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ivatisation in nH h Education) Is Market Driven Educational Model (Encouraging Privatisation Higher Good for India’s Future Future?

le Disser tation Samp

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underlying within the same. Hence, the present study analysed the perceptions of educational pioneers views towards higher pione pionee ers in IIndia ndia aand nd th ttheir heir vie vi ews towa tow ards pprivatisation rivaatisation of riv of hi gher eeducation duccation in IIndia. du ndia.

public higher education institutions.

F Fi indin in ding ngs gs- The findings of the study revealed that a majori rityy off re espondents spond nts claime spondents laimed Findingsmajority respondents claimed privatisation to bring better prospects as the count country’s ountry s Gross ross oss En Enrolment Enr olment Ratio (GER) GER) needs to

Conclusions and Implications- Privatisation tion in Indian higher her education should be encouraged; however, there is a need to connect Indian universities with industries to mitigate reas human capital. pital. job crisis which is prevalent with increased

le Disser tation Samp

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Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Table ............................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 6 1.0 Background ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Research Objectives .......................................................................................................

10 ................................ ................................

1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................

11 1.4 Scope of the study ..........................................................................................................

11 ................................

1.5 Chapter scheme ..............................................................................................................

11 ................................................................ ................................

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ ................................................................................ 12 ................................

2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education .................................................. 12 ducat on ................................

2.1 Defining the terms ..........................................................................................................

13 ................................

2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, Globalisation........................... 15 ation, Privatisation on and Glob 2.3 Privatisation in the educational ............................................................................ 16 ion sector tor................................

2.4 Privatisation of higher education context ....................................................... 18 er educa ion on in Global conte 2.5 Privatisation in the Indian dian educational duca onal sector ................................................................ 21 nt policies ies on pprivatisation of Higher education ................................. 25 2.6 Indian government 2.7 Issues in Privatisation higher education in India ....................................................... 29 rivatisation oof high 2.8 Need forr Priv Privatisation d ffo sation in hhigher education ..................................................................... 30 2.9 Politicall economyy of hi higher education in India ............................................................. 31 studies ............................................................................................................ 33 2.10 Previous stud arch G 2.11 Research Gap................................................................................................................ 35 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 36 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 36 3.1 Research design .............................................................................................................. 36 3.2 Research philosophy ...................................................................................................... 37 Page 3 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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3.3 Research Approach ........................................................................................................37 3.4 Target population and sample size ................................................................................. 38 3.4.1 Sampling technique ................................................................................................. 39 3.5 Data collection................................................................................................................ 40 3.5.1 Data collection methods .......................................................................................... 40 3.5.2 Interviews in educational research .......................................................................... 40 ............................ 40 3.5.3 Procedures for preparing for the interviews ............................................................ ................................

3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews .......................................................................

41 ................................................................ ................................ 41 3.6 Analysis of the interview................................................................................................ ........................................................ 42 ........................................................

3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ ................................................................ ................................................................

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS .......................................................................................................

43 ................................................................ ................................

4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................

43 ................................................................

4.1 Participants .....................................................................................................................

43 ducat lopment in India .................................... 46 4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development rds choosing hoos 4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards higher edu education institutions ................ 48 4.4 Views of Indian Government nt on priv privatisation tisat on ................................ ............................................................... 50 4.5 Encouraging privatisation ................................................................................. 52 ation in India ndia ................................

4.6 Private Universities ies and nd high hi sstandards rds oof higher education in India ............................ 54 4.7 Role of privatisation inn maintainin maintaining equity and accessibility ........................................ 56 TER V: D SCUSSION A CHAPTER DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................. 58 privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in 5.0 Role off privatisat n tow India ...................................................................................................................................... 58 ndia................................ ................................ ts of pr ivati 5.1 Effects privatisation in Indian higher education ........................................................ 61 5.2 Governmental regulations and privatisation .................................................................. 62 rnm 5.3 Governmental regulations and privatisation .................................................................. 64 5.4 Implications .................................................................................................................... 64 5.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 66 Page 4 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................68 Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 82

List of Table Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions ................................................................................................................................ ................................ 39

List of Figures Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate ................................ ...................................................................... ................................

7 cati n in Selected Asian Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in High Higher Education ................................ ................................................................

Economies, 2002–2009 ............................................................................................................

20 Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided ided and nd government overnmen higher education institutions in India (State-wise) ................................................................ .............................................................................................. 22 Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, ided, pprivate unaided aided aand government higher education institutions in India (total) ................................................................ ........................................................................................................ 23 te unive Figure 5: Procedure to establish a priv private university ............................................................... 28 Figure 6: Participants in thee study ................................ ........................................................................................... 45 loud of R ole of priva ation in hhigher education development in India ...... 47 Figure 7: Word cloud Role privatisation eptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education Figure 8: Word cloud of Pe Perceptions ................................ institutions ................................................................ ................................................................................................................................

49 loud of Views oof Indian Government on privatisation ................................. 51 Figure 9: Word cloud oud of of En our Figure 10: Word Cloud Encouraging privatisation in India ................................................ 52 ure 11: Word rd Cloud off P Figure Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India ................................ ......................................................................................................................................... 54 dC oud oof Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility ....... 56 Figure 12: Word Cloud Figure 13: Estimated 18-23 year old population in India- 2030 .............................................. 59 tim

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background

to suc succ succeed cee eedd in their llife. iffee. S Success ucce ccess ss in th thi this is ccontext onteext rrelates ont elat latees to ac achievi achieving hievinng a cconsiderable onsiide ons derraable ble rol rolee aatt work, wor wo rrk, k, aatt ccom omm om muni unities unit ties aand nd so on. To ssatiate atiate tthe he eever ver inc increasing incr rea easi sinng nneed eed fo forr eedu dduuca cation cat tion aand nd communities education

rrequirementsequir quireements ments- to m meet eet the eexpectations xpec ectation tationss ooff eeducation, duccation, inc du incr increase rea easse student eenrolment, nrolment, rolm rol olment, inc incr increase rea easse wo work wor rrkkffoorrce ce nneeds eeds ooff tthe he nnation ation whi which whic ch in turn aaff fffffeeccts ts ec economic econom onomiic ic ddeve eveelopment lopment pos positively posi itively iti workforce affects development

initiation of private ownership with the authoritative ive pow powe power er an and nd management gement power resting ontrol in privatisation ivatissati ivati within the control of private individuals. Th The control is in terms of administration of money and decision making. In education, privati privatisation is considered as the Prasenjit, expansion of private control over public ic good ‘education’ ion’ on’((Jonaki Jonaki & Prasenj Jon n it, 2016). nj

witnessed remarkable progress roogress with more than han 30 per cent of private enrolment globally. By the year 2012, the num numberr ooff student eenrolment in higher education institutions reached 196 n million whereas ere thee same in the year ear 2000 was just below 100 million (Kassim et al., 2015).

Private education existence in many countries for years and is the traditional ation hhas been in ex mode of higherr eeducation ucation in many Asian countries such as Korea, Japan and Philippines.

Many private priv te h higher ghe education institutions in the world are basically ‘on quasi forrofit’ for --profit’ p or ‘for f -profi for -profit profi f t institut fi institutions’. utioons’. ns’. Countries such as Japan, Indonesia and the e Republic off Ko Korea rea ea witness

The impact of private sector could also be envisioned in the eastern European as well as the African countries. Developing economies such as India and China are no longer an exception and embrace private sector higher education. Researchers argue that privatisation in the Page 6 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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higher edu education cation sector iss the cause ca of neo-liberal neo liberal policies, the limited fu ffunding unding of National undin

(Rena, 2010).

Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate

Higher education student enrolment rate 250 200 150 Number Num ber of o students uden (in illion millions)

100 50 0 2000

2002

2004

2006

2 2008

2010

2012

Source: Adopted from UNESCO CO (2016) The expansion of highe higher education high du tion ion in India ndia is in a rapid a apid pace and the increase in progress of higher education ducati ducat institutionss iin India discerns the growing knowledge inst

education always ways eexists x iin n the ccountry ount and the participation of private sector is deemed to be mport nt. P rivaatisa ion riv on in the Indian higher education sector has emerged in several more iimportant.

Privatisation types and forms over the years (Tilak & Varghese, 1983a). Privatisation takes place in the r rms ove following forms formsrms rms ms- in introduction of selfself-financing lf financing courses in public higher education lfinstitutions, transfo institutions tr nsformation transformation rmation of a publ rmation public higher education institution in to private institutions, institutions

foreign collaboration universities (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016). The economic reforms which were implemented in the year 1991, led the nation to adopt several changes. Open markets Page 7 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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and liberal environments led to the emergence of private higher education institutions in the nation. In the year 1995, legislations were introduced for setting up private universities in India but the actt is yet to be im mplemented. Lack of proper legislations fo fforr private universities implemented. eased state gov overnments of the nation to set up private universities. According to the governments

(Dhanuraj & Kumar, 2015).

The increase number of enrolment in private sector higher education institutions and on ins the number of private institutions in India increasing every year positively ly ddefine fin the success of privatisation in the higher education sector. Education in this regard gard is considered onsidered to be a tool to establish individual status in the community; hence the need for hig higher edu education d fo i is increasing in India. With better quality of higher education through privatisation, on delivered throu h priv developing countries are positively regulated to benefit fit from rom knowledg knowledge ba based economic developments (World Bank, 2000). ed fo Several challenges necessitated the need for privatisation in the higher education sector of India. Firstly, the population of students (agee group: 15 15-35 35 years) in the nation in the nd Altba yar year 2010 was around 350 million and Altbach and Jayaram (2010) predicted that the lion in 2030. The previous researchers argue that the numbers will peak at 485 million Government will tremble to meet the nneeds of high higher education only with public sector ity eeducation cat needs fo ffor such huge numbers is a complicated task. institutions and meeting qu quality n unequ unequal al ba balance in the number of urban and rural higher education Secondly, there occurs an r rnst aand nd You enrolment in the countr country. Ernst Young (2009) report states that the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) ER) in urb r ann regions rb r gions oof the country is around 24 per cent whereas the same in the urban education delivered rural counterparts rparts is 7.5 pper cent. Thirdly, Thirdly the quality of edu d cation deli du deliver iverrreeedd by public

However, only ly a few public higher education institutions such as Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) satisfy the needs of corporate organisations by delivering quality manpower resources (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Indian government (both state and central) suffer from serious monetary allocations to fund higher education which could be balanced through private sector. The enrolment of students Page 8 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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in higher education institutions in India has grown phenomenally wherein the number of enrolment is 25.9 million in 2011-12 and the same in the year 1970-71 was 2 million (Ernst & Young, 2012).

1. Resource allocation- The resources allocated by the state and central ntr government to public higher education institutions does not facilitate the pr proper er management of these institutions. On the contrary, private owners may fund cconsiderable amount to maintain private institutions.

2. Sensitivity- Private sector institutions adopt changes flexibly ges flex ibly whereas the ssame is not possible in public sector institutions.

3. Quality- Better quality of education is provided private sector institutions rather ovided in privat tor inst than public sector institutions.

4. Accessibility- With more number off educa educational institutions, private sector serves ion l institu to cater the educational needs India. ds of aall citizens ns in Ind nments may ay concentrate ate allocating resources to other 5. Reduced burden- Governments sectors (Patel, 2012).

Thee rreforms Th effoorms ooff eeducation ducattio ducation duca ion in IIndia, ndia, eespecially speecial sp iallly with the lliberal iberal mo mot motives tives ooff the Gov Gove Government ernm rnmeent to aallow llow pprivate rivat ivatee ppartic aartic rticipation rtic ipation in the hhigher igher eeducation duccation ssector du ecto torr und underline unde erlin rlinee th thee pperception erce cept ptiion ooff th thee participation

contrary, globalisation lobalissa lobali will bring development in education through technology, communication and knowledge. Due to privatisation, the quality of education delivered becomes industry oriented and the increase in globally acknowledged higher education institutions transforms India into a knowledge hub (Naik, 2015).

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educational access is affected. A study by Chougle (2014) on understanding the perceptions of college teachers towards privatisation in Indian higher education revealed several weaknesses. The perceptions were ranked wherein the cost of private higher education education acquired the first rank. With the increased cost for higher edu d cation services by private du

commitment (Chougle, 2014). rivate sector participa There are contradictory ideas regarding the feasibility of private participation in laim the de stating rol the Indian higher education sector. Though different researchers claim devastating role of ecessitates ssuch ch pparticipation. rticipat privatisation in the sector, the economy of the country necessitates The ivati ion ha ideologies on equity and accessibility are questioned since pprivatisation has both positive and negative eff ffe ff fects on the fa ffactors. ctors. While privat ivate sector tor instit titut ittut utions ons aid inn me meeting the evereffects private institutions growing demand for higher education in a hig highly student populous populou nnation, the cost of

of funds to public institutions to create tee oppo oppor opportunities for youngsters to pursue higher lloo ffor fo or higher her education purposes of the country. education as feeble resources are all allocated ise to the present nt stu These inferences act as the pre premise study which is based on the analysis of cation sector. Privatisation poses both advantages private participation in Indian higher education er analy sing the same leads to a clear understanding of the impacts and disadvantages; however analysing cation se of privatisation in the high higher ed education sector. Hence, the present study analyses whether the iven appro aapproach ch of Indian hhigher education is advantageous for the future of the market driven nation.

1.2 Research esearch rch Objectives Obj Obje 1. To determine term r ine the effects of privatisation in Indian higher education rm 2. To examine the role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in India 3. To analyse and interpret the perceptions of educational pioneers towards the market driven higher education market.

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1.3 Research Questions 1) What are the effects of privatisation in Indian higher education?

2) Does privatisation in Indian higher education satiate the ever-growing needs of student population in the country?

3) How do educational pioneers in India view privatisation of higher education?

1.4 Scope of the study The scope of the present study is bound within the limits of examining g the effects of privatisation and market driven model in Indian higher education. Hence, the pre present study focuses on the regulations regarding privatisation in different states wherein es of the country ountry where the laws are varying for each state in the nation.

1.5 Chapter scheme The first chapter covers the introduction of the stu study wh wherein rein the bbackground of the study, the research objectives and the scope are elucidated. lucidated.

The second chapter is the literature which the knowledge which is teratur review in whi previously discussed relevant to th the present ent topic of the research will be identified and lucidates the findings of various researchers who devised analysed. The chapter further elucid elucidates ontext of the pr esent sstudy. udy researches similar to the context present The third chapter covers the rresearch methodology. The different methods of data collection, and the analysi analysis techniques hniques used will be elucidated following which the type of h methodol se study will be explained research methodology used in the pr present The fourth th cchapter a ter will ap wil cover the results. Different techniques are used to analyse the variables bles off the stu study. dy. T The results of the study will be analysed, examined and summarised.

The final cha chapter will be discussions and conclusions. The findings of the study will be discussed elaborately and the conclusions will be stated. Additionally, future studies in the same context will be recommended.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education The present chapter of the dissertation is dedicated to understanding the different literatures on the subject of privatisation of higher education and India since its independence in 1945. Ever since India attained the status as a ‘republic nation’, educ ation in the country is based on the principles of empowering the citizens of the nation and the responsibility of the state is to create an environment which enables all its citizens to be empowered.

