Privatisation of higher education dissertation proposal sample

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Is Market Driven Educational Model (Encouraging Privatisation in Higher Education) her Educ Good for India’s Future?

le Disser tation Samp

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Abstract This pap paper a er examines the need fo ap fforr encour encouraging u aging market driven hig ur higher her education high higher her education model in India. In this context, the present study is fo ffocussed cussed on n privatisation in tthe

Methods- The present study is a qualitative research conducted with former vice chancellors, Education Karnataka fformer fo orrmer Higher Edu uuca cation Minister, State of Ka arnataka and the aadministrators of private and public education pub p ublic ub b higher educ caatttion institutions. institutions

bee imp b improved. m roved mp d. Majo Majority ajority of ajo of parti pparticipants cipants belo belonging ong ngingg to pub ng public u lic higherr education ub n inst institutions titu utions state stated ted ed significance privatisation educational thee significan nce n ce of privat ttiiisa saationn in the educa cational sector. ca sector

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Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Table ............................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 6 1.0 Background ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Research Objectives ....................................................................................................... 10 ........11 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................

11 1.4 Scope of the study .......................................................................................................... 11 ............................... ..............11 1.5 Chapter scheme ..............................................................................................................

11 ............................... ............... 12 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ ............................... ..................12 ................. 12 2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education .................................................. ......................................... 13 2.1 Defining the terms .......................................................................................................... on.......................... 15 2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, Privatisation and G Globalisation...........................

2.3 Privatisation in the educational sector ............................................................... ............................................................................ 16 2.4 Privatisation of higher education in Globall con context ............................... ....................................................... 18 onal sector ector ...............................

2.5 Privatisation in the Indian educational ................................................................ 21 n pprivatisation riv atio off Hig 2.6 Indian government policies on Higherr educa education ................................. 25 n Ind 2.7 Issues in Privatisation of higher educatio education in India ....................................................... 29 cat n............................... ..................................................................... 30 2.8 Need for Privatisation inn higher eeducation my of hig on in IIndia ............................................................. 31 2.9 Political economy higher educ education ous stu ............................... ................................

2.10 Previous studies............................................................................................................33 ch hG ap............................... ...............................

2.11 Research Gap................................................................................................................

35 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH H MET ME METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 36 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 36 3.1 Research design .............................................................................................................. 36 3.2 Research philosophy ...................................................................................................... 37 Page 3 of 82

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3.3 Research Approach ........................................................................................................ 37 3.4 Target population and sample size ................................................................................. 38 3.4.1 Sampling technique ................................................................................................. 39 3.5 Data collection................................................................................................................ 40 3.5.1 Data collection methods .......................................................................................... 40 3.5.2 Interviews in educational research .......................................................................... 40 3.5.3 Procedures for preparing for the interviews ............................................................ 40 3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews ....................................................................... 41 ................................41 3.6 Analysis of the interview................................................................................................

41 ........................ 42 3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ ...............................

43 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ....................................................................................................... ............................... ................... 43 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... .................................................... 43 4.1 Participants ..................................................................................................................... nt in India ................................

4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development .................................... 46 gher education institutions ions ...............

4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher ................ 48 4.4 Views of Indian Government on privatisation ion ............................... ............................................................... 50 ...............................

4.5 Encouraging privatisation in India ............................... .................................................................................

52 an rds oof higher igher education ducation in India ............................ 54 4.6 Private Universities and high standards ning eq y and accessibility li ........................................ 56 4.7 Role of privatisation in maintaining equity N AN A D CONCLUSION NCLUSION ...............................

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND ............................................................. 58 sation towards rds ssatiating tiating tthe ever-growing v 5.0 Role of privatisation need for higher education in ...............................

India............................... ......................................................................................................................................

58 n in Indian hig higher h education ........................................................ 61 5.1 Effects of pprivatisation ntal regulatio ns an 5.2 Governmental regulations and privatisation .................................................................. 62 tion and privatisation .................................................................. 64 5.3 Governmental regulations 5.4 Implications .................................................................................................................... 64 5.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 66 Page 4 of 82

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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 68 Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 82

List of Table Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions ................................................................................................................................ 39

List of Figures Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate ...................................................................... ............................... ...... 7 Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in Higher Education in Selected Asian elec n Economies, 2002–2009 ............................................................................................................ ............................... ........... 20 Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided and government ment hhigher her education cation institutions in India (State-wise) .............................................................................................. ............................... ............................. 22 Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, private unaided an and government higher educa education ment high institutions in India (total) ........................................................................................................

23 ............................... ...............................

Figure 5: Procedure to establish a private university ............................................................... 28 y ...............................

Figure 6: Participants in the study ................................ ...........................................................................................

45 ................................

Figure 7: Word cloud of Role of privatisation higher edu education develop development in India ...... 47 sation iin high Figure 8: Word cloud of Perceptions ns of stak stakeholders lde towards wards ch choosing higher education institutions ................................................................................................................................

49 ............................... ...............................................................

Figure 9: Word cloud of Views Government ws of Indian nG overn nt on privatisation ................................. 51 Figure 10: Word Cloud of Encouraging privatisation u aging pr ur vatisation iin India ................................................ 52 Figure 11: Word Cloud Private Un Universities ud of P rsities and high standards of higher education in India ............................... .........................................................................................................................................

54 ...............................

Figure 12: Word in maintaining equity and accessibility ....... 56 rd Cloud of Role ole of pprivatisation vatis Figure 13: Estimated ted 18-23 year yea ear oold population in India- 2030 .............................................. 59

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background g

work, at communities and so on. To satiate the ever increasing need for education and knowledge empowerment, educational institutions all around the world evolve continuously.

In a global context, higher education is under constant pressure with the following g requirements- to meet the expectations of education, increase student enrolment, increase rease workforce needs of the nation which in turn affects economic development pos positively ly (Educause, 2010). To meet tthe h needs of hig he igh her education, developed and d d developing ping higher embracing countries have begun embracin ng the concept o off ‘Privatisation’. Privatisation ion is de defined as the e

expansion of private control over public good ‘education’’((Jonaki Jon & Prasenjit, enj n it, 2016) nj 2016).

Though it is claimed that privatisation has its role higher le in hig igh h education all over the world, factors such as globalisation and liberalisation havee co combined lisat d effects on higher education (Vlk, 2006). Over the past decades, private ecades, pri ate higher education ducatio in the world has witnessed remarkable progress with mo more than 30 per centt of privat private enrolment globally. By cat the year 2012, the number of student enrolm enrolmentt in hig higher education institutions reached 196 million whereas the same in the he yyear 2000 was jjust belo below 100 million (Kassim et al., 2015).

Private education has been in existence inn m many ny ccountries t for years and d is the traditionall

70% private enrolment olment and almost lmo half the student population in nations such as Brazil, Mexico, and Chile are educated ted under nd private higher education institutions (UNESCO, 2014).

The impact of private sector could also be envisioned in the eastern European as well as the ctor co African countries. Developing economies such as India and China are no longer an exception and embrace private sector higher education. Researchers argue that privatisation in the Page 6 of 82

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nations which include increasing technologically and practically empowered workforce (Rena, 2010).

Figure 1: World higher education enrolment rate

Higher education student enrolment rate 250 200 150 Number of students en (in millions)

100 50 0 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Source: Adopted from UNESCO (2016) n in Indi d pace aand the increase in The expansion of higher education India is in a rapid ns in India ndi disce progress of higher education institutions discernss th the growing knowledge try. Pri tor pl requirements of student population in the co country.

Private sector plays a predominant role in delivering knowledge to the you youth population ulation in the he ccountry. A dire need for professional education always exists in the coun country u try aand the participation un artic ti of private sector is deemed to be important.

Privatisation education more im mp rtant. Privati mport mp isattiioon in tthe hee Indian high higher er ed ducation sector has emerged in several types and Varghese, typ y es an yp nd fo fforms rms ov over the yyears ears (T ((Tilak Tiillak & V Varghese h ee, 1983 1983a). Privatisation takes place in the

purpose of profit are termed ermed commercial private higher education institutions. Private individuals play ownership role in setting up private universities, deemed universities and foreign collaboration universities (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016). The economic reforms which were implemented in the year 1991, led the nation to adopt several changes. Open markets Page 7 of 82

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eased state governments of the nation to set up private universities. According to the University Grants Commission (UGC), by the end of 2015, there were 43 central universities, 312 state universities, 115 deemed universities and 183 private universities in the country (Dhanuraj & Kumar, 2015).

The increase number of enrolment in private sector higher education institutions and the number of private institutions in India increasing every year positively define the success of privatisation in the higher education sector. Education in this regard is considered to be b a establish individual status tool to estab ta lish indiv tab vidual statu t s in thee community; hence the need fo tu fforr higher education ucatio is

developments (World Bank, 2000).

Several challenges necessitated the need for privatisation education on in the hhigher igh her ed du sector of India. Firstly, the population of students (age group: p: 15-35 years) ears) in the nation ion in the year 2010 was around 350 million and Altbach and Jay Jayaram (2010) predicted edicted that the numbers will peak at 485 million in 2030. The previous researchers argue that the viou res tremble education Government will tremb m le to meet the needs of high mb higher educat cation on only y w with pub public u lic sector ub meeting education needs numbers complicated institutions and mee eeting quality educ cation ne eeds fo fforr ssuch h hu hugee numb mbers mb ers iss a comp m licated task. mp

rural counterparts is 7.5 per cent. ent. Third Thirdly, y,, tthe qua quality of education delivered by public institutions is so poor which is attributed reasons such as lack of infrastructure, out-dated buted to reaso curriculum, less rese research inno innovations practical empowerment. Lack of skilled workforce ations and d pra emerging from ppublic institutions organisations to employ such candidates. utions demotivates emoti However, only a fe public higher education institutions such as Indian Institutes of ffew w pub u lic hig ub Technology (IITs) and Indian In Institutes of Management (IIMs) satisfy the needs of corporate it organisations by delivering quality manpower resources (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012). g qua Indian government (both state and central) suffer from serious monetary allocations to fund higher education which could be balanced through private sector. The enrolment of students Page 8 of 82

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in higher education institutions in India has grown phenomenally wherein the number of eenrolment ol e iss 25.9 5.9 million o in 2011-12 011 aand d thee sa 7 was 2 million o ((Ernst s samee in thee yea year 1970 1970-71 & Young, 2012) 2012).

012).

1. Resource allocation- The resources allocated by the state and central government to public higher education institutions does not facilitate the proper management of these institutions. On the contrary, private owners may fund considerable ble amount to maintain private institutions.

2. Sensitivity- Private sector institutions adopt changes flexibly whereas the same is not possible in public sector institutions.

3. Quality- Better quality of education is provided in private sector institutions stitu ons rrather than public sector institutions.

4. Accessibility- With more number of educational institutions, ution private ivate sector sserves to cater the educational needs of all citizens in India. dia 5. Reduced burden- Governments may concentrate ntrat allocating resources our u ces to other ur sectors (Patel, 2012).

Though it is claimed that privatisation role in higher on has its ts ro igher educa education all over the world, factors such as globalisation and libe liberalisation atio have combined m ine effects on higher mb education (Vlk, 2006). Globalisation has iimpacts education system of India. acts on tthe higher igher ed The reforms of education in India, especially with the liberal motives of the Government to ecially w allow private participation in the high higher edu education ation sector cto underline the perception of the government to enhance ce tthe utilisation ilisat on of iinfor information f m for mation technology resour resources u ces thereby ur

contrary, globalisation lisation wi will br bring development in education through technology, dge Du communication and knowledge.

Due to privatisation, the quality of education delivered becomes industry oriented d and the increase in globally acknowledged higher education institutions transforms India into a knowledge hub (Naik, 2015).

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Though privatisation in Indian higher education is a boon, many researchers claim that the advent of private sector in education sector tends to be hazardous as the equity to affected. educational access is aff ffec ff fected. A study by Chougle (2014) on understanding the perceptions

sector, the economically weaker sections may suffer. Other factors in the raking include fear of unethical practices or no ethics, commercialisation of education and lack of social commitment (Chougle, 2014). n in There are contradictory ideas regarding the feasibility of private sector participation ng role off the Indian higher education sector. Though different researchers claim the devastating pati The privatisation in the sector, the economy of the country necessitates such participation. ideologies on equity and accessibility are questioned since privatisation has both and oth positive osit negative effects on the factors. While private sector institutions aid in meeting evering the he ev growing demand for higher education in a highly student populous nation, nation the he ccost of economic acquiring private higher education is not within the reach of poor econ onom mic clas class who for fform a

education as feeble resources are allocated for high higher education cation purposes of the country.

These infe ferences act as the premise to the present fe esen study tudy which is based on the analysis of inferences participation Indian education private par rticipation in India an higher educa atioon sector. ctor Priva Privatisation n po poses both advantages

nation.

1.2 Research Obje Objectives es 1. To determine ine the eff effects ffec ff fec of pprivatisation in Indian higher education riv 2. To examine the role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing need for higher education in India 3. To analyse and interpret the perceptions of educational pioneers towards the market driven higher education market.

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1.3 Research Questions 1) What are the effects of privatisation in Indian higher education?

2) Does privatisation in Indian higher education satiate the ever-growing needs of student population in the country?

3) How do educational pioneers in India view privatisation of higher education?

1.4 Scope of the study The scope of the present study is bound within the limits of examining the effects of privatisation and market driven model in Indian higher education. Hence, the present study y focuses on the regulations regarding privatisation in different states of the country wherein in the laws are varying for each state in the nation.

1.5 Chapter scheme The first chapter covers the introduction of the study wherein the he backg background ound off the study, the research objectives and the scope are elucidated.

The second chapter is the literature review in whi which the knowledge wledge which h is previously discussed relevant to the present topic of the research he re ch will be identified ntifi and ings of various ious researchers who devised analysed. The chapter further elucidates the findings researches similar to the context of the presentt study. esea h met dol The diff The third chapter covers the research methodology. different methods of data collection, and the analysis techniques used w will be el elucidated following which the type of research methodology used in the present study explained he pres tudy will be exp x l xp The fourth chapter Different techniques are used to analyse the ter will cover the results. esults. Dif variables of the study. y The results of tthe study t dy will tu ll bbe analysed, examined and summarised.

The final chap chapter will bee dis discussions n and conclusions. The findings of the study will be discussed elaborately will be stated. Additionally, future studies in the ly aand d the cconclusions onc same context will be recommended. nde

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Encouraging privatisation in Indian Higher education The present chapter of the dissertation is dedicated to understanding the different literatures on the subject of privatisation of higher education and India since its independence in 1945. Ever since India attained the status as a ‘republic nation’, educ ation in the country is based on the principles of empowering the citizens of the nation and the responsibility of the state is to create an environment which enables all its citizens to be empowered. In this regard, the Government of India adopts strategies to maintain the growing population and increasing rate of youth through the creation of capacities. Over the years of development in the Indian educational sector, the Government is enlarging its capacities by investing more on enhancing the existing institutions. During the year 1950-51, there were arou around 28 universities and 578 colleges in the entire country while the scenario of today widened. ay is wi India is now the hub for a number of educational institutions, especially ins institutions ions satiating atiati higher education needs. In 2014, there were a total of 36,812 collegess (20,390 col colleges es private institutions and 6,768 public colleges) in the country which transforms h transf ms India as the knowledge spot for more than 20 million students enrolled d in these institutions titutions (Shankar, nka 2016). However over the last two decades, the need for skilled expertise kille labour and practical ical ex is increasing wherein companies demand for expertise, and skilled manpower. In rtis education cation an order to meet the growing needs for manpower iin an ever-evolving n eve ing economy, nom privatisation aids with complementing the public educational institutions.

Over the past decades, the factor onal in titu t ti s. O tu called ‘capacity creation’ is steered with private institut institutions. The emergence of ith tthe aid of pri higher education in India began in the mid-198 mid-1980s which is to subsidise the investment 0s w reduction of the Government and the states education. The share of the private tes towards war educa unaided institutes is 43 pe per cent in 2001 and tthe per percentage of students is 33 per cent.

However, the percentage rose aand in the year 2006, the percentage share of private n th institutions was 64 an and the per percentage students rose up to 52 per cent (Sudarshan & ntage off stu Subramanian, 2012).

