Tvergastein Issue #5

ISSUE 5, 2/2014

Food Rights and Food Fights

Editorial board: Stephen Bell, Natia Chkhetiani, Piper Donlin, Jonathan Fraenkel-Eidse, Despina Gleitsmann, Charlotte Lilleby Kildal and Marcela Oliveira.

Design: Magnus Wittersø Front page photo: Martin Haagensen - www.martinhaagensen.no Printer: Grøset Trykkeri Circulation: 800 Editorial review finished: 29th of September 2014 Date of publication: 29th of October 2014 ISSN number (online): ISSN 1893-5834 ISSN number (print): ISSN 1893-5605 Tvergastein has two annual issues and is distributed for free at UiO, NMBU and several other locations.

A digital version can be found at our webpage: www.tvergastein.com We would like to extend our sincere gratitude and thanks to Martin Haagensen and Kooperativet for lending us their photographs as well as to our sponsors: Kulturstyret, Arne Næss Chair, LEVE and The Centre for Development and the Environment (SUM).

Address: Tvergastein, co/SUM, Postboks 1116 Blindern 0317 OSLO E-mail: tvergastein@sum.uio.no Web: www.tvergastein.com Facebook: facebook.com/tvergastein Twitter: @tvergastein The article submission deadline and theme for the next issue will be announced on our web page and our Facebook page.

Tvergastein accepts submissions in two categories: Shorter op-ed pieces (2,000 - 5,000 characters) and longer articles (10,000 - 20,000 characters), in either English or Norwegian.

Tvergastein 5th Issue

5

Editorial Statement

7

Food and global warming, a starting point for food sustainability William Nicholson

12

Spisformulering, Intervju med Gunnhild Stordalen Kristian Bjørkdahl

20

Når maten ikke når magen Anna Birgitte Milford

22

The Story and Impacts of Industrial Corn in the American Food System Piper Donlin

28

McPhÔ: Fast slow food and slow fast food in Vietnam Arve Hansen

30

Common Ground Eric Sannerud

34

Green Summer Chat, Interview with Annikken Rustad Jøssund Natia Chkhetiani

44

Klima for mat Borgar Aamaas

50

Kva gjer matvanane våre med jorda vår?

Solveig Lyngre

54

A Thirty Year Fight for Healthier Food Arthur (Tex) Hawkins

58

Money Can’t Be Eaten Dr. Meredith Gartin

4

60

Struggles for Food Sovereignty in Latin America Cecilie Hirsch

66

Matkunnskap - billig løsning på dyrt problem Andreas Viestad

68

Smallholder Agricultural Production Regimes Kjell Havnevik

74

Is more nutrition information really going to help us eat healthier? The issue with health claims and food labeling Marije Oostindjer

78

Laksen - tar vi den for god fisk?

Charlotte Andersen

82

Oslo Food Coop – local, organic and sustainable Andreas Færøvig Olsen

90

Between mining and food security: The Case of Colombia Paloma Leon Campos

94

Beef of Burden?

Siri Karlsen Bellika

98

The trouble with Sushi: the environmental cost of fish farming practices Christina Campo

100

Permakultur i din miljøhverdag Thale Lindstad og Jørgen Rafn

104

The protection gap in the palm oil sector in Indonesia Aksel Tømte

110

About the Contributors

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6

Food Rights and Food Fights

TVERGASTEIN BOARD OF EDITORS

“I think it could be plausibly argued that changes of diet

exception of Africa, the leading cause of death in low and

are more important than changes of dynasty or even of

middle income countries is non-communicable diseases,

religion....Yet it is curious how seldom the all-importance

such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, which are

of food is recognized. You see statues everywhere to

often linked to poor diet and lack of access to healthy

politicians, poets, bishops, but none to cooks or bacon-

foods. Accessing healthy food is a serious economic

curers or market gardeners.”

challenge for many, not only in developing nations, but

- George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier

in supermarkets and households worldwide, as they are often more expensive than cheaper, heavily-processed

In our daily lives, many of us take the food we eat for

alternatives.

granted, yet what we eat has tremendous consequences.

Food is unique in that it is something everyone on earth

From addressing climate change through growing one’s

can relate to. It is what sustains us all, irrespective of

own vegetables, to managing the global struggle against

heritage, background and geographical location. Food is

obesity and diabetes, food has become a means of

a part of cultural identity and has social, environmental,

addressing some of the serious problems environmental,

economic and political implications. In this issue of

social and economic problems we face. While some

Tvergastein, we address food as one of this century’s most

contributors to “Food Rights and Food Fights” unveil the

pressing global issues.

most pressing issues and consequences of the modern food system, others, such as Andreas Viestad and the interview

The food strikes that occurred in many parts of the world

with Annikken Rustad Jøssund provide innovative

in 2007 were brought on by significant increases in food

solutions and case studies of Oslo-based initiatives. From

prices, economic instability, and social unrest within the

Cecilie Hirsch’s piece on food rights in Bolivia to Kristian

food system. These strikes served as a stark reminder,

Bjørkdahl’s interview with Gunhild Stordalen at the EAT

not only of our interconnectedness in food supply and

Forum in Stockholm, “Food Rights and Food Fights” spans

production, but also of the great injustices that the

the globe in an effort to critique the current food system,

globalized food system has created. It is also clear that

provide alternatives, and inspiration for a healthy and

food, health, and economic factors are heavily interlinked.

sustainable future.

According to the World Health Organisation, with the 7

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL 8

Food and global warming, a starting point for food sustainability?

WILL NICHOLSON

Farmageddon?

consumption and related land-use change.1 Whilst

There are 7 billion of us. Soon we will be 9 billion. More

there are emissions attributed to all stages of the food

and more people in the world are able to live western-like

system, including transport, storage and preparation,

consumer lifestyles. We are sleep-walking (or perhaps sleep-

the largest single impact comes from food production

running?) into global warming. We are destroying the very

itself – agriculture. Whilst there is obviously an argument

land we depend upon to feed ourselves. Many have food-

for reducing emissions at all stages, the emission

related health problems, many suffer from food poverty.

levels in catering, retail, home cooking, transport and

Heard some of this before? Good, because research suggests

manufacturing are largely due to fossil fuel use (either from

it is not just a scary story, not just one of Æsop’s fables

energy or transport fuel) and as such depend on the energy

about greed and short-termism leading to self-destruction.

and fuel mix.4 Overall, the main impact is outside of

It is a situation of our own making and, to me, a situation

energy-mix considerations.

we can solve.

Problems within the food system are complex and multidimensional, so sometimes it is useful to find a place to start, a trigger for change that can lead to more change.

The contribution of our food system to global warming is an often misunderstood part of the puzzle, but it could be the catalyst for real change. The change needs to come from us.

Global warming & food The food industry alone has a significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions; up to 30% of global emissions

Proportional greenhouse gas emissions within

are attributed to food production, food transport, food

the food system

9

Food and global warming, a starting point for food

Up to 30% of global emissions are attributed to food production, food transport, food consumption and related land-use change

By far the biggest global warming contribution comes

might be essential if global warming is to be kept within acceptable limits.5

from food production, and the impact of different food products is far from equal. Research consistently shows meat and dairy products to have higher carbon footprints

Not quite Animal Farm‌

than grains and vegetables, with especially high footprints

As George Orwell suggested, all animals are not equal.

for products deriving from ruminating livestock (cattle

Neither are their carbon footprints. Beef is consistently

and sheep)5 6. High emissions from ruminators are due to

found to have a carbon footprint 3 times higher than pork,

methane production from enteric fermentation within

4 times higher than chicken, and 40 times higher than

the animals’ stomachs, rather than any specific input into

most vegetables. Dairy products come from cows, so also

production. Indeed, this impact is so high it has been

have a high carbon footprint, although to a lesser extent

proposed that a reduction in beef and dairy products

than beef.

This is approximately how the carbon footprint scale for food looks on a graph:

10

Will Nicholson

When you eat a cheeseburger you have, indirectly, made the same global warming contribution as driving over 20km in a family car.

To put it into perspective, the global warming contribution of livestock has been estimated to be the same as the global warming contribution of driving all the cars on the planet.8 As with any research this must be seen as an estimate, but you can see how this might be realistic when you consider the following scenario. When you eat a cheeseburger you have, indirectly, made the same global

Will organic food save the world?

warming contribution as driving over 20km in a family

We can eat less meat, and make a big difference, that much

car. A chicken burger is the same as about 6km, and a

is clear. Are there any other things we can do to reduce the

vegetarian burger about 2km. And now think how many

global warming contribution of the food we eat? Many

burger restaurants are there in the average western city.

people believe organic, or økologisk, food is the direction

The important thing to remember here is that

we should be going. In terms of soil health, energy inputs

solutions to the global warming contribution of driving

and animal welfare, yes, organic food production has many

a car are both technical (think electric cars, hydrogen

benefits that should be part of our way of producing food

fuel cells and the like) and behavioural (use more public

– it is simply more sustainable in the long-term, even if

transport, use a bike more often, share car journeys and

current yield levels may not always be as high as industrial

such). The technological solutions to the global warming

farming. From the perspective of global warming however,

contribution of food are more limited. Yes, green fuels

it is not so straight-forward. Comparison of the carbon

can reduce the impact in terms of farm equipment, and

footprint of organic food versus conventional food is

different farming techniques can reduce the global warming

inconsistent, varying from one product to another. For

contribution of fertilisers, and research does suggest that

example, different research has found organic beef to have

agricultural efficiencies can be achieved. But fundamentally

both a lower overall carbon footprint and a higher carbon

the decision is ours as consumers. Meat will always have

footprint than conventional beef[i]. The same has been

a higher impact than vegetables (unless we start eating

found for vegetables and other food products. You should

biotech fake meat, but probably not any time soon).

