be comparable to Skanssi and/or Castle Town, and thus very different residential areas were not included in the closer benchmarking study. Location of the district compared to the city centre was also paid attention to when choosing reference districts.
39
Energy Cities (2012). 16
There were also several other criteria used for choosing the 10 districts. Well-functioning and innovative solutions in energy production, construction, waste management and water treatment were important, such as methods used for promoting sustainable transport and a balanced social community. Financing models applied and possible subsidies granted to reference districts were part of the criteria, too. Not only finished projects but also projects under development were planned to be chosen as reference districts in order to get different insights to sustainable planning. Actual results and good practices as well as challenges and lessons learnt from already finished projects were necessary for this research process, but there was also need for new, developing areas which would contain the newest possible technologies and other solutions. Overall, it was desirable for the planning of the areas and the technologies used in them to be flexible so that the solutions used could be modified to the possibly changing needs of the future. Availability of information from the districts and also the level of cooperation from the projects’ personnel turned out to be essential for a good reference district, as well. 9 districts were chosen for a closer benchmarking according to the criteria set, and they were EcoViikki, Vuores, Skaftkärr, Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm Royal Seaport, Bo01, Hyllie, Rieselfeld and Vauban. Later yet another reference district, Aspern – Vienna’s Urban Lakeside, was chosen to the study, and thus, there were altogether 10 districts in the benchmarking study. The three Finnish city districts were chosen for many reasons. One important reason was that all the districts comply with the same law, and this eases the comparison of methods used in the districts. The three districts are also in different stages, for Eco-Viikki is already built, Vuores is partly built and the construction of Skaftkärr has started. Eco-Viikki serves a lot of information from already tested sustainable methods, when especially the planning of the new Skanssi area can be compared with Vuores and Skaftkärr. Vuores and Skaftkärr have very different goals and backgrounds, however, so they both were useful as reference districts. Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm, Sweden, is one of the best-known sustainable neighbourhoods existing, and there are many aspects in the district which the City of Turku can learn from. In Hammarby Sjöstad there is, for example, a well-functioning eco-cycle solution called the Hammarby Model, which is based on sustainable resource usage. Overall, Hammarby Sjöstad works as an excellent example of a sustainable city district. Another Swedish city district, Stockholm Royal Seaport, is a new housing area going to be fully built around 2030. Similar to Castle Town, Stockholm Royal Seaport is also a former brownfield and harbour area, and there are high goals set for this developing district. One main goal is that Stockholm Royal Seaport aims to have zero fossil fuel emissions when fully built. There is also going to be a smart power grid installed in the district, which is the plan for Skanssi district as well. Bo01 in Malmö, Sweden, was also chosen to be a reference district because many sustainable aspects have been taken into account when planning the area. Especially the ecological goals set for the Bo01 project have been realized successfully. There is also another reference district, Hyllie, which is located in the city of Malmö. Hyllie was not part of the analysis in the earlier stages, but it was later chosen to be a good reference district especially because of its similarities with Skanssi housing area. Hyllie is also a greenfield area still under development and like Skanssi, Hyllie is also located a bit further away from the city centre. One partner in the Hyllie project is Siemens, which works together with Turku in developing the area of Skanssi, too. In both districts a smart grid system is planned, and because the planning process of Hyllie is further than the planning of Skanssi, it could be beneficial for the City of Turku to learn from the Hyllie project. Rieselfeld and Vauban are both located in Freiburg, Germany. There are differences between the two districts, but they both are good examples of sustainable residential areas overall. A lot has been done to create a good sense of community in both the districts, for example. The districts are also very energy-efficient and private car usage is strictly restricted in the housing areas. 17
Aspern – Vienna’s Urban Lakeside was later chosen to the study because of its similarities with Skanssi development. Aspern is a future greenfield area located in Vienna, Austria. Aspern is going to be a city district providing all that the residents can need for both living and working.
3.2 Presentation of the chosen reference districts Several of the chosen reference districts are located in Northern Europe (see picture below), but also districts which are located in Central Europe were selected as reference districts. Different aspects of the reference districts are presented in this study. General facts as well as the main objectives and results of the neighbourhoods are showcased. In addition, the project partners and their roles in the development and general features of the financing structures applied are introduced. Many of the reference districts have also faced challenges during the development process, and many lessons can be learnt from the districts.
Location of the chosen reference districts. (Picture: City of Turku & Siemens AG)
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Photo: Harri Hakaste
Photo: City of Helsinki, Real Estate Department, City Survey Division
Eco-Viikki Helsinki, Finland
Facts about the district Construction area: 23 ha Construction started: 1999 Construction completed: 2004 Population: 2,000 Dwellings: 750 Distance from the city centre: 8 km
19
The interest towards ecological sustainability started to increase in Finland at the beginning of the 1990s. This awareness of ecological problems affected also the Finnish building legislation. Research programmes were initiated and 4 building project areas for testing ecological principles in practice were selected, Viikki being one of them. In 1994, Viikki became the pilot area for the so called EcoCommunity Project.
Location of Viikki. (Picture: City of Helsinki, Real Estate Department, City Survey Division)
Today, Eco-Viikki is the largest sustainable district in Finland. It covers an area of 23 hectares that is located about 8 kilometres northeast from the centre of Helsinki. The sustainable housing development that was built during the years 1999−2004 comprises around 750 dwellings accommodating 2,000 residents.
Objectives The Eco-Viikki project was designed to be a pilot project that would test the implementation of new sustainable solutions in practice and thus be an experimental model for future green building projects. Supporting the National Program of Ecologically Sustainable Buildings was also an important mission for the housing project. A universal planning competition was organised in 1994−1995 for the planning of Eco-Viikki area. There were certain ecological goals set in the competition based on the reduction of non-renewable resource and material usage, the protection of ecosystems and avoiding the formation of waste, emissions and noise. One more aspect to be considered by the participants was supporting the activity and involvement of the residents.40
Detailed plan of the Eco-Viikki area. (Picture: Harri Hakaste)
The winning proposition was based on a structure of so called “green fingers”, which was characterised by the alternation of green spaces and built areas. The “green fingers” structure enabled to combine different functions, among others to make use of solar energy, to handle stormwater on site and to ensure a high quality of the immediate living surrounding. The winning proposition was put into practice in the city plan.41,42 Sustainable construction was promoted in many ways in Eco-Viikki. One important method was the use of strict ecological criteria called the PIMWAG-criteria. The PIMWAG approach is a multi-criteria evaluation and decision-making method which measures the building project’s ecological level using five different factors: emissions, the availability of natural resources, health factors, biodiversity and food production.43,44 No specific ways or certain technical solutions were determined for reaching the minimum level of the criteria, so there were different ways of promoting ecological sustainable solutions in the projects. All the projects accomplished in the area were also obligated to include ecological experimental building and to take part in the monitoring and reporting of the results of the finished projects.45
40
Helsingin kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto (2004). Helsingin kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto (2004). 42 Liljeström (2012a). 43 Ministry of the Environment (2005). 44 European Urban Knowledge Network (2010). 45 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 41
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Other objectives of the Eco-Viikki project included reducing the consumption of natural resources in the construction phase, diminishing heating, electricity and water consumption in the buildings and replacing the use of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources.46 These goals were planned to be achieved among others by utilizing active and passive solar energy, better insulation than usually, constructing glazed balconies and terraces and including wood-heating in communal saunas. The main target was to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 20% compared to traditional building. Also the amount of produced waste was planned to be reduced to 20% less than usual.47,48 Partners & roles In the planning phase of Eco-Viikki, the project utilized the knowledge of many international partners in ecological building. This led to joint projects that helped Eco-Viikki to obtain additional funding for some parts of the project including a few of the area’s solar-energy projects and maintenance of the nature conservation area. Eco-Viikki also participated in a Nordic cooperation project which compared the objectives and ecological criteria in Viikki, Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm and Örestad in Copenhagen.49 The Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (Tekes), the European Commission, the Ministry of the Environment and the Finnish Association of Architects (SAFA) were the main partners of Eco-Viikki project alongside of the City of Helsinki. Other actors of the project included the EcoCommunity Project, the Housing Fund of Finland (ARA), architect Petri Laaksonen, Helsingin Energia, Naps Systems Oy, YIT, Skanska, VVO and Solpros Ay.50,51 Financing structure
Residential houses in Eco-Viikki. (Photo: Helsingin kaupunki, talous- ja suunnittelukeskus)
The project received financial support from the Ministry of the Environment and Tekes, not in the form of experimental building subsidies system as it was originally intended, but instead through research and development funding. However, even though the financial support was supposed to inspire the use of sustainable solutions in the properties, the subsidies were very small compared to the subsidy systems in many other countries. Even small subsidies created difficulties because they were seen as expensive and difficult to manage in Tekes. Subsidies connected to investments were not perceived in a positive way because of their possible adverse effects on competition and prices.52 The project was mainly financed by the city of Helsinki, Tekes, Ministry of the Environment and the European Commission. Eco-Viikki was also part of EU’s Thermie-programme PV-Nord which is an EU project focusing on building integrated photovoltaic systems, and Viikki received support Solar panels implemented to residential houses. for the nature conservation area from the EU (Photo: Helsingin kaupunki, talous- ja suunnittelukeskus) LIFE fund. Tekes supported the development through the KEKO programme and ARA subsidized construction in the area. The City of 46
SECURE (2006). Energy Cities (2008b). 48 Liljeström (2012b). 49 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 50 Rakennustieto (2005). 51 SECURE (2006). 52 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 47
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Helsinki lowered the property rents to balance the extra costs of difficult foundation conditions in clay soil, and the European Commission supported the project by € 4 million which was directed mostly to the research and development of the Tekes Programme for Building.53 As housing construction was state-subsidized and ARA had set a price limit per square meter, the additional costs of sustainable building were a problem. In the end, however, ARA accepted moderately higher construction costs since the investments would pay themselves back later. Afterwards, these kinds of arrangements have been used in other Finnish housing projects using government loans as well.54 The construction costs of an average dwelling in Eco-Viikki were approximately 5 per cent higher than in a regular building in Finland. These increased costs were caused by the use of ecological materials and efficiency features. However, it was necessary to invest more in the construction phase in order to have cost benefits in the long run. The building costs are compensated by reduced energy and water consumption (up to a third less than in standard residential buildings) and utility costs.55 Results Ecological and sustainable planning of the district was accomplished by using the already mentioned PIMWAG criteria. The Eco-Viikki project has achieved many of its goals by putting into practice these strict ecological criteria for construction. In addition, ecological municipal engineering solutions and monitoring of the practices after completion of the project have also helped gaining the desired outcomes. Many of the built houses in Eco-Viikki have reached the ambitious goals set for them. Then again, some of the buildings have not met these standards. The average consumption of water and electricity in the area correlates with the PIMWAG standards, while the average heat consumption is 15% above the minimum PIMWAG rate (however, 5 percentage units of this are due to a higher living density than in average in Helsinki). Reasons for the higher energy consumption than the standard level included, for example, uncontrolled ventilation, overheating, heat losses and control problems in solar heating systems and in air-supply windows. There were, however, also savings achieved by the Eco-Viikki ecological housing development compared to regular houses built in the 1990s. These include 1,761 MWh/year for heating, -258 MWh/year for electricity and 18,352 m3/year for water. The total cost savings per year add up to approximately € 71,000.56 The largest solar energy system in Finland can be found in Eco-Viikki. Ten of the buildings in EcoViikki have solar heating systems integrated in roof constructions, comprising a total area of around 1,400 m2 of panels.57 The energy from the solar collectors is used mostly for hot water and for subfloor heating in wet spaces.58 The solar heating systems produce over one-third of the annual energy needed for heating the water in eight neighbourhood blocks. In addition to solar energy, wood pellet heating and geothermal energy is used in some of the properties in the district.59 Also social issues have been considered in the district. There are many green spaces, parks, shared saunas and common laundries in the buildings as well as a kinder garden, primary and secondary school, and commercial centres with several services such as shops and restaurants. In Eco-Viikki there are also allotment plots in the green fingers, which inhabitants can rent for gardening purposes.60,61 The winner proposal of the architectural competition held in the planning phase of the area emphasised “green fingers”, and it can be seen clearly in the district. A finger-like structure penetrates 53
SECURE (2006). City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 55 Skanska (2008). 56 Helsingin kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto (2004). 57 Ministry of the Environment (2005). 58 SECURE (2006). 59 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 60 Energy Cities (2008b). 61 Liljeström (2012a). 54
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between the built areas and thus connects every building plot directly to green areas.62 The stormwater management in the area functions through the green fingers, which also include wells that collect rain water for gardening purposes.63 Regarding transport, the need for using private cars was aimed to be reduced and public transport to be emphasised. However, the only form of public transport connecting the district to the city is bus lines. The plots have 0−50% less parking spaces than usual (e.g. a minimum of 1 parking space per 160 m2 and a maximum of 1 parking space per 80 m2 floor space in 1−2 storey houses).64,65 Based on a monitoring project after the completion of the district, many of the environmental targets of the project have been achieved. Therefore, Eco-Viikki has been successful as a sustainable housing pilot project, and it is a good model for other sustainable housing projects.66,67 Challenges Despite all the difficulties related to subsidies, the actors of the ecological housing project were progressive in developing life-span calculation methods and new building processes. In the construction sector, there were also development projects for building methods and environmental models that were implemented and tested also in Eco-Viikki.68 In the beginning, there were few services in the area. Also the public transport network of only one bus line did not live up to the ideas of developing the transport system and reducing the need for using private cars. Therefore, and because Eco-Viikki is popular among families, many residents purchased cars, which was not in harmony with the ecological goals of Eco-Viikki. Later two shopping centres with basic public services have been built nearby and two new bus lines have been added, which has made the situation better.69 The PIMWAG criteria used in the planning process was challenging for the participants. The criteria turned out to be very complex, causing a lot of work for the builders, designers and city representatives, but ultimately it was beneficial for the Eco-Viikki project. In addition, the PIMWAG criteria aroused interest amongst other sustainable housing projects in different countries.70 Lessons learnt A lesson learnt from the Eco-Viikki project is the need for a concrete monitoring and feedback system for achieving the strict ecological goals set for sustainable building projects. A project as ambitious and laborious as the Eco-Viikki project requires adequate knowledge and know-how as well as longterm commitment in terms of financial and practical resources.71
62
City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). Liljeström (2012a). 64 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 65 Liljeström (2012b). 66 Ministry of the Environment (2005). 67 Helsingin kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto (2004). 68 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 69 Energy Cities (2008b). 70 City of Helsinki & Ministry of the Environment (2005). 71 Energy Cities (2008b). 63
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Children playing in Eco-Viikki. (Photo: Harri Hakaste)
Photo: Tanja Konstari
Photo: Lentokuva Vallas Oy (2012)
Vuores Tampere, Finland
Facts about the district Construction area: 1,260 ha Construction started: 2008 Construction completed: around 2025 Expected population: 14,000 Dwellings: 6,000 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: 7 km
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Vuores is a greenfield development located in the city of Tampere, Finland. The population of Tampere urban region is around 350,000, and the number of residents is expected to grow considerably in the near future. The new sustainable district of Vuores is part of the preparations for the fast population growth.
Location of Vuores district. (Picture: City of Tampere)
The construction of Vuores district started in 2008 and is planned to be completed by 2020. Vuores comprises an area of 1,256 hectares and will eventually house 13,000 people and provide work places for thousands. This green housing development project is one of the biggest urban development projects taking place in Finland in recent years.