012). ys been ee a hot topic of debate and the country has been Privatisation has always ugh in the beginning when privatisation is a part of the economic witnessing resistance. Though liberalisation scheme, the nation was dormant; however, much resistance arose when the intricacies in privatisation were found (Kapur & Ramamurti, 2002). However, previous Page 12 of 82

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researchers also argue the benefits of privatisation of Higher education in India wherein previous studies and reports claim privatisation in other developed and developed countries to be a great success. Feith (2012) projected the market for international higher education and claims that the demand for higher education will surpass China. The previous researcher argues that market driven policies can only meet the increasing demands of higher education in India. Hence, the present section intends to analyse the present status of privatization in a broad context envisioning the role of privatisation all over the world and its impact in the educational system. Further narrowing the topic towards the impact of privatisation in educational system of India, previous literatures pertaining to the context of the present study will be reviewed and analysed.

2.1 Defining the terms Privatisation Privatisation is the fundamental part of the public reforms and d is the core theme heme towards enhancing the efforts of the private sector. For most co countries the w world, es in th privatisation is the key to development in all aspects; however, the objectives the countrie countries ctive off th differ based on the capabilities and the need for privatisation Though the n in tthese companies. nies. Tho privatisation objectives of each country differ based on thee nee needs and capability, dep depending on the development and the social goals of the country, ntry, the following lowin factors are considered and the private sector should operate to serve the caus cause: improve efficiency, improve erve th ove eff ffi ff fici customer/ consumer choice, increased competition, mitigation public petit mit tion of pub u li debts and budget ub deficits, and extending the share ownership private sector. ship in the privat r. However, Ho all these factors he produ rod ivity and efficiency of a nation, thereby rodu on the whole should aid with enhancing the productivity acting as the growth engine of a nation’s economy & Mugume, 2001). onomy my m( ((Ddumba-Ssentamu (y yDd ba Furthermore, Privatisation defined tisation is also o de ed as the process of increasing the productivity and efficiency of the pr private sec sectorr there thereby the development of the private sector y fo ffostering s (Naya, 1990). However, in simple owe m le economic mp nom terms, privatisation is the transfer of the activities of the state to th private sec sector which occurs in partial or whole, or by the sales of tthee privat assets which is followed by liquidation (Ddumba-Ssentamu & Mugume, 2001). In terms of uid higher education in India, pri privatisation is the only feasible way to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER) of students in higher education wherein a minimum of 30 per cent GER could be achieved with the establishment of additional 800 universities and 40000 Page 13 of 82

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private colleges within 2020 (Gupta & Gupt, 2012). Hence, privatisation especially in higher education in Indian is seen to provide better accountability and quality of educational experience for the students therefore these institutions are more sought after for admission by students than government run institutions Liberalisation and privatisation Liberalisation is defined as the transformation of market structures which is facilitated by the responses of companies and new entrants into open/ free market. In a liberal economy, the shares of the market transform are liable to change rapidly, and the competitive scenarios between small and large scale firms determine the growth of this market, whether thee concentration will be more or less (Kambhampati & Kattuman, 2003). Over three decades, developed and developing economies have been witnessing privatisation of public blic sector services. The recommendations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and nd the he World Bank are towards the privatisation of public owned enterprises which is a suggestion ugg tion to increase revenue, enhance the health of public finance, increase thee prod productivity tivity and efficiency, thereby reducing the intervention of government (Megginson 2001). gginso & Netter, 2001) Among the different aims of privatisation of public enterprises ise and service services (Vil (Villalonga, longa 2000; Sheshinski, 2003), the predominant goal of privatisation efficiency sation is to increase the eff ffi ff fi and productivity of the economy (Kilicaslan et al., 2008).

Globalisation The process of Globalisation is still integrating till in stages tage off in ating the nations all across the globe and is related with the concepts of privatisati privatisation.

Following several changes in the pace on. Fol of technological developments, econo economic liberalisation, ber lisat and the importance of international laws, national economies are evolving continuously and globalisation has delivered these lving conti uou y an countries into a state of competition different before liberalisation in developed m etitio which mp hich iis very ery diff and developing economies. is not a sudden trend in the global onom The term ‘Globalisation’ G balis market. It is the sustainment of develo developmental usta nta activities in the economies of different nations and is still in its developmental Liberalisation of economic activities in a country velopmental stages. tag differs from one another with econ economic agents which are connected on marginal basis and are resistive towards failure in th the neighbourhood nations. Immediately after the post-World war-II period, the rapid growth in the developments of foreign trade is embraced by developed nation in the 1950s and 1960s; however, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in Page 14 of 82

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developing economies paved way for globalisation. Over the past two decades, trade and economic liberalisation improved the economies in the world, thereby integrating the world into a highly integrated system. Following are the three predominant features of globalisation steering the integration of global economies. i) Product internationalisation with changes in the production structure ii) International trade expansion iii) Expansion of international capital flows (Mrak, 2000).

The Article 25 of the Companies Registration Act defines the establishment of educational institutions in India which can only be set up by trusts and charitable tab a le ab organisations. However, the act lacks clarity about foreign universities setting up in India. dia.

The government of India is adopting liberalisation policies to allow foreign investors gn investo establishing private educational institutions in the nation (Amandeep, 2016) 2016). Sim Similar to the he studies by Kilicaslan et al., (2008) and Megginson & Netter, (2001), the government ernment oof India attempts to liberalise its policies on foreign investment and privatisation ion in order er tto improve m rove mp the economy.

2.2 Relationship between Liberalisation, Privatisation atisa and Globali Globalisation tion There is specifically a relationship existing ng between n the th three factors: Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG). Boubakrii et al. (2011) aargues es tthat there exists a relationship between liberalisation and globalisation, The researcher argues lobali tion, and nd pprivatisation. ion. T that privatisation has profound effects globalisation increasing the participation of ects on glob isa as incre private sector in foreign investmentss there thereby pro promoting capital inflow, technology and management skills of the company. globalisation m any Since mp ce global tion turns the market environment more P growth h is also enh ed. In the same context, Goyal (2006) competitive, the GDP enhanced. investigated the role off globalis globalisation on developing elopi countries with special reference to India.

Over the years, societies rs, the integration gra of so ietie and economies has been a debatable topic.

Developing economies like China and Indi India witnessed tremendous growth after adopting the ono model of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation and the rate of poverty in these isation Priv tisat nations declined steadily (LPG (LPG). However, globalisation has been controversial since a number of oppositions internationally were generated based on inequality and degradation of environment. This necessitated the study of impacts of globalisation in developing nations from the perspectives of FDI. After the foreign exchange crunch which dragged the economy Page 15 of 82

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to loan defaults, India opened up its market in the early 1990s. As a response to the economic liberalisation, a number of foreign investment companies established their businesses in the nation. The policy changes invoked a more open market economy. Goyal (2006) further argues that the Government of India should analyse the best opportunities within the globalisation and privatisation schemes since the target of the world is towards developing countries such as India and China. The US and the countries of Europe are defined economies, hence economic experts argue that India and China may overtake the US and European countries thereby becoming a major economic power in the forthcoming decade (Goyal, 2006). The technological revolution which is coupled with the processes of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) has transformed knowledge as the he key basis for nations to compete in the global environment. The emergence of the knowledge ledg based society has further accomplished several economic benefits of developed aand d developing countries for which researchers claim the reason to be the LPG G model. odel Education tion and globalisation are mutually dependent terms. Globalisation is the process imparting ces of im efficiency and competitiveness and in the educational sector, it me meanss tr ttransforming sforming knowledge into an ‘accessible to all’ resource(Rani, 2010) . Ray (2015) states that with the new policy reforms associated with the liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation schemes, vat d globalis n sch the science and technology wing of India has witness ness rapid growth, enabling nabling increased enrolment in higher education thereby increasing the knowledg knowledge base for IT and skilled labour force.

According to Gautam et al. (2015) (2015), thee L LPG G mod model has iinfluenced almost all the sectors in India and the higher education exception. The Government of cation wing ng is no longer an ex India claims privatisation as the mostt fe ffeasible asib mode to satiate the growing need for higher education in India. This will be re reflected the fo sections wherein the role of cted in th ffollowing l privatisation in educational developed cation sector or both in dev oped and developing countries are elucidated following which the context LPG Indian ntext of L G in In n hhigher education is expatiated.

2.3 Privatisation sat in the he edu educational tion sector In broad terms, privatisation ivat at in the educational sector is referred to as the policies which promote liberalisation sation and deregulation thereby establishing a market in education or creation of a competitive environment between private and public education providers (Lubienski, 2006). Different countries identify privatisation to increase the efficiency of the educational system in two ways.

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i. Delivering education to the inaccessible communities ii. Improving the quality of education thereby nurturing competition Though the governing bodies of countries view education as a public good to the population, privatisation of the education sector enables the equilibrium between the education provider and the choice of the consumer. In a private institution, the type of product offered and the fee for these products are fixed by the private education providers. In a privatised educational setup, the consumers of the education as good (parents and students) will possess the option to decide the type of education and the charge that they wish to spend.

Instead of standardising education through free state education, private owners feel the need to satisfy the educational needs of the consumers. Additionally, the profit motives are set bby these private education providers. An implication of privatisation is that there re will be a remarkable growth in the generation of quality assurance and national assessment systems sm tems which seek to enhance the information quality thereby creating better choices oices for or cconsumers (Benveniste, 2002).

Privatisation in the educational sector is unfolded in three ways. The three ways are: ee way hree way i. Outsourcing state specific activities and operations ations to private education cation n pro providers. ii. The introduction of self-regulatory and market-based regulations which ket-ba d re hich forms the deregulation of the education sector iii. Provisions for educational institutions which utions w hich aare either fu ffunded unded bby the state with the un regulations of the public or independently. depe ntly All the aforementioned approaches roaches could uld be considered either simultaneously or balancing each other or may ev even on n one oof the he tthree modes. Some approaches are independent; howeverr ssome complement each othe other. For instance, the emergence of more omp m lement eac mp private educational institutions the same titu t tions and at th tu ame time these institutions offering more choices for enrolment in the these institutions. titu t tu ns. In developed velope countries, privatisation of education sector is encouraged for the growth of ed education or th n in these countries. These countries offer vouchers to encourage studentt en enrolment lment in pprivate institutions, and tax credits to parents (Belfield & Levin, 2002). However, this his iis not feasible as in the case of developing countries wherein there will be no possibility li for the Government to fund and encourage private education which limits the philanthropic scope of privatisation in developing countries (Pedró et al., 2015).

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The Global education 20/20 report (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009) claims the role of private sector in education. In this regard, 211 respondents were surveyed wherein 123 respondents belonged to the private sector companies and 88 from educational sector. The survey was conducted by Economist Intelligence Unit in February 2009 which discerned the role played by the private sector and analysed whether the same regulates positively or negatively the traditional education. The survey covered questions regarding the importance of privatisation in the educational sector wherein 70 per cent of the respondents revealed such privatisation to be important. However, the role of the private sector varies from country to country. The survey further revealed the success of voucher-system wherein the system increases the performance of the schools (The Economist, 2007). In Sweden, higher education for students belonging to the EU nations and Switzerland is provided free of cost which is facilitated by tax revenue (Swedish Institute, 2013). In Portugal, the United Stat States and Japan, private institutions are funded by the state and mostly servee as not not-for profit ft fi organisations. In Japan, around 77 per cent enrolled in private institutions deli delivering ring higher education (Varghese, 2012). However, not all countries allow the privatisation atisati of eeducational cational sector, and not all corporations aspire to do so. The report further emergence of ther rreveals eals the emerg private corporations taking care of the education sector all around the he world. Based sed oon the results of the survey, it is deemed that privatisation in the education sector is imp important since m o mp the idea of the respondents is privatisation brings betterr educatio education (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009).

2.4 Privatisation of higher education tion in Glo Global al co context xt A shining example of a well-established ll-establ a hed ssystem of higher education that is both abl qualitative, diversified and available society is the one prevailing in the U.S. vailab a l to all ab ll ssections ction off so The private sector is a major contributo contributor to thee sy system at various levels. But the private sector's role is generally limited man management ally lim ement and philanthropy. Though there is great ng un ties and d coll es, tthe fees of students constitute lesser than 50% of diversity among universities colleges, the total capital operating co costs. Donations, royalties, research grants, licensing, al bbudget and oper and auxiliary services ices account for f the remaining (Sunder, 2010). for inst Many nations (for instance, the United States) have a chequered past of development of the private sector. In most of the other nations (for instance, Latin American nations), the private sector came on the scene more than five decades ago but significant growth was achieved during the very end of the 20th century. In various regions of the world (for Page 18 of 82

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instance, African and post-communist European nations), the private education sector is relatively new. Proprietary institutions, for-profit and non-profit organisations comprise the private sector. Institutions that are proprietary —characterised by profit-seeking behaviour and driven by the market driven, with centralized and business like management systems, in addition to a weak academic culture—can be defined as the pure form of privatization (Holzhacker et al., 2009). In the United States there have been many private, not for profit higher education institutions for many years like Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology etc. On the other hand, the University of Phoenix in the U.S. is private and for profit. There are many private providers in the UK higher education which function on a not for profit basis (Shankar, 2016).

The share of higher education in the entire world accounts to 31 per cent with the he highest share of 35 per cent of students enrolled in the private higher education ins institutionss of Asia and the pacific. About 50 per cent of the institutions in most of the regions Asia and gio of A the pacific belong to the private sector. When compared with the number m er of enrolment mb nrol ent in the public institutions, the growth of enrolments in the private education cati sector ector is phenomenal. hen nal Countries all across Asia enacted regulations and policies to managee priv privatee higher educa education institutions; however the issues based on quality of educa education, the equitability towards quitab a il ab education access and the affordability of students towards are rds ppaying ng for private institutions nstit challenging for developing countries (Asian Development Bank, elop ank, 22012).

Three stages of private sector emergence ergen into the he ed educational al se sector are elucidated by Geiger (1986). The three stages are perip peripheral public and private education eral pprivate, vat parallel rallel pub u ub sectors and the extensive private higher education her edu tion sector. In the peripheral private stage, a country’s public higher education and the role of private higher ucatio sector cto will dominate omin education institutions will be peripheral. eripheral. Developing countries normally adopt the peripheral private model where the coun countries are deeply eeply rooted in socialistic principles. Developing countries such as Vi Viet Nam Central m aand d the C tral Asian republics fall into this category. Secondly, the parallel public higher edu education sectors are a reflection of higher education u li and private ub ate hig institutions operating parallel.

The examples of countries adopting such system are Hong ting in paral el. T Kong, China, Malaysia, and Th Thailand (Chealy, 2006). Thirdly, the extensive private higher education sector is the combination of more number of private educational institutions and omb m i mb the high degree of enrolment in private higher education institutions. The Republic of Korea and Japan are the leading countries with high share of private higher education enrolment in Page 19 of 82

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the East Asia (more than 77 per cent of enrolment shares and 90 per cent of institutional shares), following which Indonesia and Philippines with 70.9 per cent and 60.9 per cent shares in private higher education enrolment and 97.3% and 72.2% shares in private institutional number respectively (Asian Development Bank, 2012).

Figure 2: Private Enrollment and Institutional Share in Higher Education in Selected Asian Economies, 2002–2009 120

Percentage

100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.0 0

Private percentage of tot total higher education cation enrollment nt Private percentage tag off total Higher er edu education on ins institutions tutions

Source: Adopted from Asian Development Bank (2012) n De ment Ban From Figure 1, it is evident number of private educational institutions and the nt that the num share of private higher educatio education enrolment nrolm t in India are somewhat not in line with the developments of oth other countries.

India is the second populous country, the number of ntrie Though Ind enrolments is lower than thee ot other Asian nations such as China, Phillipines and Korea. ment Rat However, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for higher education (in general to both public and private sector institutions) utions) hhas doubled over the decade wherein the GER is 9 per cent in the year 2002-03 and the same is 24 per cent in 2013-14. Shankar (2016) relates such enrolment to be associated with the emergence of private higher education institutions which remarkably increased the higher education enrolment rate of students.

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2.5 Privatisation in the Indian educational sector Despite the fact that many nations including the United States view private sector as philanthropic, the same cannot be stated in the context of India. In sharp contrast to the definition, genuine not-for-profit colleges or educational institutions in India obtain nearly 100% of their total income from fees collected from students, since income from other avenues is less. Whereas in educational institutions/colleges that are set up as for-profit; either by overt admission or discreet actions; the total fees collected from students is enough to cater to all the overheads and also generate a return on investment. Since very little benefits are available for innovation, research, and doctoral education, the financial model del comes in the way of improving the quality of education that has been provided by institutions tions comprising a major part of the increase in admissions (Sunder, 2010). uca n ssystem is In terms of number of students, the Indian ranking in higher education dia iis that number three, behind China and the United States. However, the advantage in IIndia search. Comparatively m mp tively English has primacy as the main language for higher education and research.