still buy organic food when you can, because it has many

And this is the key point with consumer behaviour,

benefits for the environment, but you should not assume

food, and global warming. The potential benefits of

that this is a better thing to do from a global warming

eating a “low carbon footprint” diet are many. If people

perspective.

in wealthy countries eat lower on the carbon footprint scale (less meat, less processed food, more vegetables, more

Locavores in the global village

protein from food like beans), we will significantly reduce

Another area that has become somewhat misunderstood

human contribution to greenhouse gas levels, and at the

is the benefit of local food. The local food movement,

same time be healthier. Meat is also problematic from a

similar to the organic food movement, has many

land-use perspective, so a reduction in meat consumption

advantages. The original premise concerning “food miles”

can free more suitable land for crops to feed a growing

was an assumption that eating local food equates to

population. According to WWF, over 30 “football fields”

lower global warming. This however been shown to be

of forest are removed every day, and much of that land

too simplistic. Much has been made about the impact

is then used to grow crops to feed livestock. This has a

of transporting food within a global system and 12%2 is

double-whammy impact on global warming: fewer trees to

not an inconsiderable contribution. However, the issue of

suck up carbon dioxide, and more GHG emitting animals

“food miles” is more complex than simply equating carbon

being produced.

footprint with the distance food has travelled.3 Life cycle analysis has shown that some products do indeed have a significantly higher carbon footprint when transported long distances, and by carbon intensive transport; however 11

Food and global warming, a starting point for food

Research consistently shows meat and dairy products to have higher carbon footprints than grains and vegetables, with especially high footprints for products deriving from ruminating livestock (cattle and sheep)

other products can have lower carbon footprints when not

are wider than just global warming; fish stocks have been

sourced locally, depending on the production method and

pushed to critical limits6 and valuable water resources

seasonality. A clear example of this has been comparing the

are being depleted.7 Environmental degradation (such as

carbon footprint of English tomatoes in winter (grown in

biodiversity loss, nitrogen pollution of water systems, and

a carbon intensive way using greenhouses) with tomatoes

reduced soil health) has increased through negative effects

grown in more climatically appropriate conditions in Spain

of industrial agriculture.8 All the while, developed countries

4

and transported to England. Perhaps this should be viewed

suffer from over-consumption, whilst the poorest countries

through the lens of seasonal food rather than local food,

continue to suffer from malnutrition.9

and perhaps we need to be practical about this. As someone

If we start to eat smarter in terms of the global

with years of experience in the restaurant industry, I know

warming contribution of our diets, then we start to create

how unrealistic it is to have a large-scale local food supply

the space within the food system for more sustainable

in a Norwegian winter. The sensible approach is just to eat

farming to flourish, for more efficient land-use, for

food that is appropriate to the season, but do not assume

agricultural land to be used to sustainably maximise

that this is going to save the planet on its own.

productivity, not to feed cattle so we can eat more burgers.

Meat has a place within our diets, but not to the extent

We need to start somewhere

where its production acts as a barrier to positive changes in

So where does this leave us? From a global warming

our food system. A “climate smart” diet can be a catalyst to

perspective we have to consider that economic

moving towards what I see as the 3 key things we need to

development in other countries is leading to rapid global

do: eat more responsibly, farm more sustainably, and waste

increases in meat consumption. It is estimated that demand

less food. But more of that another time.

for meat will increase by 50% in the next decades5, and who are we to say that other populations should not have the same opportunities as us? We can’t say this, but we can change our behaviour and, within reason, expect others to do the same. A responsible diet where we eat less meat and more vegetables is “climate smart”, healthier and more cost-effective. If organic food is more expensive, then the money we save from eating less meat could be used to buy more organic food. I know this can work, I do it myself. So we start to get into win-win situations – we are reducing global warming contributions, increasing agricultural sustainability, and living more healthy sustainable lives.

This matters because the problems within the food system 12

Will Nicholson

NOTES: 8 FAO (2006) Livestock’s Long Shadow – environmental issues

All material is copyrighted to IntoLife / Will Nicholson.

and options 9 Hille, J. et al. (2012) 1 Garnett, T. (2011) Where are the best opportunities for reducing

10 Garnett, T. (2011)

greenhouse gas emissions in the food system (including the food

11 Edwards-Jones, G. et al. (2008) Testing the assertion that ‘local

chain)? Food Policy 36 23-32.

food is best’: the challenges of an evidence-based approach. Trends

2 Garnett, T. (2011)

in Food Science & Technology 19 265-274

3 Garnett, T. (2011)

12 Smith, A., et al. (2005) The validity of food miles as an

4 Hille, J. et al. (2012) Environmental and climate analysis for the

indicator of sustainable development. Oxon,

Norwegian agriculture and food sector and assessment of actions.

UK: Defra. ED50254, -103

Norwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute (NILF).

13 Pretty, J. (2008) Agricultural sustainability: concepts, principles

Working Paper

and evidence. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363, 447-465.

5 Hille, J. et al. (2012)

14 Pauly, D. (2002) Towards sustainability in world fisheries.

6 Nijdam, D. et al. (2012) The price of protein: Review of land use

Nature. 418, 689-695

and carbon footprints from life cycle assessments of animal food

15 Mekonnen, M., M., Hoekstra, A., Y. (2011) The green, blue and

products and their substitutes. Food Policy 37, 760-770

grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Hydrol.

7 Hedenus, F. et al. (2014) The importance of reduced meat and

Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 1577–1600

dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets.

16 Pretty, J. (2008)

Climatic Change. In Press, 28 March 2014

17 Pretty, J. (2008)

13

Spisformulering Intervju med Gunnhild Stordalen

KRISTIAN BJØRKDAHL

Alle vet at det er viktigere å drikke enn å spise. Et

til den neste. Jeg følte meg uansett ikke spesielt tøff da jeg

menneske kan overleve 2-3 uker uten mat, men dør

ankom Skandinavias hovedstad. Med stor møye karret jeg

etter bare noen få døgn uten væske. Det var ikke denne

meg de få metrene til konferansehotellet. Jeg hadde sett ut

barnelærdommen som begrunnet min timeplan mot

som et lik da jeg så meg i speilet den morgenen, og antok at

slutten av mai 2014. Likevel, da jeg en het morgen stabbet

to togturer, en flytur, samt diverse motstridig gange under

meg mot togstasjonen i Trastevere i Roma for å komme

blytung blazerbag neppe hadde hatt en forskjønnende

til verdenshistoriens første EAT Stockholm Food Forum

effekt på meg. Jeg var i en slik tilstand der man aller helst

– en konferanse om mat, helse og bærekraft – hadde

bare vil være for seg selv, og ikke bli sett av noen.

jeg akkurat lagt bak meg fire dager med, vel, drikking.

Skjebnen ville det – akk! – ikke slik. Den første jeg

Du lurer kanskje på hvorfor jeg prioriterte på denne

møtte da jeg steg inn i hotellobbyen var hotellets eier, og

måten? En ren tilfeldighet, I can assure you. En av mine

dermed vertskap for EAT, nemlig Petter Stordalen. Jeg

tidligere arbeidsplasser hadde noen midler til overs på et

kjenner noen som kjenner ham, og derfor hadde jeg møtt

budsjett og hadde invitert alle sine alumni til et fire dagers

ham noen ganger før. Nå registrerte jeg at han var like

symposium ved Det norske instituttet i Roma. Gjensynet

opplagt og velantrukket som alltid. «Jøss, er du her!?»,

av gamle kolleger var så gledelig at det respektable faglige

utbrøt han, tydelig overrasket. «Hvorfor må alle alltid være

programmet ble supplert med et minst like fyldig sosialt

så tydelig overrasket over at jeg dukker opp på steder!?»,

program.

tenkte jeg. «Jo, jeg er her. Skal på EAT, vettu», svarte jeg,

Men slike utskeielser har en kostnad – og nå betalte

slagkraftig og inspirert. Jeg hadde en snikende følelse av at

jeg prisen. Det begynte å ane meg at beslutningen om å dra

jeg hadde på meg samme skjorte som mannen en gang lot

rett fra de fire dagene i Roma til tre nye i Stockholm ikke

falle en smått sarkastisk kommentar om, og jeg begynte å

hadde vært spesielt klok. Jeg er for gammel for sånt. Oppå

lure på om spesielt velkledde folk også legger bedre merke

det hele måtte jeg drasse på en bag full av dressjakker; det

til andres klær. «Ja, det er jo helt sinnsykt opplegg, vettu!

er ikke like tøft som en neve full av dollars, men ikke desto

Gunhild har jobba dag og natt, så nå er det bare å måke

mindre nødvendig når man farter fra den ene konferansen

på!» Nei, ingen tegn til skjortespøk denne gangen; naturlig 14

Photo: BAARD HENRIKSEN, PER SOLLERMAN

nok var han mer opptatt av hva kona hans var i ferd med å

En sjelden gang er man kanskje heldig og hører et

få i stand. «Ja, det kan jeg tenke meg», svarte jeg, og håpet

minneverdig foredrag, eller man deltar tilfeldigvis på

at tanngarden som stakk fram gjennom det skjeve gliset jeg

en workshop hvor det faktisk jobbes. Likevel, den mest

presterte ikke avslørte at jeg hadde glemt å pakke tannkrem

nærliggende nytten av en konferanse er kontaktene man

til Roma-turen. «Ja, men bra, vi ses!», sa han, og forsvant

kan knytte i «mellomtiden». Dette var også den største

inn i noen indre gemakker.

nytten jeg hadde av EAT. Samtidig må jeg legge til at EAT

Etter at jeg hadde gjort et så formidabelt inntrykk på

på dette området var noe utenom normalen; klientellet her

Norges rikeste mann, ventet altså EAT Stockholm Food

var nemlig langt mer variert enn vanlig.