The city of Tampere owns the land of the areas which are going to be constructed, and the municipality of Lempäälä owns part of the remaining area. When the detailed plans are approved, the construction areas are going to be sold or leased out to companies.72 Objectives The main goal of the Vuores project is to create a small town in the midst of nature that is still only 7 kilometres away from the centre of Tampere. The green district is planned to be an active arena providing good services, attractive business facilities and diverse residential options that meet high quality standards. Eco-efficiency is taken into account in all phases of the planning and implementation of the project. Sustainability is aimed to be put into practice in the areas of energy supply, energy efficiency of buildings, ecological building materials and a well-developed transport system. Also creativity and different forms of art will be emphasised in the district.
Local plan of Vuores. (Picture: City of Tampere)
Vuores is participating in many research and development projects in order to find the best ways for implementing ecological solutions in the construction and planning of the area. The ECOCITY project (2002−2005) was one of these projects, and it has supported the planning of Vuores area by providing a background analysis for ecological principles.73 Generic concepts were derived from the criteria and indicators of the ECOCITY project, and they were created for six topics of urban planning, transport, energy, conservation of the natural environment, information technology and social issues.
72 73
Väyrynen (2010). Tamminen (2012a). 25
Regarding urban planning the objectives of the Vuores project include optimising the urban structure, taking into account the microclimatic conditions of the area and preventing traffic noise and other emissions. For transport the goals of optimising the street network and public transport, minimizing car traffic and providing space for walking and cycling are established. As for the field of energy, the goals consist of promoting the use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power and geothermal heat as well as testing new ways of timber construction. There is actually going to be Finland’s largest wooden town area, Isokuusi, in Vuores. Vuores is involved in the ECO2 (Ecoefficient Tampere 2020) programme that aims to decrease the city’s emissions by more than 20% by the year 2020.74
Gardening boxes are common in the courtyards. (Photo: Tanja Konstari)
Vuores was also the place for the Finnish Housing Fair 2012 held in Tampere. Nine of the detached houses built in the exhibition area are passive energy houses (energy consumption less than 25 kWh/brm2) and two of them are zero energy houses. The City of Tampere supported the construction of passive and zero energy houses by reducing the land rent for these buildings by 50% for the first five years. Also a large school centre in Vuores is going to be energy-efficient and there will be several sustainable solutions used in the complex, such as solar panels for producing electricity, a wind turbine, an earth closet and a so called electricity contract for green electricity. The building is going to consume 33% less energy than a regular building constructed according to new building regulations.75 The conservation of natural environment will be taken into account in the area by adjusting construction to adapt to the shape of the terrain, maintaining biodiversity and managing stormwaters in an ecological way. There will also be an underground pneumatic waste collection system in Vuores. Not only ecological values are promoted, though, for there are high goals for information technology solutions and for a high percentage of participation of the residents as well. In addition there will be elements of art and creativity integrated into the landscape. Partners & roles
Several collection points of the underground waste collection system are located around the district. (Photo: City of Tampere)
Most of the land in Vuores area belongs to the City of Tampere and a part of it is owned by the municipality of Lempäälä. Tampere and Lempäälä have made a joint master plan for the district. In addition to the City of Tampere, other partners of the project include developers and construction companies. After the completion of the detailed plans for the district, the building plots in the area will be sold or leased out to these developers.76
74
ECO2 – Eco-efficient Tampere 2020 (2012). Tampereen Tilakeskus Liikelaitos (2012). 76 Väyrynen (2010). 75
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Financing structure Investments in construction will be some € 1,800 million in the entire Vuores area during the years 2008−2021 including the construction of residential houses, services, infrastructure and business premises and also the preparations of construction.77 The city of Tampere’s budget funding is € 52 million for the project and also several companies owned by the city are investing in the construction of Vuores.78 The city of Tampere is going to invest some € 190 million and the city of Lempäälä around € 70 million in the construction of the area. Investments of the private sector (private housing & commercial and office building) will be approximately € 1,530 million during the entire development phase from 2008 to 2021. The operational and maintenance costs in Vuores are expected to be € 40 million and the operational costs of the services some € 270 million during the years 2008−2021. In total, the expenses for the city will sum up to around € 500 million.79 The city of Tampere will get revenues through land lease, taxes, water and energy management fees, public transport, municipal services and some other sources. The Housing Fund of Finland (ARA), for example, granted € 52 million for the construction of Vuores. The overall revenues are estimated to be some € 360 million.80 The large school centre in Vuores is going to be implemented by using a property leasing model. SEB Leasing Oy finances the project, and the costs are expected to be around € 45 million.81 The first part of the pneumatic waste collection system in Vuores summed up to approximately € 9.5 million. The system is supplied by the company MariMatic Oy. The tendering of the waste collection system was realized as an innovative public contracting, which is part of EU’s strategy of enhancing the competitiveness of member states.82 Results One of the key elements in the planning of Vuores was incorporating the natural environment into the housing area. As a result, all of the buildings are within a short distance of the green areas and the natural areas reach the buildings via a green belt. Another important outcome concerning the natural areas is the protection of the area’s natural water system. Public transport has a central role in the area’s transport system. The public transport network will be based on a light rail system that runs through the whole area. Before the implementation of the light rail system, buses will be running the same routes. Also a comprehensive footpath and cycle network will support the use of public transport in Vuores. An innovative way of promoting cycling and walking in the area is organizing ‘live school buses’, meaning that children will walk or cycle the way to school or hobbies in groups with the guidance of an adult.83 A third key element of the Vuores project alongside with the emphasis on natural environment and public transport is the community structure. The built structure of the district is concentrated around one main centre and four subcenters which are all situated within short walking distance from the dwellings. The public spaces are expected to foster the community life of the district. Vuores is an important project for the City of Tampere because of its experiential value in the context of urban development practices. Tampere intends to enhance its urban planning processes and therefore has initiated many research projects related to these issues. Many projects have already finished, including the ECOCITY project which analysed new criteria for urban planning, Beyond
77
Finnish Consulting Group (2010). Ranta (2012). 79 Finnish Consulting Group (2010). 80 Finnish Consulting Group (2010). 81 Tampereen kaupunki (2012a). 82 Pirkanmaan Jätehuolto Oy (2010). 83 Tampereen kaupunki (2012b). 78
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Vuores which examined collaborative planning and implementation strategies and Wireless Vuores which focused on investigating the use of wireless services.84 Challenges Since the beginning of the planning process there has been resistance towards the Vuores project because of many reasons. There have been claims that the Vuores area would not be as ecological as intended and that the planning process was not as open and interactive as it should have been.85 There were also some problems with mobile phone connections in the housing fair area in the beginning of the project. The reason why the connections were not functioning properly was the lack of base stations in the area in the construction phase. This problem was, however, fixed by the time the construction work was over and the first residents moved in.86,87 There are several small lakes in the Vuores area, and the citizens of Tampere had some fears that the lakes would be influenced by the stormwaters coming from the new residential areas.88 There is, however, an extensive stormwater management system in Vuores in which stormwater is treated in an organic and controlled way. The stormwater management system in Vuores is in fact the largest and most efficient one in Finland.89 Also the construction of a bridge over a nearby lake evoked strong opinions among the citizens of Tampere. However, the bridge was eventually built to connect the district to the centre of Tampere. Lessons learnt There are some new innovations in Vuores, such as an underground waste collection system. Because the Vuores area is still under construction it is not yet known whether this system will work out and pay off the way it was supposed to. There is also going to be an efficient broadband connection (100/100 mbit) in all the residential houses functioning on an open access method. The broadband connection enables to create a common portal for the whole district, which can promote the sense of community in the area.90
84
V채yrynen (2010). Vehmas (2004). 86 3T (2012). 87 Tamminen (2012b). 88 FCG Planeko Oy (2008). 89 Tamminen (2012b). 90 Tamminen (2012b). 85
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Picture: Pöyry Finland Oy, Arkkitehdit Anttila & Rusanen Oy
Photo: © Blom Ilmakuva 2011
Skaftkärr Porvoo, Finland
Facts about the district Construction area: 400 ha Construction started: 2012 Construction completed: 2020 (estimated) Expected population: 7,000 Dwellings: 1,000 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: 3 km
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Skaftkärr in the city Porvoo, Finland, is going to be an energy-efficient district. All buildings, services, surroundings and transport solutions are planned to be energy-efficient. The Skaftkärr housing area comprises an area of about 400 hectares, and it is located about 3 kilometres east from the city centre. There will be more than 1,000 dwellings and approximately 7,000 residents in the area and they will have different housing options from detached houses to high-rise apartments. The outline plan for the district was ready in 2010, and the construction is planned to take place during 2012−2020. Objectives Skaftkärr is planned to be an energy-efficient residential area where energy-efficiency will be integrated in all phases of spatial planning. There are many objectives in the Skaftkärr project. The central objectives of the project can be listed as follows:91
Location of Skaftkärr in Porvoo. (Picture: City of Porvoo)
to become a pilot area of energy efficient town planning that is a good model for other national and international sustainable areas to develop guidelines for energy efficiency in urban planning to organize a ‘Living Lab’ that continuously seeks improved ways of achieving energy efficiency to create a platform for the municipal energy company to apply low-energy building activities to boost energy efficiency in construction to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for fighting climate change.
A comprehensive project called “Skaftkärr’s energy-efficient city district” has been carried out in Porvoo, and the main goal of the project was to find out if city planning could affect the energy efficiency of a residential area.92 Various ways of using energy solutions and the effects of these solutions on town planning were studied during the project. These studies were made by using international examples and comparing different alternatives, and the result was a new outline plan of Skaftkärr. 93 The old outline plan for the area from 2007 (a so called 0+ alternative) was used as a ‘Business As Usual’ model in the comparative study. Thus, the 0+ alternative was used as a basis for the study and for the comparison of different alternatives. Calculations were made for the 0+ alternative and sensitivity studies were performed, after which four different models (M1−M4) were formulated. These models were made up of alternative urban structural designs, energy production methods and transport solutions.94 A program (Infra.net) measuring the cost of the different scenarios (M1−M4) was used in order to calculate the infrastructure costs of the project. Each of the models had different plans for the infrastructure of the district including different technological solutions, and the total costs of different models varied between € 15 million and € 38 million. The costs per resident were between € 2,500 and € 6,300.95
91
Skaftkärr (2011). Löytönen (2012). 93 Sitra (2010). 94 Sitra (2010). 95 Sitra (2010). 92
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Other analyses carried out for the Skaftkärr outline plan include:96
“Spatial structure and costs District-level energy consumption and solutions District-level energy production and solutions Traffic and environmental impacts Services and social environment Way of building and new forms of energy New ways of working”.
The overall goal for energy production in Porvoo is that 90% of the energy used in 2015 would be renewable energy. Energy impacts are being researched regarding various aspects such as the impacts on municipal and residents’ costs, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. District heating was considered clearly the best alternative for sustainable energy production, including both the environmental impacts and costs.97 Thus the district was decided to be connected to a district heating network. Also the pros and cons of a solar district heating power plant have been studied in the Skaftkärr project. The district will be connected to a district heating system, which will possibly be based on solar energy. This solar district heating system is planned to be implemented in Porvoo.98 With this innovation the heat production of Skaftkärr would become carbon neutral on an annual basis.99
Illustration of the outline plan. (Picture: City of Porvoo)
Public transport will be an important part of the traffic system in Skaftkärr. Different alternatives have been studied and it remains to be seen how the public transport network will look like when the district is ready. Cycling is also going to be promoted in Skaftkärr, and the means of doing this are being analysed. Plans include covering the lanes with solar panels and building high-speed bicycle lanes between Skaftkärr, the city centre of Porvoo and the services nearby. In Skaftkärr there will possibly be roads for public transport, as well, meaning that they are open to light traffic and buses but not to private cars. Also other sustainable solutions such as organic stormwater management and local sewage treatment will be paid attention to in Skaftkärr. There will also be high-quality recreation possibilities for the residents.