China. The 11 per cent of India youth complete higher education against 20 pe per cent in China important governing body with overall regulatory controll of universities ties is the University niver Grants Commission (India), which ensures compliance of sstandards, acts as an advisor to the n advi government, and liaises between the centre an and states.

Higher learning in India is tes. High accomplished through Universities and constituent As on 2011, around 227 ent colleges. A n 201 Universities are available in India that is reco recognised the Government nised by th nmen which includes 11 Open universities, 109 deemed Universities, Central ersiti 20 C ntra varsities sities and 87 state universities. A majority of the varsities in India have colleges olleges affiliated ffi ff filiat to them where undergraduate courses are conducted (Singh, 2009).

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Figure 3: Total number of Private aided, unaided and government higher education institutions in India (State-wise)

All India West Bengal Uttrakhand Uttar Pradesh Tripura Telangana Tamil Nadu Sikkim Rajasthan Punjab Puducherry Odisha Nagaland Mizoram Meghalaya Manipur Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Kerala Karnataka Jharkhand Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Haryana Gujarat Goa Delhi Daman & Diu Dadra & Nagar Haveli Chhatisgarh Chandigarh Bihar Assam Arunachal Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andaman & Nicobar Islands 0

50 5000

total otal total al pr privatee Private te un unaided d

10000 1000

15000 1

20000 2

25000

30000

35000

g government ment private aided priv

Source: Adopted from Minist Ministry of Human Resource Development (2015) Elementary and secondary education is imparted in schools in India, while the third level i.e. higher education is provided in colleges and universities. The education sector has Page 22 of 82

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two types of providers - private and public. Private institutions are classified into two types aided (partly bankrolled by the government) or unaided (self-funded). Public institutions are setup, bankrolled and entirely managed by the concerned department of the government.

Whenever the government's efforts to impart education in a manner so as to be accessible to all, falls short of the planned target, the private sector steps in to fill the gaps. The generally accepted norms is that motivation for the private sector is profit, however, when the private sector is involved in education, profit should not be the driving force. Experts opine that particular private sector players in the education sector lower the standards of education as they do not adhere to the laid down norms, and preclude certain categories of students due to the inexorbitant fee structure. But, the contrary view held by few experts is that private sector ctor involvement is a necessity to improve quality with added investment, to encourage ge competition in higher education (Shankar, 2016). rnm nt higher Figure 4: Total number of Private aided, private unaided and government education institutions in India (total) Indian Higher education colleges

Private Un-Aided Priv n-Aid Private vate aided Government Gove

Source: Adopted from Mini Ministry Development (2015) try of Human man Resource so Despite the progress made in ed education after decades of independence, higher education in India requires to perfo perform better in the crucial areas of Access, Equity and Quality. Sudarshan & Subramanian, ani (2012) are of the view that imparting qualitative, higher education that matches global bal standards at a reasonable cost is one of the most important issues before the nation. They further state that if India does not take appropriate steps on a war footing, then the situation would turn grim wherein a large number of youngsters would Page 23 of 82

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be looking for higher education and the system will be unable to accommodate all of them.

People in the age group of 15-35 years estimated in the year 2010 to be more than 350 million, is projected to peak at around 485 million in 2030 (Altbach & Jayaram, 2010). To complicate matters further, the higher education Gross Enrolment Rations (GERs) shows disparity among states, urban areas, rural areas, gender and communities. As per statistics of Ernst and Young (2009), urban areas have a GER of 23.8 per cent whereas in rural areas it is a dismal 7.5 per cent. Delhi has a GER of 31.9 per cent while Assam is at the bottom rung with 8.3 per cent. The rich–poor and the rural–urban gap witnessed in India has serious detrimental effects. The best way to narrow the gap would have been to utilise education to bridge the divide. But, as can be witnessed from the statistics, the disparities are pronounced ed when it comes to uniform access to education to all, which only ends up highlighting the he divisions seen in society. The main reasons for the sorry state of affairs is an n outdated curriculum, undue emphasis on theory, diluted focus on research and so sociall ssciences, indifferent attitude towards innovation, low morale and lack of motivation among teachers mon teac and researchers and the lack of a proper monitoring and regulatory mechanism. echani Th Therefore, fore, when the National Association of Software and Service Companies, ies, (2005) tabled the facts that only 25 per cent technical and 10 per cent non-technical al ggraduates were of employable ployab standards, it was not far from the truth. One more fact ct in support of this report was the practice in most companies that recruited fresh graduates, tra trained ned them to bridge the gap t tu ut pa between the requirements of the industry and the actu actual output passing oout of educational o the indust y po o the di institutions. This was done at heavy cost to industry, pointing to disconnect between education industry standards.

It is not feasible for the ggovernment cater to al all the higher educational requirements nt to cat of India. This could be becausee the all allocated on higher education as a ted public u li expenditure ub xpe percentage of Gross Domestic mesti Product uct (GDP) is a mere re 0.6 per cent (Ernst & Young, 2009a); this is quite lower than what deve developed ed nnations ns like the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK) and C China allocate basis. In order to fulfil the demanding lloc te on a pper-student r-s needs of a dynamic economy, pri private entities have established institutions to supplement mic economy public educational institutions tha that ar are beset with problems of meeting capacity. Professional or higher educational courses ses like engineering and Master of Business Administration (MBA) has attracted a lot of privatisation efforts, constituting a majority of the total courses on offer.

The courses and institutes of private sector in pharmacy and engineering are a staggering 90 percent of the total institutes and courses. The data is ample proof that private enterprise in Page 24 of 82

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education is now a vital part of the education scenario which cannot be reversed. Critics who hold the view that education is a social necessity best handled solely by the Government will be unable to offer a solution to the challenges faced by higher education, in the context of the scale and complex nature, which cannot be handled by the government alone with the resources at disposal(Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

Reformist policies of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (ins short - LPG) ushered in sweeping changes resulting in the emergence of India as a powerhouse of educated manpower with more than thirty thousand institutions imparting education to around twenty million enrolled students (Gautam et al., 2015). Since then, the government has attempted d investments to increase capacity and to improve the existing infrastructure. The time has come to credit the private sector with the supporting and at times leading role played the yed in th phenomenal success in higher education in India, since a vast majority of students aree ud presently undergoing courses in private institutions.

With the Government of India, UGC and AICTE welcoming private enterprise ate ent rise in the education domain, high and sustained growth can be predicted. The ggovernment rnment need needs to encourage privatization of higher education by concentrating ing on the qualitative ualita ive aspect ect of colleges. Visible changes are observed in higher education perception of ion in India, and the percept private sector participation has changed from one off suspicion n to an aaccepted and appreciated facet. The Program of Action, 1992 and the National Policy of Edu Education al Po on ((NPE), 1986 are policies that control higher education in its present ts pr ent form. orm. The National tional Policy of higher education in India was framed on the basis Radhakrishnan Commission Report (1948‐ asis of the R dha hnan Com 1949) and the Kothari Commission Report (1964‐1966) rt (1964 1966) (Partima & Singh, 2014).

2.6 Indian government policies licies on priv privatisation isat n of Higher education The augmentation of higher education ucati has been viewed sceptically and the rationale ned vviewed d in thee conte has been questioned, contextt of related academic and social costs. However, the government is refu refusing its earlier assurance, considered as the fulfilment of f fu g tto budge udge from it nationalist ideals and as an intrinsic ntrin ic ppart of its fundamental responsibility as a welfare state.

View prudently, government reco recognition of the people's desire for higher education means that restricting access would be detrimental. This is also influenced to a large extent by the desire to have enrolments comparable to that in North America and Europe. This desire is lent support by the repeated reports of World Bank that highlight the benefits of higher Page 25 of 82

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education. It also conforms to the government view that by enhancing profile of its populace, the disillusionment in society as a result of underemployment and unemployment can be contained. But, in the face of public demand and the pressures of politics seeking the accomplishment of standardisation of primary school education (which should have been achieved before the end of the Second Five Year Plan, in the year 1961), the government has concluded that continuation of subsidisation of higher education which has been the practice for last 5 decades is no longer tenable. Simultaneously, one segment of the population can afford prohibitive costs of higher education facilities offered by a few private institutions and by foreign universities. Hence, the government is regarding privatization. But, it is apprehensive on two counts. The first and foremost is that there would be disparity among ng those can afford to pay more and those who would not be able to afford. The second is thatt commercialisation of higher education could progress to a level where it transforms itself into one that is entirely market driven.

Hence, the government intends to extend the system that is in practice many state states actic in man for the last ten years. A vast number of institutions of higher education tio havee been eestablished tab a l ab d and managed by private entities. A sizeable proportion of such institutes utes aare run with fu ffunds n from the government, classified as “aided” and these funds take care off maint maintenance and operational costs. Irrespective of their status as aided or unaided, private institutions without naide priv ns w exception charge fees identical in structure and Additionally, in all matters d aamount. Addi pertaining to administration and academics, all inst institutes utes are regulated gulated by tthe rules of the government and university. In accordance wit with thee sy system em ffollowed wed in a few states, as mentioned earlier, a chosen few and new private unaided institutions w priva tions are permitted to fix a fee structure that is substantially higher than others. B But, the fee structure can be fixed only after approval by the appropriate authority thority in government. ove men The chosen institutions are granted leeway in certain matters administration.

However, overall, they are ters ppertaining ning to adm tra administered in similar manner as other It is inappropriate that India is her institutions. titu t tu contemplating acceptance of this privatization; where flexibility, space, and academic cept his type y e of pri yp ati liberty for the progress gress of kn kknowledge, o ledg quality and relevance are not encouraged, but stifled (P. G. Altbach & P. M. Petersoneds. ned , 1999).

Privatisation of higher her education in India takes several forms (Tilak & Varghese, 1983b): i. Government introduces self-financing courses within the public institutions Page 26 of 82

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ii. Public government institutions converted into private institutions iii. Government allows self-financing private institutions with and without recognition/ allowing commercial education institutions The feasible form for private players in the field of education is to engage in the establishment of private universities, deemed universities and academic institutions (Jonaki & Prasenjit, 2016).

Establishment of private universities A university should be a trust or society. It should not be an entity for profit or it should not be run by a trust for profit. There are two ways to establish a private university. rsity It can either be set up by an Act of Parliament (central university) or by an Act of a state te legislature (state university). Till today no private university has been set up Act of p by an A Parliament. In the other method a university is being declared a deemed uni university. y. T There ere aare currently 229 privately managed universities in India. Different states may hav have dif different nt land norms and other procedure for setting up a private university. The analysis laws he ana is of such la in the states such as Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat shows that these requirements at sh hese requ ment are more or less similar across states (Shankar, 2016).

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Figure 5: Procedure to establish a private university

• Project report/proposal with five years expected cash flow Statement, Letter of Intent and Initial sum of money submitted to the Government.

Project report or Proposal

Setting up the University

• Proposal Contains: Objectives of the University, types of Programmes of study, deed of the Institution (Which is a Trust/Society/Non-Profit entity under Section 25 of the Companies Act, or is being run by one), fee Structure, admissions format Composition details of board of Governors, Availability of academic research and Training facilities, building plan and land deed, etc.

• Once the Proposal is Approved, the State Government Tables the Bill of the Establishment of the Private University, for Passage by the State Legislature.

• The university shall maintain standards as prescribed by the relevant regulator (UGC, Except in the case oof technical, professional courses: AICTE or other councils).

Regulation

• It shall get accredited by a body such as the National Assessment and Accreditation Council, within hin a Stipulated pulate Period of Time.

Source: Adopted from (Shankar, 2016) Regulations The UGC reserves the powers regarding recognition, and derding the he re on, functioning nctio recognition of deemed universities. It also ha has thee po powers ers tto distribute stribut grants to other universities for their maintenance and deve development and regulating men an ulating fees charged by the universities. If colleges or universities fail to comp comply m mp with UGC standards their grants may be withdrawn or their affiliation may terminated. actions will be taken of a y be term ted Such disciplinary scip college or university does other regulations (University Grants es not comply m ly with ffee oth mp Commission, 2002). Private universi universities whic which offer ffe ff fer technical courses like engineering, town planning, management ment aand which hich receive eceive ffunds nds from AICTE should adhere to its academic standards and regulations (MHRD, latio (MH D, 201 2016). nd ti In order to give recommendations on building a knowledge base in India the National KC) w Knowledge Commission (NKC) was set up in 2005. The reforms required in the education sector were also considered while setting it up. Educational institutions for profit were not encouraged by NKC. 3 In 2008 the Yashpal committee was set up in order to recommend changes in the higher education sector. The important suggestion of the committee was that Page 28 of 82

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higher education should not get fascinated by the motive of profit. 4 Both NKC and Yashpal committee recommended private investment in higher education to extend educational opportunities. It is further discussed in detail with regard to the issue of access under fee structures.

Private providers always have a profit motive associated with them. The Supreme Court of India, lately, interpreted that the nature of educational institutions to be charitable and not for profit. Hence, by providing education supernormal or illegal profits cannot be made. If surplus revenue is generated it should be used for expansion of the institution and for education development.

2.7 Issues in Privatisation of higher education in India The major developments in the higher education wing of Indian education cat sector tor started in the early 1990s with the laws enacted to enable open/ free market. ket. Tilak (1999) states that there is a need for higher education to be privatised and the publi public funding such ndin for f su education should be reduced. The Government of India in the yea year 1997 distinguis distinguished the two categories of education in India- elementary education rit-good’ (Musgrave, n as ‘me good (Mu ave, 1959) and ‘higher education’ as non-merit good. However, thee Mi Ministry of Finance classified higher ce classif education as a ‘merit II good’ and which needs no subsidisation ubsid satio as the same level as the ‘merit good’. duca had always lway been en con In India, privatisation of higher education controversial. In the year cial court in the country banned ‘Capitation 1992, the Supreme Court which is thee high highestt jud judicial f Howe fa fee colleges’ stating that charging fee is unfa unfair.

However, the court reversed the judgement in ese colleg d be named med self-financing colleges. This led to the year 1993 stating that these colleges cou could the emergence of private capitation fe ate self-financing ancing capitati ffeee colleges all across the country and the proliferation led to moree numb number private instit institutions established in the nation. It is evident m er of priva mb in the states of A Andhra Pr Pradesh and Ka Karnataka that the number of private colleges esh an (engineering and management) the public educational institutions. In recent nd m ag nt) outnumbers b years, the number off private institutions and the enrolment of students in these te eeducational duca institutions have increased whe wherein the share of private enrolment in 2000-01 is 32.89 per cent and the share rose up to 58.5 per cent in 2011-12 (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). During the 11th plan, India witnessed a predominant growth in the number of private institutions wherein the number of private state universities is 98, 17 private deemed universities and 3581 private Page 29 of 82

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diploma institutions and 7818 private colleges. Even the number of private arts and science colleges has increased in the recent years (Jahan & Selvarani, 2015). However, such enormous proliferation rate in the number of private institutes poses serious doubts on the quality of education rendered by these institutes (Kaul, 2006). Aleem et al. (2016) claims that commercialisation and privatisation in higher education will pose serious threats to the development of human resources in two ways- expensive cost of education leading to unequal deliverance of education, and determination of education priorities. While privatisation in education sector have been allowed in countries like China and Singapore with flourishing higher education stats, the same should be feasible even in the Indian context which is the premise of the present study.

2.8 Need for Privatisation in higher education There are several requirements, which could be mapped with the privatisation riva of higher education in India. Less than 1 per cent of the nation’s GDP P is funded nded byy the centrall government of India for education. The capacity building strategies government g off the go ernm t could not satiate the needs of higher education in the nation. By the year 2013 2013, the num number of he yea students enrolled for higher education is 14.6 million n an and the FICCI-E&Y CCI-E&Y report rt FICCI (2011) states that in order to achieve 30 per cent GER R in tthe forthcoming decade, cade, the country would require building a capacity of 25 million seats. However, n se wever predicting the extra capacity building cost, by 2020, an additional 10 lakh crores rupees) will be required for the h cr es (in Indian rup u e ) wil up government with a funding requirement of R Rs. 4 lakh lakhs per seat. In the current Indian context, such allocation of resources for higher would bee infe infeasible.