Forum. For min del skulle det vise seg å bli en lang rekke

På disse siste dagene i mai møtte jeg ikke bare den

nye møter – som heldigvis ikke var like pinlige som dette

nevnte hotellmilliardæren; jeg møtte også en norsk

første – med en rekke nye folk. Dette var forresten helt som

organisasjonspsykolog som jobber med atferdsendring;

det skal være.

en tidligere kokk som reiser rundt i verden for å etablere et verdensomspennende nettverk av kokker; en WHOdirektør; en representant for et firma som dyrker planter for farmasøytisk industri (nei, ikke den planten…); en veterinærstudent med gründerambisjoner; en dame fra National Geographics Sverige-kontor; en representant for

Ordet «konferanse» betyr jo nettopp «møte», og alle som har vært på noen konferanser vet at det interessante skjer mellom sesjonene.

det norske kongelige hoff; en mangeårig FN-byråkrat (og visstnok, vokalist i et rockeband) som nå jobbet med IPCC-prosessen; en kjent indisk miljøaktivist; vinneren av de såkalte Local EAT Awards (fra et firma som drev med produksjon av tang); en National Geographic-fotograf; en vilt morsom komiker; en CR-ansvarlig fra hotellbransjen; en gruppe fra Accenture (som jeg riktignok aldri fikk helt 15

Spisformulering

Helse og bærekraft er ikke et kjærlighetsekteskap, men mer som et fornuftsekteskap – som må fungere sammen.

taket på hva jobbet med); for ikke å nevne en hel gjeng

selvfølgelig også en mer personlig interesse av dette; jeg

med forskere på feltet mat, helse, og bærekraft.

deltok på EAT som representant for Senter for utvikling

På rene forskerkonferanser møter man stort sett bare

og miljø (SUM), som er en av EATs såkalte Research &

andre forskere, og disse holder bare unntaksvis på med ting

Development Partners. Og i min bransje, altså forskning,

som angår andre enn en snever krets med fagfeller. EAT

har man typisk bare begrenset tålmodighet med, vel,

var utypisk på begge punkter; det var mindre lukket og

egentlig alt som ikke er forskning. Derfor hadde jeg også en

mer praktisk orientert enn de fleste andre konferanser jeg

viss dragning mot å spille Djevelens Advokat med Gunhild

har vært på. Derfor var det til min store overraskelse at jeg

Stordalen.

oppdaget reaksjonene på EAT i norske medier, hvor det av mange ble beskrevet som et lukket arrangement med

Gunhild, dette nummeret av Tvergastein skal ta for seg

et elitistisk siktemål. VGs kommentator Astrid Meland,

«food rights and food fights». Hva er din «food fight»?

for eksempel, kalte EAT «et kostbart etterutdanningskurs for de magre og mektige», en «nettverks-PR-jippo» og

Min food fight er Good Food for All. Jeg kjemper

«elitistisk … matjåleri». Marie Simonsen i Dagbladet

for matproduksjon som er klimasmart og bærekraftig

kalte det en «lekegrind for veltrente og småspiste rikinger

i et globalt perspektiv, etisk akseptabelt for dyrene og

med dyre spesialbutikker i nabolaget». Mens Drude Beer

for menneskene som produserer den og, ikke minst,

i Nationen skrev: «De tynne og rike skal slanke de feite».

helsefremmende for de som spiser den.

Mange av disse beske utfallene var mer eller mindre fordekte stikk til konferansens primus motor, Gunhild

Oi, det var ikke rent lite. Kan ikke disse ambisjonene bli

Stordalen. Mediekommentatorene synes åpenbart at hun

noe, hva skal vi si, sprikende? Er det ikke litt sånn at når man

var for tynn og rik til å kunne bry seg om mat og bærekraft.

skal løse alt, så kan man fort ende opp med å løse ingenting?

Riktignok så ikke alle noen grunn til kritikk. For

Eller, la meg formulere det på en annen måte: Hvis EAT er

eksempel ble initiativet forsvart heller inderlig av Aksel

svaret, hva er spørsmålet?

Nærstad i Utviklingsfondet – i Klassekampen, av alle steder – som skrev at Stordalen fortjente både takk og ros

Spørsmålet er: Hvordan fø 9 milliarder sunne

for initiativet, og som la til at «EAT-forumene kan bli svært

mennesker innenfor planetens grenser? Noen av vår

viktige». Uansett, min reaksjon på mediereaksjonene fikk

tids største utfordringer handler om helse og miljø,

meg til å ville vite mer om hva jeg egentlig hadde vært

som epidemien av kroniske livsstilssykdommer og

med på. Hva er EAT? Hvilke mål har man med initiativet?

klimaendringer. Hittil har disse problemene stort sett

Hvordan skal de nås? Og er det noe i kritikken? Jeg har

har vært ansett som separate. Det vi vil understreke med 16

Kristian Bjørkdahl

EAT er at de faktisk henger tett sammen, og at veldig

afterdsøkonomi og -psykologi, etc.) og ulike temaområder

mye av problemet skyldes mat – hva vi spiser og hvordan

(mat/helse/bærekraft) til å jobbe sammen, samtidig som disse

det produseres. Med EAT vil vi fremme det vi kaller en

forskerne – sammen – skal samarbeide med business, politikk

dobbel-trippel-helix – det vil si mat/helse/bærekraft sett

og sivilsamfunn (!!!). Er det dette man kaller hybris?

på tvers av forskning/politikk/næringsliv. Vi mener at å forstå dette som en slik kompleks helhet kan bli en modell

Nei, man kaller det work-in-progress. Vi er selvfølgelig

for endring av det globale matsystemet. Samtidig trenger

hele tiden i dialog med våre partnere om hvordan dette

vi mer tverrfaglig kunnskap om sammenhengene mellom

skal struktureres og konkretiseres, men mye har vi på plass

mat, helse og bærekraft. Hva er bra for alt, og hvor er det

allerede: Det første er det årlige EAT Stockholm Food

trade offs? Og denne kunnskapen må omsettes i praksis:

Forum – en «annual gathering of the community» der

Næringslivet må gå fra å være en del av problemet, til å bli

partnere fra ulike sektorer og fagdisipliner skal gi innspill

en sentral del av løsningen – ved å innovere og investere.

på konkrete tema og problemstillinger på området. Det kan

Det krever imidlertid forutsigbarhet og langsiktighet, og

for eksempel dreie seg om konkrete forskningsagendaer,

det må politikerne legge til rette for.

hvordan EAT-tematikken kan integreres i Post 2015- og SDG- prosessene, eller på litt lengre sikt, innspill til

Hmm... Du skal vite at jeg lider av en slags agorafobi

praktiske guidelines for sunn og bærekraftig mat. Deretter

for saksfremstillinger som tar mål av seg å inkludere «alt».

er planen at våre forskningspartnere skal samarbeide

Jeg higer liksom hele tiden etter noe mindre, noe vi kan ta på

på tvers av sine ulike fagdisipliner om små og store

og gjøre noe med. Det er mulig det er jeg som er provinsiell i

forskningsprosjekter som springer ut av EAT, og der det

hodet, altså, men når man gaper så vidt, så ser man jo til slutt

søkes om eksterne forskningsmidler. For næringslivet

ikke hva man holder på med. Eller?

settes det opp en egen business group, som skal møtes 3-4 ganger i året, og samarbeide med EAT Advisory Board.

Vel, ingen har sagt at dette vil bli lett, men alt starter

Så vil det også bli lokale aktiviteter, som EATx-seminarer,

med mer kunnskap om sammenhengene mellom mat-

tverrfaglige og tverrsektorielle workshops om konkrete

helse-bærekraft. For å lykkes har vi knyttet til oss noen av

problemstillinger. Her kan vi for eksempel ta opp spørsmål

verdens ledende universiteter og forskningsinstitusjoner

som, Hvordan kan vi håndtere antibiotikaresistens i

innen de ulike områdene som er involvert i mat,

Norge? eller, Kan Norge bli det første landet som reverserer

matproduksjon, folkehelse, ernæring, miljø, klima,

fedmeepidemien, og hvordan det i så fall gjøres bærekraftig?

veterinærmedisin, matsikkerhet og mattrygghet, samt NGOs og næringslivsorganisasjoner som jobber med

I hvilken grad er EAT avhengig av konsensus mellom

relevante aspekter – inkludert økonomi, atferdsøkonomi,

disse sektorene for å få noe gjort?

forbrukerperspektiv, policymaking, etc. Men kunnskap alene har aldri forandret verden; kunnskapen må omsettes

Det viktigste er den generelle konsensusen rundt at

i praksis. Derfor er det viktig å ha med partnere som kan

problemstillingene rundt mat, helse og bærekraft er tett

ta kunnskapen ut, implementere og oppskalere. Ikke bare

knyttet sammen, og at det er behov for å samordne og

matindustrien selv, men også kommunikasjonskanaler som

finne integrerte løsninger. Ikke alle kommer til å være enige

Google og National Geographic Magazine.

om alt, og alle kommer til å ha sine hjertesaker og prioritere ulikt. Men en av de viktigste målsetningene til EAT er å

Jo, det er et godt poeng. Men gitt at EAT er så komplekst,

utvikle integrerte måleverktøy – en indeks som tar opp i seg

både tematisk og organisatorisk, hvordan skal dere samordne

både helse og bærekraft, og som kan danne et rammeverk

alt sammen? Min erfaring fra universitetssektoren er at det er

for videre arbeid, blant annet med å utvikle praktiske

vanskelig nok å få folk til å samarbeide på tvers av faggrenser.

guidelines for sunn og bærekraftig matproduksjon.