96
Skaftkärr (2011). Skaftkärr (2011). 98 Wackström (2012). 99 Skaftkärr (2011). 97
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Partners & roles The planning of the Skaftkärr area is done in cooperation with the municipality and many other parties such as the energy producers, construction companies and future inhabitants.100 The project is coordinated by the development company Posintra Oy. Ministry of the Environment and Uusimaa Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (ELY-keskus) are also involved in the project’s steering group activities.101 Financing structure The Finnish Innovation Fund Sitra, the City of Porvoo and the energy company Porvoon Energia are the main investors of the Skaftkärr development. Results The project has already been successful in producing new information about how municipalities can use spatial planning to improve the energy efficiency of an area. New calculating models for improving the decision-making processes in spatial planning have also been created. In the Skaftkärr project there was an extensive comparative study carried out before the actualisation of detailed plans. The study consisted of an evaluation of the impacts of alternative solutions on the level of energy efficiency and the goal was to find out, which solutions would decrease the emissions produced the most. As a result of the study, transport, energy efficiency of buildings and the ways of producing energy turned out to be the most significant factors in decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide emissions in the area. Also the choice of construction materials used can substantially affect the level of carbon dioxide emissions produced.102 Compared to the old planning systems, the consumption of primary energy in Skaftkärr is cut by 38% and the CO2 emissions by 30%. In the case of the implementation of the planned solar district heating system the emissions could be further reduced.103 The research work done for the Skaftkärr outline plan proves that town planning can be in an important role in improving the energy efficiency of an urban area as well as in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Town planning impacts the development of regional and urban structures of regions and municipalities, and thus it can have a big impact on energy consumption and transport emissions by influencing the need for transport and mobility. In addition, town planning can address energy efficiency through implementing better energy production modes and using energy efficient solutions and ecological material in buildings. Therefore energy efficiency and carbon balance calculations should be included in spatial planning processes and impact assessments of plans.104 The Skaftkärr project demonstrates that even though energy efficient solutions have their costs, the smaller carbon footprints that these solutions have can reduce residential costs significantly. In the same manner, even though spatial planning can be an expensive process, it can reduce the costs of implementation in projects.105 Challenges The challenges of Skaftkärr include putting high and ambitious goals into practice. Good solutions found in the research projects, for example, should be transferred into reality in order to actually make a difference. Also the fact that people may have different attitudes and opinions on the new project can be challenging. Cooperation of all the partners involved throughout the whole project is a very important aspect which should be stressed as well.106 100
Sustainable Cities (2011). Skaftkärr (2011). 102 Porvoon kaupunki et al. (2012). 103 Skaftkärr (2011). 104 Sitra (2010). 105 Skaftkärr (2011). 106 Löytönen (2012). 101
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Lessons learnt A lot of research work has been done in the Skaftkärr project to find alternative solutions for how to impact the energy efficiency and carbon footprint of a residential area. There have also been some calculations of the costs of low-carbon and energy efficient solutions, and it is clear that there will be some additional costs both to the city and to the residents compared to traditional building. However, the costs of living may turn out to be lower in the long run because of a lower carbon footprint.107 The Skaftkärr project has even shown that if the planning of all new city districts would be executed in the same way as in Skaftkärr, the savings for the municipalities would be as much as € 2 billion by the year 2020.108 The cooperation of city planners and energy authorities has proved to be essential for the planning of Skaftkärr. It is estimated that in the future this cooperative way of planning will become even more common in city planning, for energy efficiency is gradually becoming an integral part of sustainable construction and living.109
107
Sitra (2010). Schoultz (2012). 109 Sitra (2010). 108
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Photo: Lennart Johansson, City of Stockholm
Photo: Lennart Johansson, City of Stockholm
Hammarby Sjรถstad Stockholm, Sweden
Facts about the district Construction area: 200 ha Construction started: 1994 Construction completed: 2018 (estimated) Expected population: 26,000 Dwellings: 11,500 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: 3 km
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Hammarby Sjöstad is a new environmentallyfriendly residential development located near the inner city of Stockholm, Sweden. The district that was previously an industrial and a harbour area has now been converted into one of the world’s most recognized sustainable urban areas. There are around 10,000 specialists and policymakers visiting Hammarby Sjöstad every year.110 Hammarby Sjöstad is expected to be fully built by 2018, and by then the 200 hectare area will have 11,500 dwellings for approximately 26,000 people. All in all, about 35,000 people will live and work in the area. The district is the largest urban development project in Stockholm for many years.111
Environmental map of Hammarby Sjöstad. (Picture: City of Stockholm)
Originally Hammarby Sjöstad’s redevelopment was supposed to be a part of Stockholm’s bid to host the Summer Olympic Games in 2004. However, after the bid failed the city authorities decided to continue with the plans and create a pilot project of sustainable housing development.112 Because of its good location and proximity to the city centre, the area was attractive for this purpose, and the city purchased the privately owned land at above market value prices.113
Location of Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm. (Picture: City of Stockholm)
After the purchase of the land a master plan for the infrastructure of the project was drawn. This plan included new public transport lines, district heating and cooling and an underground waste collection system.114 The solutions for water treatment, heat production and waste-treatment were part of the large scale solutions for the city of Stockholm at large, that have been developed over many decades.115 The City of Stockholm has been investing, e.g., in finding new and renewable energy sources already for a long time, and has been adopting the use of district heating for heating of buildings.116
Building of the development started in 1994 and it will continue until 2018. As the district used to be a polluted industrial site until the end of the 1990s, a throughout soil de-contamination had to be done before the construction work could start.117 Objectives One of the main targets in the planning phase of Hammarby Sjöstad was that the environmental impact of the district should be 50% lower than it would be with the technology level used in 1990s. Another important goal was that the residents would produce half of the energy that they consumed, which refers to the energy bought to heat and operate the buildings.118,119 In order to achieve these objectives, the infrastructure systems for water, sewage and waste management, and energy and
110
GlashusEtt (2007). Stockholms stad (2012a). 112 Future Communities (2009). 113 Solaripedia (2007). 114 Future Communities (2009). 115 Cederquist (2012b). 116 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 117 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 118 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 119 Future Communities (2009). 111
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heating were designed as ‘closed loop’ systems that would feed each other and decrease the amount of energy needed for functioning.120 The overall goal for energy use was set at 60 kWh/m²/year which was quite low compared to the Swedish standard of approximately 270 kWh/m²/year.121 All of the produced energy was designed to come from renewable energy sources, and as much as 80% of the energy was planned to be produced from waste. All of the waste and waste water coming from the residential area was planned to be recycled and turned into renewable energy.122 Water consumption per person was aimed to be reduced by 60%, landfill waste by 90% and all the waste produced by 40%.123 A 15% reduction by weight in the amount of domestic waste generated between 2005 and 2010 was also intended. Environmental consideration and the vast usage of sustainable materials and eco-certified products in development of the area for environmental and health protection reasons was also part of the plan.124 Another important issue that was taken into account in the eco-friendly city district of Hammarby Sjöstad was public transport. The objectives regarding transport and mobility were the following:125
80% of travelling would be made by public transport, by cycling or on foot by 2010 At least 15% of the households would be using the services of a carpool by 2010 At least 5% of the workplaces in the district would have car-sharing membership by 2010 100% of heavy transportation would meet environmental zone requirements
Other goals of the project included citizen involvement which would form a key aspect of social sustainability in Hammarby Sjöstad. Also the general attractiveness of the district and the creation of green sustainable spaces were important since the beginning of the planning process.126
Buildings in Hammarby Sjöstad. (Photo: Lennart Johansson, City of Stockholm)
Partners & roles The development of Hammarby Sjöstad was supervised by the City Development Administration and the City Planning Administration of Stockholm. These city authority departments collaborated with architecture firms and building contractors that consisted of private and public companies.127 These companies included 41 developers and 29 architectural firms in total.128 The large amount of building companies involved in the project created competition for leading products and thus stimulated driving up of the standards.129
120
Future Communities (2009). Poldermans (2006). 122 Energy Cities (2008c). 123 Energy Cities (2008c). 124 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 125 Stockholms stad (2012a). 126 Energy Cities (2008c). 127 Future Communities (2009). 128 Stockholms stad (2012b). 129 Future Communities (2009). 121
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The City of Stockholm has had control over the land in Hammarby Sjöstad. The land is mostly leased out by developers, and only in few cases the sites were sold to other parties. The City has taken responsibility in making the required investments and preparations of the land as well, such as cleaning contaminated soil. Also infrastructure of the area is partly provided by the public sector including public transport, roads, district heating, electricity and water- and waste treatment.130 Financing structure The investors of the Hammarby Sjöstad project include the City of Stockholm, Stockholm Transport, the National Road Administration and private funding. The city’s financial support accounts for around 15% of the overall investments. The overall private investments of the Hammarby Sjöstad project have been estimated to sum up to over € 3 billion and the public investments to around € 0.5 billion.131,132 A small part of the city’s investment, approximately SEK 200 million, was received from the national government through the Local Investment Program (LIP). LIP was a subsidy granted for municipalities which were aiming to adopt new sustainable solutions, and Stockholm’s environmental programmes got their share of LIP’s funds, too.133 The city will get revenues from the project mainly through land lease and taxes, while the private parties involved will benefit from the good location of the district and the popularity it has gained. The completed houses in Hammarby Sjöstad have mostly been sold at inner city prices. The public sector revenues are allocated by the municipality back to the citizens as budget for services and new investments.134 Results The objective of cutting the environmental footprint by half demanded new environmental solutions, and an efficient methodology based on interdisciplinary work and decision making was adapted. As a result, “the Hammarby Model”, a unique eco-cycle describing the environmental solutions used for energy, waste, water and sewage was created in Stockholm.135 The Model was developed by the Stockholm Water Company, the energy company Fortum and the City of Stockholm Waste Management Administration.136 The Hammarby Model. (Picture: City of Stockholm)
130
Cederquist (2012a). Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 132 Cederquist (2012a). 133 Solaripedia (2007). 134 Cederquist (2012a). 135 Stockholms stad (2012). 136 Poldermans (2006). 131
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Implementations and practices that have contributed considerably to the reduction in environmental impact in Hammarby Sjöstad include water, sewage, heating, technical services for the houses and the construction materials used in the buildings. However, the single most important factor reducing the environmental impact for the area has been a reduction in the use of personal transport. Private car usage has decreased while the use of public transport has clearly increased.137 The energy of the district is produced by renewable energy sources, biogas products and purified waste heat. District heating produced either from the reuse of waste or from the process of waste water treatment is supplied to the entire district. There is a large scale vacuum waste transport system in Hammarby Sjöstad, comprising 12,000 apartments and other facilities. Waste is sorted thoroughly and combustible garbage is processed and used for both electricity and hot water. After this the process is being taken even further while the remaining cold water from the process can be used for district cooling.138,139 Also other solutions for energy supply are being tested in the district. For example solar cells have been placed in several buildings to generate electricity to the buildings, and also some solar panels have been installed to contribute to the buildings’ hot water requirement. In addition, a fuel cell running on biogas was installed in the area’s Environmental Information Centre, but has been later removed.140,141 Other new solutions include an extremely efficient broadband and computerized systems for individual households enabling energy use management.142 Stormwater, rainwater and snowmelt are treated locally in Hammarby Sjöstad. Stormwater is either infiltrated into the ground or drained to local canals running through the district and finally out into Hammarby Sjö. Rainwater is being collected, delayed and evaporated in green roofs situated on top of the buildings, or collected and treated in other ways like snowmelt as well.143 Public transport in the district consists of a light rail link, bus routes and ferry lines connecting Hammarby Sjöstad to the centre of Stockholm. Residents have also access to several cars of the three car pools available in the area. There are good cycle and pedestrian paths and footbridges in the district as well and there is also a bike sharing programme functioning.144,145 In Hammarby Sjöstad there are all in all 0.65 parking spaces per household. The amount of parking spaces is not, however, evenly spread in the area. There are some 0.15 on-street parking spaces and approximately 0.55 spaces in public or private garages per household. On-street parking is charged in a same manner as in the rest of the inner city. The City of Stockholm’s parking company, Stockholm Parkering, operates most of the off-street parking, and the remaining part is operated by a number of housing cooperatives and a few private car park operators.146 A public space in Hammarby Sjöstad. (Photo: Lennart Johansson, City of Stockholm)
137
Hammarby Sjöstad (2008). Energy Cities (2008c). 139 Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 140 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 141 Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 142 Cederquist (2012a). 143 Hammarby Sjöstad (2007). 144 Foletta & Field (2011). 145 Stockholms stad (2012a). 146 Foletta & Field (2011). 138
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A lot of work was done to transform the old brownfield sites into an attractive residential housing development. Today there are several green spaces, walkaways and parks in the district. There are also various public and commercial establishments in the area, including schools and kindergartens, sports facilities, restaurants, pharmacies and shops.147 For avoiding social segregation, a moderate amount of rental housing was planned to be built in Hammarby Sjöstad. Today, 34% of the dwellings are rental units and 66% are housing cooperative flats.148 However, the rapidly increasing building costs and the gradual removal of housing subsidies have complicated this task. The flats built during the first phase of construction were sold for € 800/m2, while the price for the housing cooperative apartments sold at later stages had increased up to € 6,000/m2 (plus additional body corporate monthly fee of € 400 for a two bedroom apartment).149 Nevertheless, construction of student housing and housing for mentally disabled persons has balanced the situation to some degree.150 The average rent in a standard apartment of 80 m² Hammarby Sjöstad is approximately from € 900 to € 1,200 per month.151 The calculated construction costs for apartments in Hammarby Sjöstad are around 3−5% higher than if they were built in a traditional manner. However, the sustainable solutions used are expected to pay back in lower energy consumption of the facilities during the utilisation phase.152 Although the project runs until 2018, a major part of the area is already complete. The Hammarby project has showed that by considering ecological and sustainable aspects, it is possible to reduce the use of fossil fuels considerably and increase the use of renewable energy sources instead. This will not only improve living and environmental conditions but also provide significant cost savings for the residents. Therefore, Hammarby Sjöstad is a good example of a sustainable district and leads the way for closed-loop economies in other places around the world as well.153 Challenges The pollution of the area caused by industries and large passing roads created some challenges with the environmental authorities. Another problem aroused from the large windows constructed in the buildings. Residents understandably prefer a nice view outside, but large windows result as unnecessary heat losses during cold time periods. In summer, temperatures in the apartments can also become very high because of large windows and poor air circulation in some buildings.154 Lessons learnt Many lessons can be learnt from Hammarby Sjöstad. One important aspect of planning a sustainable city district is having a comprehensive view on the project and a vision and main goals set as early as possible. The vision and goals should be clear, realistic and approved by all the project partners. Having clear follow up goals and rules for how to collect follow up data is also important for a new sustainable residential area.155 Another aspect to be learnt from is the importance of marketing the ecological technologies and other methods used in the district. The solutions used should also be the newest ones available.156
147
Future Communities (2009). Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 149 Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 150 Solaripedia (2007). 151 Hammarby Sjöstad (2012). 152 Cederquist (2012a). 153 Energy Cities (2008c). 154 Poldermans (2006). 155 Eco-Innovation Observatory (2012). 156 Eco-Innovation Observatory (2012). 148
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Photo: Stockholms stad och BSK Arkitekter
Photo: City of Stockholm and Dynagraph
Stockholm Royal Seaport Stockholm, Sweden
Facts about the district Construction area: 236 ha Construction started: 2011 Construction completed: 2030 Dwellings: 12,000 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: 3 km
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Overview of the Stockholm Royal Seaport planning area. (Picture: City of Stockholm)
Location of Stockholm Royal Seaport. (Picture: City of Stockholm)
Stockholm Royal Seaport, also known as Norra Djurgรฅrdsstaden, is a former industrial area in transmission to a new, environmentally friendly city district. The residential area of 236 hectares is located near the city centre of Stockholm in Sweden, approximately 3 kilometres from the inner city. Proximity to the city centre and at the same time to water and nature are central features of this developing green district. Stockholm Royal Seaport includes three districts. The northern part is called Hjorthagen, the southern part is Loudden and the ports are located in the center of the area.157 The planning of Stockholm Royal Seaport is based on the experience gained from the Hammarby Sjรถstad project, which is a world-wide environmental model for sustainable districts. Like Hammarby Sjรถstad, Stockholm Royal Seaport is a former brownfield area turning eventually into a modern sustainable urban district. Stockholm Royal Seaport is also aimed to contain similar environmental targets as Hammarby Sjรถstad. Stockholm Royal Seaport is certainly not the only project under planning in Stockholm as there are around 30 on-going projects in the city. However, Stockholm Royal Seaport is at the moment the largest and most ambitious sustainable redevelopment project in Stockholm. When completed in 2030, the area will have some 10,000 new dwellings, 12,000 new residents, 30,000 working places and 600,000 sqm of commercial areas.158,159,160 The land of Stockholm Royal Seaport is owned by the city of Stockholm.161 The construction of the first 682 dwellings started in 2011162, and in October 2012 there were already around 2,000 people living and 9,000 people working in the area.163 In 2020, there will be approximately 6,000 new buildings in Stockholm Royal Seaport.164 Objectives The aim of the project is to achieve a modern and sustainable city district with a mixed variation of housing, services, commercial activities, industrial activities, culture, sports and port operations. The main focus in Stockholm Royal Seaport will be in sustainable solutions in the areas of energy production and consumption, transport, recycling and lifestyles. Adaption to the climate change is an essential part of the project overall.165 157
Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 159 ESDP (2011a). 160 Nienov (2011). 161 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 162 Stockholms stad (2012c). 163 Lorentz (2012). 164 Stockholms stad (2012c). 165 ESDP (2011a). 158
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There are three main environmental targets in Stockholm Royal Seaport:166
by 2030, the district will have zero fossil fuel emissions the district will be adapted to climate change all sectors will have high environmental and sustainable goals.