Hence, private sectors gher eeducation catio wo f as fe play a vital role in bridging the gap betwee between the rrequirement and the budget. The positive contribution of private sector players towards higherr ed education is evident from the success of or playe wards hig economies like Japan,, tthe US and Malaysia. Thee G GER of the US increased from 71 per cent in 1999 to 83 per cent in 2008 whereas Japan, reas in Jap a an the rate increased from 45 per cent to 58 per ap ysia tthe ratee in ased fr m 228 per cent to 32 per cent (Tiwari et al., 2013). cent. In Malaysia, increased from ia Liberalisa ion, Globalisation and Privatisation play significant role in In India, Liberalisation, ndia co improving the quality of India corporates. The economic reformation allows foreign players by cre into the nation, thereby creating a competitive environment between the foreign private players and the indigenous players. The low cost of living and India being the large English speaking base next to the US enable the country to act as the higher education hub in the Asian continent (Tiwari et al., 2013).

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While researchers argued several needs for privatisation in the education sector, Jonaki and Prasenjit (2016) combines all the need factors which are as follows: i. Increasing the efficiency of the public sector by enabling competition ii. With the rapid growth in the population, the country’s ever -growing needs for education could be satiated with the aid of private sector institutions. iii. While Government funds were considerably allocated to the higher education wing, private sector institutions may reduce the financial burden on the government. iv. Reducing the decentralisation of educational institutions v. Improved quality of education and training which aids in nurturing g youth of tthe nation thereby sufficing the local, national and global manpower ne needs. s. vi. need for skilled and expertise man-power is increasing day by day day. Since the country adopts the LPG model (Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation), sa nd Glob lisa ) the global needs for manpower should also be met vii. Facilitation of technological developments and nd eeconomic developments ents in India.

With the new economic policies (LPG policies) that emerged in the early 1990s G pol (Tilak, 2009), privatisation has been given predominant However, privatisation en predo inan importance. tance. Ho has affected the poor communities in India drastically asti ly si since ce th there is an inequity in the deliverance of education across all the levels of the so society and he lev nd tthe openness and diversity of the knowledge providers are qquestioned includes the quality and price of the product ed which includ (education and knowledge) (Jonaki & Prasenjit, sen t 2016) 2016).

2.9 Political economy my of h higher her ed education cati in India The tightly gh controlled led stru structure r ru re of the Indian higher education sector was analysed by Kapur and Mehtaa htaa (2007). T The he ppaper has a two-fold key argument. The first argument is that higher education in India is de ffacto privatized on a large scale.2 This privatization did not happen because of the changing hangi preferences of the key factors like the state, the judiciary or the propertied classes in India. Instead, this privatization took place from a breakdown of the state system. Consequently, ideological and institutional underpinnings are very weak in this form of privatization. Much of the private initiative remains within the bounds of the Page 31 of 82

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discretionary actions of the state instead of being a part of a comprehensive program of education reform. As a result, the education system is stuck between over-regulation by the state and a discretionary privatization which is not able to mobilize private capital in useful ways. Any policy intervention will have to change this political economy equilibrium if it has to succeed. Irrespective of the fact whether an institution is public or private, there are vicious circles of interest which hamper reform.

Since some of the most renowned modern universities in India are established by some of the dedicated individuals with private financial help, the private initiative in higher education is not a new concept in India. This sort of public private partnership was uniquee in India (Levi, 1994, p313). In the initial stage the concept of private institution was meant to bbe arbitrary. It was also a comparative category to express various classes off educatio educational al institutions. In the domain of philanthropy such an arbitrary term gained image mag from its inception without much complexity and became a normative language (Cotton, 1999, p566otto 199 567). The fact that the public supported private institutions madee the understanding der nding of philanthropy easy. The policy of grand-in-aid system was made de op operational ational dduring ring British itish rule with the instructions of East India Company to encourage private institutions. rivate inst tions. Three types of private institutions- nationalist, sectarians and caste communities. unities. They were functioning with the support of individual philanthropist and local notables before throp an ta tab independence. Private sector continued to be a maj major domain main in shaping higher education system in the post-independence India with h the co constitutional stitu provision. ovision. S Such strong support from the history led to the substantial growth privatee hig higher edu education institutions which owt w h of priv wt constitute three-fourth of the total education ducatio institutions. nstitutio Private vate iinstitutions are of two typesaided and unaided. Aided institutions privately managed and publicly funded, whereas st are priv ly m unaided institutions are both privately managed and fun funded colleges. In the initial stages of ana d an independence the role of pr private initia initiative higher learning education has been very crucial. ive in high Many of the private educational were reported to be non-viable and mediocre. ducational institutions ituti w The poor quality services and inadequate enrolment rates of students ality of delivery ery in their se rv largely caused such an ou outcome om (Garg, 1977; Kulandaiswamy, 2005). The private aided educational institutions were re to o sstrictly abide by the statue of the concerned universities.

Since they regularly received eived aaid financial aid from the state, private aided institutions did not have a significant role in sharing the cost of education (Tilak, 1992). Though the state has authority over affiliation, pattern of aiding and regulation of education it failed to keep the constitutional promises of social justice. The managements executed and enjoyed their Page 32 of 82

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local/estate power with knowledge governing power and the dominant culture was silently reproduced in the educational institutions.

Consequently these managements continued to remain as sectarian and partisan organization of their own locality, community and organs of political parties. Besides this, these institutions were instrumental in local politics to circulate among the party cadres and supporters. Due to their affiliation with local political power structures, these managements received under patronage and partisan prestige. The political elites, at the same time, make governing rules of the system flexible. Combining local politics with governing power on education institutions was, in a way, beneficial to both parties through nepotism, benefaction tion and influence. A much more relaxed UGC rule made the process worse (Kumar, 2004; Rudolph, 1972). Most of the private agencies had drawn from the elite sectionss of soci society.

The state of education continued to be governed by education itself. In the backdrop dro of mixed xed economy in India system of education caused the growth of capitalism. Besi Besidess th this, there were 20 fake universities in India which were illegally operating in the country.

The high highest he cou y. T number of fake universities was found in Uttar Pradesh (9) and Delhi lhi (5) sstood ood second nd (University Grants Commission, 2006). The logic behind the emergence these univer universities ence off the is clear in the sense that there was a demand for the creation The fact that ation of new institutions. tions. T they expanded private players in the education sector was nnot con considered much.

This trend, h T probably, made the middle class indispensable in the privatee edu education sector since only the n th middleclass can afford to buy education by y paying a hug huge fee (Kapur Kap a ur ap u &M Mehta, 2007, p.35).

In the post-reform period the outgrowth off self self-financing institutions anc inst ions saw a paradigmatic shift in the higher education sector in India.

By this tre trend the atte attention is drawn towards the ndia. B complexities of pedagogic practices and wide range c d its wid ange of social consequence. The discourses on the privatization of higherr educatio education ma mainly among ly am ng the developing nations suggest that their commercial interest to a sheer commodity. In such a rest nnearly tries to o reduce education d context the state of education India must be ccritically examined taking in to consideration ation in In ia mus the political economy in general education con ner l and educa ti policy adjustments in particular (Babu, 2011).

2.10 Previous studies tudies Singh (2015) studied died th the effects of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector and the issues and challenges associated with privatisation are investigated. India is one among the largest countries in terms of population, geographical extent and the educational system. The country’s educational system has grown rapidly over the year after its Page 33 of 82

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independence. The number of educational institutions in India is also growing every year.

People in India could be generally classified into two categories: the ‘haves’ nd a the ‘havenots’. Singh (2015) argues that with a majority of people in India living below the poverty line, privatisation of educational system is not a viable option. However, private players can establish their role in the country with the country’s regulations serious about the welfare of its people and the equity in education reaching all levels of the people living in the nation.

The increasing size of the demand and the growth in population clearly necessitates the need for new private institutions which may provide quality education.

In the same context, Chougle (2014) analysed the perceptions of college faculty ulty members towards privatisation of higher education in India. The emergence of privatisation ation was initiated in the year 1991 with the new policy enactment on Liberalization, Privatizati Privatization and Globalization (LPG). Over the last two decades, the policy changes have reflected efl both positively and negatively on the welfare of people in the country. On a posi positive ve nnote, the targeted change of increasing the number of higher education enrolment ent in India dia iis achieved chiev with the support of the government. The country witnesses increased ncr d numb number m e of private mb te unsupported courses and the Government of India had been supp supporting u orting privatisation. upp rivatisat However, privatisation is severely affecting the weakerr sec section of the society wherein the ociety w affordable population can pay for education and the ‘have struggling to pu pursue higher ave e--nots’ n s st education. This increases the gap between the literate illiterate thereby increasing the erate and thee illi gap between the rich, middle class and the poor. In the pprevious study, te teachers were survey to understand their perceptions towards privatisation Indian high higher education sector. The riva ion in India findings of the study revealed that the te teachers believe in imp improved quality of education hers beli m mp delivered by private sector institutions; however, the their concern towards the economically ns ; howev backward students further revealed some part off th ealed som tthee respondents sp stating their negative intent towards privatisation. The pprevious revealed us sstudy dy revea d that with privatisation, the educational status of the country willl be increm incremented ted tto global lob standards. The study recommended that with privatisation, should tion the government ernment shoul d aalso look for additional measures to support the economically backward communities without which inequity in education will increase ackward co mmun (Chougle, 2014).

Kumar (2014) investigated the role of privatisation of higher education in India with ti special emphasis laid upon the Meerut, a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. The reality, as stated in the previous study is that public resources are used for the expansion of private sector Page 34 of 82

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organisations in India. In India, the laws revolving around the privatisation of higher education sector have aided private owners in increasing their wealth. Additionally, privatisation has aggravated the conditions of student belonging to poor communities. The study revealed the problems faced by poor students in Meerut and western UP wherein corruption and bribery are found to be associated with privatisation in the higher education sector of India. Furthermore, the study resembles the global context of education being converted as a commodity of sales with private players taking control of education which is the right for all the citizens in the country.

Partima and Singh (2014) studied the impacts and importance of higher education on privatisation in India. After independence, the goal of the nation is to educate all the citizens zens of the nation. In this regard, the country aspires to capacity building and creation in colleg colleges which significantly affects the educational status of the country. However, the funds nds allocated ed by the central government of India is less than 1 per cent of the nation’s GDP, DP, hence ence meeting g such goals becomes impossible for public institutions. Private sector bridg bridges the ggap p in tthe allocation of funds and requirements. The study predicts the future re oof India dia towa towards ds iincreasee in the number of private educational universities all across India.

The pr previous dia. T ious ppaper concludes with the statement that privatisation of higherr edu education in India should take into ia shoul account the maintenance of quality and academic standards ds in these ese institutions.

2.11 Research Gap A number of studies conducted d ppreviously vious on n tthe role ole and im impacts of privatisation in Higher education sector of India discerned cerned generally nerally the various iou aspects and the need for catio sector. or. While other ther developing economies such as China, privatisation in the higher education Philippines and Malaysia are evolving in a rapid pid ppace, India lags behind in the overall number of private sector universities or univ ies aand d the nu nnumber of enrolment for higher education in these universities.

This intrigued the researcher to conduct a study on privatisation in the s. T ntrig ed th esear education sector the pers perspectives of various public and private education or and to analyse alyse th pioneers about privatization and ivatization an d its effectiveness in the future of India.

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CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The research methodology was defined by Leedy (1997:5) as it is the systematic process of gathering and analysing of data due to higher the understanding of research phenomenon. As per the above definition of Leedey, the present chapter gives an elaborate description of procedures, which were adopted in this study due to accumulating the information needed to attain the objectives of the study. Hence this chapter was categorized into different sections. The first section describes the research design examining the he advantage of using a particular method, the qualitative approach as a means of permitting g the respondents to provide many precious answers and valuable insight to the research questio questions.

Next section describes the research philosophy and research approach. The targett po population ion and study sample size were identified in section 4. Later, the section covers ers thee sa sampling technique which is suitable for selecting the target population of the study. udy. The six sixth secti section includes the data collection procedure in particular to the method od which h is ap aapplied p ied to data taa collection in this study. This section mainly describes the reasons ons fo ffor executing se semistructured interviews in this research rather than using ng any other methods. hods. Fu Further, this section covers the procedures which involved for preparing aring thee iinterviews. Section ecti seven describe the issues of validity and reliability were considered dered in the account in overall research method. Further section eight dealt lt with the he an analysis of the inte interview and finally ended with a summary of the chapter.

3.1 Research design This research design is an esse essential al step p in any research to get an idea of data collection as well as limita limitations of tthe study such as time constraints and resources.

According to (Easterby-Smith ste mith et al., 1994, 84), research design is about the structuring the research activity collection in ways which are most likely to obtain the y iincludes the he data collecti research objectives. es. In order tto ac achieve the research objective, a suitable method should be uir d ddata. Survey on research methods (Creswell, 1994; Bell, selected for gathering the required 1996; Punch, 2005) classifies assifi if es the research into two main methods, qualitative and ifi quantitative as it comes under the primary type of data collection. Merriam (2009) explained qualitative research as an approach in which several people are involved along with their perceptions of research that were assigned distinct meaning on the basis of the experience of Page 36 of 82

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individuals and covers non-numerical data (Saunders et al., 2009).

Creswell (2011)

expressed quantitative research as any data procedure or collection for data analysis that employs numerical data. As the present research aims to explore a novel phenomenon via answering open-ended questions, a qualitative methodology is a suitable method (Saunders et al., 2012, p.163) to obtain the study objective. Whenever a social phenomenon is to be examined, a qualitative research methodology could be used which aims to understand the implications in the society and the manner the social world operates (Hancock et al., 2009) .

Since the present study is based on the implications of higher education in India, a qualitative approach is suitable.

3.2 Research philosophy The research philosophy in general helps to gather and examine the adopted dopted primary ary data. Still, selecting the right philosophy is essential as it guides the investigator move into ator to mo the exact direction of research. In addition, the philosophy also givess th the idea oof how the world is perceived and in which way the problem is to be identified (Saunders al., 2012, a nders ett al au pp. 126-129). There are two kinds of research philosophy used in resear research of social sci science considering the social reality such as positivism and interp interpretivist (Perry (Perry, 199 1995). ) T The positivism views the social world as an external to individuals ividu and interpretivist ist vviews the objectives of thought as words independent of external (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 22). ern factors rs (Bry The first approach is based on the beliefs of uuniversal versa laws and neglects glec the subjective interpretations. This method involved quantitative titati appro aapproach ch aas a result lt of tthe test theories and also try to find a casual relation between een ccontrol trol aand d pr predictor or (Holl (Holloway & Wheeler, 2002, p. 5). Therefore, the present study adopted interpretivist ed interp tivis method, which is suitable philosophy for qualitative research as the knowledg knowledge is pe personally experienced onal exp x e xp

3.3 Research Approach oach The relationship tion h between wee research and theory can be approached in a distinct way lained by Sa nder et al. (2012, p.144). There are two kinds of research which was explained Saunders method used in research- deductive duc ive and inductive approach. In the deductive approach, a ast stud hypothesis is created by past studies and tested by using survey method and it is called as a top-down approach (Saunders et al., 2009; Gabriel, 2013). The inductive approach is involved in generating theory on the basis of observations and results obtained via data collection which is called as a bottom-up approach (Bryman & Bell, 2011, 4). According to Page 37 of 82

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Bryman and Bell (2011, p.13), an inductive approach was applied in qualitative research and a deductive approach for quantitative research. In this case, the present study attempts to explore privatisation in the higher education sector and also analyse the perspectives of various public and private higher education pioneers about privatization and its effectiveness in the future of India. Hence inductive approach is more appropriate to this research.

3.4 Target population and sample size Selecting the target population is an essential part of the research (Gay & Airasian, 2003). A study population is a group to whom the researcher plans to apply her or his research results i.e. the target population of the study whose members are the people to be researched. In this study, the target group consists of top management personnel off pri private higher education institutions in India in order to acquire the study objective. Hen Hence viceicechancellors,deans and administrators of private and public higher education institutions nst tion were selected. Further, the sample size of this study was chosen as 19. Vice-chancellors e-c llor serve as the leaders of higher education institutions and as per the norm, he/shee shoul should be a good ood academician and an eminent administrator (Rao & Singh, 2016) . Dean Deans serve erv as the next higher authority in the University hierarchy and are appointed Chancellor (I (Ipu, nted by the Vice ce Chance 2016) . Furthermore, the former education minister of tthe State of Karnataka taka is also interviewed The below table represents the number and deans of private er oof vice-chancellors chancell institutions involved in this research.

le Disser tation Samp

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Table 1: Semi-structured interviews conducted with vice-chancellors and XXX of private institutions Region

Role

Karnataka Karnataka Karnataka

Former Higher Education Minister, Government of Karnataka Former vice-chancellor of Karnataka State Open University Treasurer of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries University, Bidar.