In this mpow regard, the Government of India adopts strategies to maintain the growing ing population and increasing rate of youth through the creation of capacities. Over the years oof developm development in ies bby invest ing more on the Indian educational sector, the Government is enlarging its capacities investing enhancing the existing institutions. During the year 1950-51, th theree w weree aroun around 28 universities and 578 colleges in the entire country while the sce scenario of today is widened. tit ons, especially spec nst India is now the hub for a number of educational institutions, institutions satiating olleges (20,390 colleges higher education needs. In 2014, there were a totall of 36,812 colleges private institutions and 6,768 public colleges) in the countr country which transforms India as the knowledge spot for more than 20 million students enrolled ion stud olled in these institutions (Shankar, 2016). However over the last two decades, s, the nee need for skilled led labour and practical expertise mand for exp rtise, education and skilled manpower. In is increasing wherein companies demand expertise, eeds for manpo order to meet the growing needs manpower in an ever-evolving economy, privatisation publ edu onal inst aids with complementing the public educational institutions. Over the past decades, the factor steered d with the aid of private institutions. The emergence of called ‘capacity creation’ is stee ega in the mid-1980s which is to subsidise the investment higher education in India began rnment and the states towards education. The share of the private reduction of the Gov Government unaided ins institutes cent in 2001 and the percentage of students is 33 per cent. tes is 43 per er ce ver, the percentage rcenta e ros However, rose and in the year 2006, the percentage share of private institutionss was 64 and the percentage of students rose up to 52 per cent (Sudarshan & Subramanian,, 2012).

Privatisation has always been a hot topic of debate and the country has been witnessing resistance. Though in the beginning when privatisation is a part of the economic liberalisation scheme, the nation was dormant; however, much resistance arose when the intricacies in privatisation were found (Kapur & Ramamurti, 2002). However, previous Page 12 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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researchers also argue the benefits of privatisation of Higher education in India wherein previous studies and reports claim privatisation in other developed and developed countries to be a great success. Feith (2012) projected the market for international higher education and claims that the demand for higher education will surpass China. The previous researcher argues that market driven policies can only meet the increasing demands of higher education in India. Hence, the present section intends to analyse the present status of privatization in a broad context envisioning the role of privatisation all over the world and its impact in the educational system. Further narrowing the topic towards the impact of privatisation in educational system of India, previous literatures pertaining to the context of the ppresent study will be reviewed and analysed.

2.1 Defining the terms Privatisation Privatisation is the fundamental part of the pub pu public refo reforms r rms and is the core theme ountr towards enhancing the efforts of the private sector. For mos most countries in the world, ver the ob objectives of the countries privatisation is the key to development in alll aaspects; how however, eed for privatisation on in these companies. Though the differ based on the capabilities and the need privatisation objectives of each country differ based on the needs and capability, depending ount diff dif fer bas fe als of the country, the following factors are considered on the development and the social ggoals ld op rate to sservee the cause: improve efficiency, improve and the private sector should operate ice, inc eased competition, ompetition, mitigation of public debts and budget customer/ consumer choice, increased tending the share ownership own deficits, and extending in the private sector. However, all these factors on the whole should aid with enh enhancing ncin the productivity and efficiency of a nation, thereby acting as the growth engine nation’s economy (Ddumba-Ssentamu & Mugume, 2001). gine of a na Furthermore, Privatisation is also defined as the process of increasing the productivity Fu re, Privatisat iency of the pr and efficiency private sector thereby fostering the development of the private sector (Naya, 1990). However, in simple economic terms, privatisation is the transfer of the we activities of the stat state to the private sector which occurs in partial or whole, or by the sales of assets which is followed by liquidation (Ddumba-Ssentamu & Mugume, 2001). In terms of higher education in India, privatisation is the only feasible way to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER) of students in higher education wherein a minimum of 30 per cent GER could be achieved with the establishment of additional 800 universities and 40000 Page 13 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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private colleges within 2020 (Gupta & Gupt, 2012). Hence, privatisation especially in higher education in Indian is seen to provide better accountability and quality of educational experience for the students therefore these institutions are more sought after for admission by students than government run institutions Liberalisation and privatisation Liberalisation is defined as the transformation of market structures which is facilitated e economy, by the responses of companies and new entrants into open/ free market. In a liberal mpetitive scenarios the shares of the market transform are liable to change rapidly, and the competitive between small and large scale firms determine the growth of this ma market, whether the rket, wh concentration will be more or less (Kambhampati & Kattuman, 2003) 2003). Over three decades decades, developed and developing economies have been witnessing privatis privatisation publicc ssector tion of publ services. The recommendations of the International Monetary (IMF) ry Fund (IM F) and the World Bank are towards the privatisation of public owned enterprises nterp r rises rp ris which is a suggestion to increase revenue, enhance the health of public finance, inc increase se the pproductivity and efficiency, thereby reducing the intervention of gove government (Megginson & Netter, 2001). ment (Meg Among the different aims of privatisation enterprises on of public enterp r r rp aand services (Villalonga, 2000; Sheshinski, 2003), the predominant goal of privatisation nt go ion is to increase the efficiency Kilica and productivity of the economy (Kilicaslan ett al., 2008) 2008).

Globalisation balisat on is still in stages of integrating the nations all across the The process of Globalisation globe and is related with the concepts off priv privatisation. Following several changes in the pace cal ddevelopments, lopments, econom economic liberalisation, and the importance of international of technological volv laws, national economie economies are evolving continuously and globalisation has delivered these countries into a state of competi competition which is very different before liberalisation in developed es in ompeti and developing economies.

The term ‘Globalisation’ is not a sudden trend in the global loping econom onom tain market. It is the sustainment of developmental activities in the economies of different nations and is still in its ddevelopmental stages. Liberalisation of economic activities in a country differs from one another with economic agents which are connected on marginal basis and are resistive towards failure in the neighbourhood nations. Immediately after the post-World war-II period, the rapid growth in the developments of foreign trade is embraced by developed nation in the 1950s and 1960s; however, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in Page 14 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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developing economies paved way for globalisation. Over the past two decades, trade and economic liberalisation improved the economies in the world, thereby integrating the world into a highly integrated system. Following are the three predominant features of globalisation steering the integration of global economies. i) Product internationalisation with changes in the production structure ii) International trade expansion iii) Expansion of international capital flows (Mrak, 2000).

The Article 25 of the Companies Registration Act defines the estab establishment of educational institutions in India which can only be set up by ttrusts sts and charitable organisations. However, the act lacks clarity about foreign universit universities ssetting ing up in India.

The government of India is adopting liberalisation policies to allow foreign in investors llow foreig establishing private educational institutions in the nation (Amandeep, ion (A ep, 2016).

016) Similar to the studies by Kilicaslan et al., (2008) and Megginson & Netter, (2001), thee ggovernment of India etter, (200 attempts to liberalise its policies on foreign investment privatisation ment and pr ivatisation in order to improve the economy.

2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, rali Privatisation atisa and Globalisation There is specifically a relationship lation existing xist be between the three factors: Liberalisation, isatio (LP G). Boubakri kri et al. (2011) argues that there exists a Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG). bera ation and globalisation, lobalisa relationship between liberalisation and privatisation. The researcher argues rofound f found eff ffe ff fe that privatisation has profound effects on globalisation as increasing the participation of fforeign reign investm nts thereby promoting capital inflow, technology and private sector in fo investments ment ski management skills off th the compa company. Since globalisation turns the market environment more ompetitive, the GD competitive, GDP gro growth is also enhanced. In the same context, Goyal (2006) investig investigated the role off globali globalisation on developing countries with special reference to India.

Over the years, the integration of societies and economies has been a debatable topic. onom like China and India witnessed tremendous growth after adopting the Developing economies model of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation and the rate of poverty in these nations declined steadily (LPG). However, globalisation has been controversial since a number of oppositions internationally were generated based on inequality and degradation of environment. This necessitated the study of impacts of globalisation in developing nations from the perspectives of FDI. After the foreign exchange crunch which dragged the economy Page 15 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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to loan defaults, India opened up its market in the early 1990s. As a response to the economic liberalisation, a number of foreign investment companies established their businesses in the nation. The policy changes invoked a more open market economy. Goyal (2006) further argues that the Government of India should analyse the best opportunities within the globalisation and privatisation schemes since the target of the world is towards developing countries such as India and China. The US and the countries of Europe are defined economies, hence economic experts argue that India and China may overtake the US and European countries thereby becoming a major economic power in the forthcoming decade or (Goyal, 2006). The technological revolution which is coupled with the processes of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) has transformed med knowledge owledg as the key mer nce off the knowl basis for nations to compete in the global environment. The emergence knowledge onomic be efits of de elo based society has further accomplished several economic benefits developed and son to be the LPG PG model. Education developing countries for which researchers claim the re reason Globalisation ation is the pprocess of imparting and globalisation are mutually dependent terms. Globali efficiency and competitiveness and in the educational ducational sector, ctor, it means transforming knowledge into an ‘accessible to all’ resource e(Rani, e( Rani, 2010) . Ray R (2015) states that with the on, privati ti and globalisation schemes, new policy reforms associated with thee lib liberalisation, privatisation the science and technology wing off India hhas witness rrapid growth, enabling increased enrolment in higher education the thereby increa increasing g the knowledge base for IT and skilled labour force. a m et al au According to Gau Gautam al. (2015) (2015), the LPG model has influenced almost all the ducat sectors in India and the higher education wing is no longer an exception. The Government of ivatisation as the mos India claims privatisation most feasible mode to satiate the growing need for higher education in India India. This will be reflected in the following sections wherein the role of ivatisa in educational ducation onal sector both in developed and developing countries are elucidated privatisation following whi h the context t which of LPG in Indian higher education is expatiated.

2.3 Privatisation atio in the educational sector In broad terms, privatisation in the educational sector is referred to as the policies which promote liberalisation and deregulation thereby establishing a market in education or creation of a competitive environment between private and public education providers (Lubienski, 2006). Different countries identify privatisation to increase the efficiency of the educational system in two ways.

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i. Delivering education to the inaccessible communities ii. Improving the quality of education thereby nurturing competition Though the governing bodies of countries view education as a public good to the population, privatisation of the education sector enables the equilibrium between the education provider and the choice of the consumer. In a private institution, the type of product offered and the fee for these products are fixed by the private education providers. In a privatised educational setup, the consumers of the education as good (parents and students) hey wish to spend. will possess the option to decide the type of education and the charge that they Instead of standardising education through free state education, private owners feel the need to satisfy the educational needs of the consumers. Additionally, the profit rofi f motives are set by fi these private education providers. An implication of privatisation ivatisa on is that there will be a remarkable growth in the generation of quality assurancee and national ational assessment systems which seek to enhance the information quality thereby creating choices y cr eatin betterr ch ices for consumers (Benveniste, 2002).

Privatisation in the educational sector tor is unfolded in n three ways. The three ways are: i. Outsourcing state specific activi activities and op operations ions to private education providers. ii. The introduction of self-regulatory elf lf lfulatory and market-based regulations which forms the ulation of the edu cation ssector tor deregulation education ducat al institut ons which are either funded by the state with the iii. Provisions forr educational institutions regulations of the public or independ independently. ion d appro aapproaches ppro All the aforeme aforementioned could be considered either simultaneously or balancing each other oor may even on one of the three modes. Some approaches are independ ome complement each other. For instance, the emergence of more independent; however some private institutions and at the same time these institutions offering more choices ivate educational onal institut for enrolment these institutions. In developed countries, privatisation of education sector is olment in thes encouraged forr the growth of education in these countries. These countries offer vouchers to encourage student enrolment in private institutions, and tax credits to parents (Belfield & Levin, 2002). However, this is not feasible as in the case of developing countries wherein there will be no possibility for the Government to fund and encourage private education which limits the philanthropic scope of privatisation in developing countries (Pedró et al., 2015).

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The Global education 20/20 report (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009) claims the role of private sector in education. In this regard, 211 respondents were surveyed wherein 123 respondents belonged to the private sector companies and 88 from educational sector. The survey was conducted by Economist Intelligence Unit in February 2009 which discerned the role played by the private sector and analysed whether the same regulates positively or negatively the traditional education. The survey covered questions regarding the importance of privatisation in the educational sector wherein 70 per cent of the respondents revealed such privatisation to be important. However, the role of the private sector varies es from country to country. The survey further revealed the success of voucher-system wherein the system stem where increases the performance of the schools (The Economist, 2007). In Swe Sweden, higher rland is provided ovided freee of cost education for students belonging to the EU nations and Switzerland rtu t gal, the United States tu which is facilitated by tax revenue (Swedish Institute, 2013). In P Portugal, ly sserve ve as not-for profit and Japan, private institutions are funded by the state and mostly organisations. In Japan, around 77 per cent enrolled in pr private ivate institutions ution delivering higher education (Varghese, 2012). However, not all countries privatisation of educational untries aallow ow the privati sector, and not all corporations aspire to do so. Th The report furt further r h reveals the emergence of rt private corporations taking care of thee edu education sector all around the world. Based on the ctor al results of the survey, it is deemed that privatisa privatisation in the edu education sector is important since the idea of the respondents is privatisation rivati on bbrings better education (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009).

2.4 Privatisation off hig higher er edu education on iin Global context A shining g examp examplee of a w well-established llsystem of higher education that is both tative, dive sified and avail ble to all sections of society is the one prevailing in the U.S. qualitative, diversified available The privat private sector is a majo major contributor to the system at various levels. But the private tor role is gen ally limited management and philanthropy. Though there is great sector's generally sity among unive diversity universities and colleges, the fees of students constitute lesser than 50% of tal bud the total capital budget and operating costs. Donations, royalties, research grants, licensing, and auxiliary services account for the remaining (Sunder, 2010).

Many nations (for instance, the United States) have a chequered past of development of the private sector. In most of the other nations (for instance, Latin American nations), the private sector came on the scene more than five decades ago but significant growth was achieved during the very end of the 20th century. In various regions of the world (for Page 18 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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instance, African and post-communist European nations), the private education sector is relatively new. Proprietary institutions, for-profit and non-profit organisations comprise the private sector. Institutions that are proprietary —characterised by profit-seeking behaviour and driven by the market driven, with centralized and business like management systems, in addition to a weak academic culture—can be defined as the pure form of privatization (Holzhacker et al., 2009). In the United States there have been many private, not for profit higher education institutions for many years like Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology etc. On the other hand, the University of Phoenix in the U.S. is private and for profit. There are many private providers in the UK higher education whic which fun function on a not for profit basis (Shankar, 2016). ent with the The share of higher education in the entire world account accountss to 31 pe per cent ivate higher her eeducation ducat ins highest share of 35 per cent of students enrolled in the private institutions of ons in mos gions of Asia and Asia and the pacific. About 50 per cent of the institutions most of the regions mpare with the number of enrolment in the the pacific belong to the private sector. When compared public institutions, the growth of enrolments in tthe private edu education sector is phenomenal.

Countries all across Asia enacted regulations ulation and policies to mana manage private higher education ed on quality of educ institutions; however the issues based education, the equitability towards a abi education access and the affordability off students towards paying for private institutions are ountr s (A challenging for developing countries (Asian Developm Development Bank, 2012). te sector emergence rgence into the educational sector are elucidated by Three stages of priv private Geiger (1986). The threee stage stages are pperipheral private, parallel public and private education sectors and the extensiv extensive private higher ghe education sector. In the peripheral private stage, a country’s publ public higher ghe educa education on sector will dominate and the role of private higher education Developing countries normally adopt the peripheral tion institutions will bbe peripheral. riph private ivate model where the ccountries are deeply rooted in socialistic principles. Developing countries Viet Nam and the Central Asian republics fall into this category. Secondly, ountries such as Vie the parallel public and private higher education sectors are a reflection of higher education institutions operating in parallel. The examples of countries adopting such system are Hong Kong, China, Malaysia, and Thailand (Chealy, 2006). Thirdly, the extensive private higher education sector is the combination of more number of private educational institutions and the high degree of enrolment in private higher education institutions. The Republic of Korea and Japan are the leading countries with high share of private higher education enrolment in Page 19 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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the East Asia (more than 77 per cent of enrolment shares and 90 per cent of institutional shares), following which Indonesia and Philippines with 70.9 per cent and 60.9 per cent shares in private higher education enrolment and 97.3% and 72.2% shares in private institutional number respectively (Asian Development Bank, 2012).

Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in Higher Education in Selected Asian Economies, 2002–2009 120

Percentage

100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.0

Private vate ppercentage rcen of total hi higher education enrollment Private perc Priva percentage of total Higher education institutions

om Asian D velo Source: Adop Adopted from Development Bank (2012) From Figu Figure 1, it is evi evident that the number of private educational institutions and the higher edu education enrolment in India are somewhat not in line with the share of pprivate hig othe countries. Though India is the second populous country, the number of developments of other enrolments is low lower than the other Asian nations such as China, Phillipines and Korea.

However, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for higher education (in general to both public and private sector institutions) has doubled over the decade wherein the GER is 9 per cent in the year 2002-03 and the same is 24 per cent in 2013-14. Shankar (2016) relates such enrolment to be associated with the emergence of private higher education institutions which remarkably increased the higher education enrolment rate of students.

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2.5 Privatisation in the Indian educational sector Despite the fact that many nations including the United States view private sector as philanthropic, the same cannot be stated in the context of India. In sharp contrast to the definition, genuine not-for-profit colleges or educational institutions in India obtain nearly 100% of their total income from fees collected from students, since income from other avenues is less. Whereas in educational institutions/colleges that are set up as for-profit; either by overt admission or discreet actions; the total fees collected from students is enough to cater to all the overheads and also generate a return on investment. Sinc Since very little benefits are available for innovation, research, and doctoral education, the fin financial model comes in the way of improving the quality of education that has been institutions een provided ided by institut comprising a major part of the increase in admissions (Sunder, 2010). r, 20 0) In terms of number of students, the Indian ranking system is ankin king in higher her education duca number three, behind China and the United States. s. However, eve the advantage ntag in India is that English has primacy as the main language for higher educ education research. Comparatively tion and nd resea 11 per cent of India youth complete higher education ducat on aagainst ainst 20 per cent in China. The important governing body with overall regulatory control ll re ontrol oof universities is the University Grants Commission (India), which ensures compliance of stand standards, acts as an advisor to the nsures comp n tthe centre ntre and nd states. Higher learning in India is government, and liaises between ituent colleges. As on 2011, around 227 accomplished through Universities and constituent ble in India that is recogn Universities are available recognised by the Government which includes 11 eemed Unive Open universities, 109 deemed Universities, 20 Central varsities and 87 state universities. A arsities in India hav majority of the varsities have col colleges affiliated to them where undergraduate courses ted (Si h, 2009). are conducted (Singh,

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Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided and government higher education institutions in India (State-wise)

All India West Bengal Uttrakhand Uttar Pradesh Tripura Telangana Tamil Nadu Sikkim Rajasthan Punjab Puducherry Odisha Nagaland Mizoram Meghalaya Manipur Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Kerala Karnataka Jharkhand Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Haryana Gujarat Goa Delhi Daman & Diu Dadra & Nagar Haveli Chhatisgarh Chandigarh Bihar Assam ssam Arunachal Pradesh sh Pradesh Andhra Pr Andaman & Nicobar Islands obar Island 0

5000 0

total tal total private Private unaided

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

government private aided

Source: Adopted from Ministry of Human Resource Development (2015) Elementary and secondary education is imparted in schools in India, while the third level i.e. higher education is provided in colleges and universities. The education sector has Page 22 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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two types of providers - private and public. Private institutions are classified into two types aided (partly bankrolled by the government) or unaided (self-funded). Public institutions are setup, bankrolled and entirely managed by the concerned department of the government.

Whenever the government's efforts to impart education in a manner so as to be accessible to all, falls short of the planned target, the private sector steps in to fill the gaps. The generally accepted norms is that motivation for the private sector is profit, however, when the private sector is involved in education, profit should not be the driving force. Experts opine that particular private sector players in the education sector lower the standards oof education as they do not adhere to the laid down norms, and preclude certain categories es of students due to the inexorbitant fee structure. But, the contrary view held by few experts private sector perts is that privat coura involvement is a necessity to improve quality with added investment, to eencourage competition in higher education (Shankar, 2016). aide and gov ern Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, private un unaided government higher education institutions in India (total) Indian Higher er education ion co colleges ege

Private Un-Aided Private aided Government

rce: Adopted Adopte from f o Ministry fr i Source: of Human Resource Development (2015) Despite the progress made in education after decades of independence, higher education in India requires to perform better in the crucial areas of Access, Equity and Quality. Sudarshan & Subramanian, (2012) are of the view that imparting qualitative, higher education that matches global standards at a reasonable cost is one of the most important issues before the nation. They further state that if India does not take appropriate steps on a war footing, then the situation would turn grim wherein a large number of youngsters would Page 23 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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be looking for higher education and the system will be unable to accommodate all of them.

People in the age group of 15-35 years estimated in the year 2010 to be more than 350 million, is projected to peak at around 485 million in 2030 (Altbach & Jayaram, 2010). To complicate matters further, the higher education Gross Enrolment Rations (GERs) shows disparity among states, urban areas, rural areas, gender and communities. As per statistics of Ernst and Young (2009), urban areas have a GER of 23.8 per cent whereas in rural areas it is a dismal 7.5 per cent. Delhi has a GER of 31.9 per cent while Assam is at the bottom rung with 8.3 per cent. The rich–poor and the rural–urban gap witnessed in India ndia has serious detrimental effects. The best way to narrow the gap would have been to ut utilise se education to bridge the divide. But, as can be witnessed from the statistics, the disparities pronounced sparities are pr hlighting the when it comes to uniform access to education to all, which only ends up highlighting ffa ff fairs is aan outdat divisions seen in society. The main reasons for the sorry state of aff affairs outdated h and nd soci social sciences, curriculum, undue emphasis on theory, diluted focus on rresearch ivation among teachers indifferent attitude towards innovation, low morale and lack of mo motivation g and regulatory gulat ry mech and researchers and the lack of a proper monitoring mechanism. Therefore, when the National Association of Software and Servi Servicee Compani Companies, (2005) tabled the facts technical graduates d that only 25 per cent technical and 10 per ce cent non-technical were of employable ruth. On standards, it was not far from the truth.

One mor more fact in support of this report was the practice in most companies that recruit recruited fr ffresh esh graduates, trained them to bridge the gap indu and the he actual output passing out of educational between the requirements off the industry institutions. This was done heavy cost to the indu industry, pointing to the disconnect between ne at hea education industry standards. rds.

It is not feasible government to cater to all the higher educational requirements sible for the governm of India. This could be because th the allocated public expenditure on higher education as a percentage Domestic Product (GDP) is a mere 0.6 per cent (Ernst & Young, 2009a); ntage of Gross ross Domest mestic P this is qui quite low lowerr than wh what developed nations like the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK) and China allocate on a per-student basis. In order to fulfil the demanding namic economy, private entities have established institutions to supplement needs of a dynamic public educational institutions that are beset with problems of meeting capacity. Professional or higher educational courses like engineering and Master of Business Administration (MBA) has attracted a lot of privatisation efforts, constituting a majority of the total courses on offer.

The courses and institutes of private sector in pharmacy and engineering are a staggering 90 percent of the total institutes and courses. The data is ample proof that private enterprise in Page 24 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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education is now a vital part of the education scenario which cannot be reversed. Critics who hold the view that education is a social necessity best handled solely by the Government will be unable to offer a solution to the challenges faced by higher education, in the context of the scale and complex nature, which cannot be handled by the government alone with the resources at disposal(Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Reformist policies of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (ins short - LPG) ushered in sweeping changes resulting in the emergence of India as a powerhouse of educated manpower with more than thirty thousand institutions imparting education to aroun around twenty million enrolled students (Gautam et al., 2015). Since then, the government has attempted ent ha investments to increase capacity and to improve the existing infrastructure. rastructure The time hhas come to credit the private sector with the supporting and at times played mes leading ding role pl yed in the phenomenal success in higher education in India, since a vvast majo majority ity of students are presently undergoing courses in private institutions.

With the Government of India, UGC and welcoming nd AICTE TE welcomin g private enterprise in the education domain, high and sustained growth can n be predicted. The government needs to encourage privatization of higher education cation by concentrating ntrating on the qualitative aspect of n higher education in India, and the perception of colleges. Visible changes are observed in nged from one of suspicion usp private sector participation has changed to an accepted and appreciated on, 1992 aand nd the National ional Policy of Education (NPE), 1986 are facet. The Program of Action, d ca on in its pres du policies that control higher education present form. The National Policy of higher med on the bbasis of the Radhakrishnan Commission Report (1948‐ education in India was framed othari Com iss on Repor Repo 1949) and the Kothari Commission Report (1964‐1966) (Partima & Singh, 2014).

2.6 Indian government govern ent policies polici on privatisation of Higher education The augmentation Th g entation of higher education has been viewed sceptically and the rationale has been questioned, viewed in the context of related academic and social costs. However, stioned, d, vi nt is refusi the government refusing to budge from its earlier assurance, considered as the fulfilment of nationalist ideals and as an intrinsic part of its fundamental responsibility as a welfare state.

View prudently, government recognition of the people's desire for higher education means that restricting access would be detrimental. This is also influenced to a large extent by the desire to have enrolments comparable to that in North America and Europe. This desire is lent support by the repeated reports of World Bank that highlight the benefits of higher Page 25 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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education. It also conforms to the government view that by enhancing profile of its populace, the disillusionment in society as a result of underemployment and unemployment can be contained. But, in the face of public demand and the pressures of politics seeking the accomplishment of standardisation of primary school education (which should have been achieved before the end of the Second Five Year Plan, in the year 1961), the government has concluded that continuation of subsidisation of higher education which has been the practice for last 5 decades is no longer tenable. Simultaneously, one segment of the population can afford prohibitive costs of higher education facilities offered by a few private ins institutions and by foreign universities. Hence, the government is regarding privatization. za on. But, it is apprehensive on two counts. The first and foremost is that there would bbe disparity among ffo ff for Th cond is tha those can afford to pay more and those who would not be able to aff afford.

The second that el where it transforms r itself rms tself into commercialisation of higher education could progress to a level one that is entirely market driven.

Hence, the government intends to extend the syst system that is in practice in many states for the last ten years. A vast number of institutions education hhave been established ons oof higher igher educ and managed by private entities. A sizeable institutes are run with funds ble pproportion ion of such inst ided and these funds take care of maintenance and from the government, classified as “aided” operational costs. Irrespective of their status as aid aided or unaided, private institutions without exception charge fees identical in stru structure and amoun amount. Additionally, in all matters cade ics, all inst nsti pertaining to administration and academics, institutes are regulated by the rules of the government and university. accordance with the system followed in a few states, as ity. In accord mentioned earlier, a cho chosen few n ffe w and nd new n pprivate unaided institutions are permitted to fix a fee structure that is substantially high higherr than others. But, the fee structure can be fixed only after approval by the appro aappropriate riate authority uthori in government. The chosen institutions are granted leeway matters ppertaining to administration. However, overall, they are y in certain ain matter administered similar manner as other institutions. It is inappropriate that India is nistere in simil cepta ptanc of this type of privatization; where flexibility, space, and academic contemplating acceptance liberty for the progre progress of knowledge, quality and relevance are not encouraged, but stifled (P. G. Altbach & P. M. Petersoneds. , 1999).

Privatisation of higher education in India takes several forms (Tilak & Varghese, 1983b): i. Government introduces self-financing courses within the public institutions Page 26 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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ii. Public government institutions converted into private institutions iii. Government allows self-financing private institutions with and without recognition/ allowing commercial education institutions The feasible form for private players in the field of education is to engage in the establishment of private universities, deemed universities and academic institutions (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

Establishment of private universities f t or it fi A university should be a trust or society. It should not be an entity for profi profit should not be run by a trust for profit. There are two ways to establish private univer sh a priva university. It can either be set up by an Act of Parliament (central university) ersit ) or bby y an Act of a state rsi ha legislature (state university). Till today no private university has been set up bby an Act of ed a deeme nive Parliament. In the other method a university is being dec declared deemed university.

There are currently 229 privately managed universities in India. Diff Different may have different ffe ff fe ent states m ivate unive sity. Th land norms and other procedure for setting up a private university.

The analysis of such laws in the states such as Rajasthan, Madhya Prad Pradesh and Gujarat shows that these requirements are more or less similar across states (Shankar, 2016). kar, 2016)

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Figure 5: Procedure to establish a private university

• Project report/proposal with five years expected cash flow Statement, Letter of Intent and Initial sum of money submitted to the Government.

Project report or Proposal

Setting up the University

• Proposal Contains: Objectives of the University, types of Programmes of study, deed of the Institution (Which is a Trust/Society/Non-Profit entity under Section 25 of the Companies Act, or is being run by one), fee Structure, admissions format Composition details of board of Governors, Availability of academic research and Training facilities, building plan and land deed, etc.

• Once the Proposal is Approved, the State Government Tables the Bill of the Establishment ent oof the he P Private University, for Passage by the State Legislature.

• The university shall maintain standards as prescribed by the relevant reg regulator (UGC, UGC, Except cept in the case of technical, professional courses: AICTE or other councils).

Regulation

ccred unci within a Stipulated • It shall get accredited by a body such as the National Assessment and Accreditation Council, Period of Time.

Source: Adopted from (Shankar, 2016) Regulations rding th The UGC reserves the powers reg regarding the recognition, functioning and deties. It also has the powers to distribute grants to other recognition of deemed univer universities. enance and nd development and regulating fees charged by the universities for their maintenance es or universi ies ffaill to comply with UGC standards their grants may be universities. If colleges universities tion may bbe terminated. Such disciplinary actions will be taken of a withdrawn or their aaffiliation unive doe not comply with fee other regulations (University Grants college or universi university does ission, 2002) Commission, 2002). Pri Private unive universities which offer technical courses like engineering, town ment aand which receive funds from AICTE should adhere to its academic planning, management standards and regulations gulations (MHRD, 2016).

In order to give recommendations on building a knowledge base in India the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was set up in 2005. The reforms required in the education sector were also considered while setting it up. Educational institutions for profit were not encouraged by NKC. 3 In 2008 the Yashpal committee was set up in order to recommend changes in the higher education sector. The important suggestion of the committee was that Page 28 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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higher education should not get fascinated by the motive of profit. 4 Both NKC and Yashpal committee recommended private investment in higher education to extend educational opportunities. It is further discussed in detail with regard to the issue of access under fee structures.

Private providers always have a profit motive associated with them. The Supreme Court of India, lately, interpreted that the nature of educational institutions to be charitable and not for profit. Hence, by providing education supernormal or illegal pr profits cannot be made. If surplus revenue is generated it should be used for expansion of the institution and for education development.

2.7 Issues in Privatisation of higher education in n India The major developments in the higher education tion win wing of Indian ndian ed education sector ble open/ free m started in the early 1990s with the laws enacted to enable market. Tilak (1999) d aand the pu states that there is a need for higher education to be privatis privatised public funding for such education should be reduced. The Government of India in the yyear 1997 distinguished the cation as ‘me rit-good’ (Musgrave, 1959) two categories of education in India- element elementary education ood. Howe and ‘higher education’ as non-merit good.

However, the Ministry of Finance classified higher education as a ‘merit II good’ and which nee needs no subsidisation as the same level as the nd whi ‘merit good’. sation off high In India, privatisation higher education had always been controversial. In the year me Court which is the hi 1992, the Supreme highest judicial court in the country banned ‘Capitation s’ stating g that charg g ffee is unfair.However, the court reversed the judgement in fee colleges’ charging the year 1993 stating that these ccolleges could be named self-financing colleges. This led to elf the eme emergence of private sself-financing capitation fee colleges all across the country and the feration led to mor proliferation more number of private institutions established in the nation. It is evident in the states off Andh Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka that the number of private colleges (engineering and management) outnumbers the public educational institutions. In recent years, the number of private educational institutions and the enrolment of students in these institutions have increased wherein the share of private enrolment in 2000-01 is 32.89 per cent and the share rose up to 58.5 per cent in 2011-12 (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). During the 11th plan, India witnessed a predominant growth in the number of private institutions wherein the number of private state universities is 98, 17 private deemed universities and 3581 private © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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diploma institutions and 7818 private colleges. Even the number of private arts and science colleges has increased in the recent years (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). However, such enormous proliferation rate in the number of private institutes poses serious doubts on the quality of education rendered by these institutes (Kaul, 2006). Aleem et al. (2016) claims that commercialisation and privatisation in higher education will pose serious threats to the development of human resources in two ways- expensive cost of education leading to unequal deliverance of education, and determination of education priorities. While privatisation in education sector have been allowed in countries like China hina and Singapore with flourishing higher education stats, the same should be feasible even n in the Indian context which is the premise of the present study.