The interim goal is that by 2020 carbon dioxide emissions in the area will be cut to 1.5 ton per person/year. By 2030, the district will be totally free of fossil fuels.167 This is made possible for example by energy efficient transportation, production of biogas from food waste and recycling and circulation of water, waste and energy. Stockholm Royal Seaport is one of the 18 projects taking part in a global Climate Positive Development Program launched in May 2009. The programme is an initiative created by the Clinton Climate Initiative and the U.S. Green Building Council, and the target of the project is to show the importance of cities in reducing carbon emissions world-wide. Stockholm Royal Seaport is one of these city districts which will become an example of sustainable and successful economic and environmental urban projects.168,169
A vision for the gasworks area in Hjothagen. (Picture: City of Stockholm, Illustration: Aaro Designsystem)
There will be energy-efficient houses in the area such as passive and plus homes, and the houses will generate their own solar or wind energy. To even out variations in consumption due to weather changes, there will also be a smart electricity grid to help the residents to use electricity efficiently. The smart power grid which will be implemented in Stockholm Royal Seaport is going be the first of a kind in Sweden. The city of Stockholm is working amongst others with ABB, Fortum and KTH to develop this smart energy technology to the district.170 The smart grid system consists of many technical solutions which will help the district and all its residents to become more sustainable.171 The smart grid will be integrated to so called ‘active houses’ which will have functions that enable the residents to monitor and control their energy usage themselves. The intelligent power grid is planned to reduce annual energy consumption to a maximum of 55 kWh/m2. However, not only technical solutions are implemented but also information solutions as well as new market rules and lifestyles are going to be a part of the new smart grid system. Different parts of the city environment, such as electrical systems and city infrastructure will be connected to the smart grid as well.172,173,174 Pedestrians and cyclists will be the topmost in the traffic hierarchy of the district. There will be, for example, new lanes for pedestrians and cyclists, many bicycles for hire and parking facilities for 2.2 bicycles per household. Public transport is also given priority, and good connections of extensive subway, tram and bus linkages will be arranged in Stockholm Royal Seaport. The buses will run on bio-fuels. Private car usage is projected to be reduced as much as possible. Not only the 166
ESDP (2011a). Stockholms stad (2012c). 168 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 169 SymbioCity (2012). 170 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 171 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 172 ABB (2012). 173 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012a). 174 SymbioCity (2012). 167
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improvements mentioned but also a car sharing programme and limited parking opportunities (0.5 parking spaces per apartment) are planned to decrease private car usage. In addition there will be several places to charge electric cars in the area. Both private and commercial areas will be created in Stockholm Royal Seaport. A variety of housing, workplaces, transport, public services, education and entertainment will be available in the district when finished. A number of existing buildings will also be preserved in order to retain some historical characters of the former industrial area. Some buildings such as old gasworks buildings have significant cultural and architectural values worthy of preserving. Also eco-cycle solutions will be promoted in Stockholm Royal Seaport. There will be, for example, a stormwater strategy for courtyards, parks, squares and streets. Stormwater is used for watering trees and other green spaces and also for promoting biodiversity in the area overall. Another eco-cycle innovation is a vacuum waste collection system which will enable sorting and managing waste efficiently and reduce the need for transport in the district. Partners & roles The members of the Stockholm Royal Seaport project include public and private stakeholders. The private sector consists of the Port Management, the housing contractors, investor companies and technological developers, while the public side contains residents, public housing developers, Stockholm Public Transport, and the public administration such as the Swedish Environmental Court and the planning office. The most important partners are the Port Authority, the energy company Fortum, housing developers and important public entities such as the planning office.175 The City of Stockholm owns most of the land within the development area. In the first part of the project, in Hjorthagen, the City has been responsible for building the necessary infrastructure, such as the roads, bridges and parks. Since the district has been a former gasworks area, the City has also performed soil remediation before it was possible to start the construction work. Building of the houses is done together with 38 different developers.176 Financing structure The City has been evacuating the gas work area in Hjorthagen for SEK 250 million, paying evacuating costs in order to get rid of old leases and building infrastructure in the area. The costs of this part of Stockholm Royal Seaport have been SEK 4.9 billion for the City, while the revenues for the City so far have been around SEK 4.7 billion, thus making the investments almost balanced. The total investments are estimated to sum up to around SEK 25 billion for the City, and they are also expected to be balanced or even generate profit for the City. The developers have been investing around three times as much as the City in building the houses in the district.177 In addition to the City and the developers, other major investors include parties such as the National government of Sweden that is building the Norra Länken freeway system and the traffic intersection in Stockholm Royal Seaport. Also the Harbour company and the regional traffic company have been making some of the required investments in the area.178 In 2011, Stockholm Royal Seaport received financial support from the Swedish government through a mission called Delegation for Sustainable Cities. The terms of getting subsidies included lowering greenhouse gas emissions and developing sustainable cities in many other ways as well. Stockholm Royal Seaport fulfilled these conditions and received a grant of SEK 600,000.179 Vinnova, a Swedish governmental agency for innovation systems, has granted financial support for Stockholm Royal Seaport. Vinnova granted, among others, SEK 10 million for the project “Smart IKT för att bo och arbeta i Norra Djurgårdsstaden” (Smart ICT for living and working in Norra 175
ESDP (2011a). Lorentz (2012). 177 Lorentz (2012). 178 Lorentz (2012). 179 Sustainable Cities (2012b). 176
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Djurgårdsstaden), which develops solutions for innovations such as active houses and smart ITapplications in the district.180,181 The total subsidies granted from Vinnova account for around SEK 26 million.182 The earlier mentioned Climate Positive Development Program that aims to create a new global target for sustainable urban development is also supporting the Stockholm Royal Seaport project. Overall, there is a lot of cooperation between different stakeholders in Stockholm Royal Seaport. Some projects are co-funded by the City of Stockholm and the Port of Stockholm while others by the city and the national government. Most of the projects, however, are funded by private developers. There are also projects which are funded entirely by the city, and the city is also responsible for the construction, funding and maintaining of all the infrastructures and public spaces.183 A visioned beach path in Stockholm Royal Seaport. (Picture: Stockholms stad genom Andersson Jönsson Landskapsarkitekter)
Results From 2010 onwards, around 500 new homes are going to be built in Stockholm Royal Seaport every year. The construction of the offices and businesses was scheduled to start in 2013 in the port area and the gasworks area in the district.184 So far, there have been many efforts for creating visible elements of sustainability such as planting and designing green spaces, but more complex issues such as the area’s effects on the nearby sea or the ecological impacts of travelling related to the district should be considered as well. Another point to be recognized is social sustainability of the area, which in the usual manner is paid least attention to. However, some good solutions including mixed uses of dwellings are incorporated in the plans.185 Challenges There are many developing city districts in Stockholm along with Stockholm Royal Seaport. Thus, Stockholm Royal Seaport may get some competition from these other districts when trying to attract residents to the district. Another possible threat is that Stockholm Royal Seaport could evolve to a high class district. The area needs to be effectively developed to a socially mixed neighbourhood in order to avoid this phenomenon.186 It is also challenging to implement the new ways of thinking into the development process and into the lifestyles of the future residents. The rapid schedule of the project creates also pressure and no comprehensive structural studies can be performed whenever needed. In addition, there are
180
Swedish ICT (2011). ABB (2012). 182 Vinnova (2012). 183 Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012b). 184 Stockholms stad (2012e). 185 Sustainable Cities (2012b). 186 Nienov (2011). 181
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challenges in the plans of the project to reach a Climate Positive development due to issues considering financing and legislation.187 Another challenge is to make the right decisions about the infrastructure solutions, e.g. a certain waste management system, that are being built in the district, as they should be the right solutions for the long run. New technologies are being studied all the time, but at some point it is necessary to make the choice, and start implementing the infrastructure.188 Lessons learnt Even though the goals and visions for Stockholm Royal Seaport have been well settled, the means of achieving these targets are not as clear. Hammarby Sjรถstad has been a good model of a successful sustainable district in Sweden, and the lessons learnt from the project are used in Stockholm Royal Seaport. The development and implementation processes of the project are carried out in different stages in a way that the experience gained can be utilised in the next phases. Another fact that has to be considered in this kind of long-term project is the rapid evolution of technological solutions and the availability of new technologies.189
187
Stockholm Royal Seaport (2012b). Lorentz (2012). 189 Olofsson et al. (2012). 188
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Photo: City of Malmรถ
Photo: ร sa Hellstrรถm
Bo01 Malmรถ, Sweden
Facts about the district Construction area: 22 ha Construction started: 1998 Construction completed: 2007 Population: 2,300 Dwellings: 1,450 Distance from the city centre: 2 km
3.2.6 Bo01, Malmรถ (SE)
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The City of Malmö in southern Sweden hosted the European housing exhibition called Bo01 in 2001. The Bo01 housing area is located in the Western Harbour (Västra Hamnen) which covers 160 hectares and provides housing eventually for 10,000 people. Bo01 is part of Western Harbour and it covers 22 hectares and 1,450 residential units for around 2,300 inhabitants.190 The next phases of the development project are called Bo02 and Bo03.191
Location of the Western Harbour in Malmö. (Picture: Malmö Stadsbyggnadskontoret)
Bo01 is well-known for the highest building in the Nordic countries, the 54-story Turning Torso designed by architect Santiago Calatrava. Another interesting feature of the district is the variety of its buildings. The prices of the apartments vary between SEK 45,000/m² for a sea view and SEK 25,000/m² without (or total price of SEK 1.7 million–SEK 3.5 million), which has contributed to the diversity of the district’s residents as well.192,193 Only around 350 apartments were completed in time for the European housing exhibition in 2001, and the rest of the units were built afterwards.194 The exhibition was closed ahead of time due to financial difficulties, and the organization in charge, Bo01 AB, went finally bankrupt.195 However, the building process of Bo01 was again continued in 2003 and the construction lasted until 2007. This was achievable because the City Council acquired two-thirds of the Western Harbour and created a master plan for the area which was then built by 18 different developers and 23 architects.196
Location of Bo01 area in the Western Harbour in Malmö. (Picture: Malmö Stadsbyggnadskontoret 2010)
Objectives The Bo01 district was aimed to gain international attention as a leading example of sustainable construction in an urban quarter.197 The main target of the building project was to create an ecological district that uses 100% locally produced renewable energy. Other objectives included soil reclamation, a welldeveloped public transport system, use of ecological building materials, creation of a sustainable society providing high quality of life and promotion of the area’s rich biodiversity.198,199
190
Malmö stadsbyggnadskontor (2011). URBED/TEN Group (2010). 192 URBED/TEN Group (2010). 193 Turning Torso (2011). 194 Malmö stad (2012b). 195 WWF (2012). 196 URBED/TEN Group (2010). 197 URBED/TEN Group (2010). 198 Persson (2005). 199 Energy Cities (2008a). 191
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Since the Western Harbour has an industrial background, the brownfield sites required soil analysis and decontamination before starting the construction work. As one of the most important goals of the Bo01 project was to use exclusively renewable energy in the area, several sustainable energy solutions were designed to the district. These plans included an underground aquifer which would serve as heat storage during the winter, complemented by use of sea water and solar collectors. Electricity would be generated by a wind power plant, photovoltaic cells and biogas produced from waste.200 The transportation system was aimed to minimize car dependency and the need for transport in general, and to promote cycling, the use of public transport, and the use of electric or gas powered vehicles instead. In addition, the building materials were planned to be ecological and reusable, and no hazardous materials would be accepted. Biodiversity of the area was emphasized as well, and plans were made for constructing green roofs and walls to the buildings and creating habitats for many different plant and animal species.201 Partners & roles The Bo01 area was developed by the City of Malmö in cooperation with the Swedish Energy Agency, the European Union, energy and construction companies, Bo01AB (the organiser of the exhibition) and Lund University.202 Financing structure The City of Malmö bought the land of the Bo01 area from the car company Saab by approximately SEK 76 million. The goal was to develop the sustainable district of Bo01, and the City of Malmö was granted funds from the Swedish Government’s Local Investment Program (LIP) to be able to accomplish that. The Government’s subsidy was meant for supporting the different environmental measures taken the district, and so the funding was used for physical investments, technical systems, infrastructure and information and educational projects. Also the contaminated soil of the former brownfield area had to be cleaned and the City treated the land at the cost of approximately SEK 36 million, most of which was taken from the Government’s fund. In total the Government’s support accounted for around SEK 250 million. The European Union participated as well in supporting the energy measures taken in Bo01 by granting around SEK 16 million to the project. Other investors and partners of the project included the Swedish Energy Agency, the Swedish energy company Sydkraft, the energy company E.ON, the organizer of the exhibition Bo01 AB, Lund University and 22 private development companies that were directly involved in negotiating the quality programmes for the area.203,204
Housing in Bo01. (Photo: City of Malmö)
200
Energy Cities (2008a). Energy Cities (2008a). 202 CMHC (2005). 203 CMHC (2005). 204 Energy Cities (2008a). 201
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Results All the houses in Bo01 use very little energy. An efficient district heating system powered only by renewable energy sources covers most of the houses. The energy supply is complemented by 1,400 m² of solar collectors placed on the buildings and also by thermal heating. The low energy standards of the Bo01 district allow the energy use of 105 kWh/m²/year for each building including household electricity. There is a single wind power station (2MW) providing all of the electricity needed in the area and the standard is to consume less than 70 Kwh/m². Waste is recycled in the district as well and food waste is processed into biogas used for running the buses.205,206 In Bo01 priority in transportation is given to public transport. There are only 0.7 parking spaces per household, most of which are placed underground or in a multi-story parking lot. There is also a carpool available for the district’s residents. Buses run frequently in the area, the bus stops are located within 300 metres from all the dwellings. The use of bicycles is also very common among the residents.207,208 In the Western Harbour, the new bicycle lines cover around 8 185 metres.209 Cycling is very popular in Bo01. (Photo: City of Malmö)
The architecture of Bo01 is very versatile and interesting, and this architectural diversity was achieved by using different architects for the planning of each plot of land. Also the public space in Bo01 is well-developed. The seafront promenade and the parks in Bo01 have become very popular among the people in Malmö.210 Another factor taken into account by the construction companies was the use of green spaces. The companies were required to find solutions for rain water management and for the use of different green points, meaning measures such as planting of rare species and creation of habitats for animals. The area’s ratio of green space to the built area is 53 per cent, not including the green roofs.211,212 Water management of the district is done by collecting rainwater and treating grey-water in the city’s purification facility. Waste is collected through a vacuum waste chute system and transformed into biogas to be used in heating.213 In the next phase of the project, Bo02, 13 developers will build 5 to 80 units. The planning of the third phase, Bo03, has also started with 50 proposals for the project. The City Council has initiated stronger collaboration and negotiation with the developers for these phases and the landscaping of them seems to be simpler than in Bo01. Another remarkable issue is that the developers intend to use the German housing model where residents’ homes are commissioned by cooperatives.214 All in all, the Bo01 project has been successful in realizing the ecological goals set for the district. The main target of using 100% local, renewable energy has been accomplished. The area has become a model of sustainable building, and thousands of international visitors have come to the Western Harbour to learn about the solutions and practices used in Bo01.215 205
Energy Cities (2008a). URBED/TEN Group (2010). 207 URBED/TEN Group (2010). 208 Foletta (2011). 209 Malmö stad (2012e). 210 Persson (2005). 211 CMHC (2005). 212 Energy Cities (2008a). 213 Energy Cities (2008a). 214 URBED/TEN Group (2010). 215 Malmö stad (2009). 206
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The Peer Review for European Sustainable Development (PRESUD) has made an evaluation of Bo01 in 2002. According to this report the City was effective in using its resources and political power. It was also stated that the project was successful in the transfer of technologies and it is recommended to use similar new technologies and practices in other sustainable housing projects.216 Challenges In the beginning, the development project encountered some problems including the Expo going bankrupt. However, the project management was determined to continue the building process and 559 houses were complete by 2003.217 Attracting developers for the district was a challenge as well because the general belief in the construction sector was that sustainable building is too expensive compared to conventional building. This turned out to be true as the development has had higher than desired costs of construction. The high costs were caused by the slow housing market in 2001 as well as high costs of experimental sustainable building. The strict standards set by the City’s Quality Programme for building materials and new technologies contributed to the high construction costs as well.218 Another weak point of the project was that the developers were not used to perform energy consumption calculations which led to the practical results differing widely from the theoretical calculations. Thus the target of low energy use in the buildings (105kWh/m²/year) was not achieved in most of the units.219 The payback time of green buildings in Bo01 can be several years and rents of the residential units are higher than elsewhere in the city. In 2005, the average rent in Bo01 was around SEK 14,000 per apartment, while in other areas in the city it was around SEK 10,500 for an apartment of the same size.220 Some newer buildings in the area with fewer amenities could in 2005 reach the rent level of approximately SEK 9,800. However, the lifespan of the green buildings is likely to be longer than in traditional houses. In addition, because of better ventilation and energy efficiency of the buildings, the higher rents are balanced to some degree by approximately 25 per cent lower energy costs in the sustainable houses. Possibility of monitoring the indoor climate individually by using IT solutions has also contributed to these savings.221,222 Overall, Bo01 had a somewhat rocky start in the media because of some challenges faced in the beginning. The image of the district improved a lot, however, in the process of time and now Bo01 can be described as a sustainable urban area presenting interesting ecological solutions and possibilities.223 Lessons learnt Even though Bo01 was originally planned to be an area with limited private car usage and parking options, a large parking garage had to be built when new residents of Bo01 turned out to be keen on using cars, after all. This definitely did not contribute to the ecological goals of the district. The city of Malmö noticed the problem and after that paid a lot of attention in increasing the usage of public transport and bicycles instead of private cars.224 Sustainable transport, among other things, should thus be promoted widely in a new eco-district. The sustainable habits should be encouraged from the beginning of the planning process and the support to these habits should also be on-going.225 216
CMHC (2005). URBED/TEN Group (2010). 218 CMHC (2005). 219 Energy Cities (2008a). 220 CMHC (2005). 221 CMHC (2005). 222 Malmö stad (2009). 223 Persson (2005). 224 Foletta & Field (2011). 225 Foletta & Field (2011). 217
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Photo: ร ke Eson Lindman, Hyllie Centrum
Photo: Perry Nordeng, Hyllie centrum
Hyllie Malmรถ, Sweden
Facts about the district Construction area: 200 ha Construction started: 2012 Construction completed: 2030 Dwellings: 9,000 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: 3 km
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Hyllie is a new, sustainable greenfield area and also the largest development area in the city of Malmö, Sweden. The new city district of some 200 hectares will contain from 7,000 to 9,000 dwellings and some 9,000 new office workspaces when finished approximately in 2030. In the first construction period starting from 2012 some 2,500 dwellings are planned to be built in Hyllie by 20 different developers. The first stage is supposed to be ready by 2015. Plans of developing the district date back to as far as the 1960s. However, the actual expansion started only recently when Sweden’s largest infrastructure project, the City Tunnel, was built in 2010. One station was placed in Hyllie, which accelerated the development of a new attractive city district. Hyllie has good accessibility and an excellent position in the Öresund region, and it only takes 5 minutes to Malmö central by train.226
Location of Hyllie in Malmö. (Picture: City of Copenhagen & City of Malmö)
Hyllie is a mixed area with a lot of services and special features. Malmö arena in Hyllie is a multiarena for sports, entertainment and culture, the Station Square is a large area for public transportation, Park n’ Ride is Malmö’s biggest parking area and Point Hyllie will be a landmark for the district serving a total area of 45,000 m² for residencies, commercial services and offices.227 Objectives Hyllie is planned to become a global model for sustainable city districts and more specifically the most climate-smart district in the Öresund region. Hyllie is projected to get a smart infrastructure, which will result as higher energy efficiency, reduced energy losses and reliable electricity supply. By 2020, energy production in Hyllie will consist of 100% of renewable or recycled energy, most of which will be locally produced. District heating will be used for heating and waste will be reused for both electricity and heating.