Delhi Former Vice Chancellor, IGNOU, New Delhi Mangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, Mangalore University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore Vice Chancellor of CMR University Bangalore Former Vice-Chancellor of Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences Nashik.

Former Vice Chancellor of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University Bangalore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of Bangalore re University Mysore Vice President of FVCK & Former Vice Chancellor of KSOU Karnataka Executive Director, Karnataka State Higher Education Council, ouncil, Government of Karnataka Bangalore Regional Director, IGNOU Bangalore Trustee of BMS & Former Additional Chief Secretary eta t ry ta r of Government ment of Karnataka Bangalore Principal St. Aloysius College Mysore Administrator, Teresian College Karnataka Former Scientist, IISc & CEO and Managing ging Director of Karnataka nata t ta Hybrid Micro Devices Ltd. Ropar Director Indian Institute of Technology, nolog Karnataka Former Dean Academic of Ka K Karnataka nata t ka Sta ta State t t Open ta en Univ University and Academic Advisor GEMS B School chool

Public/ Private Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Public Publ u ic ubl Public Publ u ubl Pu ic Public Public Publ u ubl Public u ic ubl Public P Pri Private Private Private Public Public, private

3.4.1 Sampling technique

The sampling techn technique is taken ken on the h basis of strategy, access, and representativeness ((Bryman, As per P Patton n, 2012). A n (2002), sampling technique relies on four questions which in include what investigator at an investiga to needs to examine, why she or he needs to examine, what kind sources nd of sour u ce he or she wants to research and how the results would be ur utilised (Cohen & Manion, 1994).

Based on the above queries, purposive sampling technique 994). Ba is used in the present study. This ttype of sampling would enable the researcher to cross check whether they meet the criteria for eligibility on the basis of objectives (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p. 228).

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3.5 Data collection 3.5.1 Data collection methods There are two kinds of data collection which include primary and secondary data (Creswell, 1998). In this research, interview method is used as primary data collection method. The following section reveals the interviews in educational research and their procedures.

3.5.2 Interviews in educational research As per the statement of McKernan (1996), interviews are one of the most efficient ent methods for collecting the data because it is carried out through face to face and require requires direct verbal association between respondent and researcher. The interviewing technique chn is easy to follow as discussion flows in an informal, conversational style from one to another o an topic. According to Kumar (1999), the interview is a popular technique for gathering data ue fo ther g dat from participants. Likewise, Wragg (1994) states that interviewing ing has been cla classified ified into to three types such as semi-structured, structured interviews and unstructured interviews.

The ctu t re inte tu iews. T structured interview has predefined questions; unstructured predefined ured does not have pr fin structure and semi-structured interview comprise of flexible Myers & ble qquestions on (Yin, 2009; 9; M Newman, 2007; Creswell, 2014 Denzin and Lincoln, ln, 2011). In the present study the semistructure interview method is used. This technique que is used ed tto exploree the uniqu unique experience of vice-chancellors and education minister. The designed he qquestions ions aree de ed in the semi-structured interview in such a manner to support extend extending interview with ffurther questions on the g the inter basis of conversation made at the time of interview the interest level of respondents. nterview and nd th vie 3.5.3 Procedures for preparing for the int interviews As the interviews are cond conducted ted eefficiently ient and smoothly, the procedures were executed in two m main interview question preparation and selection and in stages, es, firstly rstly int ervi arationn fo ffor or co duc secondly the preparation conducting interviews.

Selecting interview questions The interview questions are chosen on the basis of collected past studies with respect to the privatisation of higher education. This was decided to design interview questions on the organisation of the interview and shape of the data collection. Once questions are Page 40 of 82

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designed, approval from the supervisor is obtained from more discussions and advice. After confirmation from a supervisor, an interview guide is developed which consists of a list of topics covered relying on the context of literature.

Conducting of the interviews The final step is to conduct the interviews, after preparation of interview questions; the semi-structured interview was done through a face-to-face interview via prior appointment.

3.5.4 Validity and reliability in interviews arch A successful research relies on valid methods, and the two chief features researchers hine and d typically look for are validity and reliability. In order to validate the trustworthiness y fo ffollowed owe the credibility of the interview guide as well as the complete research, the study criteria of evaluation as described by Lincoln and Denzin (2005). It he helps too ccheck eck th the ructu t red inter tu w credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability of semi-structured interview guide (Lincoln and Denzin 2005). The following steps are taken to ma make sur sure the ab aabove o criteria. Firstly, the interview guide was prepared on the basis sis oof past researches arches ppreviously usl conducted (Labuschagne & Brent, 2006; Taylor, 2008; Ano Anon, 2006; Gareis ett al., 2009; Turner, 2010; Silvius & Schipper, 2009; Silvius et al al., 2010). Secondly, Secon those studies were cross-checked with supervisors. Thirdly, to increase research, the pilot crea the validity of tthe rese study may be conducted among 1-2 respondents 2011). In ord order to examine the dent (Quinlan, Quin n 2011 accuracy of the data obtained, member checking er ch king was done with pparticipants, where the interview themes are summarised and further requests whether they agreed with summarizing her requ ts wh statements.

3.6 Analysis of the interview ntervie One of thee cru crucial i components pon nts of any re research is data analysis. For the main reason is lysi is as per Merriam (1998) is to end with reasonable that the chief goall of data aanalysis generalisations and conclusionss oon th the basis of the predominance of data, data analysis in interviews needs to be clear on the first steps of collected data. Hence after data collection, recording and notes have been transcribed on the same day and further analysed whether the data is up-to-date (Merriam, 1998; Marshall & Rossman, 1989). The present study made thematic data analysis where the future steps were conducted. Firstly, data is transcribed by Page 41 of 82

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typing digital transformation of all recordings manually and the field notes. Secondly, all the conversations acquired at the time of interview are typed and converted into a Word document (Colaizzi, 1978, p.59). The third step, the textual data is categorized as per themes and sub-themes on the basis of literature review (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p.171). Still, there is a logical sequence of research questions and literature review; data is recorded and coded several times. This process is carried out by utilising the computer software program such as QSR Nvivo software. Nvivo software acts as a teaching tool wherein different kinds of documents could be kept in a single destination and are linked together to facilitate easy access. The progress of an idea from its inception could be mapped using Nvivo software (Walsh, 2003) .. In addition to this, content analysis was conducted.

3.7 Summary The present chapter has discussed the adopted methodology and the he field ld work procedures. Further, this chapter explains the reason for executing a qualitative lita aapproach ap p ach to gather and analyse the research data. A semi-structured interview was conducted achievee ducted to ac an in-depth understanding of the participant’s views on private highe higher education ducation in India.

The interview was conducted over a period of XX months in In India with respect espect to gaining ining

Comment [e1]:

cooperation and rich and elaborated data from respondents. onde The collected d dat data are represented and discussed in upcoming chapters four an and five.

le Disser tation Samp

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 4.0 Introduction The present study is a research based on the analysis of the perceptions of educational pioneers in India towards privatisation in the Indian higher education sector. After careful analysis of previous literature works which were discussed in the Literature review section (Chapter 2). Previous literature brought both advantages and disadvantages of privatisation in the Indian higher education sector; however, certain prospects of privatisation in foreign higher education intrigued the researcher and became the premise for the present study. As aforementioned, the present study imparts the collection of primary data from educational tion leaders and pioneers in India who are former vice-chancellors and administrators (Deans, ors (Dea s, Principals and administrators) of private and public higher education institutions on in India. dia.

Face-to-face interviews are conducted and questions were put forth to obtain their per perceptions n th regarding privatisation of higher education in India. Primary data was also col collected ted ffrom former higher education minister, State of Karnataka, India. A All the collected he collec ed data are analysed in the following section.

4.1 Participants 17 participants were interviewed in the study. udy. The study dy aacquired the perceptions of 1 former Higher education Minister of Karnatak Karnataka, In India, 8 fo fformer rmer vice-chancellors, 7 administrators (Directors, Deans, Principals) als) of higher igh educ education on iinstitutions, and 1 former scientist. The participants were denoted oted as ffollows: ows: ter) PAR_1: Participant 1 (Higherr educati education min minister) llor Public u lic in ub PAR_2: Participant 2 (Vice cchancellorinstitution) PAR_3: Participant chancelloripant 3 (Vice ce ch ncellor- Public u l institution) ub PAR_4: Participant chancellorPublic institution) nt 4 (Vice ch ance PAR_5: Participant 5 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) ice cha PAR_6: Participant 6 (Vice chancellor- Private institution) PAR_7: Participant 7 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) Page 43 of 82

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PAR_8: Participant 8 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_9: Participant 9 (Vice chancellor- Public institution) PAR_10: Participant 10 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_11: Participant 11 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_12: Participant 12 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_13: Participant 13 (Administrator- Private Institution) PAR_14: Participant 14 (Administrator- Private Institution) PAR_15: Participant 15 (Administrator- Public institution) PAR_16: Participant 16 (Administrator- Public and Private) PAR_17: Participant 17 (Former Scientist- Private Sector) In the study, 8 vice chancellors of Indian higher education institutions ig cation ins utions were interviewed and among them, 7 vice chancellors (PAR_2, PAR_5, PAR_7, AR_2 PAR_3, PAR_4, 4 PAR PAR_8, and PAR_9) served public higher education institutions whereas 1 served for private titut ons w higher education organisation (PAR_6). Similarly, larly, among the 7 administrators m of higher education institutions, 4 belonged to publ public sector u ic sec ubl tor ggovernmental ental iinstitutions (PAR_10, PAR_11, PAR_12, and PAR_15), 2 off th the 7 ad administrators istra ors bbelonged to private higher education institutions (PAR_13 and PAR_14 PAR_14), R ) and 1 participant R_14 pan (PAR_16) belonged to both private and public institutions participant dean of a public higher education ons aas the part cipan is fo fformer r institution and at present serves erves as an n aadvisor isor to a private management based higher education institution. Form Former highe higher educat education minister was also interviewed and the responses of the are deno denoted by ‘PAR_1’. One former scientist (PAR_17) was also he same ar interviewed. hat tthe he nu It is to be noted that number of participants belonging to public higher education institutions is higher than priv private institutions. This is the strategy to acquire the perceptions of public players so as to define the role and importance of privatisation of higher education in India. To maintain neutrality, the views of former higher education minister, a former

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scientist and an administrator who served both public and private institutions were obtained and analysed.

Figure 6: Participants in the study

Public higher education participants

Private higher education ucati n participants participan

Neutral participants

Source: Author (2016) ducte and questions uest we The face-to-face interviews were conducted were put forth in the ses of the participants artic were ac following themes for which the responses acquired and analysed.

Following are the themesher edu ion ddevelopment in India 1. Role of privatisation in higher education akeholde towards owa ds ch sing higher education institutions 2. Perceptions of stakeholders choosing 3. Views of India Indian Government privatisation ernment on pr isa 4. Encouraging privatisation g privatis n in IIndia ia 5. Private Universities high sta standards of higher education in India ivate U siti and hig 6. Role privatisation le of privati ion in maintaining equity and accessibility There had been a lot of responses which were contradictory to one another. Following is the results of textual data analysis a of responses.

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4.2 Role of privatisation in higher education development in India Majority of participants stated the role of privatisation in Indian higher education is crucial towards increasing the economic status of the country. 5 Participants claimed that the increase in the number of private universities all over the country has discerned the importance of private participation in the Indian higher education sector. 4 of the 17 participants revealed that privatisation in the Indian higher education aids improve the economic status of the country as the economy of a nation is integrated with the generation of human capital. 2 participants responded that there is a limited access to higher education in India which led private sector educational institutions to create new opportunities for students dents within the age limit of 18-23 to get benefitted. 2 participants stated the need for excellence ce in the higher education sector as India, which is a country possessing vast human capital sho should d be properly empowered. However, other respondents had views regarding higher her enrolment ent rate, coexistence of public private mix and the legacy of private players. O One resp respondent claimed the need for coexistence of both private and public as both may bbenefit other. efit each h oth One respondent stated that privatisation has vast benefits, one such being g the increas increase in the h number of higher education enrolment in the country. One rrespondent that the inc increase nt stated th in the number of private players in Indian higher education cation is ultimately related lated to the legacy that they had built in the education sector in various coun countries, to begin u ries, which led them un h institutions in India. However, only one respondent dent had contradictory tradic ideas about the role of privatisation in higher education in India since the ccredibility is doubted. edibi oub u ted ub

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Figure 7: Word cloud of Role of privatisation in higher education development in India

“…The role of Private sector in Indian higher education on is increased creased sign significantly over the last decade. With the majority of students currently enrolled private urr rolled in these se pr institutions. the role will only increase considering the subs substantial investmentt requ required in this sector…[PAR_1]… 370 private universities in different par part of sstates. You can understand the importance of state private universities in the h higher education scenario of education… duc sc [PAR_2] … should have some peaks of excellen excellence and private can play very e uni nvie ni vversities ir ie important role… [PAR_3] … the younger people spec specially -25 would very much like oung peopl ly of age 18 to have higher education but we know w th tthee aaccess ss is i llimited because caus of number of institutions and also quality of education are important and this gap needs to be n th tthat a is available ail ble l bboth le h ar filled… [PAR_4] … 5 It is not just th tthee role l of priv le private institutions in higher education but private and public should co-exist… hould l co ld … [PAR_5]… private universities in Karnataka meet the socio-economicc obl obligation to gross enrollment ratio… [PAR_6] … There n aas well aas contempt onte are no long term goals for th Government to improve public institutions. Ultimately this tthee Go ern r m rn leads to giving more import importance ance to private higher education institutions … [PAR_7] … 98% private participation in higher er eeducation d is limited to engineering, medical, management and education… [PAR_8] … 9

P Private higher education institutions increase the number of

higher education enrolment in the country… [PAR_9] …To increase theGross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be Page 47 of 82

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achieved… [PAR_10] … there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence… [PAR_11] … Private universities don’t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy…

[PAR_12] … The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country… [PAR_13] … Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation’s human capital needs… [PAR _14]… I doubt the credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years… [PAR_15]… I believe the role of private universities is very significant and they are going to be with us…

[PAR_16]… the number of employed person in the count ry, especially higher education ation graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education… on…

[PAR_17] ”

4.3 Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher her education edu institutions The major stakeholders involved in higher education are re st students, ents parents and teachers. When the participants were questioned about the perceptions ut th ns of sstakeholders ho towards choosing the university, a majority of 5 participants quality off edu education to pants revealed ea be the foremost when students and parents choosee a university. ity. A Apart from being a private or public university, stakeholders look for quality education provided ality oof educ ovided the opportunities for employment are also checked. An equal nu that stakeholders nnumber m of 5 participants artic s claimed lai look for the various features of the univ university ity such as infrastru infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety. Participants discern the fact thatt stakeh stakeholders ers vview universities as sellers of education and hence, they require what they actu actually t tu pay for ffor.. However, wev 2 of the participants had a much generalised view denoting ting the increased creased enrol enrolment nt oof students in private higher education institutions which is evident vident fr ffrom the number m er of private higher education institutions. mb However, somee partic participantss hhad other vviewpoints. w wpo One respondent stated that within the age group of 18-23, students are a more mo inclined towards joining private sector higher education institutions. One respondent nt cclaimed aim the increase in the enrolment of students in private higher education institutions ns wh which offer courses such as agricultural and veterinary sciences.

One respondent states that parents look for international level institutions for their children to get exposed to global culture and hence foreign private universities are sought. One respondent elucidated that certain private institutions nurture entrepreneurial capabilities in Page 48 of 82

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students, hence they are inclined to join in private universities. However, only one respondent stated the legacy of universities which attracts students.