2.8 Need for Privatisation in higher education There are several requirements, which could be mapp mapped with the privatisation of higher education in India. Less than 1 per cent of the nation’s funded by the central ation’s on’s GDP is fund city building strat government of India for education. The capacity strategies of the government could not satiate the needs of higher education tion in the nation. By the year 2013, the number of students enrolled for higher education ion is 14.6 million ion and the FICCI-E&Y report FICCI (2011) states that in order to achieve cent GER in the forthcoming decade, the country hiev 30 per ce would require building a cap capacity ca acity of 25 million ion seats. However, predicting the extra capacity ional 10 lakh cro building cost, by 2020, an addi additional crores (in Indian rupees) will be required for the quirement off R government with a funding requirement Rs. 4 lakhs per seat. In the current Indian context, ces for highe such allocation of re resources higher education would be infeasible. Hence, private sectors play a vital gap between the requirement and the budget. The positive al role in bridging the ga contribution privatee se sector players towards higher education is evident from the success of ion of privat tor pl onomi like ke JJapan, pan, th economies the US and Malaysia. The GER of the US increased from 71 per cent er ce in 1999 to 83 pper cent in 2008 whereas in Japan, the rate increased from 45 per cent to 58 per cent. In Malaysia, sia, th tthe rate increased from 28 per cent to 32 per cent (Tiwari et al., 2013).

In India, Liberalisation, Globalisation and Privatisation play significant role in improving the quality of India corporates. The economic reformation allows foreign players into the nation, thereby creating a competitive environment between the foreign private players and the indigenous players. The low cost of living and India being the large English speaking base next to the US enable the country to act as the higher education hub in the Asian continent (Tiwari et al., 2013). © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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While researchers argued several needs for privatisation in the education sector, Jonaki and Prasenjit (2016) combines all the need factors which are as follows: i. Increasing the efficiency of the public sector by enabling competition ii. With the rapid growth in the population, the country’s ever -growing needs for education could be satiated with the aid of private sector institutions. er education wing, iii. While Government funds were considerably allocated to the higher n on the gov private sector institutions may reduce the financial burden government. ions iv. Reducing the decentralisation of educational institutions ids in nurtu nurturing ing yyouth of the v. Improved quality of education and training which aids nation thereby sufficing the local, national and needs. nd gglobal oba manpower npowe nee power is incr sing day by day. Since the vi. need for skilled and expertise man-power increasing iberalisa on, Privatis country adopts the LPG model (Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation), the global needs for manpowerr should also lso be met ogi l developm vii. Facilitation of technological developments and economic developments in India. onomic policies pol G pol With the new economic (LPG policies) that emerged in the early 1990s ation has been een given iven pred (Tilak, 2009), privatisation predominant importance. However, privatisation communities unities in India drastically since there is an inequity in the has affected the poor comm deliverance of education all the levels of the society and the openness and diversity of ducation across al the knowledge questioned edge providers ovider are qu stione which includes the quality and price of the product (education knowledge) cati and nd knowl dge) ((Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

2.9 Political eco eeconomy of higher education in India The tightly controlled structure of the Indian higher education sector was analysed by Kapur and Mehtaa (2007). The paper has a two-fold key argument. The first argument is that higher education in India is de facto privatized on a large scale.2 This privatization did not happen because of the changing preferences of the key factors like the state, the judiciary or the propertied classes in India. Instead, this privatization took place from a breakdown of the state system. Consequently, ideological and institutional underpinnings are very weak in this form of privatization. Much of the private initiative remains within the bounds of the © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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discretionary actions of the state instead of being a part of a comprehensive program of education reform. As a result, the education system is stuck between over-regulation by the state and a discretionary privatization which is not able to mobilize private capital in useful ways. Any policy intervention will have to change this political economy equilibrium if it has to succeed. Irrespective of the fact whether an institution is public or private, there are vicious circles of interest which hamper reform.

Since some of the most renowned modern universities in India are established by ivate initi initiative in higher some of the dedicated individuals with private financial help, the private education is not a new concept in India. This sort of public private partnership was unique in te partn ship wa India (Levi, 1994, p313). In the initial stage the concept of private ins institution ution was as meant to be arbitrary. It was also a comparative category to express classes ss various cla es of educational d institutions. In the domain of philanthropy such an arbit arbitrary gained rbitra term rm ga ned image from its inception without much complexity and became a normati normativee lan language (C (Cotton, 1999, p566567). The fact that the public supported private institution institutions made the understanding of philanthropy easy. The policy of grand-in-aid system w wass mad made operational during British rule with the instructions of East India Company to encourage private institutions. Three ndia C o enco types of private institutions- nationalist, sectarians and list, sec nd caste communities. They were vidual phil functioning with the support of individual philanthropist and local notables before ctor conti nued to be a majo independence. Private sector continued major domain in shaping higher education independence India ndia with the constitutional provision. Such strong support system in the post-independence tanti growth of private higher education institutions which from the history led to the subs substantial fourth of the total education duc constitute three-fourth institutions. Private institutions are of two typesions are privately managed and publicly funded, whereas aided and una unaided. Aided insti institutions unaided managed and funded colleges. In the initial stages of ided institutions itutions aare both privately ivat indepe independence the role of pprivate initiative in higher learning education has been very crucial. ivate educational institutions were reported to be non-viable and mediocre.

Many of the privat private ty of delivery in their services and inadequate enrolment rates of students The poor quality used such an outcome (Garg, 1977; Kulandaiswamy, 2005). The private aided largely caused educational institutions were to strictly abide by the statue of the concerned universities.

Since they regularly received aid financial aid from the state, private aided institutions did not have a significant role in sharing the cost of education (Tilak, 1992). Though the state has authority over affiliation, pattern of aiding and regulation of education it failed to keep the constitutional promises of social justice. The managements executed and enjoyed their Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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local/estate power with knowledge governing power and the dominant culture was silently reproduced in the educational institutions.

Consequently these managements continued to remain as sectarian and partisan organization of their own locality, community and organs of political parties. Besides this, these institutions were instrumental in local politics to circulate among the party cadres and supporters. Due to their affiliation with local political power structures, these managements received under patronage and partisan prestige. The political elites, at the sa same time, make governing rules of the system flexible. Combining local politics with governin governing power on education institutions was, in a way, beneficial to both parties through ugh nnepotism, otism, bbenefaction and influence. A much more relaxed UGC rule made the process worse (Kuma (Kumar, 2004; cess wor K Kuma 2004 Rudolph, 1972). Most of the private agencies had drawn from f the elite lite sections ections of society.

The state of education continued to be governed by education backdrop of mixed uca on itself. In the bac economy in India system of education caused thee ggrowth capitalism. wth off capi sm. Besides this, there were 20 fake universities in India which were illegally ally op operating rat in the ccountry. The highest number of fake universities was found in Uttar P Pradesh desh (9) aand Delhi (5) stood second (University Grants Commission, 2006). Th The logic behind hind the emergence of these universities is clear in the sense that there was a demand mand for the creation of new institutions. The fact that tion sector tor was not considered much. This trend, they expanded private players in the education le class ind ispens in the private education sector since only the probably, made the middle indispensable y ed cat by paying payi a huge fee (Kapur & Mehta, 2007, p.35). middleclass can afford to bbuy education In the post-reform period outgrowth d the out growth of self-financing institutions saw a paradigmatic shift in the higher education ducation sector ector in India. ndia. By this trend the attention is drawn towards the complexities practicess and its wide range of social consequence. The discourses ies of pedagogic agogic pract on the pprivatization higher education mainly among the developing nations suggest that ivatization oof high d interest their ccommercial ial inte est nnearly tries to reduce education to a sheer commodity. In such a contextt the state of eeducation in India must be critically examined taking in to consideration ono the political economy in general and education policy adjustments in particular (Babu, 2011).

2.10 Previous studies Singh (2015) studied the effects of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector and the issues and challenges associated with privatisation are investigated. India is one among the largest countries in terms of population, geographical extent and the educational system. The country’s educational system has grown rapidly over the year after its © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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independence. The number of educational institutions in India is also growing every year.

People in India could be generally classified into two categories: the ‘haves’ nd a the ‘havenots’. Singh (2015) argues that with a majority of people in India living below the poverty line, privatisation of educational system is not a viable option. However, private players can establish their role in the country with the country’s regulations serious about the welfare of its people and the equity in education reaching all levels of the people living in the nation.

The increasing size of the demand and the growth in population clearly necessitates the need for new private institutions which may provide quality education.

In the same context, Chougle (2014) analysed the perceptions college faculty eptions of colleg members towards privatisation of higher education in India. The eme emergence privatisation ence off privatisa was initiated in the year 1991 with the new policy enactment Liberalization, Privatization nt on Lib raliz tion, P riva and Globalization (LPG). Over the last two decades, the poli policy changes nge have reflected both positively and negatively on the welfare of people ple in the country. ount On a positive note, the g educa on enrolment olment in India is achieved targeted change of increasing the number of higher education ountry witnesses itn sses inc with the support of the government. The country increased number of private unsupported courses and the Government rnment of India ndia had been supporting privatisation. ectin the weaker section of the society wherein the However, privatisation is severely affecting on and the ‘have-nots’ struggling to pursue higher affordable population can pay forr ed education a be ap tween the literate iterate and the illiterate thereby increasing the education. This increases the gap between ddle class and the poor. In the previous study, teachers were survey gap between the rich, middle to understand their perceptions towards privatisation in Indian higher education sector. The eptions towa findings of the study rrevealed ealed that the teachers believe in improved quality of education delivered by pr private sector inst institutions; however, their concern towards the economically uti backward further revealed ard students fur er re l some part of the respondents stating their negative intent towards ards privatisation. sation. The previous study revealed that with privatisation, the educational status of the count country ountry will be incremented to global standards. The study recommended that on, the government should also look for additional measures to support the with privatisation, economically bbackward communities without which inequity in education will increase (Chougle, 2014).

Kumar (2014) investigated the role of privatisation of higher education in India with special emphasis laid upon the Meerut, a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. The reality, as stated in the previous study is that public resources are used for the expansion of private sector

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organisations in India. In India, the laws revolving around the privatisation of higher education sector have aided private owners in increasing their wealth. Additionally, privatisation has aggravated the conditions of student belonging to poor communities. The study revealed the problems faced by poor students in Meerut and western UP wherein corruption and bribery are found to be associated with privatisation in the higher education sector of India. Furthermore, the study resembles the global context of education being converted as a commodity of sales with private players taking control of education which is the right for all the citizens in the country.

Partima and Singh (2014) studied the impacts and importance portance ooff higher education privatisation in India. After independence, the goal of the nation is to educate uca all ll the citizens itiz of the nation. In this regard, the country aspires to capacity building and nd ccreation ation in ccolleges which significantly affects the educational status of the count country. ountry However, ever, the funds allocated by the central government of India is less than 1 pe per cent of the nation’s nt o on’s GDP, hence meeting such goals becomes impossible for public institutions. ons. Private sector ctor brid bridges the gap in the allocation of funds and requirements. The study predicts the futur future of India towards increase in the number of private educationall unive universities all across India. The previous paper concludes with the statement that privatisation in India should take into ivatisat on oof higher education d y and academic demi standards tand account the maintenance of quality in these institutions.

2.11 Research Gap A number of studies ies con conducted ducted previously on the role and impacts of privatisation in e Higher education sector of India dis discerned generally the various aspects and the need for privatisation on in th the higher gher education ducati sector. While other developing economies such as China, ippine and nd Malays Philippines Malaysia are evolving in a rapid pace, India lags behind in the overall number of private te se sector unive universities and the number of enrolment for higher education in these universities. This intrigued the researcher to conduct a study on privatisation in the tor and to analyse the perspectives of various public and private education education sector pioneers about privatization and its effectiveness in the future of India.

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CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The research methodology was defined by Leedy (1997:5) as it is the systematic process of gathering and analysing of data due to higher the understanding of research phenomenon. As per the above definition of Leedey, the present chapter gives an elaborate description of procedures, which were adopted in this study due to acc accumulating the information needed to attain the objectives of the study. Hence this chapter pte wa was categorized into different sections. The first section describes the research h des design n exam examining the advantage of using a particular method, the qualitative approach as a me means ns of permitting the respondents to provide many precious answers and valuable insight to the rresearch search qu questions.

Next section describes the research philosophy and research a h appr approach. h. T Thee tar target population and study sample size were identified in section 4. Later, ter, the he ssection co covers the sampling technique which is suitable for selecting the target g population oof the study study. The sixth section includes the data collection procedure in particular rticular to the method which is applied to data collection in this study. This section main mainly describes ribes the reasons for executing semistructured interviews in this research rathe rather th than using any ny other methods. Further, this section covers the procedures which involved ved for pre preparing the interviews. Section seven describe the issues of validity dity and relia reliability were considered in the account in overall research method. Further rther section ction eig eight dealt with the analysis of the interview and finally ended with a summary off the ch chapter. pter.

3.1 Research design sign This research ese rch ddesign ign is an essential step in any research to get an idea of data ection as well ell as limitation collection limitations of the study such as time constraints and resources. ng to (Easte sterb r rb According (Easterby-Smith et al., 1994, 84), research design is about the structuring the research activity y in includes the data collection in ways which are most likely to obtain the research objectives. In order to achieve the research objective, a suitable method should be selected for gathering the required data. Survey on research methods (Creswell, 1994; Bell, 1996; Punch, 2005) classifies the research into two main methods, qualitative and quantitative as it comes under the primary type of data collection. Merriam (2009) explained qualitative research as an approach in which several people are involved along with their perceptions of research that were assigned distinct meaning on the basis of the experience of Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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individuals and covers non-numerical data (Saunders et al., 2009).

Creswell (2011)

expressed quantitative research as any data procedure or collection for data analysis that employs numerical data. As the present research aims to explore a novel phenomenon via answering open-ended questions, a qualitative methodology is a suitable method (Saunders et al., 2012, p.163) to obtain the study objective. Whenever a social phenomenon is to be examined, a qualitative research methodology could be used which aims to understand the implications in the society and the manner the social world operates (Hancock et al., 2009) .

Since the present study is based on the implications of higher education in India, ndia, a qualitative approach is suitable.

3.2 Research philosophy The research philosophy in general helps to gather and examine mine the adopted primary uides tthe investi tor to move into data. Still, selecting the right philosophy is essential as it guides investigator y aalso lso gives th the exact direction of research. In addition, the philosop philosophy the idea of how the oblem is to be identifi world is perceived and in which way the problem identified (Saunders et al., 2012, earc philosophy osophy used in research of social science pp. 126-129). There are two kinds of research considering the social reality such as pos positivism and inte interpretivist (Perry, 1995). The v positivism views the social world to individuals and interpretivist views the ld as an external xtern r rn objectives of thought as words independent external ds indep ende of extern r al factors (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 22). rn as d on thee bbeliefs iefs f off unive fs The first approach is based universal laws and neglects the subjective invo tative approach as a result of the test theories and interpretations. This method involved quantitative lation be tween control and predictor (Holloway & Wheeler, 2002, also try to find a casual relation between p. 5). Therefore, study adopted interpretivist method, which is suitable philosophy for the present stud for qualitative research ass the know knowledge is personally experienced tative resear

3.3 Res Research Appr Approach ach The relationship lationsh nshi between research and theory can be approached in a distinct way which was explained plain by Saunders et al. (2012, p.144). There are two kinds of research method used in research- deductive and inductive approach. In the deductive approach, a hypothesis is created by past studies and tested by using survey method and it is called as a top-down approach (Saunders et al., 2009; Gabriel, 2013). The inductive approach is involved in generating theory on the basis of observations and results obtained via data collection which is called as a bottom-up approach (Bryman & Bell, 2011, 4). According to Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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Bryman and Bell (2011, p.13), an inductive approach was applied in qualitative research and a deductive approach for quantitative research. In this case, the present study attempts to explore privatisation in the higher education sector and also analyse the perspectives of various public and private higher education pioneers about privatization and its effectiveness in the future of India. Hence inductive approach is more appropriate to this research.