A map of Hyllie district. (Picture: City of Malmö)
The energy company E.ON and the City of Malmö have signed a long term climate treaty. A smart infrastructure which can communicate with the technologies in the buildings is under planning in Hyllie, and E.ON and Siemens have committed to a cooperation agreement for implementing parts of this infrastructure. Hyllie is planned to be a large-scale testing ground for smart city solutions of the future. The smart grid applications which are going to be placed in the district will enable the residents to monitor and manage their energy consumption. There is, for example, a project called BuildSmart going on in Hyllie, in which climate-smart solutions for heating, cooling and ventilation are going to be tested.228 The goal is to create means for the users to monitor and influence their own energy consumption. Construction companies have also already specified technological solutions for very low energy buildings in Hyllie and these solutions will be applied not only for residential and office buildings but also for a kindergarten.229,230
226
Malmö stad (2010). Malmö stad (2010). 228 Edström Frejman (2012). 229 Concerto (2010). 230 European Investment Bank et al. (2012). 227
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Hyllie is located in the transition between city and country – and the countryside and green structures are promoted in the district and between the houses. Many green spots are being created in Hyllie, and there will also be a bigger scale park, the Waterpark. The Waterpark will have a variety of plants, trees and other greenery as well as diverse water attractions.231 Proximity to the surrounding cultural landscape will also be an important part of the development of the area. The district is going to have a varied mix of housing, and at least 30 per cent of the dwellings will be rental apartments. Well-functioning public transport network is another point of focus in Hyllie. The network is going to consist of trains, city busses and regional busses. There is also going to be a new metro station in Hyllie and it will take only 6 minutes from Hyllie to the centre of Malmö.232,233 There will be a variety of services in the district. An ultra-modern bath house is going to be built in Hyllie in 2014−2015. The building is going to use only half the amount of energy used by similar complexes.234
A vision photo of accommodation in Hyllie. (Photo: David Wiberg, 2008)
Partners & roles Several actors are taking part in developing the intelligent energy system in Hyllie. E.ON, the City of Malmö and VA Syd are the main partners of the project, while Siemens will be the main supplier of energy technology. A number of constructors and other actors are also involved. 235 Financing structure The City of Malmö and E.ON received SEK 47 million from the Swedish Energy Agency for the construction of the intelligent smart grid system in Hyllie.236 In addition, five constructors involved in Hyllie have, for example, received grants of SEK 50 million from the EU for the project BuildSmart.237 Each party of the project finances their own efforts. If other resource inputs are needed the steering groups will have to accept these. Each organization which is part of the project will ensure that resources are allocated to the extent required.238 Results Planning process of Hyllie has finished, and the construction work started in 2012. There are very ambitious environmental and energy consumption targets for the new district and it remains to be seen if these targets will be achieved. Some facilities are already functioning in the developing district. There is already a new parking deck, Park n’ Ride, built in the district, and it is the largest of its kind in Malmö. The parking deck contains places for 1,400 cars and for 49 motorcycles, and there is also a bicycle park, Bike n’ Ride, for some 1,000 bikes integrated to the building. The multi-storey car park does not only provide parking, 231
Malmö stad (2010). Malmö stad (2012c) 233 Malmö stad (2012d). 234 Malmö stad (2012c). 235 Siemens AG (2012). 236 Business Wire (2012). 237 Edström Frejman (2012). 238 VA SYD et al. (2011). 232
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however, for there is a variety of services offered in the building. One can get his or her bike fixed or car washed while at work or at school, and it is also possible to buy and charge commuter cards in the facility. In addition, there is a tyre company and tourist information in the same building.239
New parking deck in Hyllie provides service and space for 1,400 cars and 1,000 bicycles. (Photo: City of Malmรถ)
Cyclists are appreciated in Hyllie, as there are good cycling tracks to Hyllie from all around Malmรถ. There are a lot of bicycle parks in the district as well, and the biggest one functioning in the Park and Ride facility provides several services for cyclists such as lockers for helmets, showers and toilets, doit-yourself places for repairing bikes and a possibility to lock the bicycles with functional cards.240,241 There are also other sustainable projects going on in Hyllie at present. The project development and construction group Skanska will invest around SEK 200 million in an eco-friendly office property in Hyllie. The property will consist of a number of sustainable solutions, and all the materials used will be environmentally friendly. In addition, the recycling rate of the building materials used in the construction phase will be as high as 95%.242
239
Malmรถ stad (2012c). Malmรถ stad (2012b). 241 Malmรถ stad (2012c). 242 Business Wire (2012). 240
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Photo: Payton Chung (2012)
Photo: Erich Meyer (2012), Stadt Freiburg
Rieselfeld Freiburg, Germany
Facts about the district Development area: 70 ha Construction started: 1994 Construction completed: 2012 Population: 12,000 Dwellings: 4,200 Distance from the city centre: approx. 4 km
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Rieselfeld is a green neighbourhood located in the western part of the city of Freiburg, Germany. The 70 ha residential housing area is situated on a former 320-hectare sewage farm area, and is one of the largest recent residential district projects in the state of Baden-WĂźrttemberg. Today, the area has turned into an attractive and sustainable city district.243,244 Extensive ground surveys and measures such as soil removal had to be performed before the area was suitable for future residential purposes. Construction of the area started in 1994 and ended in 2011. In 2010, there were about 10,000 residents and some 4,100 dwellings in Rieselfeld. In addition, there are around 1,000 jobs in the district.245,246 Location of Rieselfeld in Freiburg. (Map: FreiGIS, Freiburg)
Objectives Since the beginning of the project, all the aspects of a new sustainable district were paid attention to. Not only technological aspects were promoted, but also social, cultural, ecological, urban building and marketing were stressed early on. A flexible urban design principle was also guiding the planning process. Flexibility was promoted in planning because it provided the option to adapt planning to future challenges.247 Sustainable solutions such as low-energy construction, district heating network, solar energy and rainwater usage were some methods planned to be implemented in Rieselfeld.248 In Rieselfeld one main objective was to promote a participatory way of planning and building a sustainable city district. Citizens were involved in many discussions concerning the hopes and needs of the public, and in addition a citizen council consisting of local representatives was created by the city of Freiburg. The citizens were given the possibility to join the planning process, and some of the ideas of the participants were indeed used in the Rieselfeld land use plan. A detailed plan of Rieselfeld. (Picture: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.)
Partners & roles The Freiburg City Council created a Public-Private Partnership between the city and the private developers in order to combine the knowledge and resources of both sides when implementing the project. The private parties consisted of more than 110 building societies and investors. In addition, a development agency was formed for the cooperation of the public and private sectors.249,250
243
Berrini & Colonetti (2010). Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 245 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 246 Stadt Freiburg (2012b). 247 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 248 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 249 Brunsign, MĂśller & Wixforth (1999). 250 Stadt Freiburg (2012a). 244
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A master planning contest was organized for the district of Rieselfeld in 1991, in order to find the best possible city design for the new district and to utilize the input of the public at the same time. Three winning proposals were chosen and used as a basis for the design of Rieselfeld district. Both the Freiburg city planning and building control departments were in charge of the administration of the Rieselfeld project, and the project team consisted of a variation of representatives from different city departments.251 Financing structure The Rieselfeld project was financed mostly by selling the city’s land plots to individual investors as well as by some development fees.252,253 The finances were run by a trust outside of the city budget.254 Marketing of the land was very important for the success of the projects and was based on high urban design and high quality of construction. The land sales accounted for about € 115 million and development fees for € 22.5 million. In addition, the project was funded by land management, pre-financing and some subsidies granted for building schools and a fire-station, for example. These funds accounted for some € 7.5 million altogether.255,256 All the public and private investment for the project summed up to around € 1,350 million.257 Revenues of the project were about € 145 million, and the costs of planning, managing, marketing, public buildings, infrastructure and landscaping accounted altogether for about € 144 million. A loan of € 40 million had to be taken in order to pre-finance the construction of public and social infrastructure.258
An aerial photo of Rieselfeld. (Photo: Erich Meyer 2012, Stadt Freiburg)
Results In Rieselfeld the road system is important when considering the sustainability of the district. The area has a general speed limit of 30 km/h and there are special traffic-calmed streets in the district for children to play. Priority is given to public transport, more precisely to tram and bus lines, and also to pedestrians and cyclists. In order to make the new district attractive, the tramline was built very early in the development stage. The extended tramline in Rieselfeld now connects the district conveniently with the public transport network of Freiburg. Bicycle traffic is promoted, for example, by connecting the area’s bicycle routes to the city’s bicycle network and by setting bicycle stands for each tram stop.259,260 There is an obligation to use low-energy construction with a maximum energy consumption of 65 kWh/m²/year in the houses. All dwellings are also obligated to be connected to the district heating system functioning on a combined heat and power plant. Renewable energy such as solar energy, wood pellets and heat pumps are used widely in Rieselfeld district as well.261,262 251
Brunsign et al. (1999). Brunsign et al. (1999). 253 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 254 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 255 Brunsign et al. (1999). 256 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 257 Brunsign et al. (1999). 258 Brunsign et al. (1999). 259 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 260 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 261 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 262 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 252
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In a study conducted from 1990 to 1998, Rieselfeld’s carbon emissions were almost 50% lower than in a regular residential area.263 High building density, efficient public transport, energy savings and local heat supply were some factors contributing to the low level of CO2 emissions. Green spaces, open areas and playgrounds are paid a lot of attention in the area. Both private and public green spaces and also other leisure possibilities are of high quality in Rieselfeld. There is also a wide nature reserve in the proximity of the residential area, for of the total area of 320 hectares only 70 hectares is used for the residential area, and the remaining part functions as a nature reserve.264 Rainwater is being collected separately in the district. Typical local vegetation of marsh and swamp areas can be preserved by this water circulation process, in which the collected water is returned to the wetland biotype in the nearby nature reserve after a biological purification process. The level of resident satisfaction is high in Rieselfeld.265 The needs of different groups, such as handicapped, elderly and families, have been paid a lot of attention to in the district.266 There is, e.g., a wide range of building types for housing in order to reach different groups of people. All the other facilities in the district are designed according to residents’ needs as well. There were no large-scale problems in planning or constructing the area, probably due to the open and successful participation of the public and private parties throughout the project.
Cycling and walking are promoted in Rieselfeld. (Photo: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.)
The building blocks are of high density but there are also wide streets, several town squares and public courtyards available all over the district for the residents to use. All kinds of services from kindergartens and schools to restaurants and commercial services exist in the area as well. Creating both public (schools, nurseries, library, community centre, churches, nursing homes, recreational areas) and private infrastructure (supermarkets, small shops, bank branches, restaurants, medical and dental practices) within the district was an important objective. They are all located in the district and hence accessible by foot or bicycle. Challenges Marketing of the district faced some problems at the end of 1990s. Subsidized low-cost living, privately financed rental housing and private apartments and houses were being promoted in the beginning of the marketing process, but by the end of the century the state support for new social housing ended and likewise tax advantages for investors were finished. The project group reacted in a way that single and multiple dwelling units were supported and investor acquisition for the construction of privately owned real estate was promoted.267 Lessons learnt The positive image of Rieselfeld as a sustainable residential district with good public services and a resident-friendly infrastructure has attracted especially young families and senior citizens. The district 263
Stadt Freiburg (2010a). Stadt Freiburg (2010b). 265 Stadt Freiburg (2010b). 266 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 267 Energy Cities (2008e). 264
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has succeeded in preventing suburban sprawl and keeping families within the city as well as attracting inhabitants from the surrounding areas back to the city.268 The Rieselfeld project group has been involving residents in the development process and considering the inhabitants’ opinions for improvements in future phases of the project. Even though the City of Freiburg and the residents of Rieselfeld have formed a strong partnership, there have been some conflicts of interest. In these cases, the public interest should come before individuals’ interests. Another principle describing the Rieselfeld project has been ‘more activity, less administration’.269 In the Rieselfeld project, the City of Freiburg has achieved its ambitious goals of sustainable urban development in terms of integrating environmental policy and sustainability in residential district building and creating an attractive housing area for its citizens.270
268
Stadt Freiburg (2010a). Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 270 Stadt Freiburg (2010a). 269
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Photo: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.