Figure 8: Word cloud of Perceptions of stakeholders towards choosing higher education institutions

i igh “between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enr enrolment in high higher education regard less of age express as a percentage to the eligible official population off 18 18-23. Stud Students are inclined ffi ff ficial popu versit fo fforr higher gher education… ion [PAR_1]… Students towards enrolling in private sector universities choose private sector higher education universities courses such as agricultural ion univers univ r i es eeven fo rs fforr cou science and veterinary courses. This is a good sta start…[PAR_2] … Students and parents choose higher education in private institutions itut ns ssincee th tthe quality of education in private emp institutions is better… [PAR_ [PAR_3]… poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is qualified higher education institutions. Private i to study d in a qua dy universities specialise ecialis i their is ir ways y to ffulfil ys lfi lf fil the needs of the stakeholders… [PAR_4] … perceptions of stud students and paren parents to en enrol in private higher education as the number of reasing an private institutions is iincreasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing… [PAR_5] … to integrate the industry perception, ptio interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just l qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry… [PAR_6] … Students, parents and teache rs look for more prospective features in Page 49 of 82

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educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered… [PAR_7] … In MBA, 41% employability, only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures… All these numbers posit the increase in the number of students, their perceptions towards private higher education as most institutions in these sectors are privatised… [PAR_8]… Stakeholders such as students look for job opportunities after their graduation. They opt for universities which cater such requirement…[PAR_9]… private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going to colleges in India and private institutions… [PAR_10]… Students look for collegess with h basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education… [PAR_11] … also choosing the ht univers r ity rs t ty university from the supplies side, who are the faculty. Hence, choosing the right university becomes very important… [PAR_12]… Students have different perceptions. ons Some om state their he eir family legacy that poses them to join a university, others claim the infrastructure attract f ctur to att them make an admission… [PAR_13]… Quality of teachers or quality of the academic ality o ademic programs and infrastructure, campus safety, especially for women, n cos cost and d lo llocation cation was the criteria… [PAR_14]… Excellent infrastructure in teaching, learning environment creating g, lea nvironme , creati research, administration, and also the emphasis for stud student life… [PAR_15]… Very few private universities come up to the level of international level, which is targeted by stake l wh l, holders, students and parents all put together… [PAR_1 [PAR_16] …Private iversities nowadays Priv nuive nurture entrepreneurial capabilities. For example example, l , innovation le nnova centers, nters r , incubation centers, rs makers’ space are left for students to lea learn… [PAR_17 [PAR_17]”

4.4 Views of Indian Government ern on privatisation privati privatisa 3 of the 17 participants icip stated tated the view off In Indian government over privatisation of higher education as an actt to incre increase the G Gross enrolment ratio (GER). An equal number of 3 ss en other participants claimed the liberalised rules of the government which makes way for the nts clai eralise rule emergence of private education institutions in India. 3 participants discerned that there rivat higher ig ducat sti is a lack of proper reg regulations l tions to monitor private higher education institutions in India.

However, 3 other respondents specified that the Government is supporting privatisation of ts sp higher education in India which hi will integrate human capital with jobs thereby improving the economic status of the country. 2 of the participants had a viewpoint that in terms of education in India, the government looks for three aspects- access, equity and quality. To Page 50 of 82

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achieve these factors in Indian higher education, the government supports privatisation.

However, 3 respondents did not respond to the question.

Figure 9: Word cloud of Views of Indian Government on privatisation

“…The government views privatisation off higher educatio education as a move to support three fundamental challenges that is access, equity uity and quality quality… [PAR_ [PAR_1] … all private universities all over the country should get recognis recognised i ed by Uni is University Grant r rant Commission. If it is not, probably they will not only put pen penalties ies ffor any n activities ny ivities of o the private universities, and they also publicise in the whole country ountry r th ry tthat th tthese es courses run by suss and such private university is not recognised… [PAR_ [PAR_2] … Th The view views off g government o tow ards privatisation are mostly liberal without any sortt of o contr control t ol and U tr UGC regulation is not accepted and implemented at all… [PAR_3] … Th T Thee govern government r me sees privatisation in higher education rn sector as a tool to inc increase th tthee Gross eenrolment olme ratio of higher education… [PAR_4]… The regulations of the he G Government nt are not imp implemented m mp properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manag manage ep private higher education sector in India… [PAR_5]... There are complex state and centrall ggovernment policies on privatisation of higher education…

[PAR_6] … Government looks lookks at factors such as equity and access to higher education by students. Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation… [PAR_7] …

Government views the opportunity to create an integrated economy with the human capital and jobs… [PAR_9] … The Government of India is on a vision to increase the number of Page 51 of 82

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universities to achieve a GER of 50 per cent… [PAR_10]… Government has liberal regulations towards privatisation… [PAR_11] … Government views privatisation as a strategy to increase GER … [PAR_12]… The government is open to private universities with less regulation to control. This is an act to increase the GER of the nation… [PAR_13] …

Government of India is ready to start at the higher rate at the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of manpower... [PAR_15] … Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates… [PAR_17]”

4.5 Encouraging privatisation in India A majority of 6 respondents stated privatisation to be encouraged in India whe wherein they claim privatisation to be good for the nation. Similarly, 5 participants stated privatisation riva ion to be necessary in Indian higher education as it brings more prospects. However, out of 17 ever 4 ou respondents argue that privatisation may not be successful in all cases aand depends pen on the an high ion institution. One respondent stated privatisation to be encouraged for Indian higher edu education provided the educational services delivered by these institutions shoul should be philanthro philanthropic.

However, one respondent stated privatisation to be hazardous education. us to Indian higher her educa Figure 10: Word Cloud of Encouraging privatisation in Indi India

“… Privatisation of higher education in India increases the higher education enrolment rate in India. Hence it is a good motive… [PAR_1]… Not in all cases… [PAR_2] Page 52 of 82

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… With the increasing number of student enrolment, it is necessary for private ins titutions to emerge in the country. However, I would suggest that there should be some sort of collaboration between UGC and the state council and the education department of the state to oversee private participation in Higher education... [PAR_3] … I would state privatisation to be a good option only if such institutions are philanthropic … [PAR_4]… 5. I

would

state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit…

[PAR_5] … the perception of students towards education is whether they gain relevant knowledge for what they pay as a fee. In this regard, I claim private universities penetrate the knowledge into the students so that they become more relevant to the industry sector… torr…

[PAR_6] … profit making would be the motto and the charitable educational institutions tha that hat ha is always temptation of commercialization and profit making. Privatisation may ma prove rove hazardous at times… [PAR_7]… If we analyse certain reports of the government, ve men it is revealed that private institutions produce industry centric manpower, human capital, pita t and the ta 50% of them are not employable. Then how will privatisation be good… … [PAR_8]… the ra rate ate e of unemployment is high. This intrigues the role of privatisation as th tthee na nation n is i still suf suffering uff uf ffe fe from unemployment… [PAR_9] …Quality of education is a prim primary concern. cern r . In rn I K Karnataka, nata t k ta a joint programme is conducted to exchange students and teachers within the he pub public and private universities. This led new things to be learnt… [PAR_10] … Privatisation is a good concept if in case the professional degree is job-oriented… riente [PAR_1 [PAR_11] … Obviously when there is a need to increase the GER, then wee sho should l go with ld ith t tthe strategies th e ies tto increase private eg higher education institutions as the funding d ng forr high di higher i igh edu education ion by b Go Government is very low...

[PAR_12] … There is a need to revamp our edu education ation system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely changes in kn kknowledge owledg le llevels vels of their eir rrespective disciplines. This is how stakeholders perceive higher gh education ucation offered by pr private universities… [PAR_14] …

There is a question on how to satisfy atis isf is sfy fy th tthe increasing reasing de ddemands man and needs and aspiration of people of the country, especially cially l the talented ly alent d youn young peop people o op has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internett an and various oth other t er resources th sour available, aware of the higher education benefits. So now with this ba background, ckg it’s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the he role… [PAR_15] … Some private institutions have played important bringing quality inp inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift… [PAR_16] … Yes, it brings out more potential workforce… [PAR_17]”

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4.6 Private Universities and high standards of higher education in India Among the 17 participants interviewed, 12 participants stated that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. The responses specified the fact that with increased funding, private universities are emerging as standard institutions of higher education. However, one participant claimed that higher standards would be met if flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research are all satisfied.

Two participants stated ‘cannot say’ as there are issues in higher education privatisation. On the contrary, two participants stated the higher standards are not met by private higherr education institutions. n Figure 11: Word Cloud of Private Universities and high standards of higher edu education in India

xist rivate universities vers “… The existence of private not only improves the quality of education s nsi spo but also provides the social respo responsibility.

The success of self-financing private universities can be attributed there will be a he healthy competitions among the several players, innovations in the curriculum which willll b benefit student community… [PAR_1]… I cannot clearly state the significance of privatisation of Higher education in India with so many issues revolving around the regulations for private institution approval…[PAR_2] … I think in terms of Page 54 of 82

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private universities, the great hope is, that freedom that these institutions have, enables to run any number of good programmes and course which are futuristic. Hence, the higher standards of higher education are met… [PAR_3]… Private universities definitely bring higher standards in the delivery of education; however recruitment training should also be provided… [PAR_4]… I think the standards have not been met since the enrolment rate of students in some private higher education institutions is relatively low. This creates an imbalance... [PAR_5]… Yes … [PAR_6] … Privatisation may provide higher standards in Indian higher education if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency based curriculum, innovative programs, processes and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research and then collaboration of international and national repute, of o course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability and sociall d by accountability are all addressed… [PAR_7] … There is a new standard being adopt adopted private universities which is known as flipped classroom. In this learning mod mode, fa ffaculties guide students on how to proceed their career with the selected professional de Very ddegree. eg e V eg little focus is on classroom environment and students look for practical kn kknowledge. owledge. IIn this his i is regard, I view privatisation to bring benefits in higher education… on… [PAR_8]… May be.

Funding for higher education is large as these institutions collect private players. lec fee and are privat lay a ers ay r rs Hence, the quality of education delivered would be good… [PAR_9] 9] … I view internationalisation as a part of privatisation of higher education g ucation iin India… [PAR_10] …

Most private universities embrace technological concepts These act as high ce ts cep t in all activities. ctiv T Th standards for students to learn more effectively… tively [PAR_11 [PAR_1 [PAR_11] … Though hough private universities burden students with fee, the collected funds are used development of the institutions’ d fun ed for the develo infrastructure… [PAR_12] … 2 kinds off educ education ion aare possible. One is for employment, while the other one is for social transformation…

[PAR_13] … Private universities in this al tran mation… [PAR_1 global era are transformed in term curriculum, quality and standards… [PAR_14]… rm of curr ulu in qual Excellence in Private Universities not so vers r ities that is rs i no o good especially the standards are so slanting perhaps in my opinion different…

[PAR_15] nion it is diffe nt… [P R_15 … Universities are even established in rural onging to th tthat a region to be empowered. Additionally, the areas which aid stu students belonging standards of higher education an and d tthe access to the same are increased… [PAR_16] …

Private funding are vast, hence the standards of education are maintained … [PAR_17]”

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4.7 Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility Among the 17 participants interviewed, 9 participants responded that there is discrimination in the higher education service offered to students. Respondents claimed that equity in delivering higher education to all classes in the society is affected by fee based structure hence privatisation in their views does not maintain equity and accessibility.

However, 5 of the respondents claimed privatisation increased equity and accessibility of higher education services in the country. 3 of the respondents stated that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates. bility Figure 12: Word Cloud of Role of privatisation in maintaining equity and accessibility

“…No. The only issue sue wi with privatisation ivatis tion o is on i tthe increase in the number of unemployed graduates… [PAR_1]…

R_1]… Discrimination crimination may o occur since students trained in some private institutions with po poor quality of education are affected… [PAR_2] … Discrimination may occur since students ts belonging to po poor families suffer.. [PAR_3]… Privatisation indeed generates discrimination. The present resent sent kind of a strength what is reported on Government agencies, 70% of graduatess are unemployable they state except the special fields like medicine, the need for quality workforce is increasing... [PAR_4] … I clearly view the lack of social inclusion in higher education sector… [PAR_5] … In the state of Karnataka, 40 % of seats in the professional courses are surrendered to the government which is an act to Page 56 of 82

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prevent discrimination... [PAR_6] … I do not perceive more good traits about privatisation in Indian higher education. Moreover, private educational institutions are mostly commercialised… [PAR_7]… To me privatisation has not created discrimination in the equity of higher education but inequity in employment… [PAR_8]… Skill development is something I think that is lacking in both private and public sector higher education institutions. This creates employment inequality… [PAR_9]…I could not completely oppose privatisation as it has merits too. However, I fear the factors of inaccessibility and inequity in higher education… [PAR_10]… Social inclusiveness is lacking in private higher education institutions. I would suggest revision of fee structure to create social equity… [P AR_11]… no stable financial model for private higher education institutions in India. These are generally r lly ra ll diverse among different states. Hence equity could not be maintained… [PAR_12]… … it is good for the nation, however there are doubts about the quality of education n delivere delivered…

[PAR_13] … I find discrimination in the employability status of students studying ing in different rent universities. It is the quality of education delivered no matter private or publi public univ universities… …

[PAR_14]… private universities must have a central role, a phila philanthropic l n op la opic role ole l ffor le o commercial purpose. Since such a role is lacking, there will b be no o basis for equity…

[PAR_15] … Private institutions are extending to rural parts rts of the nation. ation The gap p is g getting bridged nowadays with new private institutions… [PAR_16] PAR_16 … I don’t find nd disc discrimination.

Access to higher education is increased; standards are main maintained… ined [PAR_17]”

le Disser tation Samp

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CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The world today is evolving rapidly and the higher education wing globally is witnessing remarkable rate of change. Six factors attribute to the spread of privatisation in the higher education wing and are as follows-i) technological advancements, ii) demographical changes, iii) increased public examination, iv) information based economy, v) increase in knowledge based organisations, and vi) decline in public trust in government (Levine, 2001).

All these factors necessarily provoke the need for private participation in higher education. In the present study, responses of educational pioneers of India were acquired and are analysed based on the objectives of the present study. In this context, questions were framed and d put forth to the participants to analyse their perceptions regarding market driven educational cation model.

5.0 Role of privatisation towards satiating the ever-growing nee need d fo ffor higher er education in India Since the independence of India in the year 1947, theree had been en drastic ch changes in nd iits governing ing bodie ere bbuilt to the education sector. The responsibilities of the nation and bodies were educate all its citizens, which led the educational auth authorities over the decade decades to create capacities for educational enrolment. New capacities were ere creat created and existing educational institutions were enhanced. This led the nation to transform m its higher her education structure from 28 universities and 578 colleges in 1950–51 to 500 and more than n the year 1950–5 1950 0 un uuniversities iv 25,000 colleges in the nation by thee en end of 2012. Mor More than 20 m million students enrolled in higher education institutions in the country 2012). ountry ((Sudarshan darsh & Subramanian, b The aforementioned fa ffacts cts dis discern n tthe rol role off pprivate participation in Indian higher education. Over the year years, the number of hhigherr education universities and colleges has increased with the purview rview of satisfying sf ing the sfy he educational needs of the increasing student numbers in the Forecasted statistical data reveals the population of 18-23 year old he country. For casted sta isti will increase to million by 2030 which will comprise 10 per cent of the total population o 142 millio Ficcci, 2013). Hence meeting the higher educational needs of the of the India at that time (Ficcci, country is impossible without private participation in India as public funding to education is restricted especially for higher education (Sudarshan & Subramanian, 2012).

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Figure 13: Estimated 18-23 year old population in India- 2030

18-23 year old population 144 142 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

Source: Adopted from Ficcci (2013) Participants of the study were selected based on their experience erience in the he hhigher education sector over the years in India. Majority of the he pparticipants belong to the public and government higher education institutions in India analyse the perceptions in an nd so ass to ana unbiased manner. When the role of privatisation on iin Indian n hig higher ed education sector was nific questioned, a majority of respondents stated the ssignificant rolee of private universities in India. There is an increase in the numb number institutions in India with more m mb of higher eeducation tion insti number of private universities in the nation. So Some participants claimed the success of he nat privatisation in Indian higher education wh which er educ ch is evident iden with the increase number of student enrolment in higher eeducation n institutions iin the nation. Ernst & Young, (2009a) report asserts that Indian government suffer to cat cater the higher educational requirements of the vernmen willl suf country as thee pub public expenditure u ub x en itur xp u e aallocated ur cate on higher education as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product duc (GDP) is 0.6 pper cent. ent This is a very low percentage when compared with other nations such United Kingdom and the United States. To fulfil the demands of h as China, Unite U the nation, private players have ave established a number of educational institutions to support the n re growing higher education requirements of India (Ernst & Young, 2009a).