3.4 Target population and sample size Selecting the target population is an essential part of the research h (Gay Gay & Airasian, plans to app aapply ly her or his 2003). A study population is a group to whom the researcher plan research results i.e. the target population of the study whose members mbe are the people to be researched. In this study, the target group consists of top management personnel of pprivate ment personn higher education institutions in India in order to acquire the study obj objective.

Hence vicectiv He chancellors,deans and administrators of private and public higher institutions were ic hi gher education tion inst selected. Further, the sample size of this study was chose chosen as 19. Vice-ch Vice-chancellors serve as the leaders of higher education institutions and nd as pperr the norm, he/she should be a good academician and an eminent administrator (Rao & Singh, 2016) . Deans serve as the next tor (R higher authority in the University hierarchy rchy and d are appointed ppointed by the Vice Chancellor (Ipu, 2016) . Furthermore, the formerr eeducation on m minister of the State of Karnataka is also nts the number of vice interviewed The below table represe represents vice-chancellors and deans of private his rresearch. sea h. institutions involved in this

le Disser tation Samp

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Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions Region

Role

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

Former Higher Education Minister, Government of Karnataka Former vice-chancellor of Karnataka State Open University Treasurer of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries University, Bidar.

Delhi Former Vice Chancellor, IGNOU, New Delhi Mangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, Mangalore University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore Vice Chancellor of CMR University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor of Rajiv Gandhi University y oof Hea Health Sciences Nashik.

Former Vice Chancellor of Yashwantrao Chavan hava Mah Maharashtra arashtra Open University Bangalore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor anc llor of Bangalore nga re University Mysore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor ancello of K KSOU U Karnataka Executive Director, Karnataka State tate t Higher te g er Educat gh Education Council, Government of Karnataka Bangalore Regional Director, IGNOU Bangalore Trustee of BMS & Former Addit Additional nal Chief Secretary eta t ry of Government ta of Karnataka Bangalore Principal St. Aloysius College lleg Mysore Administrator, Teresian eresian C College olleg Karnataka Former Scientist,t IIS IISc & C CEO O an and Mana Managing Director of Karnataka Hybrid Micro o Dev Devices es L Ltd. d.

Ropar Director Indian an Inst Institute te of Technology, Karnataka Former er D Dean Academ Academic of Karnataka State Open University and Academic mic Adv Advisor dvi dv vi r G GEMS MS B Sch School

Public/ Private Public Public Public Public Public Private Priv Public Public Publ ubl Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Public Public, private

3.4.1 Sampling ng technique techn ue

The sampling technique is taken on the basis of strategy, access, and Th mpling techni representativeness (Bryman, 2012). As per Patton (2002), sampling technique relies on four ntativeness (Bry (B questions which includ include what an investigator needs to examine, why she or he needs to examine, what kind of sources he or she wants to research and how the results would be utilised (Cohen & Manion, 1994). Based on the above queries, purposive sampling technique is used in the present study. This type of sampling would enable the researcher to cross check whether they meet the criteria for eligibility on the basis of objectives (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p. 228).

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3.5 Data collection 3.5.1 Data collection methods There are two kinds of data collection which include primary and secondary data (Creswell, 1998). In this research, interview method is used as primary data collection method. The following section reveals the interviews in educational research and their procedures.

3.5.2 Interviews in educational research ffici ff ficie As per the statement of McKernan (1996), interviews are one of th the most efficient fface ce to fa fface ce and requir methods for collecting the data because it is carried out through fa requires The interviewing tervi wing technique hniq is direct verbal association between respondent and researcher. Th easy to follow as discussion flows in an informal, conversational rsat onal style fr ffrom om one to another hnique fo topic. According to Kumar (1999), the interview is a popular technique for gathering data from participants. Likewise, Wragg (1994) statess that interviewing has been classified into ctu t re interviews tu views and unst three types such as semi-structured, structured unstructured interviews. The structured interview has predefined quest questions; ons; unstructured tured does not have predefined rview comprise omprise of flexible questions (Yin, 2009; Myers & structure and semi-structured interview Newman, 2007; Creswell, 2014 Den Denzin 2011). In the present study the semiin and Lincoln, incoln, 2011 od is used hnique is used to explore the unique experience of structure interview method used. This technique cation minister. inist The questions are designed in the semi-structured vice-chancellors and education interview in such a mann manner to support extendin extending the interview with further questions on the ersa on made at the ttime me oof interview and the interest level of respondents. basis of conversation roce res ffor prep ring for the interviews 3.5.3 Procedures preparing As the inte rvie interviews are conducted efficiently and smoothly, the procedures were executed in two main stages, firstly interview question preparation and selection and secondly the preparation for conducting interviews. par Selecting interview questions The interview questions are chosen on the basis of collected past studies with respect to the privatisation of higher education. This was decided to design interview questions on the organisation of the interview and shape of the data collection. Once questions are Page 40 of 82

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designed, approval from the supervisor is obtained from more discussions and advice. After confirmation from a supervisor, an interview guide is developed which consists of a list of topics covered relying on the context of literature.

Conducting of the interviews The final step is to conduct the interviews, after preparation of interview questions; the semi-structured interview was done through a face-to-face interview via prior appointment.

3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews A successful research relies on valid methods, and the two chie chief hief fe ffeatures atures researchers sear typically look for are validity and reliability. In order to val validate the ttrustworthiness ustworthiness and te re earc the stu credibility of the interview guide as well as the complete research, study follow followed the 5). It helps to check the criteria of evaluation as described by Lincoln and Denz Denzin (200 (2005). credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability onfirmability of semi-structured interview guide (Lincoln and Denzin 2005). The followin following steps are taken to make sure the above criteria. Firstly, the interview guide was prep prepared d on the basis sis of past researches previously conducted (Labuschagne & Brent, 2006; Taylo Taylor, 2008; Anon, 2006; Gareis et al., 2009; hipper, 2009; S Turner, 2010; Silvius & Schipper, Silvius et al., 2010) 2010). Secondly, those studies were rvisors. Thirdly crea the validity of the research, the pilot cross-checked with supervisors.

Thirdly, to iincrease nt (Quinlan, 2011). In order to examine the study may be conducted among 1-2 re respondents ata obtained, member memb checking was done with participants, where the accuracy of the data d fu interview theme themes are summarised and further requests whether they agreed with summarizing statements.

3.6 Analysis naly of the interview interv One of the cru crucial ial components of any research is data analysis. For the main reason is that the chief goal oal of data analysis is as per Merriam (1998) is to end with reasonable generalisations and conclusions on the basis of the predominance of data, data analysis in interviews needs to be clear on the first steps of collected data. Hence after data collection, recording and notes have been transcribed on the same day and further analysed whether the data is up-to-date (Merriam, 1998; Marshall & Rossman, 1989). The present study made thematic data analysis where the future steps were conducted. Firstly, data is transcribed by Page 41 of 82

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typing digital transformation of all recordings manually and the field notes. Secondly, all the conversations acquired at the time of interview are typed and converted into a Word document (Colaizzi, 1978, p.59). The third step, the textual data is categorized as per themes and sub-themes on the basis of literature review (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p.171). Still, there is a logical sequence of research questions and literature review; data is recorded and coded several times. This process is carried out by utilising the computer software program such as QSR Nvivo software. Nvivo software acts as a teaching tool wherein different kinds of documents could be kept in a single destination and are linked together to fa ffacilitate easy access. The progress of an idea from its inception could be mapped using g Nvivo software (Walsh, 2003) .. In addition to this, content analysis was conducted.

3.7 Summary The present chapter has discussed the adopted methodolo methodology and nd the field work procedures. Further, this chapter explains the reason for eexecuting qualitative approach to ecuti a qualita uctur interview was conducted to achieve gather and analyse the research data. A semi-structured an in-depth understanding of the participant’s private rticipant’s views ws on p ivate higher education in India.

The interview was conducted over a period riod of XX months in IIndia with respect to gaining cooperation and rich and elaborated ated dataa fr ffrom om respondents. The collected data are represented and discussed chapters four and fiv five. d in upcoming chapte

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 4.0 Introduction The present study is a research based on the analysis of the perceptions of educational pioneers in India towards privatisation in the Indian higher education sector. After careful analysis of previous literature works which were discussed in the Literature review section (Chapter 2). Previous literature brought both advantages and disadvantages of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector; however, certain prospects of privatisation isati in foreign higher education intrigued the researcher and became the premise for the pres present study. As mary dat ffrom om edu d ca du aforementioned, the present study imparts the collection of primary data fr educational nd adminis ators (Deans, leaders and pioneers in India who are former vice-chancellors and administrators her education cation ins utions in India.

Principals and administrators) of private and public higher institutions ere put fo o obta n thei Face-to-face interviews are conducted and questions were forth to obtain their perceptions dia. Primary rima data was as aalso collected from regarding privatisation of higher education in India. taka, India. All the collected data are former higher education minister, State of Ka Karnataka, analysed in the following section.

4.1 Participants 17 participants were intervie interviewed viewed in the study. Th The study acquired the perceptions of 1 former Higher education M Minister ter off K Karnataka, rnat k India, 8 former vice-chancellors, 7 administrators (Directors, tors, D Deans, ns, Prin Principals) ipals) of higher education institutions, and 1 former scientist. The participants rticip s were ddenoted noted as follows: articip nt 1 (H her edu PAR_1: Participant (Higher education minister) PAR_2: Participant (Vice ch chancellor- Public institution) AR_2 P rticipant 2 (Vic PAR_3: P Participant rticipant nt 3 ((Vice chancellor- Public institution) rticip 4 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_4: Participant PAR_5: Participant 5 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_6: Participant 6 (Vice chancellor- Private institution) PAR_7: Participant 7 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) Page 43 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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PAR_8: Participant 8 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_9: Participant 9 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_10: Participant 10 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_11: Participant 11 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_12: Participant 12 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_13: Participant 13 (Administrator- Private Institution) PAR_14: Participant 14 (Administrator- Private Institution) on) PAR_15: Participant 15 (Administrator- Public institution) rivate) te) PAR_16: Participant 16 (Administrator- Public and Private) riv te Sector) PAR_17: Participant 17 (Former Scientist- Private ellor of Indian ndian hi In the study, 8 vice chancellors higherr education institutions were llo (PAR_2, P interviewed and among them, 7 vice cha chancellors PAR_3, PAR_4, PAR_5, PAR_7, edu PAR_8, and PAR_9) served public higherr education institutions whereas 1 served for private ation (PAR_6). Similarly, milarly among the 7 administrators of higher higher education organisation ons, 4 belonged to public sector governmental institutions (PAR_10, education institutions, nd PA _15) 2 of the 7 administrators belonged to private higher PAR_11, PAR_12, and PAR_15), tutions (PAR_13 AR_13 and nd PAR_14), and 1 participant (PAR_16) belonged to both education institutions nd publ private and public institutions ass the participant is former dean of a public higher education resent serv institution and at present serves as an advisor to a private management based higher ducati institution. F rme higher education minister was also interviewed and the education Former responses sponses of the same are denoted by ‘PAR_1’. One former scientist (PAR_17) was also interviewed.

It is to be noted that the number of participants belonging to public higher education institutions is higher than private institutions. This is the strategy to acquire the perceptions of public players so as to define the role and importance of privatisation of higher education in India. To maintain neutrality, the views of former higher education minister, a former

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scientist and an administrator who served both public and private institutions were obtained and analysed.

Figure 6: Participants in the study

Public higher education participants ts

Private vate higherr ed education i participants

Neutral participants

Source: Author (2016) ws w onducted and questions were put forth in the The face-to-face interviews were conducted hich the responses sponses of the participants were acquired and analysed. following themes for w which mesFollowing are the themesole off priv at ation in hhigher h education development in India 1. Role privatisation ons of stakehol 2. Percept Perceptions stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions 3. Views of Indian ndian Gov Government on privatisation oura priv 4. Encouraging privatisation in India 5. Private te U Universities and high standards of higher education in India 6. Role oof privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility There had been a lot of responses which were contradictory to one another. Following is the results of textual data analysis of responses.

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4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development in India Majority of participants stated the role of privatisation in Indian higher education is crucial towards increasing the economic status of the country. 5 Participants claimed that the increase in the number of private universities all over the country has discerned the importance of private participation in the Indian higher education sector. 4 of the 17 participants revealed that privatisation in the Indian higher education aids improve the economic status of the country as the economy of a nation is integrated with the generation of gh education in human capital. 2 participants responded that there is a limited access to higher rtunities for students India which led private sector educational institutions to create new oppo opportunities within the age limit of 18-23 to get benefitted. 2 participants stated need for excellen excellence in ed the nee the higher education sector as India, which is a country possessing vast human capi capital ca ta should be properly empowered. However, other respondents had vie views regardi regarding rding higher he enrolment rate, coexistence of public private mix and the legacy private player players. On One respondent y oof priv claimed the need for coexistence of both private and public as both may benefit each other. efits, one ssuch being the increase in the One respondent stated that privatisation has vast bbenefits, number of higher education enrolment in the country. ry. One respondent spond stated that the increase in the number of private players in Indian ndian higher gh education on is ultimately related to the legacy cation sector tor in various countries, which led them to begin that they had built in the education ver, on spondent hhad contradictory ideas about the role of institutions in India. However, only on one respondent d cation in Ind privatisation in higher education Indiaa sinc sincee th the credibility is doubted.

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Figure 7: Word cloud of Role of privatisation in higher education development in India

“…The role of Private sector in Indian higher educati education is increased significantly over the last decade. With the majority of students currently enrolled in these private ering the substant institutions. the role will only increase cons considering substantial investment required in this ies in different part of states. You can understand sector…[PAR_1]… 370 private univ universities univ the importance of state private univers universities in the higher education scenario of education… ve some peaks ea of excell [PAR_2] … should have excellence and private uni versities can play very younger people specially of age 18 -25 would very much like important role… [PAR_3] … the young d cat du but we kknow now the access is limited because of number of institutions to have higher education d cation that is available both are important and this gap needs to be du and also qual quality of edu education filled… just the role of private institutions in higher education but d… [PAR_4] … 5 It is nott jus private and public should l co ld co-exist… [PAR_5]… private universities in Karnataka meet the economic obligat i igat socio-economic obligation as well as contempt to gross enrollment ratio… [PAR_6] … There rm goal are no long term goals for the Government to improve public institutions. Ultimately this leads to giving mor more importance to private higher education institutions … [PAR_7] … 98% private participation in higher education is limited to engineering, medical, management and education… [PAR_8] … 9

Private higher education institutions increase the number of

higher education enrolment in the country… [PAR_9] …To increase theGross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be Page 47 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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achieved… [PAR_10] … there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence… [PAR_11] … Private universities don’t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy…

[PAR_12] … The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country… [PAR_13] … Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation’s human capital needs… [PAR _14]… I doubt the rs… [PAR_15]… I credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years… believe the role of private universities is very significant and they are going to be with us… specia higher education [PAR_16]… the number of employed person in the count ry, especially ducat graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education…

[PAR_17] ”

4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing ch choo higher higher education institutions The major stakeholders involved d in higher gher edu education tion are students, parents and teachers. When the participants were questioned about re qu bout the perceptions of stakeholders ity of 5 participants revealed quality of education to towards choosing the university, a majority nd par hoos a unive be the foremost when students aand parents choose university. Apart from being a private or older look for qquality y of education provided the opportunities for public university, stakeholders heck d. An equ employment are also checked. equal numbe number of 5 participants claimed that stakeholders look for the various rious features tures oof the university such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety. Participants nts discern the fact that stakeholders view universities as sellers of education and hence, they re requiree what they actually pay for. However, 2 of the participants had a much generalised ralise view denot denoting g the increased enrolment of students in private higher education institutions tuti which ch is evident vident from the number of private higher education institutions.