Dere ser ut til å sikte mot noe enda mer ambisiøst; dere skal få folk fra ulike fag (medisin/ernæring, naturforvaltning, 17

Spisformulering

Photo: BAARD HENRIKSEN, PER SOLLERMAN

OK, dette kan jeg gå med på, først og fremst fordi du sa ordet

utforme strategier for atferdsendring hos konsumentene,

«praktisk». Det er ett av mine favorittord! Men det som er

både kommunikasjonsmessig og atferdsøkonomisk (såkalt

praktisk er jo som regel også konkret – så kan du si noe mer om

nudging); her vil vi jobbe for praktiske guidelines for sunn

hva EAT setter seg fore å få gjort, rent konkret?

og bærekraftig mat. På sikt kanskje man kan se for seg en

Ja, vi har fire hovedmålsetninger. Den første er flere

integrert merkeordning?

tverrfaglige forskningsprosjekter, som for eksempel kan ta for seg integrerte måleverktøy, eller de økonomiske

Nå har du meg på gli. Jeg håper dere fortsetter å være

aspektene rundt å handle eller ikke handle når det kommer

så konkrete som du akkurat var her. Men så lurer jeg på noe

til omstillingen til sunn og bærekraftig matproduksjon

annet. På konferansen fikk jeg inntrykk av at det faktisk råder

– altså en slags Stern Review for mat. Det første som

ganske utbredt enighet om deler av EATs agenda. For eksempel

publiseres blir en call-for-action artikkel i The Lancet i

mener de fleste at vi – for vår egen, dyrs, og naturens helse

høst. Den andre målsetningen er å stimulere innovasjon

og velferds skyld – bør spise mindre kjøtt og mer frukt, grønt,

i næringslivet. Det gjør vi gjennom den nevnte business

nøtter, korn og belgvekster. Fra ditt og deres ståsted, hva er

group, videre med opprettelsen av 3 priser (Local EAT,

man enige om og hva strides man om, på området mat/helse/

Global Culinary og Global Innovation Award), samt

bærekraft?

med såkalte EAT Talks. Den tredje målsetningen er å bidra til politikkutforming; vi vil påvirke og utfordre

At vi må spise mindre kjøtt og mer planter i vesten

lokalpolitikere til å tenke tverrfaglig og tverrsektorielt

er et eksempel på noe det generelt er stor enighet om, ja.

gjennom EAT Forum, vi vil arrangere EATx-seminarer,

Men dette er noe vi forsøker å få oversikt over – hvor er det

nasjonale workshops (for eksempel om hvordan politikere

kunnskapshuller, men også hvor er det konfliktområder og

kan tilrettelegge for og samarbeide med næringsliv og gjøre

trade-offs? Helse og bærekraft er ikke et kjærlighetsekteskap,

det lettere for forbrukere å velge rett, eksempelvis gjennom

men mer som et fornuftsekteskap – som må fungere

endret prising), og vi vil bidra med input og tilstedeværelse

sammen. Selv om vi mener dette er et område hvor man

i mellomstatlige prosesser. Den fjerde målsetningen er å

ser såkalte multiple win-win, er det åpenbart noen klare 18

Kristian Bjørkdahl

trade-offs. Ett eksempel er helsemyndighetenes anbefalinger

rike land forteller de fattige hva de skal gjøre. Det handler

om fet fisk minst 2 ganger i uken, et råd som er helt

vel så mye om kapasitetsbygging og ressursmobilisering i

urealistisk i et globalt bærekraftsperspektiv – det er rett og

LMIC-land.

slett ikke nok fet fisk i havet til at alle kan spise så mye. Et

Med dagens trender i befolkningsvekst og endrede

annet eksempel er at vi av bærekraftshensyn må produsere

kostholdsvaner må vi produsere 60% mer mat innen

og spise mindre kjøtt globalt, men til gjengjeld utnytte hele

2050; mesteparten av denne økningen må komme i

dyret – det vil si å spise nose-to-tail, Men dette går på tvers

utviklingslandene, spesielt i Afrika. 70% av verdens

av helseanbefalingene om å redusere inntaket av bearbeidet

smallholder farmers er kvinner, og de produserer mindre

kjøtt. Det finnes mange flere eksempler.

effektivt enn sine mannlige kollegaer – blant annet fordi de ikke har samme rettigheter og samme tilgang

Sikkert. Men hvordan forholder EAT seg til tilfeller av

til informasjon. Samtidig som de produserer 80% av

henholdsvis win-win og trade-off? Vil dere være i en posisjon til

alle basismatvarer – eier de bare 8% av jorden. I denne

å ta i de kontroversielle spørsmålene?

anledning sa Charlie Chibonga (CEO Nat Smallholder Farmers Alliance Malawi) på EAT at smallholder farming

I tilfeller der det finnes en win-win, og hvor det

må gå fra subsistence til farming business. Her ligger

i tillegg er enighet om det, kan EAT koke enigheten

kanskje noe av løsningen.

ned til noe som er praktisk relevant og lett forståelig

Samtidig må vi unngå at LMIC-landene begår de

for næringslivet og for forbrukere. I dag er 70% av alle

samme feilene som vestlige land. Disse landene tar nå til

nordmenn kostholdsforvirret; dette er det vår ambisjon

seg mer vestlig kosthold (og livsstil) – med mer bearbeidet

å gjøre noe med. Ved trade-offs, eller der hvor løsningene

og energitett mat med mye SoFas (solid fats and added

er mer kontroversielle – for eksempel temaer som

sugar) – som ofte er den billigste og lettest tilgjengelige

genmodifisering, land grab, monokulturer, intensiv

maten. Samtidig ser vi at kroniske livsstilssykdommer nå

produksjon av animalske produkter, og så videre – er det

øker raskest i disse landene – 80% av premature dødsfall

vår oppgave å legge til rette for at kunnskap innhentes,

skjer her – og at de fortsatt, samtidig, sliter med under-

deles og diskuteres. Det vil være like viktig å diskutere de

og feilernæring. Det er dette man kaller «double burden

kontroversielle løsningene, og alle disse temaene vil være

of disease», og det er en viktig barriere mot økonomisk

relevante for EAT å belyse.

utvikling og utjevning av sosiale forskjeller.

La oss da snakke om noe som kanskje er mer

Dette høres riktig og viktig ut, men jeg må forsøke å

kontroversielt. Dette nummeret handler som sagt om «food

kjenne min begrensning. Så la meg dreie oss over mot noe

rights and food fights», og da får jeg personlig assosiasjoner

Hans Rosling sa i sitt foredrag – i et slags fordekt kompliment

til fattige bønder i Afrika. I din og deres oppfatning, hva er

til seg selv – nemlig at det er mange sammenhenger på området

de største utfordringene man står overfor på dette området i

mat, helse og bærekraft som folk flest simpelthen ikke vet noe

henholdsvis rike og fattige land? I hvilken grad og hvordan

om. Selv ikke mediene vet særlig mye, sa han, og dermed går

henger våre respektive utfordringer sammen?

vi ofte rundt og forteller myter til hverandre. Slik jeg tolker dette, bringer det EATs agenda i retning av kommunikasjon.

Det første jeg kan si er at EAT har et globalt fokus

Vi må knuse myter! Er dette en del av deres prosjekt, i så fall,

– det vil si at vi vier like mye oppmerksomhet til Low

på hvilken måte?

and Middle Income Countries-landene (LMIC) som til industrilandene. Men det er viktig å gjøre dette relevant

Ja. En viktig målsetning for oss er å bidra til å rydde

for industrilandene, som sitter med kapital, kompetanse

opp i kostholdsdebatten – med evidensbasert kunnskap.

og kapasitet til å investere og innovere, noe LMIC-landene

Vi bombarderes av ulike og til dels motstridende

også kan nyte godt av dersom det eksporteres og deles. Det

kostholdsråd og vidunderdietter; noen er bra for å gå ned

er også viktig at dette ikke er et ovenfra-og-ned initiativ, der

i vekt, andre for å gå opp i vekt, bedre hud, bedre sexliv, 19

Spisformulering

mer energi. Noen er bra for dyra, eller bra for klima, etc.

overhodet ikke. Det betyr derimot ikke at møteplassen og

Tabloidforsidene er et godt eksempel: den ene dagen er

det sosiale ikke også er en viktig dimensjon, som vi ønsker

det fettet som dreper deg, den neste er fett nøkkelen til

å tilrettelegge for.

en slank midje. Helsemyndighetene har gjort for lite til å rydde opp i dette, og de har ikke lykkes kommunisere

Skal vi lykkes med EATs målsetning om å bryte silotenkning og etablere samarbeid på tvers av faglige disipliner og sektorer, trengs det nettverksbygging i aller høyeste grad.

med en tydelig stemme hva som er et sunt kosthold. Nå er det på tide at vi også integrerer bærekraftsaspektet i slike anbefalinger. Jeg håper at flere og flere skal se ikke bare at vi blir hva vi spiser, men at planeten også blir hva vi spiser. Hva vi legger på tallerkenen, er ikke bare noe av det viktigste vi gjør for vår egen helse, men også for planetens.