The views of certain participants regarding the role of higher education privatisation in India were toward increasing the economic status of the nation. Human capital is an Page 59 of 82

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important asset of a nation which is associated with the nation’s economic growth and development. A country’s competitive advantage over other nations isefined d by human capital. In this regard, certain aspects such as investment in science, education, and technology, and labour market competitiveness should be improved (Matovac et al., 2010). In this regard, the perceptions of participants are towards increasing the economic status of the nation with increased enrolment in higher education. According to the participants, the role of privatisation is towards economic integration. Some participants clarified the limitations of access to higher education as the funds allocated by the government for higher education were less. In order to create opportunities for all students within the age limits of 18-23, participants reported the need for private higher educational institutions in the nation. The Gross enrolment ratio of higher education was also emphasised which is steered only if more higher education institutions are established. In this regard, Singh (2009) argues India ues that Ind ia requires more than 1500 universities to compete in the global market. However, w er, there were re some other reasons stated by the respondents which revealed the causes for the t e gro growth of higher education institutions in India. Participants stated the need for imp improving m r ing tthe GER of mp the nation which led government to open private participation in the higher education sector her educatio of the nation (Kumar & Ambrish, 2015). Legacy of the pri private players play a key role ers aalso so pl for the growth of private higher education universities Some foreign ersitie in the nation. n Som universities which are recognised globally set up educational tiona inst institutions in India. Students d of higher education. are inclined to these institutions as these players are known in th the field u ted the ccredibility ub edibi However, only one respondent overall doubted of higher ed education in India. eed to analyse alyse the perceptions ptions of stakeholders in choosing The study necessitated the need n, th universities. In the context of higherr educa education, the stakeholders involved are students, ipants we were que questioned ione on n hhow students select higher education parents and teachers. Participants institutions. Quality off edu education is st stated the predominant need for students as majority of ted as th ed participants stated the same same. Stu Students and parents t tu ts an aren look for private education institutions as the quality off ed education deli delivered sector institutions is better (Shaguri, 2013). ered by pprivate riv However, participants, mostly icipants, mo ly aadministrators of private universities claim that stakeholders look for specialisation in deg degree ee as traditional generalised degree courses are not chosen nowadays. In a study by Oti Otieno and Ndayambaje (2015) which is based on students’ enrolments in undergraduate degree programmes by platform in Public Universities in Kenya, the researcher revealed the existence of positive relationship between course specialisation and enrolment. Since education is commoditised, students require exploitation of the Page 60 of 82

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commodity so that they get what they actually paid for. All these inferences specify the need to deliver quality of education in higher education institutions. Some respondents stated that the perceptions of students are towards joining private higher education institutions as they think the quality of education delivered is better. This led students to enrol in courses such as veterinary and agricultural science in private universities though these courses are offered at a relatively low fee in public higher education universities.

However, some respondents stated the views of stakeholders to be focussing on the features of the educational institutions. Certain factors such as infrastructure of the institution, hostel facilities and safety are considered while enrolling in a higher education institution. on.

The increase in the number of educational institutions in the nation by default specifies es th the stakeholders’ inclination towards private universities. However, internationalisation could not tion co d no ot be neglected in this context as parents look for recognised institutions to enrol their hei children. dren.

Such perceptions of stakeholders increase the number of private foreign hig higher er eeducation universities in India. However, there is also a viewpoint which lets ets sstudents nts to enro enrol in institutions that nurture the entrepreneurial capabilities of students. private uni universities ts Many ny priva ities deliver entrepreneurial training classes which aid students bringing g out their eir entrepreneurial trepren capabilities thereby beginning own businesses once their prof professional courses rses are completed. let

5.1 Effects of privatisation in Indian higher g education ucation The high standards of privatisation in India Indian high higher education cation wer were questioned which isatio Majo y of respondents spon revealed supporting responses for privatisation.

Majority discerned the fact that high standards of higher education With the increase in ion are met et in pprivate universities. nive the number of players in higher sector, healthy competitions arise within these ghe education ation se r hea institutions. In this manner, universities niversitie may improve mpro aand enhance the quality of education delivered thereby continual tinu n al improvement nu ovem nt in th the higher i education sector will be delivered.

Another important aspectt oof privat privatisation ion iin higher gh education is the freedom of operations in the higher education educational institutions are bound to the Government, cati institutions. tions. When ed then uniformity of certain asp aspects ects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher edu education cati institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest bus an advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2014).

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In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though it is deemed that delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected fees are used for the development of the institution’s infrastructure. Hence, the quality of education delivered should also be better. India demands competent workforce hence the quality and standards of private higher education are important to cater the needs of the nation. However, several issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation in Indian higher education sector. There are different state and central regulations and the regulations vary from state to state. In such a case, the standards of private higher education are questioned (British Council, 2014). One participant discerned the reason for the lack of standards in private higher education institutions as the enrolment rate of some colleges is relatively low. Privatisation brings the concept of internationalisation in higher education. More technological concepts are adopted pted by private universities thereby meeting high standards of higher education. o qu tion The effects of privatisation on educational discrimination were also questioned.

The ighe education duca responses of the participants revealed the existence of discrimination in th the higher sector for which some participants claimed privatisation to be the m major cau cause.

Private a se. P au ivat higher igher education institutions offer courses for fee which is not accessible to st students belonging to dent belongi economically backward classes in the society. This affects accessibility f ts the equity and acce fec bili of education delivered. Respondents fear the factors of so social iinequity and d the lack of inclusiveness in the private higher education instit institutions which creates a human resource nts cla ed pprivatisation sation to o hav imbalance. However, some of the participants claimed have increased equity and accessibility of higher education services country ices in the he co try aas private va e uuniversities are also set up in rural regions of the nation to satisfy needs of students. However, atisfy sf thee higher education sfy ion nee respondents argue that apart from equity the deliverance of higher education, an intricate ty in th elive issue lurks within increased private higher institutions, which is ‘unemployment’. her education duca n in Respondents state that disc discrimination generated by private higher education not because of tion is generat equity issues but issues related elated to unemployment m loy nt due to increased number of graduates. mp

5.2 Governmental menta regulations lation and privatisation The high standards off pr privatisation vat in Indian higher education were questioned which revealed supporting responses onses for privatisation. Majority of respondents discerned the fact that high standards of higher education are met in private universities. With the increase in the number of players in higher education sector, healthy competitions arise within these institutions. In this manner, universities may improve and enhance the quality of education Page 62 of 82

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delivered thereby continual improvement in the higher education sector will be delivered.

Another important aspect of privatisation in higher education is the freedom of operations in the higher education institutions. When educational institutions are bound to the Government, then uniformity of certain aspects such as syllabus and curriculum should be maintained. The autonomy of private higher education institutions enables private players to design their own state of the art syllabus and curriculum which enables students to perceive latest advancements. New technologies are adopted by private universities and practical knowledge is imparted for the benefits of the students (Pandey, 2004).

In India, private universities collect fee from students. Though it is deemed that at delivering education for money could turn hazardous, the collected fees are used forr the development of the institution’s infrastructure. Hence, the quality of education delivered tion de ere ed should also be better. India demands competent workforce hence the quality and sta standards rds of private higher education are important to cater the needs of the nation. How However, ver, several issues revolve around the prospects of privatisation in Indian higher educa education sec sector.

There r. Th are different state and central regulations and the regulations vary y ffrom state tate to state. ate. In such uch a case, the standards of private higher education are questioned (British Council, itish C u c 2014). One un participant discerned the reason for the lack of standards dards in private te higher education institutions as the enrolment rate of some colleges is relatively low. lativ ow Privatisation on bbrings the concept of internationalisation in higher education.

More technological n. M chnol concepts are adopted ds of higher education. duca ion. by private universities thereby meeting high standa standards n ed cation disc ination w The effects of privatisation on educational discrimination were also questioned. The nce oof discrimination in the higher education responses of the participants revealed the exi existence pants claimed d pprivatisation ivati ion tto be the major cause. Private higher sector for which some participants ses fo fforr fee f wh fe which h is nnot accessible to students belonging to education institutions offer courses economically backward classes in the ssociety.

This affects the equity and accessibility of d classe iety. T education delivered. vered. Respondents spon nts fe ffear the factors of social inequity and the lack of inclusiveness in higher education institutions which creates a human resource n tthe private highe duca imbalance. However, er, some of the he pparticipants claimed privatisation to have increased equity and accessibility of higher education uca services in the country as private universities are also set up in rural regions of the nati nation to satisfy the higher education needs of students. However, respondents argue that apart from equity in the deliverance of higher education, an intricate issue lurks within increased private higher education institutions, which is ‘unemployment’.

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Respondents state that discrimination is generated by private higher education not because of equity issues but issues related to unemployment due to increased number of graduates.

5.3 Governmental regulations and privatisation One important view of government towards privatisation of Indian higher education is to increase the Gross enrolment ratio (GER). The rules of the government are so liberalised that setting up private universities in India had been facilitated. The impact of liberalisation and globalisation has improved higher education sector in India in a relatively fast pace.

Government views privatisation of higher education as an act to create opportunities for young students in India so that education is delivered to all the classes of the society ciety (Amandeep, 2016). Some of the participants claimed that the government is supporting pp ng privatisation of Indian higher education so as to integrate human capital with jobs obs thereby hereby improving the economic status of the country. In India, three aspects of education cati are viewed by the government. They are equity, access and quality (Goel, 2013). In orderr to achieve chiev all the three factors in Indian higher education, the government should support privatisation. ort priv isati d fo fforr which participants articipa However, need for encouraging privatisation was questioned had contradictory viewpoints. Some of the respondents claim privatisation n to be necessary since it brings more prospects in the higher education sec sector.

The perceptionss of some r. T participants relate privatisation to be not successful and the success to be solely f l in all cases fu es an depending on the institution. Additionally, infe inferences were provided revealing the need for f rence we fe ided reve philanthropic private higher education in India thereby reb provoking rovo ing th the hazards in fee based higher education.

5.4 Implications The study had mixed re responses ses when it ccomes to encouraging privatisation in Indian r, th nce of privatisation in Indian higher education could higher education.. Ho However, the signifi significance not be neglected. participants ted. Majority of parti ipants in the present study belonged to public sector institutions and very participants ry fe ffew w partic ipan belonged to private universities and higher educational institutions. The main factor tha that participants claim to be driving privatisation in the Indian higher education sector iss the rate of enrolment in higher education. The total number of student enrolment in Private and Government Colleges of India till 2015 is found to be around 22 million wherein the number of enrolments in private educational institutions is found to be 14 million (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2015). The fact reveals Page 64 of 82

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the increased number of total student enrolment in private higher education universities in India. The GER of Indian higher education was found to be 19.4 per cent in the year 2010-11 and the enrolment rate of different states vary. Comparing the GER of India with other countries, it is revealed that the country is lagging behind developed and developing economies such as China (23 per cent), Brazil (34 per cent), UK (57 per cent) and the US (83 per cent) (Nandi, 2014). India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF, 2015) reveals a requirement of approximately 200 billion USD to achieve the target of 30 per cent GER by the year 2020.

In this regard, the Government of India has allowed 100 per cent foreign direct investment in the country for the education sector. The GER in Indian higher education is 23.6 calculated for the age group of 18-23 years. In this regard, it is evident that with the growth of number ber of private universities, the targeted 30 per cent GER could be achieved. Hence, there is a pressing need to increase the number of private universities with the growing ng student population (18-23 year old) projected to reach 142 million by 2030 (Ficcci, 2013) 2013).

Secondly, the quality of education and the types of services offered red by institutions nstit ions aare concerned and hence the perceptions of students and parents were re analysed. ysed. In the he ppresent nt study, it is revealed that stakeholders look for quality of education and thee fe ffeatures ures of the educational institution. Since education itself is commoditised, tised stakeholderss view tthe quality and features of the product. In this regard, students are inclined re in ed towards private ivat higher education institutions since according to them, thee qu quality off educ education and service is better. ucation inst Parents are also inclined to private higher educational institutions which are internationalised.

From the perceptions of the government, it is deemed the open market scenario in the med that hat th pen m Indian higher education wing will create eate ccompetitive petit ve aatmosphere here iin the nation wherein the native Indian private players and public higher eeducation catio institutions will improve the quality of education thereby benefitting fitting al all the he stakeholders akeh ders involved in higher education.

Internationalisation in this contextt w will improve ll imp m rov the key indicators such as curriculum, mp administration, research,, ffa faculty salary and so on (Tiwari et al., 2013). culty sala n (T Thirdly, Ind Indian higherr educa education n is witnessing regulation based complexities. The government of India clarity dia lacks clar ty in monitoring private higher education institutions in the country with different regulations ion existing with the central government and the regulations differing across various states. tes IIn some cases, judgements are imposed which even aggravate the conditions of private universities in India. This poses challenges for higher education universities to achieve the targeted GER (Joshi & Ahir, 2013). Participants of the interview Page 65 of 82

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stated that the laws of the government are liberalised to set up and manage private universities in India; however the confusion that lies within the implementation of regulations for private higher education institutions will always be a threat.

5.5 Conclusions The market driven educational model of Indian higher education has better prospects.

The country has witnessed successful privatisation in the educational sector and the higher education wing is no longer an exception. It is discerned from the study that by conducting interviews with educational pioneers, it is deemed that participants are inclined towards the good prospects of privatisation in the higher education sector; however, some fear the complications that arise out of the fee based model of education.

Private education in the beginning emerged as a concept of delivering education uca for or charity and philanthropy. Privatisation in the education sector is also to aid the ggovernment vern spread education. Educational institutions are set up by private ownerss and are ma maintained tained based on the regulations of the government though funding is acquired privatee pparties. quire from om priva During the emergence of privatisation in education sector, education is se served public ved as a publ u ubl good. Till date, many educational institutions in Europe rope and North America provide philanthropy based educational services. In many developed nations, their government elope nat ov supports private sector players for the educational serv services they offer. In India, privatisation y of of higher education is doubted for its fee-based profit motive structure.

Hence, the equity sed and pr fit m tructu t re H tu and access to higher education becomes the topic of hot debate. bate. ducatio instit institutions has increased over the years, Though the number of higher education ic secto titu ons fearr the equity to higher education. One participants belonging to public sector institutions participant belonging to pprivate higher educati education in institution stated the fact that private participation and increased international/ private higher education institutions in India d interna al/ fo fforeign gn pr is serving the econom economically stablee clas classess an and the poor communities are devoid of such y st tate of Karnataka, aka, sp ific percentage of seats is shared with the government services. In the state specific which is a good motive create acc access and equity. The present study recommends all the ive tto creat states of India to implement such uch seat sharing facilities in order to improve equity.

Overall, the perceptions of the participants both private and public sector administrators and vice-chancellors encourage privatisation in Indian higher education sector without which the targeted GER could not be achieved. However, the present study Page 66 of 82

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Appendix Questions/ ParticipantParticipant 1

Participant 2

Participant 3

Participant 4

Participant 5

Participant 6

Participant 7

Participant 8

Participant 9

Participant 10

Participant 11

Participant 12

Participant 13

Participant 14

Participant 15

Participant 16

Participant 17

1. In your view what is the role of private universities in the development of higher education?

1.

There are as many as 370 private universities in different part of states. You can understand the importance of state private universities in the higher education scenario of education.

1.

Higher education should have some peaks of excellence and private universities can play very important role.

1.

It is the government whose centre in the state is not in a position to cater the means of higher education, the younger population , the younger people specially of age 18-25 would very much like to have higher education but we know the access is limited because of number of institutions and also quality of education that is available both are important and this gap needs to be filled you know through philanthropic enterprises and private enterprises that means private enterprises have to become philanthropic.

1.

It is not just the role of private institutions in higher education but private and public should co-exist & they have both of them, they have their own advantages they have their own disadvantages.

1.

The private universities in Karnataka are the only state wherein we at private universities in Karnataka meet the socioeconomic obligation as well as contempt to gross enrollment ratio. I feel privatisation is crucial in higher education.

1.

There are no long term goals for the Government to improve public institutions.

Ultimately this leads to giving more importance to private higher education institutions.

1.

Private higher education institutions increase the number of higher education enrolment in the country.

1.