However, some pa participants rticip had other viewpoints. One respondent stated that within the age group of 18-23, 23, student students are more inclined towards joining private sector higher education institutions. One respondent claimed the increase in the enrolment of students in private higher education institutions which offer courses such as agricultural and veterinary sciences.

One respondent states that parents look for international level institutions for their children to get exposed to global culture and hence foreign private universities are sought. One respondent elucidated that certain private institutions nurture entrepreneurial capabilities in Page 48 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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students, hence they are inclined to join in private universities. However, only one respondent stated the legacy of universities which attracts students.

Figure 8: Word cloud of Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions

nrolm l lm “between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enrolment in higher education regard less of gible official al popula age express as a percentagee to the el eligible population of 18-23. Students are inclined rivate sector univ rsities for higher education… [PAR_1]… Students towards enrolling in private universities ducati universities even for courses such as agricultural choose private sector higher eeducation terinary courses. ourses. TThis his is a good start…[PAR_2] … Students and parents science and veterinary ation in private institutions since the quality of education in private choose higher eeducation utions is be ter… [PAR_ institutions better…

[PAR_3]… poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is to study in a qualified higher education institutions. Private ities specia ialise their ways to fulfil the needs of the stakeholders… [PAR_4] … universities specialise perceptions of students and parents to enrol in private higher education as the number of private institutions is increasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing… [PAR_5] … to integrate the industry perception, interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry… [PAR_6] … Students, parents and teache rs look for more prospective features in Page 49 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered… [PAR_7] … In MBA, 41% employability, only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures… All these numbers posit the increase in the number of students, their perceptions towards private higher education as most institutions in these sectors are privatised… [PAR_8]… Stakeholders such as students look for job opportunities after their graduation. They opt for universities which cater such requirement…[PAR_9]… private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going tudents look for col to colleges in India and private institutions… [PAR_10]… Students colleges with basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education… [PAR_11] … also choosing the ce, choos ng the righ university from the supplies side, who are the faculty. Hence, choosing right univ university ffer rceptions. Some state their becomes very important… [PAR_12]… Students have di different perceptions. laim the infrastructure frast family legacy that poses them to join a university, others cclaim to attract he or quali them make an admission… [PAR_13]… Quality of tea teachers quality of the academic ecially for women, cost and location was the programs and infrastructure, campus safety, especially ructur in teaching, learning environment, creating criteria… [PAR_14]… Excellent infrastructure research, administration, and also the emphasis for student life… [PAR_15]… Very few private universities come up to the le level of in international level, which is targeted by stake ents all put togeth r… [PAR_1 holders, students and parents together…

[PAR_16] …Private nuiversities nowadays apabili ies. For exampl nurture entrepreneurial capabi capabilities. example, innovation centers, incubation centers, nts to learn… [PAR_1 makers’ space are left forr stude students [PAR_17]”

4.4 Views of Indian dian Government on privatisation p 3 of the 17 particip participants rticipants stated the view of Indian government over privatisation of higherr eeducation as an actt to inc increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER). An equal number of 3 other participants rticipants claimed laim the liberalised rules of the government which makes way for the emergence of private ivat higher education institutions in India. 3 participants discerned that there is a lack of proper regulations to monitor private higher education institutions in India.

However, 3 other respondents specified that the Government is supporting privatisation of higher education in India which will integrate human capital with jobs thereby improving the economic status of the country. 2 of the participants had a viewpoint that in terms of education in India, the government looks for three aspects- access, equity and quality. To Page 50 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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achieve these factors in Indian higher education, the government supports privatisation.

However, 3 respondents did not respond to the question.

Figure 9: Word cloud of Views of Indian Government on privatisation

“…The government views privat privatisation sation of higher ig education as a move to support three fundamental challenges nges that is ac access, equit equity and quality… [PAR_1] … all private universities all over the count country r should ry l gett recognised by University Grant Commission. If it ld is not, probably they will not only put penalties for any activities of the private universities, and they also publicise iin the whole hole country ount that these courses run by suss and such private university is not recognised… ognised… [PAR_2 [PAR_2] … The views of government tow ards privatisation are mostly liberal ral withou without any an sort of control and UGC regulation is not accepted and implemented m at all… [PAR_ [PAR_3] … The government sees privatisation in higher education sector as a tool to incr increase the Gross enrolment ratio of higher education… [PAR_4]… The regulations of the Go Government are not implemented properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manage private higher education sector in India… [PAR_5]... There are complex state and central government policies on privatisation of higher education…

[PAR_6] … Government looks at factors such as equity and access to higher education by students. Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation… [PAR_7] …

Government views the opportunity to create an integrated economy with the human capital and jobs… [PAR_9] … The Government of India is on a vision to increase the number of Page 51 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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universities to achieve a GER of 50 per cent… [PAR_10]… Government has liberal regulations towards privatisation… [PAR_11] … Government views privatisation as a strategy to increase GER … [PAR_12]… The government is open to private universities with less regulation to control. This is an act to increase the GER of the nation… [PAR_13] …

Government of India is ready to start at the higher rate at the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of manpower... [PAR_15] … Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates… [P AR_17]”

4.5 Encouraging privatisation in India A majority of 6 respondents stated privatisation to be encouraged ourag d in India dia wh wherein r they claim privatisation to be good for the nation. Similarly, 5 participa participants stated privatisation nts stat d privati ivati ever, 4 out of 17 to be necessary in Indian higher education as it brings mor more prospe prospects. Ho However, respondents argue that privatisation may not be successful iin all ccases and depends on the ged for India institution. One respondent stated privatisation to be encour encouraged Indian higher education provided the educational services delivered by these inst institutions utions should be philanthropic.

However, one respondent stated privatisation ation to be hhazardous rdous to Indian higher education. urag rivat Figure 10: Word Cloud of Encouraging privatisation in India

“… Privatisation of higher education in India increases the higher education enrolment rate in India. Hence it is a good motive… [PAR_1]… Not in all cases… [PAR_2] Page 52 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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… With the increasing number of student enrolment, it is necessary for private institu tions to emerge in the country. However, I would suggest that there should be some sort of collaboration between UGC and the state council and the education department of the state to oversee private participation in Higher education... [PAR_3] … I would state privatisation to be a good option only if such institutions are philanthropic … [PAR_4]… 5. I

would

state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit…

[PAR_5] … the perception of students towards education is whether they hey gain relevant knowledge for what they pay as a fee. In this regard, I claim private universiti universities penetrate the knowledge into the students so that they become more relevant to tthe industry sector…

[PAR_6] … profit making would be the motto and the charitable edu educational ional insti institutions tions that is always temptation of commercialization and profit making. Privatisat Privat Privatisation i ion ma isat mayy prove hazardous at times… [PAR_7]… If we analyse certainn reports e epor of the government, gove it is revealed that private institutions produce industry centric manpow manpower, human man capital, and the 50% of them are not employable. Then how will privatisat privatisation on be good… [PAR_8]… the rate of unemployment is high. This intrigues the role of privat privatisation i ion as the nation is still suffering isat from unemployment… [PAR_9] …Quality t of education ty on is a pprimary imar concern. In Karnataka, a joint programme is conducted to exchange hang students and tea teachers within the public and private universities. This led new things to be le learnt… [PAR_10] … Privatisation is a good concept if in case the professional rofessional ddegree gree is job-oriented… b-oriented… [PAR_11] … Obviously when there is a need to increasee the GER GE GER, then wee should go with the strategies to increase private higher education institutions ons as the fund funding for higher education by Government is very low...

[PAR_12] … There e is a n need d to revamp amp our education system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely imely changes hanges in know kknowledge ledg levels of their respective disciplines. This is how stakeholders perceive higher education du offered by private universities… [PAR_14] …

There is a question quest on how to satisfy isfy the increasing demands and needs and aspiration of people of isfy the country, ountry ountr ry, y, especia especially ially the talented young people has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internet and various other resources available, aware of the higher education benefits. So now with this background, it’s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the role…[PAR_15] … Some private institutions have played important bringing quality inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift… [PAR_16] … Yes, it brings out more potential workforce… [PAR_17]”

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4.6 Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India Among the 17 participants interviewed, 12 participants stated that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. The responses specified the fact that with increased funding, private universities are emerging as standard institutions of higher education. However, one participant claimed that higher standards would be met if flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research are all satisfied.

Two participants stated ‘cannot say’ as there are issues in higher education ti pr privatisation. On the contrary, two participants stated the higher standards are not met by priva private higher education institutions.

Figure 11: Word Cloud of Private Universities and high standards off higher edu education in India

ist “… The existence of private universities not only improves the quality of education but also provides the social responsibility. The success of self-financing private universities can be attributed there will be a healthy competitions among the several players, innovations in the curriculum which will benefit student community… [PAR_1]… I cannot clearly state the significance of privatisation of Higher education in India with so many issues revolving around the regulations for private institution approval…[PAR_2] … I think in terms of Page 54 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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private universities, the great hope is, that freedom that these institutions have, enables to run any number of good programmes and course which are futuristic. Hence, the higher standards of higher education are met… [PAR_3]… Private universities definitely bring higher standards in the delivery of education; however recruitment training should also be provided… [PAR_4]… I think the standards have not been met since the enrolment rate of students in some private higher education institutions is relatively low. This creates an imbalance... [PAR_5]… Yes … [PAR_6] … Privatisation may provide higher standards in ased competency ased, Indian higher education if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill based, based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, coursess and th then creation nat rrepute, pute, of of new knowledge by research and then collaboration of international and national ounta ilit and socia course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability social ew stand ard being adopte accountability are all addressed… [PAR_7] … There is a new standard adopted by room. In th private universities which is known as flipped classroom. this learning mod mode, faculties ele ted pro ional degree. Very guide students on how to proceed their career with the selected professional nts look for practical know kknowledge. In this little focus is on classroom environment and students n higher education… ducati [PAR_8]… May be. regard, I view privatisation to bring benefits in ons collec Funding for higher education is large as these institutions collect fe fee and are private players. live d would be good Hence, the quality of education delivered good… [PAR_9] … I view internationalisation as a part of privat privatisation on of higher education in India… [PAR_10] … mbrace technolog hnolog concepts ce in all activities. These act as high cepts Most private universities embrace technological o learn more eeffectively… ectively… [PAR_11] … Though private universities standards for students to ected funds are used for the development of the institutions’ burden students with fee, the col collected infrastructure… [PAR_12 [PAR_12] … 2 kinds of education are possible. One is for employment, ffor social trans transformation… [PAR_13] … Private universities in this while the other one is fo d in term of curriculum, in quality and standards… [PAR_14]… global era are transfor transformed nce in Private Univers ti that is not so good especially the standards are so slanting Excellence Universities on iit is different… [PAR_15] … Universities are even established in rural perhaps in my opin opinion areas which aid stude students belonging to that region to be empowered. Additionally, the standards of higher education and the access to the same are increased… [PAR_16] …

Private funding are vast, hence the standards of education are maintained … [PAR_17]”

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4.7 Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility Among the 17 participants interviewed, 9 participants responded that there is discrimination in the higher education service offered to students. Respondents claimed that equity in delivering higher education to all classes in the society is affected by fee based structure hence privatisation in their views does not maintain equity and accessibility.

However, 5 of the respondents claimed privatisation increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country. 3 of the respondents stated that discrimination is ues related to generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

Figure 12: Word Cloud of Role of privatisation in maintaining g equity ity and nd aaccessibility ssib ity

“…No. The “…N e only issue wi with privatisation is the increase in the number of unemployed graduates… es… [PAR_ [PAR_1]…

1]… Discrimination may occur since students trained in some private institutions with poor qual quality of education are affected… [PAR_2] … Discrimination may occur since students belonging to poor families suffer.. [PAR_3]… Privatisation indeed generates discrimination. The present kind of a strength what is reported on Government agencies, 70% of graduates are unemployable they state except the special fields like medicine, the need for quality workforce is increasing... [PAR_4] … I clearly view the lack of social inclusion in higher education sector… [PAR_5] … In the state of Karnataka, 40 % of seats in the professional courses are surrendered to the government which is an act to Page 56 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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prevent discrimination... [PAR_6] … I do not perceive more good traits about privatisation in Indian higher education. Moreover, private educational institutions are mostly commercialised… [PAR_7]… To me privatisation has not created discrimination in the equity of higher education but inequity in employment… [PAR_8]… Skill development is something I think that is lacking in both private and public sector higher education institutions. This creates employment inequality… [PAR_9]…I could not completely oppose privatisation as it has merits too. However, I fear the factors of inaccessibility and inequity in higher education… [PAR_10]… Social inclusiveness is lacking in private higher education institutions. I would suggest revision of fee structure to create social equity… quity… [PAR_1 [PAR_11]… no stable financial model for private higher education institutions in India. Th T These ese ar are generally diverse among different states. Hence equity could not be mainta maintained… ned… [PAR_12] [PAR_12]… it is good for the nation, however there are doubts about the quality of education de delivered…

[PAR_13] … I find discrimination in the employability sta status tus of students tudents stud studying in different universities. It is the quality of education delivered no matter matte private or public ubl universities…

[PAR_14]… private universities must have a centra central role, a phil philanthropic role for commercial purpose. Since such a role is lacking, there w will be no basis for equity…

[PAR_15] … Private institutions are extending tending to rural ral part parts off the nation. The gap is getting bridged nowadays with new private instit institutions… on [PAR_16] … I don’t find discrimination.

Access to higher education is increased increased; stand standards are maintained… [PAR_17]”

le Disser tation Samp

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CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The world today is evolving rapidly and the higher education wing globally is witnessing remarkable rate of change. Six factors attribute to the spread of privatisation in the higher education wing and are as follows-i) technological advancements, ii) demographical changes, iii) increased public examination, iv) information based economy, v) increase in knowledge based organisations, and vi) decline in public trust in government (Levine, 2001).

All these factors necessarily provoke the need for private participation in higher g education. In qu d aand are analysed the present study, responses of educational pioneers of India were acquired based on the objectives of the present study. In this context, questions were fframed and put forth to the participants to analyse their perceptions regarding market educational g ma ket driven iven educa model.

5.0 Role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing ever win need for higher education in India Since the independence of India in the year 1947, there had been drastic changes in ities of the nation on and its governing bodies were built to the education sector. The responsibilities uthori educate all its citizens, which led the educa educational authorities over the decades to create capacities for educational enrolment. capacities ment. New w cap tie were created and existing educational ed. This led the nation on to transform its higher education structure institutions were enhanced. eg in the ye from 28 universities and 578 col colleges year 1950–51 to 500 universities and more than y th 25,000 colleges in the nation by the end of 2012. More than 20 million students enrolled in on institu ons in n the country ount (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012). higher education institutions aforementioned ntion d fa ffacts c discern the role of private participation in Indian higher Thee aforem ducation. Over ver the yea rs, the number of higher education universities and colleges has education. years, eased with the purview of satisfying the educational needs of the increasing student increased numbers in the ccountry. ount Forecasted statistical data reveals the population of 18-23 year old will increasee to 142 million by 2030 which will comprise 10 per cent of the total population of the India at that time (Ficcci, 2013). Hence meeting the higher educational needs of the country is impossible without private participation in India as public funding to education is restricted especially for higher education (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

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Figure 13: Estimated 18-23 year old population in India- 2030

18-23 year old population 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

Source: Adopted from Ficcci (2013) Participants of the study were ere selected based ed on their experience in the higher education sector over the years in India. Majori Majority of the participants belong to the public and government higher education institu institutions in India so as to analyse the perceptions in an ation in Indian higher education sector was unbiased manner. When the role off pr privatisation y of respondents esponde stated th questioned, a majority the significant role of private universities in ase in the numbe number of higher education institutions in India with more India. There is an increase ivate universities in the nation. Some participants claimed the success of number of private on in Indian an higher edu privatisation education which is evident with the increase number of student enrolment institutions in the nation. Ernst & Young, (2009a) report olme in higher education duca sserts r that Indian rts ndian ggovernment ernment will suffer to cater the higher educational requirements of the asserts y as the publ country public expenditure allocated on higher education as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product roduct (GDP) is 0.6 per cent. This is a very low percentage when compared with other nations such as China, United Kingdom and the United States. To fulfil the demands of the nation, private players have established a number of educational institutions to support the growing higher education requirements of India (Ernst & Young, 2009a).