Kjøttforbruket vårt er for eksempel i ferd med å bli et større klimaproblem enn bilkjøringen vår.

Fordi det er sånt jeg holder på med, har jeg tatt en titt på medieomtalen om EAT. Der var det mange som hadde litt av

«Nettverk» er i denne sammenhengen et veldig positivt

hvert å si… Fraser som «nettverks-PR-jippo», «elitistisk …

ladet ord – som for oss betyr å knytte kontakt, etablere

matjåleri», «lekegrind for veltrente og småspiste rikinger» ble

bilateral dialog og samarbeide om felles mål.

brukt. Har du, som de sier, en kommentar…?

Mange av de kritiske innleggene om EAT dreide seg Kritikken kom fra folk som ikke hadde vært på EAT,

rundt «vanlige folk». Har EAT som ambisjon å nå også disse?

og vitner om at de ikke har forstått eller satt seg inn i hva

Hvordan? Og med hva?

det er. Men når det er sagt, vil det alltid være diskusjoner, ulike meninger og kritiske røster om nye initiativ, uansett

En viktig målsetting med EAT er nettopp at «Vanlige

hvor bra de er. Jeg tar det som et tegn på at vi har klart å

folk» lettere skal kunne velge rett – både for seg selv men

sette EAT-tematikken på agendaen.

ikke minst for planeten. Det krever imidlertid endring på systemnivå, alt fra pris, tilgjengelighet, reklame, til

Jo, men la meg igjen forsøke å være konkret: Slik jeg

lettfattelig og konkrete evidensbaserte kostholdsråd,

ser det, går de negative tilbakemeldingene på to forhold,

som også tar inn bærekraftsaspektet. I dag råder det

spesielt. Det ene er at EAT er et lukket selskap, altså et

utbredt kostholdsforvirring, og den sunneste og mest

elitearrangement, og det andre er at det kun er nettopp, et

bærekraftige maten er ofte den dyreste og vanskeligste å

selskap, altså en fest – at EAT er et sted hvor fiffen møtes og

få tak i. Skal vi få til storskala atferdsendring, må det bli

«henger ut» og nipper champagne, og spiser «laksekanapeer og

lett å velge rett – og det beste må bli det enkleste. EAT

chevre-ristede grønnsaker» som Astrid Meland skrev.

fokuserer på hele verdikjeden, fra produsent til konsument.

Forbrukerperspektivet er ekstremt viktig.

Selve EAT-forumet i Stockholm er helt riktig et lukket møte; der man må være partner eller spesielt invitert for

Helt til slutt, til paradokset som flere av

å komme. Målsetningen er å samle alle partnere og andre

mediekommentatorene la vekt på, nemlig at en med

relevante aktører –ikke minst for å samle input. Grunnen

tilsynelatende svært lite kroppsfett arrangerer en konferanse om

til at vi ikke åpner opp for alle interesserte er først og

mat. Meland i VG skrev for eksempel at EAT var preget av

fremst et kapasitetsspørsmål. Men veldig mage andre av

folk som «spiste sist gang i 1979». Men som enhver som fulgte

våre arrangementer kommer til å være åpent for alle, for

med på skolen vet, dør et menneske etter 2-3 uker uten mat, og

eksempel EATx under Arendalsuka 13. august. Når det

du, Gunhild, er jo høyst levende! Så, hva liker du selv å spise?

gjelder antydningen om at EAT kun er en fest, stemmer det 20

Kristian Bjørkdahl

Photo: BAARD HENRIKSEN, PER SOLLERMAN

Jeg er veldig glad i mat, men forsøker å leve som jeg lærer – og spise sunt og bærekraftig. Derfor er jeg fleksitarianer, det vil si en vegetarianer som spiser kjøtt – men bare av og til. Jeg spiser i hovedsak vegetarisk, fisk og sjømat (selv om jeg unngår scampi og utrydningstruede

Skal vi få til storskala atferdsendring, må det bli lett å velge rett – og det beste må bli det enkleste.

arter som blue fin tuna), og kylling (økologisk og frittgående så langt det er mulig). Men jeg er altfor glad i kjøtt til at jeg klarer å kutte helt ut, men spiser det sjeldnere og da mindre porsjoner men av bedre kvalitet, det vil si frittgående/økologisk og lokalprodusert. Og når jeg er på italiensk restaurant, unner jeg meg en osso buco.

21

Når maten ikke når magen

ANNA BIRGITTE MILFORD Photo: Intermarché

God mat skal ikke kastes. Likevel er det nettopp det vi

av 4700 milliarder norske kroner, eller hele Sveits’ brutto

gjør, hele tiden. I et land som USA blir 40 % av maten

nasjonalprodukt, på å lage mat som aldri blir spist.

som produseres aldri spist. Om maten er produsert på en

Hvordan kan det ha seg at rundt en tredjedel av maten

aldri så bærekraftig måte, hjelper det lite når den ender

som produseres aldri når sitt mål, noens mage? Det er

opp som søppel.

forskjellige grunner til dette, og årsakene varierer fra land

Hvordan kan det ha seg at rundt en tredjedel av maten som produseres aldri når sitt mål, noens mage?

Produksjon av mat fører årlig til utslipp på mer enn 10

til land, og fra produkt til produkt. I USA går for eksempel

milliarder tonn CO2-ekvivalenter, eller 14 % av de totale

mer enn halvparten av frukt og grønnsaker tapt, men

globale utslippene. Men i motsetning til mye annet vi

bare 22 % av kjøttproduktene.De høye klimautslippene

produserer som forårsaker klimautslipp, trenger vi faktisk

forbundet med kjøttproduksjon gjør at dette tapet likevel

mat for å overleve. Det vi ikke trenger å produsere, er

har stor miljømessig betydning. Det typiske er også at i

mat vi ikke spiser. Utslippene fra produksjon, foredling

utviklingsland går mye av maten tapt i de første leddene

og transport av denne maten er helt forgjeves. Ingen

i verdikjeden fordi der mangler man gode teknologiske

mennesker har blitt mette, og i tillegg skaper mat som

løsninger som bevarer maten under lagring og transport. I

ligger deponert på søppelfyllinger store metangassutslipp.

industrialiserte land er dette i mindre grad et problem, men

Globalt gir kasting av mat utslipp på 3.3 gigatonn CO2-

til gjengjeld har man her en overflod av velstand som gjør

ekvivalenter i året, noe som gjør det til den tredje største

at det spesielt på forbrukernivå kastes stadig mer.

klimagassutslipperen, etter USA og Kina. På mat vi

Ser vi på verdikjeden ledd for ledd, finner vi at

kaster har vi også kastet bort 250 km3 vann, den samme

aller først, hos produsenten, blir mye god og næringsrik

mengden som renner gjennom elven Volga hvert år. Den

mat pløyd inn i jordet igjen fordi den hadde feil størrelse,

samme bortkastede matproduksjonen opptar 1.4 milliarder

eller kosmetiske skavanker.

hektar med land, noe som representerer nesten 30 % av verdens jordbruksareal. I tillegg svies det årlig 22

Det finnes tilsynelatende ikke et marked for poteter under en viss størrelse, agurker med bøy på, krokete gulrøtter eller meloner med flekker i skallet.

kaste varer som ikke lenger er tipp topp. Av samme grunn er det mange butikker som kaster matvarer som nærmer seg «best før»-datoen, selv om «best før» ikke betyr at maten er uspiselig når datoen har passert. Et mer miljøvennlig alternativ som enkelte butikker benytter seg av, er å selge disse nær utgåtte varene i egne hyller og til en rimeligere pris. I mange land finnes også organisasjoner som sørger for at denne maten blir delt ut til fattige mennesker med

Vi forbrukere vil ha perfekt og plettfri mat. Eller vil vi det

tomme mager.

det? I Frankrike har den store matvarekjeden «Intermarché»

Men den virkelige nøtten når det gjelder kasting

hatt suksess med konseptet «les fruits et legumes moches»,

av mat, er det siste leddet, forbrukeren. Det er vi som

de stygge frukt og grønnsakene. Kampanjen markedsføres

kaster mest, og det er her det er vanskeligst å tenke ut

med bilder av poteter som ligner frosker med utstående

enkle, velfungerende tiltak. Vi kaster fordi vi kjøper større

øyne, eller sitroner som ender i tre tupper istedenfor én.

mengder enn vi trenger når vi er i butikken. Eller fordi vi

En litt lavere pris, eller kanskje reklamekampanjen som

tilbereder mer mat enn vi klarer å spise, og kaster restene.

appellerer til miljøengasjement, har fått folk til å fylle

Vi er kresne og vil ikke spise slappe gulrøtter eller yoghurt

opp kurvene sine med deformerte planteprodukter. Det

som har gått ut på datoen. Vi kaster fordi vi har råd til det.

gjenstår å se om våre norske matvarekjeder vil følge

På 70-tallet kastet vi omtrent halvparten som mye mat

Intermarchés eksempel.

som vi kaster i dag. På 70-tallet var også maten relativt sett

Også på foredlingsleddet er det mye matsvinn. Mye

ganske mye dyrere enn den er i dag. Så kanskje vi skulle

går tapt når produktene skal skrelles, renskes og kuttes.

skru opp matprisene for å få bukt med matkastingen?