Photo: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.
Vauban Freiburg, Germany
Facts about the district Construction area: 38 ha Construction started: 1997 Construction completed: 2009 Population: 5,300 Dwellings: 2,000 Distance from the city centre: 3 km
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Vauban is a sustainable district of 38 hectares located near the city centre of Freiburg in Germany. The new residential development is a former French military barrack area transformed into an attractive neighbourhood for 5,300 residents. The number of dwellings in Vauban is around 2,000, and there are also 600 working places. Planning of the area began in 1993 and the construction of the housing development was completed in 2009.
A lot of attention was given to raising public awareness and participation since the beginning of the project. Different aspects of developing the district, such as energy, housing and social issues, were discussed in working groups open to experts and all interested parties, including future residents of Vauban district. These working groups were essential for the innovative and participatory planning process.271,272 Location of Vauban in Freiburg. (Map: FreiGIS, Freiburg)
Objectives The principle of sustainability was initiated in Vauban long before urban sustainable development became popular around the world. Ecological aspects were incorporated to the plan of creating an urban quarter with high quality housing and services for the growing population of Freiburg. The energy consumption of the district was to be organised efficiently. Extensive use of ecological building materials and solar energy were other main objectives of the project. Also an increased use of district heating was promoted early on.273,274 In transport, priority was given to pedestrians, Vauban district. (Map: FreiGIS, Freiburg) cyclists and public transport in Vauban district. It was important that the new district would be integrated to the existing bicycle lane network and the city railway system. The target was to have as few cars in the district as possible and private cars were allowed to enter the district only for pick-up and delivery purposes. Private car parking was planned to be allowed only in a community car park located at the periphery of the area and in the Vaubanallee where park-and-display spaces were planned to be available.275,276 Good service supply is also taken into account in Vauban, and facilities such as a primary school, kindergartens, neighbourhood centre for social interaction and district centre with shops for the daily needs were planned in the district. All the houses in Vauban were planned to be in walking distance of a tram stop and all schools, shopping centres and working places.277
271
European Academy of the Urban Environment (2001). Energy Cities (2008f). 273 European Academy of the Urban Environment (2001). 274 B端rgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 275 Forum Vauban e.V (1999). 276 Springer (2012). 277 Green Point Partners (2011). 272
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Partners & roles Actors of the Vauban sustainable district included the voluntary organization Forum Vauban, the City of Freiburg and various other partners such as small co-housing groups, working citizens groups and private builders. However, there was no established partnership between these players.278 The private NGO, Forum Vauban, was an organisation consisting of future residents established in 1993. With some support from EU’s LIFE Programme and the German government, the organisation became an equal partner of Freiburg city in 1995. This meant that Forum Vauban could participate in all governmental decisions concerning the Vauban area. In addition to Forum Vauban, two main actors of the sustainable district project were Project Group Vauban, which was formed from local authorities dealing with the project, and the City Council Vauban Committee consisting of municipal representatives.279 Financing structure In 1992, The City of Freiburg acquired 34 hectares of land for the Vauban development from the Federal Property office for the price of approximately € 20 million.280 Freiburg’s student welfare organisation (Studentenwerk) and an independent housing initiative (SUSI) purchased the remaining part. After this, the land was sold by the city to local developer groups in small plots for 10−20 houses. Around two thirds of the apartments were built by the construction cooperatives and the rest by private or residential builders.281
There are a lot of public open spaces in Vauban. (Photo: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.)
A traffic-calmed street in a residential area. (Photo: Payton Chung)
The project’s finance was separated from the municipal budget and ran through a trust account. Loans taken by the city for the total development were around € 100 million.282 The European LIFE programme and the Federal Environmental Foundation supported the Vauban project with some funding, and also network companies supported the project by investing in the network structure (water, electricity etc.). These investments are expected to be paid back by the residents during the utilisation phase of the dwellings.283 In the end, there was a deficit of € 1−2 million in the budget, which was then balanced from the municipal budget.284 The sales of land generated some revenues for the project.
As the collective construction approach used in Germany was also implemented in Vauban, many of the buildings in Vauban were acquired by building groups (‘Baugruppen’). The end price including land costs for buildings developed with this approach was approximately € 1,800/m2 in Vauban. For comparison, in some of the other districts in Freiburg the costs were € 1,950/m2 (in Stühlinger) and € 278
Olofsson et al. (2012). Sperling (2002). 280 Energy Cities (2008f). 281 Sustainability Victoria (2011). 282 Springer (2012). 283 Energy Cities (2008f). 284 Springer (2012). 279
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2,795/m2 (in Wiehre). One of the reasons for this price difference was the fact that the sale prices of the Baugruppe units did not include any developer’s profit. Open market sale prices were from € 2,200/m2 to around € 3,150/m2 in Vauban, while in other districts excluding the city centre the prices were from € 2,000/m2 to around € 3,130/m2.285 The financial risks as well as benefits of the housing projects were shared by all members of the construction communities. This cooperation of developers made it possible to create a large scale project and the total cost savings are estimated to have been around 25%, including 10% savings from decreased risks and developer’s holding costs.286 Results One main focus area in Vauban was involving the inhabitants to the planning process by collaborating them in all political decision-making. The residents have indeed been very active, and a lot of people have been taking part in different local initiatives, projects and workshops. In addition, the citizens formed an urban design concept together with the project group, and this concept was used as a basis for the Vauban land-use plan.287,288 All houses in Vauban are constructed at least according to a low energy standard of 65 kWh/m²/year. Public energy and heat are generated by a co-generation plant functioning on woodchips (80%) and natural gas (20%), and this plant is connected to the district’s heating grid.289 In addition to low energy standard there are some 170 buildings built with passive house standard of 15 kWh/m²/year or less.290,291 In passive houses the heat is produced by the house itself with solar roofs and heat recovery systems. Even more sustainable are the around 70 houses constructed according a plus energy standard, which means that they produce more energy than they need.
The community centre building in Vauban. (Photo: Stadt Freiburg i.Br.)
In 2010, already 65% of the electricity needed in the district was produced locally through cogeneration and photovoltaics. Several ecological solutions were also carried out voluntarily by a number of building owners. Stormwater and photovoltaic utilisation were some of these innovations.292,293 Due to a high number of architects involved in the planning process there is a wide variation of styles in the buildings. There were no design requirements for the buildings in the district’s land-use plan because of the willingness to promote a greater variability and versatility in the district. Materials, colours and roof inclinations, for example, do not follow any standards in the district. Thus the district is very lively and unique in its appearance.294 Pedestrian and bicycle paths in Vauban are well connected and efficient (Green Point Partners 2011). There are also some bus routes located in the district, but private car usage is strictly restricted in the traffic-calmed residential streets outside the Vaubanallee. Only pick-up and delivery are allowed in the residential area where there is a speed limit of 5 km/h. Private car parking is only allowed in a multi285
Little (2006). Sustainability Victoria (2011). 287 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 288 Vauban district (2012). 289 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 290 Green Point Partners (2011). 291 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 292 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 293 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 294 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 286
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store car park in the outskirts of the district for a fee of € 18,000 per year. Building private car parking spaces in the plots is also forbidden.295,296,297 There are good public transport and car-sharing systems in the district. Two bus lines and a tramway connect the district with the city centre. The number of households living without a private car is about 40%. There are financial benefits in living without a car because the ones without a private car don’t have to pay for a parking lot in the public car park.298,299 Due to all the measures taken to reduce car usage and promote more sustainable forms of transport, the ratio of cars per residents is approximately 170 cars/1,000 residents in Vauban, while in the city of Freiburg it is 382 cars/1,000 residents. Rainwater is collected in Vauban and it is used in houses or infiltrated into the ground. There is also a new ecological sanitary system implemented in the district. The system transforms a part of the sewage into biogas, which is then used for cooking in the houses. Rest of the waste water is cleaned and returned to the water cycle. In addition, stormwater is used for toilet flushing in the district’s primary school.300,301 The several public green spaces in Vauban were designed together with local residents. Already existing trees were maintained in the area, and many green roofs were created for flat roofs and flat sloped roofs up to 10º.There are also lots of common areas in the district for social activities and for kids to play. For example a neighbourhood centre was opened in the district to promote social interaction.302 Challenges There were some disagreements in decision-making between the residents of Vauban, and thus 10 to 15 per cent of decisions made in the planning phase had to be taken by the local authority.303 Forum Vauban had to end its operations due to bankruptcy pressed by the European Community in 2004. However, the association contributed to the development project in many ways during its active years.304 Lessons learnt The Vauban district has become an attractive family friendly and sustainable district in Freiburg, featuring a variety of housing styles that still can form a balanced and homogenous neighbourhood.305 The lessons learnt from the development project are the following:
A successful participatory process requires sufficient resources and should involve planning as well as implementation phases. In Vauban, the participation of Forum Vauban in the development process had many benefits for the project and brought new insights and solutions that would not have been acknowledged without the cooperation. Small scale development projects within the larger process are feasible to carry out. With the support from official planning and consultants such as architects, NGOs and private companies, the future residents can have an active role in planning and building their neighbourhood. The balance of social groups in the district is very important. The diversity of social groups with different income levels in a housing district can be achieved with support from the public sector and the government.
295
Energy Cities (2008f). Sustainable Cities (2008). 297 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 298 Energy Cities (2008f). 299 Berrini & Colonetti (2010). 300 Energy Cities (2008f). 301 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 302 European Academy of the Urban Environment (2001). 303 Energy Cities (2008f). 304 Forum Vauban e. V. (2004). 305 Bürgermeisteramt Dezernat V (2011). 296
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306
The reuse of brownfield areas can slow down sub-urbanization in cities. This can be accomplished by converting older inner city areas to healthy and attractive living places. The ‘development site status’ has both its advantages and disadvantages. While it allows the city to be in control of the whole planning and marketing process without including private parties in the project, the financial burden can be too heavy. Political actions are important for the project as well. Forum Vauban had to use lobbying and other political actions in order to accomplish its targets. Funding and financial support for small, independent groups are necessary. Small NGOs such as Forum Vauban need the economic support and financial liquidity provided by other parties. New districts usually attract young families, and some effort is needed in order to attract other demographic groups as well. Density may be a disadvantage in some of the brownfield districts. However, it is a relative viewpoint. History of an area should be preserved when planning new districts.306
Sperling (2002). 65
Picture: schreinerkastler
Photo: Siemens AG Ă–sterreich, presentation
Aspern Vienna's Urban Lakeside Vienna, Austria Facts about the district Construction area: 240 ha Construction started: 2013 Construction completed: 2028 Expected population: 20,000 Dwellings: 8,500 (when ready) Distance from the city centre: over 10 km
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Aspern Vienna’s Urban Lakeside is a new multi-functional urban area in the city of Vienna, Austria. Aspern is located northeast of the city, in the 22nd municipal district, with convenient accessibility to the city centres of both Vienna and Bratislava in Slovakia. The planning area is a former airfield. The new district will be well connected to the city’s public transport network. By the end of 2013 there will be two underground stations in Aspern. There will also be access to tram lines and a railway station offering access to regional train network and a railway line to Bratislava. Aspern Vienna’s Urban Lakeside is one of Europe’s largest urban development projects. There will be eventually some 20,000 people living in Aspern and the same amount will work there. Aspern is planned to be a centre for research, development and education. Approximately 15,000 workplaces are targeted for offices and service providers and the remaining 5,000 for both production and commercial and also for science and research facilities. There is going to be a large industrial, scientific, research and education quarter established in Vienna’s Urban Lakeside. The district will be built in three phases over two decades. The first phase, during the years 2008−2017, will include development of the lake park, construction of around 2,000 The masterplan of Vienna’s Urban Lakeside. residential apartments, as well as offices, retail and R&D (Picture: Wien 3420 AG) facilities. The second development phase in 2017−2022 will consist of the completion of the railway station and a link to A 23 motorway. In addition, further residential housing and buildings for other purposes will be constructed. During the last phase of 2022−2030, the areas around the railway station, shopping street and underground line will be completed.307 Objectives An overall energy concept has been formed for the district including plans for photovoltaic power generation and a geothermal energy project. Austria’s largest geothermal power plant will be constructed in the proximity of the Aspern area within a few years, and the system will eventually supply parts of the Aspern district.308 The geothermal installation will cover more than 100% of the heating demands of the Vienna’s Urban Lakeside and possibly a part of energy supply as well.309 The dwellings will correspond to near-zero energy standards in Aspern. The city of Vienna is aiming to develop Aspern into a Location of Aspern. (Picture: Wien 3420 AG, Aspern Development AG) “smart city” with a focus on energy and mobility solutions of the future. The new city district is planned to become a pioneering flagship development project of intelligent technology applications such as smart buildings, integrated energy systems and electric mobility forms. Energy efficiency and quality of life will be combined in this area in a unique way.310 Cycling and walking are going to be encouraged and smart mobility concepts will be implemented in the new district. A set of measures and strategies for guiding the mobility process and implementation 307
Wien 3420 AG (2012a). Wien 3420 AG (2012a). 309 Hofstetter (2012). 310 Siemens AG Österreich (2012). 308
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of project aspern have been established as a Mobility Guideline, consisting of seven different packages. These packages include links with the environs, parking spaces, mobility fund, innovative transport systems, public space, communication and monitoring. Solutions such as efficient bus service and quality pedestrian and cycling paths to the neighbouring areas, mandatory provisions for bicycle parking facilities inside buildings, city bike and car sharing systems, and eco-friendly buses or a U2 carriage for bikes are part of the guideline measures of the packages.311 There will be only 0,7 parking places for the residents of Aspern which is rather low compared to the average number of 1,5 in Vienna’s other areas.312 The number of parking places may be even less than 0,7 in the second development phase of Aspern.313 The private car parking is organized so that there will be common garages for the private cars in a number of apartment buildings. The distance to the parking facilities is going to be somewhat the same as to the public transport stops. Vienna’s Urban Lakeside is especially designed for young people like students and young couples. Schools and kindergartens are going to be built in the area as well as student houses. A certain proportion of the dwellings in each building plot are going to be subsidised in order to create a socially mixed residential area. There were also possibilities for the new residents of the Urban Lakeside to take part in designing the houses together with the City of Vienna.314 Of the entire planning area, 40 hectares are going to remain undeveloped and thus will form a wide area of public green spaces. The remaining 200 hectares of the development area consists of 100 hectares of public space (incl. streets, squares and parks) and 100 hectares of net building land (buildings and (semi-) private green areas).
Illustration of the Aspern Boulevard. (Picture: schreinerkastler)
The Aspern lake. (Photo: Wien 3420 AG)
As much as half of the total space in Aspern is reserved for diverse public open spaces consisting of recreational areas, city squares and roads. In the development area there is a five-hectare lake set in a nine-hectare central park. The lakeside park is going to be the heart of the district functioning as a “green lung” for all the residents. There will be a variety of services in the district, including cultural, leisure and sports facilities and a number of shops, restaurants and cafés. Elementary and general secondary schools and a kindergarten will be built in the district in the first development phase, and also institutions for the elderly are planned to be set up in the area.315 So called collective building initiatives are promoted in Vienna and also in Vienna’s Urban Lakeside. These initiatives refer to associations of individuals willing to construct in “a collaborative and selforganised way”.316 A communication platform is created and one block in the first building phase is reserved for the use of collective building initiatives. This development is expected to result as small unit development, which creates variety in the urban structure.