The views of certain participants regarding the role of higher education privatisation in India were toward increasing the economic status of the nation. Human capital is an Page 59 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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important asset of a nation which is associated with the nation’s economic growth and development. A country’s competitive advantage over other nations is defined by human capital. In this regard, certain aspects such as investment in science, education, and technology, and labour market competitiveness should be improved (Matovac et al., 2010). In this regard, the perceptions of participants are towards increasing the economic status of the nation with increased enrolment in higher education. According to the participants, the role of privatisation is towards economic integration. Some participants clarified the limitations of access to higher education as the funds allocated by the government forr hi higher education were less. In order to create opportunities for all students within the ag age li limits of 18-23, participants reported the need for private higher educational institutions tutions in the nation. The ed only if mor Gross enrolment ratio of higher education was also emphasised whic which is ste steered more rd, Singh (2009) argu higher education institutions are established. In this regard, argues that India lobal market. ket. How requires more than 1500 universities to compete in the global However, there were evealed the causes use for the growth of some other reasons stated by the respondents which revealed higher education institutions in India. Participants stated the need improving the GER of d fo fforr im the nation which led government to open private ivate participation in the higher education sector of the nation (Kumar & Ambrish, 2015). L Legacy off the pr private players also play a key role on universities ies in the nation. Some foreign for the growth of private higher educa education universities which are recognised nised gglobally y set up educational institutions in India. Students utions as thes ers are known in the field of higher education. are inclined to these institutions these players However, only one respondent overall doubted th the credibility of higher education in India. spondent overa The study necessitated the need to analyse the perceptions of stakeholders in choosing y nece tat d th universities. In the conte contextt oof hig higher education, the stakeholders involved are students, parents and teachers. Participants were questioned on how students select higher education nd teach institutions.

Quality is stated as the predominant need for students as majority of itutions. Qua y ooff eeducation duca participants stated rticipants stat ed the same. Students and parents look for private education institutions as d ca du delivered by private sector institutions is better (Shaguri, 2013). the quality of edu education articip However, participants, mostly administrators of private universities claim that stakeholders look for specialisation in degree as traditional generalised degree courses are not chosen nowadays. In a study by Otieno and Ndayambaje (2015) which is based on students’ enrolments in undergraduate degree programmes by platform in Public Universities in Kenya, the researcher revealed the existence of positive relationship between course specialisation and enrolment. Since education is commoditised, students require exploitation of the Page 60 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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commodity so that they get what they actually paid for. All these inferences specify the need to deliver quality of education in higher education institutions. Some respondents stated that the perceptions of students are towards joining private higher education institutions as they think the quality of education delivered is better. This led students to enrol in courses such as veterinary and agricultural science in private universities though these courses are offered at a relatively low fee in public higher education universities.

However, some respondents stated the views of stakeholders to be focussing on the features of the educational institutions. Certain factors such as infrastructure of th the institution, hostel facilities and safety are considered while enrolling in a higher education ducati institution.

The increase in the number of educational institutions in the nation tion by ddefault a t specifies the aul stakeholders’ inclination towards private universities. However, ever, internationalisation ternationa ation could not be neglected in this context as parents look for recognised ins institutions enrol their children. ions to en Such perceptions of stakeholders increase the number oof privat private foreign higher education reign hi universities in India. However, there is also a viewpoint which lets students to enrol in institutions that nurture the entrepreneurial capabilities pab a i es of students. Many private universities ab deliver entrepreneurial training classes whi which aid students bringing ingin out their entrepreneurial capabilities thereby beginning own business businesses once their prof professional courses are completed.

5.1 Effects of privatisation n in IIndian n higher hi her education edu The high standards rds of pprivatisation atis on in Indian higher education were questioned which ponses for pprivatisation. ti revealed supporting responses Majority of respondents discerned the fact rds oof higher he edu tion are met in private universities. With the increase in that high standards education the numberr oof players higher edu education sector, healthy competitions arise within these yers in high institutions. In this manner, unive universities may improve and enhance the quality of education delivered vered thereby eby continu continuall iimprovement in the higher education sector will be delivered.

Another importa nt aaspect of privatisation in higher education is the freedom of operations in important the higher education institutions. When educational institutions are bound to the Government, ation on ins then uniformity ity of certain aspects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher education institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2014).

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In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though it is deemed that delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected fees are used for the development of the institution’s infrastructure. Hence, the quality of education delivered should also be better. India demands competent workforce hence the quality and standards of private higher education are important to cater the needs of the nation. However, several issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation in Indian higher education sector. There are different state and central regulations and the regulations vary from state to state. In such a case, the standards of private higher education are questioned (British Council, 2014). One oun participant discerned the reason for the lack of standards in private higher education ate hig institutions as the enrolment rate of some colleges is relatively low. Pri Privatisation tisation brings the hnologic con pts aare adopte concept of internationalisation in higher education. More technological concepts adopted gher educ tion. by private universities thereby meeting high standards of higher education. nati weree aalso lso qu questioned. The The effects of privatisation on educational discrim discrimination ce of discrim ination in the higher education responses of the participants revealed the existence discrimination ivati ion to be the major cause. Private higher sector for which some participants claimed privatisation education institutions offer courses for fee fee which is not accessible to students belonging to ffec ff fects the equity and accessibility of economically backward classes in thee soc society. This affects nts fear the ffactors of social inequity and the lack of education delivered. Respondents on institut inclusiveness in the private high higher edu education institutions which creates a human resource participants rticipa cl claimed i privatisation to have increased equity imbalance. However, some of the particip and accessibility of higher education her edu ation sservicess in the country as private universities are also set up in rural regions satisfy the higher education needs of students. However, ions oof the nation to sat respondents argue that apart fr equity in the deliverance of higher education, an intricate ffrom om equi issue lurks within increased private higher education institutions, which is ‘unemployment’. eas d privat Respondents discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of sponde state that discrim disc equity issues but issu issues related y is s es bu lat to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

5.2 Governmental ent regulations and privatisation The high standards of privatisation in Indian higher education were questioned which revealed supporting responses for privatisation. Majority of respondents discerned the fact that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. With the increase in the number of players in higher education sector, healthy competitions arise within these institutions. In this manner, universities may improve and enhance the quality of education Page 62 of 82 © 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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delivered thereby continual improvement in the higher education sector will be delivered.

Another important aspect of privatisation in higher education is the freedom of operations in the higher education institutions. When educational institutions are bound to the Government, then uniformity of certain aspects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher education institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2004).

In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though h it is deemed that delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected ected fe ffees es are re used for the development of the institution’s infrastructure. Henc e, the qua quality of educa education on ddelivered should also be better. India demands competent workforce hen hence the qu quality standards of ality and nd stand private higher education are important to cater the needs However, several eds of the nation. ion. How issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation on in Indian ndian highe higher education d c du sector. There are different state and central regulations and the rregulations vary from state to state. In such ulations var a case, the standards of private higher education aree question questioned (British Council, 2014). One uca d (B participant discerned the reason for th the lack of standards in private higher education institutions as the enrolment rate oof some colle colleges is relatively low. Privatisation brings the on in hi gher education. tion Mor concept of internationalisation higher More technological concepts are adopted byy m meeting tin high sstandards and rds oof higher education. by private universities thereby The effects of privatisation ivatisat on on educational discrimination were also questioned. The responses of the particip participants the existence of discrimination in the higher education nts rrevealed vealed led th sector for which some participants claimed laimed privatisation to be the major cause. Private higher education ion institutions titutions offer fer ccourses for fee which is not accessible to students belonging to economically backward classes in the society. This affects the equity and accessibility of onom ackward class education delivered. on deliver ed. Respondents fear the factors of social inequity and the lack of inclusiveness in the private higher education institutions which creates a human resource imbalance. However, some of the participants claimed privatisation to have increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country as private universities are also set up in rural regions of the nation to satisfy the higher education needs of students. However, respondents argue that apart from equity in the deliverance of higher education, an intricate issue lurks within increased private higher education institutions, which is ‘unemployment’.

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Respondents state that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

5.3 Governmental regulations and privatisation One important view of government towards privatisation of Indian higher education is to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER). The rules of the government are so liberalised that setting up private universities in India had been facilitated. The impact of liberalisation and globalisation has improved higher education sector in India in a relatively lative fast pace. eate oppo Government views privatisation of higher education as an act to create opportunities for young students in India so that education is delivered to all the clas classess of the society (Amandeep, 2016). Some of the participants claimed that the gove government ment is supporting privatisation of Indian higher education so as to integrate human capi capital pital with jobs thereby improving the economic status of the country. In India, thr threee as aspects off ed education cati are viewed by the government. They are equity, access and quali quality (Goel, 2013). In Goel, 2013) n oorder to achieve all the three factors in Indian higher education, on, the gov government rnment should uld suppo ssupport u uppo privatisation.

However, need for encouraging privati privatisation was qu questioned stion for which participants sp laim privatisation to be necessary had contradictory viewpoints. Some off the respondents claim since it brings more prospects in the higher gher education sector. The perceptions of some on to bbe not successful ssful f in all cases and the success to be solely ful participants relate privatisation uti Addition ly, infe f re fe depending on the institution.

Additionally, inferences were provided revealing the need for gher eeducation cation in India ndia thereby provoking the hazards in fee based philanthropic private higher on. higher education.

5.4 Implications cation The study Th y had mixed responses when it comes to encouraging privatisation in Indian higher edu education.

However, the significance of privatisation in Indian higher education could d cation. How du not be neglected.

Majority of participants in the present study belonged to public sector d. Majo institutions and nd very few participants belonged to private universities and higher educational institutions. The main factor that participants claim to be driving privatisation in the Indian higher education sector is the rate of enrolment in higher education. The total number of student enrolment in Private and Government Colleges of India till 2015 is found to be around 22 million wherein the number of enrolments in private educational institutions is found to be 14 million (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2015). The fact reveals Page 64 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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the increased number of total student enrolment in private higher education universities in India. The GER of Indian higher education was found to be 19.4 per cent in the year 2010-11 and the enrolment rate of different states vary. Comparing the GER of India with other countries, it is revealed that the country is lagging behind developed and developing economies such as China (23 per cent), Brazil (34 per cent), UK (57 per cent) and the US (83 per cent) (Nandi, 2014). India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF, 2015) reveals a requirement of approximately 200 billion USD to achieve the target of 30 per cent GER by the year 2020.

In this regard, the Government of India has allowed 100 per cent foreign direct ect investment in the country for the education sector. The GER in Indian higher education on is 23.6 calculated for the age group of 18-23 years. In this regard, it is evident that with the growth rowth oof number d H ce, there is a of private universities, the targeted 30 per cent GER could be achiev achieved.

Hence, sities with the growin g student pressing need to increase the number of private universities growing ion by y 2030 (Ficcci, iccc 2013) population (18-23 year old) projected to reach 142 million 2013). y es of servi yp services es ooffered redd bby institutions are Secondly, the quality of education and the types concerned and hence the perceptions of students aand parents w were analysed. In the present study, it is revealed that stakeholders look for quality lity of eeducation cation and the features of the on its oditised, stakeholders view the quality educational institution. Since education itself is commoditised, ard, students are inclined towards private higher and features of the product. In th this regard, ccording rding to them, the qual education institutions since according quality of education and service is better. private hig higherr education educational institutions which are internationalised.

Parents are also inclined to privat From the perceptions off the ggovernment, it is ddeemed that the open market scenario in the overnm Indian higher education will crea create competitive atmosphere in the nation wherein the ducati wing wil native Indian pprivate public higher education institutions will improve the quality ivate players and publ of education thereby benefittin benefitting all the stakeholders involved in higher education. on there Internationalisation context will improve the key indicators such as curriculum, ation tion in this conte administration, nistra on, rresearch, sear faculty salary and so on (Tiwari et al., 2013). ndian higher education is witnessing regulation based complexities. The Thirdly, Indian ndia lacks clarity in monitoring private higher education institutions in the government of India country with different regulations existing with the central government and the regulations differing across various states. In some cases, judgements are imposed which even aggravate the conditions of private universities in India. This poses challenges for higher education universities to achieve the targeted GER (Joshi & Ahir, 2013). Participants of the interview Page 65 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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stated that the laws of the government are liberalised to set up and manage private universities in India; however the confusion that lies within the implementation of regulations for private higher education institutions will always be a threat.

5.5 Conclusions The market driven educational model of Indian higher education has better prospects.

The country has witnessed successful privatisation in the educational sector and the higher education wing is no longer an exception. It is discerned from the study thatt bby conducting interviews with educational pioneers, it is deemed that participants are inclined ncli ed towards the good prospects of privatisation in the higher education sector; howeve however, some ffear the complications that arise out of the fee based model of education.

Private education in the beginning emerged as a concept delivering for once of deliv ring education du charity and philanthropy. Privatisation in the education sector ector tor is also to aid the government spread education. Educational institutions are set up by pprivate ivat owners and are maintained based on the regulations of the government though funding is acquir acquired from private parties.

During the emergence of privatisation in edu education sector, education ducat is served as a public ns in Europe ope and North America provide good. Till date, many educational institut institutions philanthropy based educational servi services. In m many developed nations, their government rs for the edu onal servi supports private sector players educational services they offer. In India, privatisation ubted fo ffee-based based and profit motive structure. Hence, the equity of higher education is doubted for itss fe ation bbecomes ecomes omes the topic oof hot debate. and access to higher education Though the numbe number of highe higher edu education institutions has increased over the years, participants belong belonging to public ssector institutions fear the equity to higher education. One rticipant belonging long ng to private rivat higher education institution stated the fact that private participant rticipat d in participation and incre increased international/ foreign private higher education institutions in India rving the economically conom onom is serving stable classes and the poor communities are devoid of such services. In the state of Karnataka, specific percentage of seats is shared with the government which is a good motive to create access and equity. The present study recommends all the states of India to implement such seat sharing facilities in order to improve equity.

Overall, the perceptions of the participants both private and public sector administrators and vice-chancellors encourage privatisation in Indian higher education sector without which the targeted GER could not be achieved. However, the present study Page 66 of 82 Š 2016-2017 All Rights Reserved, No part of this document should be modified/used without prior consent Tutors India™ - Your trusted mentor since 2001 I www.tutorindia.com UK: The Portergate, Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, S11 8NX I UK # +44-1143520021, Info@tutorsindia.com

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recommends the need to close the gap between higher education institutions and industries so that Indian manpower is utilised to the core.

le Disser tation Samp

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P. G. Altbach & P. M. Peterson (eds.) (1999). Higher Education in the 21 st Century: Global Challenge and National Response. Boston ,United States: Institute of International Education and Boston College Center for International Higher Education. phic dividend idend? Th T Altbach, P. & Jayaram, N. (2010). Can India garner the demographic dividend?