Når produkter må renskes manuelt og arbeidskostnadene

Det hadde kanskje fungert, men blir neppe gjennomført.

er høye, er det billigere å la større mengder gå tapt enn at

Dermed, uten økonomiske virkemidler å ta i bruk, gjenstår

arbeiderne skal ta seg god tid for å unngå matsvinn.

det å informere, promotere og reklamere. I England har

Det kan likevel være bedre å ta klargjøringen av

man i flere år hatt en forbrukerrettet kampanje gående,

produktene på dette leddet i verdkjeden, enn å la det skje

kalt «Love food hate waste». Med reklame, matlagingskurs,

på forbrukernivå, ettersom det her kan bli enda større

rapporter og foredrag forsøker de å omvende folk til å bli

tap av spiselig mat. Tap kan også unngås ved at maskiner

matelskere og søppelhatere. De mener kampanjen har ført

forbedres slik at mindre mat blir sittende fast og vaskes

til mindre matkasting, og at det altså nytter å informere

bort etterpå.

forbrukere, ikke minst om den økonomiske gevinsten ved å

Matsvinn forekommer også når en foredler bytter ut

la være å kaste. Jeg avslutter med noen av deres gode råd for

en produktserie med en annen, og ikke klarer å selge ut

å få all maten til å havne der den skal, i magen:

alt av den forrige serien. Mangel på god kommunikasjon

• Ha kontroll over det du har i kjøleskapet

mellom foredler og distribusjonsledd kan også føre til at mat

• Anstreng deg for å finne ut hvordan du kan bruke det

blir produsert uten at den blir solgt videre. Å unngå denne

du har fra før sammen med det du skal spise i dag

typen tap vil ikke bare vil gagne miljøet, men også foredlernes

• Frys ned det som holder på å bli gammelt hvis du ikke

økonomi. Dette gir håp om at vellykkede tiltak vil iverksettes.

får spist det med en gang

På distribusjonsleddet kastes også mye mat. En grunn

• Ikke tilbered mer enn du klarer å spise

kan være at leverandørene har faste leveringsmengder

• Hvis du har feilet på punkt 4, ta vare på restene, frys

som er større enn det butikken makter å selge unna før

ned, ta med som lunsj eller spis det sammen med neste

produktet er blitt gammelt og usalgbart. En annen grunn

dags måltider

er at butikkene, i konkurranse om kresne kunder, føler

• Planlegg på forhånd hva du skal spise de neste dagene

seg presset til alltid å ha hyllene fulle av kun perfekte og

• Bruk handleliste når du er i butikken

plettfrie matvarer. For å oppnå dette er man nødt for å

• …Elsk mat, hat søppel!

23

The Story and Impacts of Industrial Corn in the American Food System

PIPER DONLIN Illustration: Wikipedia

The great edifice of variety and choice that

Corn is one of the best representations of the negative

is an American supermarket turns out to rest

impacts of an industrialized food system. It has played

on a remarkably narrow biological foundation

a role in almost every piece of US society - from health

comprised of a tiny group of plants that is

and social justice, to economics, politics, and the

dominated by a single species: Zea mays, the

environment.

This paper is both an attempt to discuss the history

giant tropical grass most Americans know as corn

and serious impacts of corn production in the United

–Michael Pollan from The Omnivore’s Dilemma

States, and briefly point to several solutions that may The United States has played a huge role in shaping

lead to a more sustainable agricultural paradigm. All too

the global agricultural landscape of today. The impacts

often, the issues associated with the industrial system are

of the industrialized food system have been both positive

called out without fully acknowledging the history and

and negative, and are some of the most complex issues

complexity of food production in the United States, and

faced by the US and abroad. Dominating farm fields in

without any thought of how to solve them in a realistic

the Midwest is Zea Mays, or corn, as it is referred to in

and pragmatic manner.

the United States. According to the USDA, corn covers over 80 million acres of farmland across the Heartland

The Roots of Industrialized Agriculture

and is the most widely produced feed grain in the US.

Elizabeth (Betty) Faville Tillotson (now Hawkins)

Most of the crop is used as the main source of energy

grew up on one of the first dairy farms in Southern

in livestock feed, but it is also processed to produce a

Wisconsin. Her family, who immigrated to Wisconsin

multitude of food and industrial products including

from New York, founded the Wisconsin Dairyman’s

starch, sweeteners, corn oil, beverage and industrial

Association in 1872. The Favilles, along with the

alcohol, and fuel ethanol. The United States is a major

University of Wisconsin, actively promoted the dairy

player in the world corn trade market, with approximately

industry in the late 19th century through scientific

20 percent of the corn crop exported to other countries.

research and education. Betty, born in 1919, was a first 24

hand witness of the changes that occurred during the early 20th century in American Agriculture. According to Fitzgerald, these changes were characterized by several fundamental elements: mechanization, specialization, standardization, and rationalization. Betty described some of these characteristics in a recent interview via email: “They milked [the cows] by hand with two hired men until Grandpa got a DeLaValle milking machine when I was eight or so. We were automated by the 1920s. I think the whole area around our farm was about 2,000 acres and made up of about ten farms. The owners were anxious and willing to have the University of Wisconsin come and do research there. In fact, that’s how I met my husband, who was a graduate student doing research on our farm. Papa went to the University of Wisconsin for agriculture because he wanted to farm. He was good at machines and he knew how to put things together. He was offered a position to teach agriculture but he just wanted to get out on the land. We grew corn, and oats to feed the workhorses. The transition from horses was gradual, but eventually we started using tractors. First we had an old tractor with lugs on the iron wheels. And then after a while, Papa got a tractor with rubber tires.

We always had John Deere. Every time we’d get a new one, it’d have so much more power. We were pretty self

In 1971, President Nixon appointed Earl Butz as

sufficient in those days and lived pretty well.”

Secretary of Agriculture. This appointment may have

This interview gives insight into the industrial

had the single largest impact on the changes to come in

transition that occurred on farms across the country in

agricultural policy. Under the mantra, “get big or get

the early 20th century. Skilled labor gave way to milking

out,” Butz created policies aimed at lowering the price of

machines and automation, horses gave way to more

food by boosting yields of a small handful of commodity

powerful tractors, and researchers from the Land Grant

crops, specifically corn and soybeans. This policy forced

Universities became coveted partners for farmers hoping

farmers to produce more in order to support themselves,

to glean new information and techniques in their trade.

which lead to the serious depression in the Farmbelt

Fitzgerald argues that farmers were encouraged, either

during the 1980s. Many farmers were forced to sell

implicitly or explicitly, to modernize their operations.

their land or consolidate in order to make ends meet.

This meant larger areas in production, specialization,

Butz’s policy was successful in lowering the price of food

mechanization, or in short, increased efficiency.

for the American people, but not without significant

The industrialization of agriculture was a complicated

social, environmental and health consequences. While

transition from the traditional to the modern involving

the price of processed foods and fast convenience foods

individual farm families, the state, new agricultural

plummeted, the price of fruits and vegetables continued

experts, manufacturers, bankers, and journalists, all

to rise. It is in this climate that the issues associated with

playing a role in either pushing or resisting the trends

the American industrialized food system come into play.

toward ‘factoryizing’ the farm.

25

The Story and Impacts of Industrial Corn in the American Food System

The Politics and Business of Corporate Agriculture

Waters,” which emphasized the damage of industrial

Since the Roosevelt administration, the US government

farming on the Mississippi River, calling it “anti-farming,

has taken an active role in agriculture. Today, this is done

anti-farm bill, pro-organic propaganda.”

through the “Farm Bill,” which is a package of federal

The political and economic interests of businesses

farm and food legislation that represents billions of dollars

and elected officials are powerful players and advocates

in government expenditures and sets the farm, food, and

for the current agricultural norm. With billions of dollars

rural policy goals and priorities for the United States. In

invested in the system, as it exists today, changing it will

the simplest terms, the Farm Bill has a tremendous impact

present a significant challenge.

on farming livelihoods, how food is grown, and what kinds of foods are grown. Unfortunately, agricultural

The Social and Health Impacts

policy is not immune to the political or economic

The United States is facing rampant health problems that

interests of politicians or agribusiness. The Iron Triangle

can be directly linked to large-scale corn production.

describes the relationship between special interests,

According to Yale University, 60 percent of government

government agencies and Congress and is behind most

subsidies go to four main commodity crops including

of the policy decisions made in the US government.

corn, soybeans, wheat, and rice. These foods also make

According to the Center for Responsive Politics, the

up 66 percent of the calories consumed by the average

agribusiness sector, which includes food processing

American.

companies as well as seed and chemical companies, spent a total of 123.6 million USD on federal lobbying in

Subsidies that support commodity crops, but not fruits and vegetables, have shaped the eating habits of Americans and their waistlines.

2011. One of the largest segments of the Farm Bill is the subsidies provided to farmers guaranteeing them a set price for their harvests. Since the Nixon Administration, farmers are paid not by the size of their harvest, but on the size of their operation and production history.