311
Wien 3420 Aspern Development AG (2011). Siemens AG Österreich (2012). 313 Hofstetter (2012). 314 Siemens AG Österreich (2012). 315 Wien 3420 AG (2012b). 316 Wien 3420 Aspern Development AG (2011). 312
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There are several values defined in Vienna’s Urban Lakeside project:317
“A culture of sharing and communicating A city is a shared space of infinite possibilities Work and leisure – integral elements of life Individuality is respected Sharing with future generations Nature is indivisible from urban quality Shared use of streets and squares Small-scale structures and ample spaces Open spaces are part of the plan Identity grows from participation”. A view over Vienna’s Urban Lakeside.
(Picture: schreinerkastler) There has also been a branding process created for giving the district a distinct identity with the intention of targeting a specific market. In 2008, this process presented the slogan of “The Full Life” for conveying the concept of “Work-Life Balance City” that emphasizes the harmony of working and living, or pursuing a career and having a family, which has become a problem to acknowledge in many modern societies. This focus of the project is also related to the values of “Social Vienna”.318
Partners & roles The Urban Lakeside master plan was submitted by the Swedish architectural team Tovatt Architects & Planners AB and adopted unanimously by the Vienna City Council in 2007. There are three partners involved in the research project of Aspern Seestadt: Wiener Stadtwerke, Siemens and Wien 3420. Wiener Stadtwerke is aiming to develop the district with the newest technologies as a pilot project, Siemens will implement its wide know-how in the area and Wien 3420 is the site partner of the project developing the area into a multi-functional sustainable city district. All the three partners will make sure the research projects are implemented in the design of the Aspern district.319 All plots of the district are sold, rented and managed by Wien 3420 AG.320 The involvement of the residents in the development of the district has also been discussed since the beginning, and a Neighbourhood Management concept was designed by Wien 3420 AG in cooperation with the City of Vienna. However, the Neighbourhood Management has not yet been formally established and agreed upon by all of the decision-makers. Even so, there is already a small active community consisting of citizens on the Internet.321 Financing structure The overall costs of creating Vienna’s Urban Lakeside centre are estimated to constitute approximately € 4 billion. Over the next 20 to 25 years Wien 3420 AG will invest € 300 million in technical infrastructure and internal communication routes as well as in green space and landscape planning.322 Lessons learnt One of the main objectives of Aspern Vienna’s Urban Lakeside is to create a modern district with a variety of services for the residents – a district with “Work-Life Balance” that provides the means for both working and living in the area. For achieving this goal not only environmental issues, but also the realization of social sustainability has to be considered. Therefore, it is important that the citizens can participate in the development process of the district. In addition, branding of the district will create a distinct image for the area and attract the future residents. 317
Wien 3420 Aspern Development AG (2011). Wien 3420 Aspern Development AG (2011). 319 Siemens AG Österreich (2012). 320 Wien 3420 AG (2012b). 321 Wien 3420 Aspern Development AG (2011). 322 Wien 3420 AG (2012c). 318
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3.3 Good practices from the reference districts The studied reference districts have successfully developed and implemented several good practices related to different fields of sustainable urban development. Mapping of these solutions can be beneficial for learning about what kind of technologies are available and how they can be used for creating a sustainable city district. Energy Sustainable and renewable energy sources used in the reference districts include, among others, solar energy, wind power and biogas produced from waste. The districts also strive for producing the majority or even all of the energy needed locally within the area. Solar energy is used both for heating and electricity. Waste from the households is recycled and processed into biogas. In some of the districts, such as in Hyllie and Bo01, energy is either planned to be or already is produced from 100% renewable or recycled sources. Ambitious goals are also set for the energy consumption of the buildings in many of the reference districts. The energy standards can vary from low energy standard of an average of around 65 kWh/m²/year in the completed districts to plans for building near-zero energy houses and plus energy houses in the newer districts. Energy saving solutions in houses and public infrastructure can both help to conserve the nature and also produce financial savings for municipalities and the residents. Smart grid applications have many benefits for a city aiming to reduce its energy consumption. Higher energy efficiency and reduced energy losses are the main outcomes of smart grid solutions, and also a reliable electricity supply is one positive result of these smart applications. In a smart grid system there are often several technical solutions, such as smart meters, which enable the residents to monitor and reduce their energy consumption. Technical solutions, however, are not the only methods of a sustainable smart grid system, for there can also be information solutions and new ways of marketing and living as part of smart grid systems. The city environment including electrical systems and city infrastructure can be widely connected to the smart grid overall. Transport Reducing private car usage in one way or another is a target in all the reference districts studied in this report. Introducing car pools which allow the residents to have access to several shared cars has been successful in some of the reference cities. Speed limits and traffic-calmed streets have also been used in some of the reference districts, and they have been very successful in decreasing the amount of private cars in the residential areas. Private car parking is restricted one way or another in most of the reference districts. For example in Vauban it is rather expensive to own a car as car owners have to pay for a parking lot in the public car park. Private car parking is only allowed in this car park located in the outskirts of the district. Parking can also be integrated to the public transport network. For example in Hyllie there is a large parking facility which is connected to the new City Tunnel, and the parking deck is primarily meant to serve train travellers in the area. Public transport is promoted practically in all city districts aiming to be sustainable. The public transport networks of the districts consist of city busses and regional busses, trains, light rail links and ferry lines. It is important for the public transport network to be well connected. The public transport modes are designed to run frequently and the stops for PT connections are located within a short distance from every household. Another point that is considered is the use of renewable energy sources in the public transport. As an example, in Stockholm Royal Seaport the buses will run on biofuels. In Stockholm there is also a bike sharing program functioning. The bike sharing program in Stockholm consists of providing public bicycles from several docking stations spread around the city, 70
and one of these stations is located in Hammarby Sjöstad. At each docking station there is space for 9 to 24 bicycles, and the number of bicycles available depends on how many bikes are being used at a certain time. The bike sharing functions in Stockholm from April to October.323 For pedestrians the districts have paid attention to having well-functioning footpath networks, building new walking paths and giving priority to pedestrians in the traffic hierarchy. Ecology Green spaces contribute greatly in the well-being of a district’s residents. It is important for a residential area to have public (and private) green spaces for the residents to use. Incorporating green elements in the architecture of the districts has been used in many of the reference districts in the form of green roofs and walls, green fingers between the buildings or planting greenery in the yards. There are also several parks in the reference areas and the creation of ecological recreational spaces for the residents has been an important target in most of the districts. Some of the ways of preserving the natural environment in the districts have included adjusting the construction to the terrain and the surrounding areas, maintaining biodiversity through a number of actions such as the use of green points in Bo01 and managing stormwaters in an ecological way and using the water for watering purposes and creating ecological water attractions. In Vauban, the green spaces were designed together with local residents. One of the three green belts in the district, for example, was planned during several meetings and a workshop on-site involving the residents.324 Already existing trees were maintained in Vauban as well. Ecological building materials are another factor contributing to sustainable development of residential areas, which are used widely in the reference districts. The chosen building materials are ecological and reusable, and hazardous materials are avoided. Building materials are recycled whenever possible. In Hyllie, the recycling rate of building materials in the construction phase will be around 95%. Social issues In order to create a genuine sense of community there should be interaction between the residents of a district. Common areas such as shared gardens, saunas, laundries and work spaces have been successful in some of the reference cases in increasing the cohesion of the residents. In EcoViikki, for example, common saunas have become very popular amongst the residents. Neighbourhood centres are also places, which promote social interaction of the residents. There can also be more modern solutions used to add the residents’ interaction. For example the broadband connection in Vuores enables the creation of a common internet portal for all the residents. In a district-wide portal everyone in the district has the opportunity to be effortlessly in contact with others and to be informed of a variety of issues regarding the district and the residents. It has been very successful for the overall participation of the residents in the districts’ activities that the residents can influence the decisions made concerning the district. In Vauban the involvement of residents in the planning process was one of the major focus areas. The inhabitants took part in different local initiatives, projects and workshops. The future residents of the district even established the private NGO, Forum Vauban, which became a partner of the City of Freiburg for the project. Through this organization the residents could take part in all of the governmental decisions concerning the area. Another factor contributing to the social sustainability of a residential area is the variety of residents. The needs of different groups of people, such as handicapped, elderly and families, were taken into account for example when planning Rieselfeld. A variety of facilities and building types for housing have been built in the district as a respond to residents’ needs. As a result, there is a high level of resident satisfaction in Rieselfeld. 323 324
Foletta & Field (2011). Forum Vauban e.V. (1999). 71
It is also important that a sustainable city district has a sufficient amount of services. A high level of services can decrease the amount of private car usage in a district because the need to travel further is reduced. The services located in the studied districts consist of both public services such as nurseries, schools, health care centres and libraries, and a variety of commercial services including shops, restaurants and cafés and facilities for sports, cultural and leisure activities. Waste management Reducing the amount of waste produced is a key element of sustainable waste management. In Hammarby Sjöstad, the overall amount of waste produced was targeted to be reduced by 40% and the amount of landfill waste by 90%. There were also objectives for reducing the amount of domestic waste. Waste management can be carried out in different ways. The most important thing is that the recycling of waste is made easy to the residents. Bo01 is another good example of an area where the amount of waste is minimised and the waste produced is reused as energy source. There are several waste separation units in the district, often located in special separation rooms. It is important for the success of recycling that the waste separation units are close enough to the residents’ homes.325 Different sorts of underground waste collection systems are used in the reference districts. For example in Bo01 waste is collected through a vacuum waste chute system and further transformed into biogas. The produced biogas is then used for heating. In Hammarby Sjöstad, the process is taken a step further and the processed waste is used for electricity as well, while the remaining cold water from the process is used for district cooling. Underground waste collection systems are being implemented in many of the new districts. The vacuum waste collection systems are energy-efficient and sustainable compared to the traditional waste management systems due to the reduction in the need for transport. In addition, they contribute to the attractiveness of the environment in the residential area. Water management The preservation of the natural environment in a district includes the protection of the natural water system of the area. Therefore, managing stormwaters in an ecological way is an objective of the development projects in the majority of the districts. Stormwaters can be managed in a way that imitates natural emanating of the water. They can be managed in an open drying system in which the water is piped through infiltration dells, small curvy ditches and trickles and other wetlands into a water system. A system like this prevents uncontrollable floods and erosion, improves the quality of stormwater and hinders the diminishing of ground water reserves. Stormwaters can also be treated in different ways as a part of landscape planning. Rainwater can also be used for watering and gardening purposes in public and private green spaces, and promoting biodiversity in the area. For example in Vuores the quality of stormwaters is controlled in several retention areas and so called ‘rain gardens’ i.e. infiltration ditches covered by vegetation. Stormwater is also piped to underground wells and containers in order to utilise it for irrigation. There is going to be a large central park which is going to function as a centre for the stormwater management system of Vuores. The system is going to be a functional part of the central park and also the landscape of the area will be taken into account in the stormwater management.326,327 Stormwater can also be utilised in buildings. In Rieselfeld stormwater has been used, for example, for toilet flushing in a primary school. In addition, an ecological sanitary system transforms a part of the sewage into biogas which is reused for cooking. The remaining sewage is purified and after that returned to the area’s water cycle.
325
City of Malmö (2006). FCG Planeko Oy (2008). 327 Suomen Asuntomessut (2012). 326
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Efforts for reducing the amount of water consumption of the residents forms another part of sustainable water management. Educating and informing the residents can play an important role in achieving the targets set for the reduction of water consumption. Urban structure A versatile urban structure is a part of a vivid residential area. Architectural diversity and a variety of different styles in a district can be achieved by involving a high number of architects in the planning, as has been experienced in Vauban. Also in Bo01, different architects were used for the planning of each plot of land. In Vauban, there were also no design requirements set for the houses. There were no standards for materials, colours or roof inclinations, and this resulted as a district of great variability. Many of the districts emphasize the importance of preserving the existing natural environment in the area and incorporating green elements in the urban structure. Public green spaces have been paid a lot of attention to in the reference districts in order to make the living environment attractive for the residents. Preserving the biodiversity of the area also contributes to ecological sustainability of the district. Maintaining the historical characters of an area by reusing some of the existing buildings has been another element of the architecture in some of the districts. As an example, a number of old gasworks buildings will be preserved and repaired in Stockholm Royal Seaport due to their cultural and architectural values. Partnerships and financing structures A central feature of the studied sustainable urban residential districts regarding roles of different actors in the development projects seems to be the importance of cooperation between all the parties involved. Many of the projects have used Public-Private Partnerships in planning and implementation of the districts. Some of these collaborations are partnerships between the public and private sector based on formal agreements, as in the case of Rieselfeld, while others carry out the cooperation without forming contractual partnerships, as in the case of Stockholm Royal Seaport. The public parties of these partnerships consist of municipal and city authorities as well as public companies, while the private sector is represented by various private enterprises such as construction and development companies and network companies providing services like energy and electricity. The European Union has also supported some of the sustainable urban development projects through subsidies and funds. The EU’s LIFE programme has offered funding among others to the Eco-Viikki project. National governments are another source of finance for these projects. In some cases the number of investors participating in the projects is very high. In Rieselfeld, more than 110 building societies and investors were taking part in the development. The large amount of involved companies has been a positive factor in this project because it has created healthy competition among the participants and helped to raise the standards of the project. Sharing the financial risks between several investors can have its advantages. This kind of cooperation is especially beneficial in large scale projects. In Vauban, this approach generated costs saving of approximately 25%. While cities usually get revenues from the development projects through land lease or land sale as well as taxes, the private companies can gain profits related to the good location of the development and the good image and popularity of the area. In addition to the varying number of participants, also their roles and responsibilities differ from district to district. While some of the participants of the development projects contribute only financially as investors to the development, others share risks and are involved in negotiating the plans and visions. In Vauban, i.e., the private NGO Forum Vauban managed to become an equal partner of the City of Freiburg and thus participate in all governmental decisions concerning the district. Involvement of the future residents in planning of the district has been emphasized in most of the development projects, especially in the recent ones like the Skaftkärr development. 73
3.4 Characteristics of the reference districts The ten reference districts analysed in this study are similar with each other in a number of ways. Sustainability of these urban areas is taken into account in several parts of the planning and realization of these districts. However, all of the districts also have their special characteristics, which differentiate them from other sustainable urban areas. As part of this study, a comparative study evaluating the performances of the reference districts in several categories of sustainability was conducted (Appendix 3). The districts were assessed based on their success in the areas of energy, buildings, transport, waste & water, social issues, actors & green policies and issues in city level. The categories included 23 individual qualitative indicators, each of which consisted of a set of criteria that described the indicator in question (Appendix 4). As a result of this assessment, the special characteristics and success factors of each district can be identified. In Eco-Viikki, the use of renewable energy sources, especially solar energy, is a major focus point. Ecological sustainability is taken into account widely in the district, and strict ecological criteria were applied in order to reach the ambitious goals. Many of the environmental targets were reached, accordingly. The activity and participation of residents was an essential part of the visions for EcoViikki as well and the common areas and facilities have contributed to these targets. In Vuores, the planning is focused especially on a wide utilization of renewable and local energy sources, promotion of green transport, sustainable stormwater management as well as efficient waste treatment. Also energy-efficient buildings and ecological building materials are features, which describe the future image of the Vuores district. Community life of the district will also be promoted through the built structure and public spaces of the area. Energy-efficiency is the main characteristic of Skaftkärr. This focus area will be seen thoroughly in all the buildings, services, surroundings and transport solutions of the new district. Renewable energy usage is also taken into account in Skaftkärr, and the reduction of greenhouse gases is an important part of the area’s vision. The project has been focusing overall on demonstrating the important role of town planning in improving energy-efficiency of an urban area as well as in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In Hammarby Sjöstad, overall environmental impact is aimed to be 50% lower than it would be with the technology level used in 1990s. The ambitious goal has been responded especially by the wellfunctioning eco-cycle system containing energy, waste, water and sewage as well as the successful public transportation networks functioning in the area. Citizen involvement has been a major interest in the social sustainability of the district, and the great amount and variety of public and private services have created a vibrant urban housing area in the former brownfield sites. The development of Stockholm Royal Seaport is focusing on adapting to climate change and having eventually zero carbon dioxide emissions. Different parts of the city environment will be connected to a smart grid system, which is aiming to help the area and the citizens to become more sustainable. Ecological sustainability will be promoted for example in the sustainable traffic system promoting especially cycling and walking. The international character of Stockholm Royal Seaport with its commercial activities and port operations, and the wide cooperation of public and private stakeholders as well as the university are also important features of the new city district. Bo01 is known for being a district which uses only locally produced renewable energy. In addition, all the houses in the area use very little energy and there are also several other sustainable energy solutions used. Special about Bo01 is also the architecture, which is versatile and interesting. In addition, Bo01 has been very successful in realizing the ecological goals set for the district. One of the main characteristics of Hyllie is the smart infrastructure, which will be implemented in the area. Hyllie is planned to be a large-scale testing ground for smart city solutions of the future. Energy production of the district is also going to consist of 100% renewable or recycled energy. Wellfunctioning public transport is another point of focus in Hyllie, and also cyclists are appreciated in the 74
district. An interesting feature of Hyllie is also its location in the transition between the city and country, which can be seen in the promotion of countryside and green structures throughout the district. In Rieselfeld, the traffic system has been successful when considering the sustainability of the district. The use of speed limits and creation of traffic-calmed streets as well as the priority given to public transport, pedestrians and cyclists has contributed to the well-functioning transport system. A participatory way of planning was also important for the success of Rieselfeld. The social aspects have been taken into account throughout, and the needs of different groups of people have been paid a lot of attention in the district. Vauban is a city district, where there is a strong sense of community between the residents. The residents have been given opportunities to collaborate in political decision-making as well, and the residents have been very active in taking part in different local initiatives and projects. Limitations for the private car use are one main feature of the district as well, and there are several traffic-calmed residential streets in the district. Pedestrians and cyclists are appreciated throughout the area. Other main focus areas of the Vauban project have been the extensive use of ecological building materials and solar energy. Aspern will become a “smart city� with a wide range of intelligent energy and mobility solutions of the future. Green transport is a major part of the sustainable targets of the districts, and public transport as well as cycling and walking are going to be promoted throughout the area. Aspern is planned to be a large centre for research, development and education, and there will also be a variety of services for working and living. The special characteristics of the sustainable city districts create certain profiles for these areas. These profiles represent the focus areas of the districts, and can therefore be studied in order to understand the visions that have been created for the sustainable development projects. Also the means that have been used for achieving the visions are an important part of the profiles of these sustainable city districts. The unique characteristics of the different city districts found in this study possess can be regarded as some of the aspects that a sustainable city district should contain. Of course, there are also a number of other characteristics and success factors that an urban area can possess in order to be considered as a sustainable urban area.