To increase the Gross enrolment ratio of the nation towards higher education, there should be atleast 1500 universities in India. Only with the increase in the number of private players a 50 per cent GER could be achieved.

1.

I would state that there is a lot of freedom for private universities which brings them academic excellence.

1.

Private universities don’t have a legacy as such but the founders of the university who have started it have a certain reputation, track record, so while choosing the university students see, how sound is the reputation and legacy that they are going to be part of.

1.

The role of private higher education institutions is crucial in uplifting the economic status of the country; however, the role is limited to a specific class.

1.

Privatisation in Indian Higher education is an important factor that satisfies the nation’s human capital needs.

1.

I doubt the credibility of private higher education institutions in India over the years.

1.

I believe the role of private universities is very significant and they are going to be with us.

1.

I would state that the number of employed person in the country, especially higher education graduates have increased. This is the success of privatisation in Indian higher education.

2.

Students choose private sector higher education universities even for courses such as agricultural science and veterinary courses. This is a good start.

2.

Students and parents choose higher education in private institutions since the quality of education in private institutions is better.

However, private sector institutions need improvement such as specialisation within a degree which is lacking in many private universities and colleges.

2.

Education has already been commoditized, and this commodity needs to be well exploited, so that we provide people who are innovative, we provide people who can think in different directions, we provide people who think for the good of the society. We provide people who can bring India’s stature up, lift the living stands up, who can also think in terms of how do we reduce the poverty in the country, we do we produce more employment at different levels. In such a case, we envision poverty and unemployment to be the national crisis which students think to gain a job is to study in a qualified education 3. How has the 3.

The government 3.

According to 2003, all 3.

The views of 3.

The higher government sees views privatisation of government viewed private universities all over the government towards privatisation in higher education privatisation of higher higher education as a country should get recognised privatisation are sector as a tool to increase the

by University Grant mostly liberal Gross enrolment ratio of higher education? move to support three Commission. If it is not, without any sort of education. But these institutions fundamental challenges should be given adequate freedom that is access, equity and probably they will not only put control and UGC regulation is not to manage themselves such as the quality. I believe that our penalties for any activities of the private universities, and accepted and syllabus. country cannot ignore they also publicise in the whole implemented at all. private educational country that these courses run This poses problems institutions as they are such as inadequate currently attracting a large by suss and such private number of students at university is not recognised. In quality of education this manner, the Government is served to students. least initially efforts imposing rules to manage should be made to private higher education encourage the senior private institutionsofalso to universities.

4. Is encouraging 4.

Privatisation 4.

Not in all cases. One issue 4.

With the 4.

I would state privatisation to privatisation of higher higher education in India is one of the state private increasing number of be a good option only if such university started agriculture education good for increases the higher student enrolment, it institutions are philanthropic.

India? is necessary for education enrolment rate programs last year. In this agriculture program, as we all private institutions in India. Hence it is a know it was not given to private to emerge in the good motive. people earlier. It was all run by country. However, I Government universities. Now, would suggest that the last year or the present year there should be some the private organisations can sort of collaboration take up agriculture courses, between UGC and veterinary courses and similar the state council and to that. One of the private the education university in the state, has department of the started agriculture programs state to oversee taking 100s of students and private participation running the program. Now, the in Higher education. students were already admitted in the government agricultural colleges, they have started saying that particular university which started agriculture program no water, necessary infrastructure, faculty and other 5. Can private 5.

Institutions like Birla 5.

I cannot clearly state the 5.

I think in terms 5.

Private universities definitely Institute of Technology universities bring significance of privatisation of of private bring higher standards in the higher standards in Higher education in India with universities, the delivery of education; however and Science, Pilani have the delivery of so many issues revolving great hope is, that recruitment training should also be been maintaining the education? freedom that these provided. standards in engineering around the regulations for private institution approval. institutions have, on par with IITs the enables to run any current opinion of public number of good private universities and programmes and institutions may be course which are justified to some extent. futuristic. Hence, the The existence of private higher standards of universities not only higher education are improves the quality of met. education but also provides the social responsibility. The success of self financing private universities can be 6. Will privatisation of 6.

No. The only issue 6.

Discrimination may occur 6.

With increase in 6.

Privatisation indeed generates with privatisation is the higher education since students trained in some the number of private discrimination. The present kind of institutions, there is a strength what is reported on create discrimination increase in the number of private institutions with poor in the distribution of unemployed graduates quality of education are a need to maintain Government agencies, 70% of higher education? affected. quality. graduates are unemployable they and postgraduate who acquire new skills and Discrimination may state except the special fields like occur since students medicine, the need for quality innovate their quality of workforce is increasing. With belonging to poor higher education that families suffer. In increased number of graduates becomes extremely such cases, emerging every year, there is a important. scholarships and discrimination in the job enrolment

2.

The sector of higher education is expanding.

Private institutions and private public partnerships are also increasing. All these statements attribute to the perceptions of students and parents to enrol in private higher education as the number of private institutions is increasing and the enrolment rate is also increasing.

2.

Students and the parents question educational institutions, “What is the value I derive from the money I paid for this program?”. The point here I’m making is, try to integrate the industry perception, interest in knowledge, emerge in knowledge, emerge in technology into the curriculum and the part of the credit goes so that they become not just qualified people, they become more relevant to the industry and more skillful to the industry because ultimately in the current emergence of the industry the services sector are, it is the sharp dealing of what knowledge you have acquired and what you 3.

Fortunately or unfortunately in the Indian system, in universities there is more of administration and less of governance. There are complex state and central government policies on privatisation of higher education.

2.

Students, parents and teachers look for more prospective features in educational institutions. Factors such as infrastructure, hostel facilities and safety are considered to the core.

Some private institutions provide quality features which stakeholders require.

1.

I would like to share with you that, the private sector contribution, into this stream of engineering, you will be surprised to know that, among all the private sector participation, in the higher education sector, 66% share is of the engineering stream, 24% share is of the medical stream, 4% management, 4% education. So, if you put together, you will come to know, that almost 98% private participation in higher education is limited to engineering, medical, management and education.

Therefore, whatever problem we are facing employability, is the 2.

Inof MBA, 41% employability,

2.

Stakeholders such as students look for job opportunities after their graduation. They opt for universities which cater such requirement.

2.

The private universities are playing a significant role in fulfilling the franchise for the demand of the quality education and at least 60% of the students are going to colleges in India and private institutions but there is a big disparity in the quality.

2.

Students look for colleges with basic amenities and infrastructure. Then education. However, their perceptions may vary when students belong to poor communities. They may not be able to join private universities which cost them high fee.

2.

The primary stakeholders are the students themselves followed by their parents, as they have seen it as a i ir joint perception on their part and then there is also choosing the university from the supplies side, who are the faculty.

Hence, choosing the right university becomes very tant. important.

2.

Students ts have ceptions. different perceptions.

Some state their i fa ir ffamily mily mil ily legacy that poses es them to jjoin a university,, others claim the infrastructure cla ucture to attract them make an attrac admission. admi m ssion mi

2.

Quality of teachers or quality of the academic programs and infrastructure, campus safety, especially for women, cost and location were the criteria used by stakeholders that is the primary stakeholders, the sstudents, the parents, to choose the institution. ch

2.

Excellent infrastructure in teaching, learning environment, creating research, administration, and also the emphasis for student life

2.

Very few private universities come up to the level of international level, which is tagetted by stake holders, students parents , etc all put together.

2.

Private universities nowadays nurture entrepreneurial capabilities. For example, innovation centers, incubation centers, makers’ space are left for students to learn. Students even look for universities delivering such opportunities.

3.

Government views the opportunity to create an integrated economy with the human capital and jobs.

3.

The Government of India is on a vision to increase the number of universities to achieve a GER of 50 per cent.

Further, the state of Karnataka is playing key role in bringing public and private universities together.

3.

Government hass 3.

Government views privatisation pri riiv ri v atis as a strategy liberal regulations towards privatisation; to in iincrease creas GER. however, in the future, when new regulations are imposed on the private iinstitutions, in stit i utions, it it i shou should not affect affec ff t their ffec i freedom to ir education.

3.

Th The government is 3. open to private universities univ i ersit iv i it with less regulation egulatio to control. This is an act to increase the GER G GE ER of the nation ER nation.

4.

Private sector participation is deemed important. As previously mentioned, the perception of students towards education is whether they gain relevant knowledge for what they pay as a fee. In this regard, I claim private universities penetrate the knowledge into the students so that they become more relevant to the industry sector.

4.

Privatisation is nothing but plain commercialisation. profit making would be the motto and the charitable educational institutions that is always temptation of commercialization and profit making.

Privatisation may prove hazardous at times.

4. I don’t necessarily think that with increased private players in higher education, the nation’s economic prospects will grow. If we analyse certain reports of the government, it is revealed that private institutions produce industry centric manpower, human capital, and the 50% of them are not employable. Then how will privatisation be good.

4.

In India, there is no bridge between industries and universities. Very few private institutions try to bridge the gap. However, the rate of unemployment is high. This intrigues the role of privatisation as the nation is sstill suffering m loy mp from unemp unemployment.

4.

Quality of education ducation is a primary pr concern. n. In Karnataka, K Ka r ata rn a joint programme is conducted programm ed to exc exchange x hange students and xc nd hers within wit i h the public it teachers and private riv ri iv ate uni universities.

This led d new thin things i in to be wever, I do not learnt. However, see only the e contri contribution ribu ri ibu of the private sector as both private and d public sector are concerned. ned.

4.

Privatisation is a 4.

Obviously viously l when ly w e wh g there is a need eed to in iincrease cr good concept if in case the professional degree is the GER, then we shoul th should jobtegies to job-oriented. go with the strategies increase private higher ns as education instiutions er the funding for higher m nt me education by Government is very low.

4.

U Un Universities i ersit iv i ies cannot it mp loyme mp m nt, they me be for employment, are for life. That is why w the primary role le of universities is to in iincrease creas tthe knowledge, build ild up the attitude and skill is th also a part of it. But I als think thin i you must consider in all tthese things important; gen knowledge, generating skill k development as well kill as the large social concern that must be a c part.

5.

There is a new standard being adopted dop by private universities w wh ich is known as flipped which classroom classroom. In this learning mode, ffaculties fac ult l ies guide students on how to lt procee proceed their career with the sel selected professional degree. Very li little focus is on classroom environment and students look for practical knowledge. In this regard, I view privatisation to bring be cation benefits in higher education.

5.

May be. Fund Funding for higher education ducation is larg large i utions it as these institutions re pri riv ri iv ate collect fee and are private players. Hence, the quality of education delivered would be good.

5.

We vi view nationali as a internationalisation part of pri privatisation riv ri iv atisa of higher education high ducation in India, espec i the sta state of especially in Karnataka.

K Ka r ataka rn k ka

5.

5 Most private pri riv ri iv ate ersit i ies emb it embrace m race mb universities technological ogical concepts concep in all activities. These act as high standards for students to learn more effectively.

2. What are the stake holders (students , parents, employers) perception of choosing universities?

1.

As per the latest published data of human resource research development India has 754 Universities, State Government Universities are 372, Private Universites are 245 Deemed Universties are 137. The role of Private sector in Indian higher education is increased significantly over the last decade. With the majority of students currently enrolled in these private institutions. the role will 2.

In the higher

education sector in India this is calculated between 18 to 23 yrs of age group total enrollment in higher education regard less of age express as a percentage to the eligible official population of 1823. Students are inclined towards enrolling in private sector universities for higher education.

3.

The regulations of the Government are not implemented properly. This shows lack of interest of governmental bodies to manage private higher education sector in India.

4.

I would state if national quality of excellence, social justice, inclusion and regional and social disparity could be achieved, then privatisation in Indian higher education is a benefit.

5.

There is no real quality 5. education fed to students enrolled in higher education sector (both private and public). I think the standards have not been met since the enrolment rate of students in some private higher education institutions is relatively low. This creates an imbalance.

Yes

only 41%. In B.A, arts stream, it is 19%. In B.Com, it is 26%. In B.Sc. It is 41%. In MCA, Computer application, it is 43%. ITI, you will be surprised to know the figures. It is only 46%. Most of us feel that people who do the trades and all, they get the job, but no. That’s what the reality is. Even in Polytechnic, it is just 11%, means, 89% students coming out of polytechnic, they are not employable. This is a very serious issue we have to look at. And in pharma, it is 54%. The best in the country, the stream, which you can have a highest percentage of employability, that is only pharma.

3.

Government looks at 3. factors such as equity and access to higher education by students.

Hence, the views of Government are open to privatisation.

5.

Privatisation may provide higher standards in Indian higher education if academic flexibility, diversity of force skill based, competency y based vativ i e iv curriculum, innovative programs, processes cesses and procedures, courses and then creation of new knowledge by research search and then collaboration tion of international and national onal repute, of course quality student enhancement, transparency and accountability and social accountability are all 6.

I clearly view the lack of 6.

In the state of Karnataka, taka k , 40 6 ka 6.

I do not perceive social inclusion in higher al m mo r good traits about % of seats in the professional more education sector. My views courses are surrendered to the privatisation pri riv ri iv ati in Indian are towards the public government which is an act to higher ed education. prevent discrimination. I suppose Moreover, p private private mix which can only this should close the gap. ould be im iimplemented mp leme mp m n me in all educational cational institutions i in the states of the country country. r . ry are mostly stly l ly commercialised. cialised. I don’t do see the good d prospect prospects of private higher education p i IIndia. in

6.

To me m pri privatisation riv ri iv atisa has not 6.

Skill development is created discrimination rim ri imi min in ation iin the equity something I think that is of higher education private cation but in iinequity in lacking in both pri riv ri iv employment. and public sector higher ector high iinstitutions. stit i utions. it education in This creates employment eates emp m loym mp qualit li y. lit inequality.

5.

Though private universities burden students with fee, the collected funds are used for the development of the institutions’ infrastructure.

5.

I think 2 kinds of education are possible.

One is for employment, while the other one is for social transformation. I think corporate universities and private universities have been busy. Looking at everything as rightly said, in terms of corporate context, personal attitude development, skill development, but if they forget about the larger context of intervention to the society to a social transformation, that 6.

I could not 6.

Social inclusiveness 6.

There is no stable 6.

Private institutions completely oppose is lacking in private higher financial model for private nowadays are towards education institutions. I privatisation as it has higher education increasing the merits too. However, I fear would suggest revision of institutions in India. employability of the nation- it is good for the the factors of fee structure to create These are generally inaccessibility and social equity. nation, however there are diverse among different inequity in higher doubts about the quality states. Hence equity education. could not be maintained. of education delivered.

No idea id

4.

There is a need to revamp our education system on one hand and exposing the teachers to timely changes in knowledge levels of their respective disciplines.

This is how stakeholders perceive higher education offered by private universities.

3.

G Go Government vern r me rn m nt o of India 3. is ready dy to start r at the rt higher rate att th the later stage, which is to me looks all very, saturated now in terms of refunding, in terms of resources in terms of man-power. In this manner, the government adopts privatisation in the higher education sector.

4.

There is a question on how to satisfy the increasing demands and needs and aspiration of people of the country, especially the talented young people has got this opportunity to study in various schools, internet and various other resources available, aware of the higher education benefits. So now with this background, it’s very clear that days to come that private universities are going to play the role.

3.

Government see privatisation as a means to increase the employability status of higher education graduates.

–

4.

Some private 4.

Yes, it brings out institutions have more potential workforce. played important bringing quality inputs concentrating on the rural areas that will bring this paradigm shift.

5.

The mounting 5.

Excellence in Private Universities that is not so demands of higher education require good especially the competent human standards are so slanting resource. Private perhaps in my opinion it universities in this global is different. Excellence is era are transformed in not used these days term of curriculum, in talking about the quality and standards. institutions especially regarding credibility.

5.

Universities are even established in rural areas which aid students belonging to that region to be empowered.

Additionally, the standards of higher education and the access to the same are increased.

5.

Private funding are vast, hence the standards of education are maintained.

6.

In some way or another, students are enrolled in higher education either in public or private institutions.

However, I find discrimination in the employability status of students studying in different universities. It is the quality of education

6.

Private institutions are extending to rural parts of the nation.

The gap is getting bridged nowadays with new private institutions.

6. I don’t find discrimination .

Access to higher education is increased, standards are maintained and so on.

6.

The private universities must have a central role, a philanthropic role for commercial purpose.

Since such a role is lacking, there will be no basis for equity.

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