This incentivizes farmers to increase the size of their farms and forces smaller scale farmers out of the market. Over the last decade, the percentage of subsidies going to large farms has doubled to 54 percent and the average size of a US farm was doubled. These subsidies incentivize large-scale production, limit the diversity of crops grown,

In 2012, over one-third of American adults were obese.

and force smaller scale producers to either consolidate

Beginning in the 1970s, high fructose corn syrup was

or move off their farms. Large agribusinesses have the

used as a way to make the most of the corn surplus and

resources to have an influence not only in government,

provide a cheap alternative to sugar. High fructose corn

but also in higher education institutions. In 2010,

syrup now replaces sugar in a huge portion of processed

agribusiness gave 600 million dollars worth of grants to

products in US supermarkets. Disturbingly, it is not only

Land Grant colleges for research and development. This

processed foods that contain corn. As Pollan puts it:

has a significant impact on what research is undertaken,

Corn is what feeds the steer that becomes the steak.

the findings, and the information provided to students

Corn feeds the chicken and the pig, the turkey and the

studying agriculture. At the University of Minnesota,

lamb, the catfish and the tilapia and increasingly, even

home to the Green Revolution’s Norman Borlaug, several

the salmon, a carnivore by nature that the fish farmers are

halls bare the names of agricultural companies, such as

reengineering to tolerate corn. The eggs are made of corn.

the Cargill Plant Genomics Building. In 2010, the Vice

The milk and cheese and yogurt, which once came from

President for University Relations was forced to resign

dairy cows that grazed on grass, now typically come from

after cancelling the showing of the film, “Troubled

Holsteins that spend their working lives indoors eating corn.

26

Piper Donlin

Americans spend less of their income on food than

pesticides used on crops. A study by the National Cancer

any other industrialized nation, yet there are many long-

Institute found that the rates of certain types of cancer

term costs that are unaccounted for, including higher

and disease appear to be higher among agricultural

insurance rates, serious health conditions including

workers, which may be related to the exposure to

diabetes and heart disease, and shorter life spans. The

pesticides and fertilizers in their daily work environment.

estimated annual medical cost of obesity in the U.S. was

Farming communities have higher rates of leukemia,

$147 billion in 2008 U.S. dollars; the medical costs for

non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and soft

people who are obese were $1,429 higher than those of

tissue sarcoma, as well as cancers of the skin, lip, stomach,

normal weight. Here again, the Iron Triangle comes into

brain, and prostate. Several studies show that the use of

play. Health related regulatory policies are often slanted

common pesticides on crops could be linked to higher

in favor of the food processing industry. As Guthman

rates of rare forms of cancer.

points out, the politics of the food pyramid provides an

It is clear that the over production of commodity

example of such regulatory capture by the industry that

crops such as corn is unsustainable as it takes advantage

is the target of regulation; what is defined as healthy in

of low income families, creates an environment in which

the pyramid has been heavily influenced by the food and

health issues are the norm, and endangers the lives of the

agriculture lobbies, more specifically by the meat and

people who grow the food that feeds the nation.

dairy interests.

In addition to harmful corn based foods dominating the diets of Americans, many lack access to healthier options. The term “food desert” was first coined in the UK during the 1990s, but has become a common way to express a geographical area that lacks access to affordable fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that make up a full and healthy diet. Many Americans living in rural, minority, or low-income areas are subjected to food deserts and may be unable to access affordable, healthy foods, leaving their diets lacking essential nutrients. It is a common problem to be caught in a vicious cycle in which one lacks of means to pay for healthy food and

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL

must subsist on an insufficient diet. Often, one is then faced with serious health problems as a result, and must take on significant debt in order to pay for treatment, pushing them farther into poverty. The overconsumption

The Environmental Impacts

of heavily processed corn based foods is in many cases an

The environmental issues associated with industrial corn

issue of access and class. While those with means and an

production pose even more broad and all-encompassing

understanding of the food system are turning to the slow,

problems. Among these concerns is soil degradation, CO2

local, organic food movements, the vast majority of families

emissions from land conversion, water pollution from

in the US are unable to access expensive produce from the

fertilizer runoff, decreased resilience of the ecosystem as

local coop or farmer’s market, and may not have a knowledge

well as the food system. These problems are interrelated

of the issues associated with the current food system.

and complex making them difficult to address.

Consumers are not the only ones facing serious

To begin, the scale of farms across the country

health issues related to the production of commodity

has increased significantly, meaning more land is in

crops such as corn – farmers are also faced with increased

production. In many cases, this has been achieved

rates of cancer that are linked to the use of harmful

through converting native prairie that once covered a 27

The Story and Impacts of Industrial Corn in the American Food System

massive portion of the country into farmland. A recent

Northern Corn Belt is the impact it has on the Gulf of

study by the National Academy of Sciences found that

Mexico, which has been termed a “dead zone” due to its

between 2006 and 2011, U.S. farmers converted more

hypoxic waters, which do not contain enough oxygen to

than 1.3 million acres of grassland into corn and soybean

support life. The area, which was created by the runoff of

fields mainly for cattle feed and ethanol production.

phosphorus and nitrogen from farms upstream, currently

Biofuels such as ethanol are now seen as a promising

covers between 6 and 7 thousand square miles of water in

alternative to fossil fuel. Currently, 14 percent of the

the Gulf.

corn grown goes into ethanol production in the United

Yet another environmental impact of industrial

States. The Energy Policy Act of 2007, which set a 7.5

corn production is on biodiversity and resiliency of

billion gallon renewable fuels standard to be attained by

the food system. As stated above, corn is in practically

2012 has helped to drive the biofuel economy. Ironically,

everything consumed by Americans and dominates

in the US’s efforts to decrease their dependence on fossil

the agricultural landscape. A serious consequence of

fuels, it has decreased the resiliency of its agricultural

this is lack of biodiversity and therefore resilience of

communities and put an added burden on already

the food system. Resiliency is the ability of a system to

stressed lands. In addition, removing perennial grasses

adapt to disturbance while maintaining its function and

and replacing them with annual crops releases significant

structure. In short, resiliency is the capacity to adapt. In

amounts of previously sequestered CO2, countering the

the case of agriculture, there are many factors that can

effectiveness of renewable corn based ethanol.

cause disturbance to the system including droughts or

Land conversion to cornfields also impacts the

floods, extreme heat or cold, pests, disease, and market

health of the soil and water. The Mississippi River is one

fluctuations. One of the main arguments against a system

of the largest rivers in the world stretching from Northern

that lacks diversity and is entirely reliant on several large

Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi River

commodity crops is that if a disturbance interferes with

Basin is the site of some of the world’s most fertile soil,

this fragile system, the whole thing may collapse. Meat

and thus home to some of the most productive farms

production, farmer livelihoods, ethanol production, and

in America. However, the proximity of these farms to

the international grain market are all dependent on corn

the river is cause for concern. During spells of heavy

– any disruption in that system could be disastrous for

rain, the nutrients applied to fields by farmers wash into

the entire food system.

the watershed. This erosion both decreases the health of

In a system of such immense scale, the environmental

the water and the amount of topsoil on fields. A study

consequences of industrial agriculture impact every aspect

of water quality in the Mississippi River Basin found a

of American life and are simply too big to ignore.

50-fold increase in the sedimentation (previously nutrient rich topsoil) of the Mississippi River as cropland area

Restructuring the System

increased. The conversion of prairie and marginal lands

Corn production presents a paradox: it is both too big

along rivers speeds up this detrimental process, because

to fail and too big not to fail. The web of political and

the plants growing along the riverbanks cannot capture

private interests are doing everything in their power

the water. Many rivers are also seriously polluted. The

to hold up the current paradigm, yet sooner or later, a

Environmental Protection Agency found that 44 percent

disturbance is bound to disrupt the food system, which

of the surveyed rivers in the Mississippi River Basin were

could be catastrophic. Addressing the social, political and

“impaired” in 2000 and nitrate concentration in the

environmental issues is essential. Although there is no

Des Moines River is greater than 10 milligrams per liter,

silver bullet or perfect solution, there are many different

which is the legal limit for drinking water supplies. These

angles that may contribute to creating a more healthy and

nitrate concentrations can be attributed to the fertilizer

diversified food system.

inputs on cornfields. Perhaps the most disturbing

Remove the Influence of Iron Triangles: It is important

consequence of excessive fertilizer use on farms in the

to note the need to take private lobbying power out of 28

Piper Donlin

government. Iron Triangles often put the dollar above the

and the land it is grown on.

voices and needs of the American people. Cutting special

Use Consumer Power: Being a conscious consumer

interests out of the equation may make it easier for policy

in current contexts may not be an option for everyone,

makers to create legislation for the good of the people,

but making an effort to understand the social and

not the corporation.

environmental impacts of food production may mean

Restructure the Farm Bill: Reworking the Farm Bill

making more ethical decisions at the grocery store.

to cut subsidies for commodity crops like corn and

Creating a market for ecological, local, sustainable,

incentivize farmers to diversify their crops is a first step

and organic food sends a message to producers that the

that could lead to a healthier population and economy.

market is shifting. The past decade has been marked by

These incentives could include growing more edible fruits

a growing concern about the quality and origin of the

and vegetables or crops that are more suited to local

foods consumed by citizens in the US. Shopping at coops

landscapes and climates. Some states, like Minnesota

and farmer’s markets, growing vegetables, and “knowing

have implemented state subsidies that reward farmers

your local farmer” are all popular trends. Many products

who employ best management practices, such as planting

now bear labels stating, “Contains no high fructose corn

buffer strips along streams and water bodies to prevent

syrup!” The market for grass fed beef is also increasing

runoff, using cover crops instead of nitrogen fertilizer to

rapidly in the US. According to the Drover’s Cattle

decrease chemical inputs, and leaving stover (corn stalks)

Network, the grass-fed beef industry has grown 25%

in fields over winter instead of tilling to preserve top

annually over the last 10 years. These are all promising

soil and provide habitat for species of birds and animals.

signs that consumers are fed up with unsustainable, lower

In addition, more federal attention should be paid to

quality foods and are concerned with what they’re putting

providing low-income families with the ability to shop at

in their bodies.

local coops and farmers markets. Again, Minnesota has

These solutions are by no means exhaustive, but

created legislation that allows food stamps to be used in

provide a simplified model of some of the political and

farmer’s markets and coops. This gives families below the

social changes that can and are being made. These are

poverty line the opportunity to shop for local and organic

the beginning stages of shifting the food system to reflect

produce as opposed to the limited options in large

attention to quality, environment health and economic

supermarkets and convenience stores.

sustainability, and social well-being.