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4 CONCLUSIONS 4.1 Lessons learnt from the reference districts The studied reference districts are good examples of how to achieve sustainability in urban areas by taking into account not only ecological sustainability but also the other aspects of sustainable development. Therefore, these districts can be perceived as models of how to successfully create a sustainable city district. One of the lessons learnt from the analysis of the sustainable residential districts is the importance of long-term commitment to the project. Sustainable housing district projects are often time consuming processes and the development of such an area can take even decades, as in the case of many of the reference districts. Therefore, full commitment in various levels of financial resources, cooperation between all the partners of the project, technical expertise and innovations as well as continuous monitoring even after the completion of the construction work is required in order to succeed in creating a well-functioning and attractive sustainable housing area. A comprehensive view of the whole project is needed in order to create a sustainable city district. There should be an innovative yet realistic vision of the project, and it is also important that all the project partners have approved the overall vision. While an overall vision for the desired outcomes of sustainability is essential, all the practical details of how to achieve the goals set for the project are of great importance as well. The vision and goals should be defined as early as possible. Also clear and adequate follow up goals and the means for collecting follow up data are important in the planning process. As sustainability is often closely linked with innovative and visionary solutions and ecological practices, there is always the risk of a new innovation not working as well as intended. This can also create financial risks of investments in new technologies and contribute to the reluctance of possible players to take part in these projects. Another issue to consider regarding the implementation of technological solutions in such projects is the evolution of the technologies during the development time of the housing district. New solutions for energy efficient technologies also require comprehensive research work and profitability calculations. The additional costs of sustainable building compared to traditional building usually affect the project actors such as the cities and housing developers, but also the future residents. However, these costs are in most cases compensated by longer life cycles of the buildings, smaller energy consumption, a lower carbon footprint and also the benefits of a healthier environment for living. Cooperation of all the different parties of the project, from the city planners to energy companies, is an essential part of planning and creating a sustainable residential district. Citizen participation is important in getting the future residents interested in the well-being of their surroundings. Involvement of residents has been stressed in many of the cases. In some places, such as in Rieselfeld and Vauban, the city has formed partnerships with the local inhabitants and involved them in many phases of the development project. Encouraging and informing the residents about sustainable habits can have a big impact on energy efficiency and other aspects of sustainability in a residential area. Services and infrastructure of the district should be fully or at least mostly built before the first residents move in. If the services needed are not there in time or the public transport networks do not reach the entire district there may be an unwanted rise in private car usage as a result. This outcome can have severe effects on the realisation of the environmental goals set for the district. Sustainable districts are often aiming to be socially mixed. There is a risk, however, that a sustainable neighbourhood may evolve to a high class city district because of the possibly higher prices of apartments or higher rents. This phenomenon should be prevented by creating different housing options and a variation of services in the district. It should also be stressed when marketing 76
the area that energy costs are often lower and the lifespan of buildings is often longer in sustainable houses than in regular ones. Transport is often a central element of sustainability in a housing area. Thus, planning good public transport networks and limiting private car usage within the district has been one of the objectives in many of the sustainable districts. However, reducing the use of private cars and arranging parking places to encourage achieving this goal can prove to be a difficult task to accomplish, as observed in the cases of Hammarby Sjรถstad and Bo01. Nevertheless, even these problems can be solved by promoting the use of public transport and bicycles, and by investing in excellent public transport connections and planning the infrastructure to facilitate living without a car. Another issue to be considered in such projects is finding the right solutions and means for accomplishing the desired level of sustainability. A good example of this is the case of Hammarby Sjรถstad, where the project developers later discovered that instead of pursuing an ambitious goal of reducing car ownership in the district, they could have had better results by attempting to reduce car usage overall. The positive image of a residential housing area can attract future residents to move into the district. Availability of well-organized services can be appealing especially to young families and older citizens, but integrating all social groups in the district creates balance in the area. Sustainable urban district can also have an important role in decreasing or preventing the expansion of urban development around a city. Rieselfeld has been a good example of how the redevelopment of brownfield areas can make them attractive places to live and at the same time bring inhabitants of low-density suburbs back to the city.
4.2 Benchmarking of reference cases Benchmarking of reference cases can be a valuable phase in the planning process of sustainable urban areas. The strategies and profiles of the selected cases can be incorporated in the creation of the vision for the development project. In addition, the information about how the reference cases have successfully implemented technologies and solutions can be used for learning from these experiences and for developing a technology roadmap, which can guide the implementation of solutions in the sustainable city district. 328 The findings of this study have been applied in the benchmarking phase in the development of the sustainable city districts of Skanssi and Castle Town in Turku. Studying the strategies and profiles of the ten reference districts have given a picture of the strategies for creating a sustainable city district successfully, which has been useful in the process of creating the vision for the districts in Turku. The best practice examples of the solutions implemented in the reference districts can be used as guidelines for deciding upon and developing the technologies in Turku. The districts of Skanssi and Castle Town are lighthouse projects for sustainable urban development in the city of Turku, which are aimed to become internationally known models of sustainable development of urban environments. In Skanssi, the emphasis will be on creating an innovative and modern city district, a living oasis with a focus on the natural environment and recreation areas, as well as on having an integrated and diverse community. Castle Town, on the other hand, is envisioned to be a vital and innovative urban area, which will offer plenty of opportunities for businesses and entertainment.329 The special features of Skanssi and Castle Town have to be acknowledged when benchmarking the solutions and practices used in other countries and cities to these districts. In the joint research and development project of the City of Turku and Siemens AG, the current situation and objectives of Turku regarding sustainable development have been analysed. In addition, the available solutions and practices in the fields of smart grid applications, mobility solutions, smart city services and social issues have been researched more thoroughly.
328 329
Ibid. City of Turku & Siemens AG (2013). 77
Studying the planning and development strategies of districts that have undertaken sustainable urban development projects can be very beneficial during the initial phases of starting the process of developing a sustainable city district. While examining the good practices used in the reference districts can be essential for learning about the best available solutions and successful strategies, being aware of the possible challenges and risks involved is an important part of the development process as well. The purpose of this study has been to present and survey some of the exemplary sustainable urban development areas in Europe, in order to learn how these districts have managed to create successful and celebrated green city districts. Although the studied district have been selected to represent such projects undertaken in environments that can be compared to the conditions in Finland, thus making it easier to transfer the good practices to the two districts in Turku, this research gives a good overview of the development of sustainable city districts in general. Therefore, the findings of this study are applicable to other environments as well, and can be used for similar development projects. Sustainable city districts can be a major lever for sustainable growth in cities. The creation of a sustainable city district can have several positive impacts on the city level. In addition to increasing economic and population growth, the district can enhance the attractiveness and good image of the city. The decrease of greenhouse gas emissions is another positive outcome of investing in sustainability. By incorporating sustainable development in the planning processes of city districts, and investing in sustainable solutions in the whole infrastructure of urban areas including the transport solutions, energy and buildings and waste and water management, cities can create green growth.
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APPENDIX Appendix 1 Criteria for choosing reference cities: 1. Solutions for energy production a. solar systems b. Smart Grid c. (wind power?) d. ground heating –systems (groundwater –systems?) 2. Decreasing energy consumption a. measurement technologies for households b. building types 3. Financing models a. municipality b. Public & Private Partnerships 4. Transport a. priority to cyclists & pedestrians (good cycling paths, bicycle parking places etc.) b. public transportation c. parking arrangements d. limited car usage in the area 5. Water treatment systems a. ground water usage b. measurement technologies for households c. grey water systems d. stormwater treatment e. green roofs 6. Waste management a. waste avoidance & recycling solutions (composting) b. waste collection systems 7. Social a. a varied mix of accommodation b. well-organized services c. a mixed-use area (working, living, recreation) d. systems to create and maintain a community-feeling in the area e. common spaces (indoor and outdoor) f. other ways to create a balanced social community 8. Flexible solutions a. in planning b. technologies 9. Size & location (e.g. climate) of the city a. reference cities should be corresponding to Turku 10. Size of the district (number of dwellings and inhabitants), distance from the city centre a. reference districts should be corresponding to Skanssi/Castle Town 11. Legislation a. the aim is to find reference districts that have comparable legislation with Finland 12. Stage of the project a. both kinds of projects should be as reference districts: under planning & finished 13. Availability of information / level of co-operation
The goal is to find reference districts that fulfil as many sections of the previous list as possible. The goal is to find the aspects that can actually be influenced. The goal is to decrease the amount of reference districts so that the amount is adequate for producing enough information but small enough for going deep into the districts. The ideal number of reference cities should be from 6 to 10.
FINAL GOAL The aim is to find solutions which have cost-efficient, significant advantages as a result.
Appendix 2 Eco-themes in Skanssi: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Energy solutions in the area Active land use economics Environmentally friendly transport solutions Water management as part of the city structure Stressing recreation areas, per cent for art -principle (=ympäristÜrakentamisen prosenttiperiaate) 6. Construction planning (experimental construction, building materials) 7. Ecology- and energy-based plot rendering competitions (=ekologia- ja energiapainotteiset tontinluovutuskilpailut) 8. Placing of the working spaces in the area 9. Diverse city structure 10. Developing sustainable waste management
Appendix 3
Assessment of the performances of the reference districts
The assessment scale: Targets: +++ (planned to be used extensively) ++ (planned to be used in a moderate amount) + (planned to be used but not a major factor of the district’s vision) − (not an important part of the district’s vision) n/a (information not available)
Results: +++ (highly successful compared to similar European districts) ++ (successful compared to “regular” housing areas in the city) + (taken into account but not much different to “regular” housing areas in the city) − (not an important part of the district’s vision / the targets were not achieved properly) n/a (information not available)
*SRS= Stockholm Royal Seaport
Appendix 4
Criteria that describe the Sustainability Indicators − issues taken into account in the assessment ENERGY Renewable energy consumption comprehensive use of renewable energy sources Local energy production production of energy within the district Smart grid applications connection to a smart grid network BUILDINGS Energy-efficient buildings level of energy-efficiency of the most advanced buildings number of energy-efficient buildings in the district Making use of existing buildings/areas utilizing e.g. existing office and commercial buildings for residential use renewal of brownfield sites
TRANSPORT Restriction of private car parking/usage limited car parking spaces speed limits in the district traffic-calmed streets in the district Promotion of public transport priority for public transport efficiency of the public transport network Services for cyclists improved/enlarged cycling routes bicycle parking places Car sharing model existence and successful usage of a car sharing model in the district
WASTE & WATER Sustainable stormwater management different ways of delaying and utilizing stormwaters Efficient waste treatment promotion of recycling smart waste collection systems
SOCIAL ISSUES Common areas/activities for the residents facilities/possibilities for increasing the sense of community in the district Good service supply availability and variety of services (e.g. public services, shops, sports and cultural facilities) Subsidized/less-expensive housing e.g. student housing or other subsidized housing A moderate amount of rental housing share of rental apartments compared to the other reference districts
ACTORS & GREEN POLICIES Business involvement a mixed housing area containing also businesses Development of partnership models innovative/effective partnership models applied in the project involvement of all the parties (public, private, people) Public participation in green policy (successful) involvement of the residents in the decision making / implementation of the environmental goals Green policies strategies to improve and monitor environmental performance sustainable research and development projects/programmes/initiatives ISSUES IN CITY LEVEL Decrease of CO2 emissions involvement in the city’s target of reducing CO2 emissions Increase in population share of the district in the (estimated) population increase of the city Economic growth number and quality of businesses and workplaces in the district creation of workplaces in the area economic impacts of the district on the city the role of the district in the economic growth and development of the city Impact on the image of the city reputation and image of the area (also internationally) attractiveness of the area (for citizens and businesses) effort put on the marketing of the district (e.g. internet pages)
A view over a courtyard in Skanssi. (Picture: LPR-arkkitehdit Oy)
City of Turku Environmental Publications 1|2015 Turun kaupungin ympäristÜjulkaisuja 1|2015 ISSN 2343-0222 (printed version) ISSN 2343-0222 (painettu) ISSN 2343-0710 (electronic publication) ISSN 2343-0710 (verkkojulkaisu)