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Appendix Questions/ ParticipantParticipant 1

Participant 2

Participant 3

Participant 4

Participant 5

Participant 6

Participant 7

Participant 8

Participant 9

Participant 10

Participant 11

Participant 12

Participant 13

Participant 14

Participant 15

Participant 16

Participant 17

1. In your view what is the role of private universities in the development of higher education?

1.

There are as many as 370 private universities in different part of states. You can understand the importance of state private universities in the higher education scenario of education.

1.

Higher education should have some peaks of excellence and private universities can play very important role.

1.

It is the government whose centre in the state is not in a position to cater the means of higher education, the younger population , the younger people specially of age 18-25 would very much like to have higher education but we know the access is limited because of number of institutions and also quality of education that is available both are important and this gap needs to be filled you know through philanthropic enterprises and private enterprises that means private enterprises have to become philanthropic.

1.

It is not just the role of private institutions in higher education but private and public should co-exist & they have both of them, they have their own advantages they have their own disadvantages.

1.

The private universities in Karnataka are the only state wherein we at private universities in Karnataka meet the socioeconomic obligation as well as contempt to gross enrollment ratio. I feel privatisation is crucial in higher education.

1.

There are no long term goals for the Government to improve public institutions.

Ultimately this leads to giving more importance to private higher education institutions.

1.

Private higher education institutions increase the number of higher education enrolment in the country.

1.

To increase the Gross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be achieved.

1.

I would state that there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence.

1.

Private universities don’t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy that they are going to be part of.

1.

The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country; however, the role is limited to a specific class.

1.

Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation’s human capital needs.

1.

I doubt the credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years.

1.

I believe the role of private universities is very significant and they are going to be with us.

1.

I would state that the number of employed person in the country, especially higher education graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education.

2.

Students choose private sector higher education universities even for courses such as agricultural science and veterinary courses. This is a good start.

2.

Students and parents choose higher education in private institutions since the quality of education in private institutions is better.

However, private sector institutions need improvement such as specialisation within a degree which is lacking in many private universities and colleges.

2.

Education has already been commoditized, and this commodity needs to be well exploited, so that we provide people who are innovative, we provide people who can think in different directions, we provide people who think for the good of the society. We provide people who can bring India’s stature up, lift the living stands up, who can also think in terms of how do we reduce the poverty in the country, we do we produce more employment at different levels. In such a case, we envision poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is to study in a qualified education 3. How has the 3.

The government 3.

According to 2003, all 3.

The views of 3.

The higher government sees private universities all over the government towards privatisation in higher education government viewed views privatisation of privatisation of higher higher education as a country should get recognised privatisation are sector as a tool to increase the move to support three mostly liberal education?

by University Grant Gross enrolment ratio of higher fundamental challenges without any sort of Commission. If it is not, education. But these institutions that is access, equity and probably they will not only put control and UGC should be given adequate freedom quality. I believe that our penalties for any activities of regulation is not to manage themselves such as the country cannot ignore accepted and the private universities, and syllabus. private educational they also publicise in the whole implemented at all. institutions as they are country that these courses run This poses problems currently attracting a large by suss and such private such as inadequate number of students at university is not recognised. In quality of education least initially efforts this manner, the Government is served to students. should be made to imposing rules to manage encourage the senior private higher education private institutionsofalso to universities.

4. Is encouraging 4.

Privatisation 4.

Not in all cases. One issue 4.

With the 4.

I would state privatisation to privatisation of higher higher education in India is one of the state private increasing number of be a good option only if such increases the higher education good for university started agriculture student enrolment, it institutions are philanthropic.

India? education enrolment rate programs last year. In this is necessary for in India. Hence it is a private institutions agriculture program, as we all good motive. know it was not given to private to emerge in the people earlier. It was all run by country. However, I Government universities. Now, would suggest that the last year or the present year there should be some sort of collaboration the private organisations can between UGC and take up agriculture courses, the state council and veterinary courses and similar the education to that. One of the private department of the university in the state, has state to oversee started agriculture programs private participation taking 100s of students and running the program. Now, the in Higher education. students were already admitted in the government agricultural colleges, they have started saying that particular university which started agriculture program no water, necessary infrastructure, faculty and other 5. Can private 5.

Institutions like Birla 5.

I cannot clearly state the 5.

I think in terms 5.

Private universities definitely significance of privatisation of of private bring higher standards in the universities bring Institute of Technology higher standards in and Science, Pilani have universities, the Higher education in India with delivery of education; however the delivery of been maintaining the great hope is, that so many issues revolving recruitment training should also be education? standards in engineering around the regulations for freedom that these provided. on par with IITs the institutions have, private institution approval. current opinion of public enables to run any private universities and number of good institutions may be programmes and justified to some extent. course which are The existence of private futuristic. Hence, the universities not only higher standards of improves the quality of higher education are education but also met. provides the social responsibility. The success of self financing private universities can be 6. Will privatisation of 6.

No. The only issue 6.

Discrimination may occur 6.

With increase in 6.

Pri Privatisation riv ri iv ati indeed d generate generates since students trained in some the number of private discri discrimination. rim ri imi min in a The present ki k kind ind of ind higher education with privatisation is the create discrimination increase in the number of private institutions with poor trength w n institutions, there is a strength what is reported on in the distribution of unemployed graduates a need to maintain nme m nt ag me quality of education are Government agencies, 70% of higher education? and postgraduate who quality. y affected. graduatess are une unemployable they acquire new skills and Discrimination ation ma m may y e state exceptt the spec special fields like innovate their quality of occur since ce students medicine, the need fo fforr quality higher education that wo reasing i .W ing h belonging to poor workforce is increasing.

With becomes extremely families suffer. ff r. In ffe iincreased in crea number of graduates important. such cases, eme m rg me r in i emerging every year, there is a scholarships and nd discrimination discri rim ri imi min in a in the job b enrolm enrolment lme lm me

2.

The sector of higher education is expanding.

Private institutions and private public partnerships are also increasing. All these statements attribute to the perceptions of students and parents to enrol in private higher education as the number of private institutions is increasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing.

2.

Students and the parents question educational institutions, “What is the value I derive from the money I paid for this program?”. The point here I’m making is, try to integrate the industry perception, interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry because ultimately in the current emergence of the industry the services sector are, it is the sharp dealing of what knowledge you have acquired and what you 3.

Fortunately or unfortunately in the Indian system, in universities there is more of administration and less of governance. There are complex state and central government policies on privatisation of higher education.

2.

Students, parents and teachers look for more prospective features in educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered to the core.

Some private institutions provide quality features which stakeholders require.

1.

I would like to share with you that, the private sector contribution, into this stream of engineering, you will be surprised to know that, among all the private sector participation, in the higher education sector, 66% share is of the engineering stream, 24% share is of the medical stream, 4% management, 4% education. So, if you put together, you will come to know, that almost 98% private participation in higher education is limited to engineering, medical, management and education.

Therefore, whatever problem we are facingInof employability, is the 2.

MBA, 41% employability,

2.

Stakeholders such as job students look forr jo opportunities aft after f er th ft their graduation. They ey opt for universities which ich cate cater such requirement. t.

2.

The private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going to colleges in India and private institutions but there is a big disparity in the quality.

2.

Students look for colleges with basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education. However, their perceptions may vary when students belong to poor communities. They may not be able to join private universities which cost them high fee.

2.

The primary stakeholders are the students themselves followed by their parents, as they have seen it as a joint perception on their part and then there is also choosing the university from the supplies side, who are the faculty.

Hence, choosing the right university becomes very important.

2.

Students have different perceptions.

Some state their family legacy that poses them to join a university, others claim the infrastructure to attract them make an admission.

2.

Quality of teachers or quality of the academic programs and infrastructure, campus safety, especially for women, cost and location were the criteria used by stakeholders that is the primary stakeholders, the students, the parents, to choose the institution.

2.

Excellent infrastructure in teaching, learning environment, creating research, administration, and also the emphasis for student life

2.

Very few private universities come up to the level of international level, which is tagetted by stake holders, students parents , etc all put together.

2.

Private universities nowadays nurture entrepreneurial capabilities. For example, innovation centers, incubation centers, makers’ space are left for students to learn. Students even look for universities delivering such opportunities.

3.

Government G ve Go views opportunity ru rt to create the opport an integrated egrate economy with the he hum human capital and jobs.

3.

The T Government m nt of me India is on a vision to increase rease the number of universities ersit i ies to achieve a it GER of 50 per ce cent.

Further, the he state o of Karnataka is playing i ing k key role in bringing public and ro pri riv ri iv at universities private together.

3.

Government G v Go has 3.

Government views liberal li lib eral re regulations privatisation as a strategy ward privatisation; towards to increase GER. however, in the future, when new regulations are imposed on the private institutions, it should not affect their freedom to education.

3.

The government is 3. open to private universities with less regulation to control. This is an act to increase the GER of the nation.

4.

Private sector participation is deemed important. As previously mentioned, the perception of students towards education is whether they gain relevant knowledge for what they ey p pay as a i pri im private r ri fee. In this regard, I claim universities penetrate e the knowledge into the students dents so that they become more relevant elevant to the industry sector.

4.

Pri Privatisation riv ri iv a is hin i g but plain in nothing commercialisation. mmercialisa mme profit fit fi it making would b be the motto and d the ch charitable educationall in iinstitutions stit iu it that is alwayss temp temptation m t mp of commercialization z tion a za and profit making. p Privatisation Pri riv ri iv a may prove hazardous haza z rdo za at times.

4. I don’t necessarily think that hat w with increased private players in high higher education, the nation’s econo economic prospects will grow. If we analyse analy l se certain reports of the ly overn r me rn m n it is revealed that government, ate in iinstitutions stit iu it private produce r centri ry rcm ri industry centric manpower, human nd the 50% of them are not capital, and employable. Then how will privatisation be good.

4.

In India, there is n no bri r dg between industries ri ndustri re ri bridge u Very r ffew ry and universities. pri riv ri iv at institutions try to private bridge bri r dge the gap. However, ri the rate of unemployment is high. This intrigues the privatisation as the role of p nation is still suffering from u unemployment.

4.

Quality of education is a primary concern. In Karnataka, a joint programme is conducted to exchange students and teachers within the public and private universities.

This led new things to be learnt. However, I do not see only the contribution of the private sector as both private and public sector are concerned.

4.

Privatisation is a 4.

Obviously when good concept if in case there is a need to increase the professional degree is the GER, then we should job-oriented. go with the strategies to increase private higher education instiutions as the funding for higher education by Government is very low.

4.

Universities cannot be for employment, they are for life. That is why the primary role of universities is to increase the knowledge, build up the attitude and skill is also a part of it. But I think you must consider all these things important; generating knowledge, skill development as well as the large social concern that must be a part.

5.

There is a new standard being adopted by private universities which is known as flipped classroom. In this learning mode, faculties guide students on how to proceed their career with the selected professional degree. Very little focus is on classroom environment and students look for practical knowledge. In this regard, I view privatisation to bring benefits in higher education.

5.

May be. Funding for higher education is large as these institutions collect fee and are private players. Hence, the quality of education delivered would be good.

5.

We view internationalisation as a part of privatisation of higher education in India, especially in the state of Karnataka.

5.

Most private universities embrace technological concepts in all activities. These act as high standards for students to learn more effectively.

2. What are the stake holders (students , parents, employers) perception of choosing universities?

1.

As per the latest published data of human resource research development India has 754 Universities, State Government Universities are 372, Private Universites are 245 Deemed Universties are 137. The role of Private sector in Indian higher education is increased significantly over the last decade. With the majority of students currently enrolled in these private institutions. the role will 2.

In the higher

education sector in India this is calculated between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enrollment in higher education regard less of age express as a percentage to the eligible official population of 1823. Students are inclined towards enrolling in private sector universities for higher education.

3.

The regulations of the Government are not implemented properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manage private higher education sector in India.

4.

I would state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit.

5.

There ere is no rea real quality 5. cation fe ffed d to students education enrolled ed in i high higher education sector (both both pri private riv ri iv a and public). I think hin i k the sstandards in n me m mett sin since i in the have not been enrolment rate of studen students in er some private higher education institutionss is relatively low. This creates eates an imbalance.

Yes

only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures. It is only 46%. Most of us feel that people who do the trades and all, they get the job, but no. That’s what the reality is. Even in Polytechnic, it is just 11%, means, 89% students coming out of polytechnic, they are not y seri r ou ri employable. This is a very serious i issue we have to look at. And in i the pharma, it is 54%. The best in eam, m wh m, w ich y country, the stream, which you can have a highestt percentag percentage of employability, that is only pharma.

3.

Government looks at 3. factors such as equity and access to higher education by students.

Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation.

5.

Pri Privatisation riv ri iv atisation ma m may y standards provide higher standard in Indian higher gher education i ilit ib ili y, if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill k kill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research and then collaboration of international and national repute, of course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability and social accountability are all 6.

I clearly learly l vie ly view the lack of 6.

In the state te of Ka K Karnataka, r rn 40 6.

I do not perceive lusion in i h higher prof social inclusion % of seats in the professional more good traits about education sector. ector. My views coursess are ssurrendered to the privatisation in Indian are towards the public a government r me rn m nt wh w which is an act to higher education. private mix which can only pr l ly prevent event discri discrimination. rim ri im I suppose Moreover, private close the gap. clo this should be implemented in all educational institutions the states of the country. are mostly commercialised. I don’t see the good prospects of private higher education in India.

6.

To me privatisation has not 6.

Skill development is created discrimination in the equity something I think that is of higher education but inequity in lacking in both private and public sector higher employment. education institutions.

This creates employment inequality.

5.

Though private universities burden students with fee, the collected funds are used for the development of the institutions’ infrastructure.

5.

I think 2 kinds of education are possible.

One is for employment, while the other one is for social transformation. I think corporate universities and private universities have been busy. Looking at everything as rightly said, in terms of corporate context, personal attitude development, skill development, but if they forget about the larger context of intervention to the society to a social transformation, that 6.

I could not 6.

Social inclusiveness 6.

There is no stable 6.

Private institutions is lacking in private higher financial model for private nowadays are towards completely oppose privatisation as it has education institutions. I increasing the higher education merits too. However, I fear would suggest revision of institutions in India. employability of the fee structure to create nation- it is good for the the factors of These are generally social equity. inaccessibility and nation, however there are diverse among different inequity in higher doubts about the quality states. Hence equity education. could not be maintained. of education delivered.

No idea

4.

There is a need to revamp our education system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely changes in knowledge levels of their respective disciplines.

This is how stakeholders perceive higher education offered by private universities.

3.

Government of India 3. is ready to start at the higher rate at the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of man-power. In this manner, the government adopts privatisation in the higher education sector.

4.

There is a question on how to satisfy the increasing demands and needs and aspiration of people of the country, especially the talented young people has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internet and various other resources available, aware of the higher education benefits. So now with this background, it’s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the role.

3.

Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates.

–

4.

Some private 4.

Yes, it brings out institutions have more potential workforce. played important bringing quality inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift.

5.

The mounting 5.

Excellence in Private Universities that is not so demands of higher education require good especially the competent human standards are so slanting resource. Private perhaps in my opinion it universities in this global is different. Excellence is era are transformed in not used these days term of curriculum, in talking about the quality and standards. institutions especially regarding credibility.

5.

Universities are even established in rural areas which aid students belonging to that region to be empowered.

Additionally, the standards of higher education and the access to the same are increased.

5.

Private funding are vast, hence the standards of education are maintained.

6.

In some way or another, students are enrolled in higher education either in public or private institutions.

However, I find discrimination in the employability status of students studying in different universities. It is the quality of education

6.

Private institutions are extending to rural parts of the nation.

The gap is getting bridged nowadays with new private institutions.

6. I don’t find discrimination .

Access to higher education is increased, standards are maintained and so on.

6.

The private universities must have a central role, a philanthropic role for commercial purpose.

Since such a role is lacking, there will be no basis for equity.

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