Create Youth Education Programs: One of the largest issues within the United States is a lack of knowledge

Conclusions

about how food is produced, where it comes from, and

Industrial farming has evolved a lot over the past century,

what it is made out of. Young Americans are subjected

from its early beginnings as the logical next step towards

to advertising from fast food chains and companies like

modernity, to a means of producing cheap food for the

Coca Cola and General Mills. Millstone and Lang in

American public. It is clear from the political, social

The Food Atlas state that the US has the second highest

and environmental issues presented above that this era

number of food related advertisements per hour during

of industrial corn production is unsustainable and is

children’s programming, which significantly impacts their

hurting many aspects of American society. Judging by

dietary choices.With over 50 percent of the population

the popularity of the sustainable and local agriculture

living in urban areas, children lack exposure to farming

movements, the era of efficiency at any cost is coming to

and growing food. This is changing across the country

a close. The changes that occur in agriculture over the

as programs such as the Farm to School Program, which

next century will likely reflect the need to balance the

is active in all 50 states and has reached over 21 million

health of the environment, the health of the public,

school children, take root. Reaching the next generation

and the changing global economy. While the story of

of consumers can be a productive way to instill a

industrial agriculture may be coming to an end, the

knowledge and respect for food, those who produce it,

evolution of the food system is still in its infancy.

29

McPho: Fast slow food and slow fast food in Vietnam

ARVE HANSEN

In Vietnam fast food is eaten slowly and slow

capitalism”, the Vietnamese branch is owned by the Prime

food fast. This provides a surprisingly good

Minister’s son-in-law.)

Anthropologists have always been skeptical to

starting point for discussing food, development, modernity and tradition. And of course

all the ado concerning Americanization and cultural

transnational capitalism.

homogenization, and have often pointed towards how foreign brands such as McDonald’s take on new roles and

I have written elsewhere about the many changes Vietnam

meanings in the encounter with different cultures. One

has been going through since the economic reforms

example of this is how McDonald’s in many countries

known as Doi Moi (or “renovation”) . The defining part

is still a symbol of modernity and a hangout for urban

of these reforms is the transition away from a communist

youngsters. This tendency is very visible in Vietnam.

planned economy towards a market economy and integration into global capitalism. What could be more

If you go to foreign fast food chains the goal is seldom to finish your meal quickly and leave.

symptomatic of these changes than the recent entry of McDonald’s to the Socialist Republic?

McDonald’s represents a strong symbol globally in a variety of senses. The yellow arches give people around the world associations of anything from capitalism and “Americanization” to fast food, modernity and reasonably clean toilets. Vietnam has been one of the few remaining

You stay there for a long time. You observe and you are

McDonald’s-free zones in the world, even though other

observed. You chat and drink soda. You eat the fast food

similar chains, like KFC, have been in place for some

slowly.

years already. But in early 2014 the masters of bad burgers

As any act of consumption, our food habits are ways

set foot on Vietnamese soil, and are seemingly very

of both defining and communicating who we are or want

successful. (And, fittingly enough for Vietnamese “red

to be. In this sense, McDonald’s undoubtedly takes on 30

different sign values in different cultures. At the same

food is considered old-fashioned and unhygienic. This has

time McDonald’s is the same wherever you go. This is the

led to an immediate response from the foreign fast food

core of the concept, and part of what has made the chain

giants. In a dramatic break with traditional Vietnamese

a symbol of the expansion of standardized capitalism

values concerning food, and almost as if making a

all the way to the food we eat. And no matter which

statement about contemporary capitalism’s many

culture this fast food encounters, the food is of relatively

disconnections from local food systems, McDonald’s

low quality, the salary rather low and the tasks of the

Vietnam promises to import 80-90 percent of their

employees quite dull.

ingredients in order to guarantee “clean food”.

That being said, one of the most interesting aspects

Should strict rules for hygiene be enforced, it could

in the Vietnamese context is that foreign fast food

mean the end for many of the small street food outlets.

encounters strong competition. What is considered fast

Tourism could actually represent a rather unexpected

food in Vietnamese daily life is “slow food” par excellence

salvation here, as Vietnam’s amazing street food is

and is served through an impressive variety of dishes.

increasingly recognized as an important tourist attraction.

The most famous one is pho, the national dish and the

The combination of these factors could possibly lead to

breakfast of choice for millions of Vietnamese (and at

a similar situation as in Singapore, where street food has

least one Norwegian). Pho consists of thick rice noodles

been moved from the streets into big food courts.

with many different herbs and a bit of beef (or sometimes

Most people seem to still prefer the traditional fast

chicken in the North). You can get this dish more or less

food. This has to do with price, as a bowl of filling noodle

wherever you go in Vietnam, but every Vietnamese will

soup tends to cost between 5 and 10 Norwegian Kroner

have his or her favourite place. And, importantly, this

whereas a hamburger at McDonald’s would reach 20-30

small kitchen should have pho as their only dish.

Kroner. I choose to believe (perhaps somewhat naively),

The recipes for a good pho are usually kept secret, and

however, that it first and foremost is about proud food

have often been kept in the family for generations. And

traditions and a rich food culture deeply concerned

cooking it takes a long time. The broth should be cooked

about balance, healthiness, cleanliness and quality. In

on bones for a whole day at least, and the ingredients

other words the complete opposite of what McDonald’s

should be fresh from the local market. However, when

represents. I guess we will have to wait and see if

everything is prepared and ready, it is even quicker to

capitalism’s demand for commodification, standardization

serve than the tasteless burgers of the foreign fast food

and efficiency manage to overturn this, or if pho manages

chains. Pho is therefore fast food for you and me, but very

to keep its dominance also in the future. At the same time

slow food for the cook.

modern Vietnamese pho-chains have been emerging, and

This way of eating is currently under threat in

McDonald’s Vietnam is considering developing their own

Vietnam. A strong discourse of development and

McPho. Let the battle of fast food begin!

modernity is evident, within which the traditional fast

Pho is at its best in the streets, served from a small kitchen with a couple of big pots surrounded by tiny plastic chairs and plastic tables.

31

Photo: NATIA CHKHETIANI 32

Common Ground

ERIC R. SANNERUD

As a 23 year-old American farmer who studies the US

relate to food, is to educate consumers to make informed

food system from the field I have a unique perspective

decisions about what they eat. MyPlate identifies proper

on the serious challenges it faces. From drainage tiles that

serving sizes for Americans (though it is not without

evacuate nutrient laden water to the nearest public water

criticism). Food labels provide even, consistent criteria for

source, to obesity rates that cost untold lives, livelihoods, and

comparing two different items (even if less than half of

money, the US food system is badly in need of regeneration.

Americans read them).

Food and health policy in the United States.

The trouble is this...

In the United States food policy is a collection of local

On one hand we have food policies, such as government

and national priorities that concern the supply of food.

crop insurance, that encourage environmentally damaging

US food policy sets supports for certain crops that lead

fence row to fence row crop production or government

to a higher supply (and therefore lower price) of these

support for drain tile, drainage systems for fields that

crops in the market. Crops that are insured by the US

shuttle nutrient rich runoff to the nearest water body to

government, against too much rain or too much drought,

be rushed downstream. On the other hand are well-

for example, such as corn, soy, and wheat, are more

meaning health policies. One can imagine that in the

attractive to farmers than “non-insurable� crops, leading

minds of the crafters of health policy each consumer

to greater production of insured crops.

carefully reads the food label on each product, compares

United States Health policy is a collection of state

the serving size of their meals against the MyPlate

and national regulations meant to minimize occupational

recommendations, and eats just the right amount of

and recreational dangers and to improve health.

calories for their BMI each day. Real life food decisions

Seat belts, MyPlate.gov, the newest iteration of the

are more complex and price is a big factor in purchasing.

government recommended diet, FDA regulations, and

Price is where food policy gets involved. Government

food labeling mandates are examples of health policy. The

support makes certain crops cheap. These cheap crops can

intended purpose of many of these regulations, as they

be used to create cheap food products (corn into chips 33

Common Ground

and soda, for example). But chips and soda are shunned

any fresh produce at the market.

by health policy, and do not have healthy nutrition labels

2. Regenerating Land

or a formal home on MyPlate.

More healthy food in the market will make healthy food

Due to this disconnect between food policy and

cheaper and more accessible. A benefit of coordinated

health policy the US food system is malfunctioning. A

food and health policy is an increase in the overall supply

food system that creates historic rates of obesity while

of healthy food.

continuously exploiting the resources humans require for

For starters, imagine if US food policy aligned what

life, soil and water, requires change. However, since the

farmers were incentivized to grow with what health policy

left hand doesn’t know what the right hand is doing, any

encourages Americans to consume. The landscapes of

efforts made, positive or negative, will be hindered by

rural America, and the tables of all Americans, could

inefficiencies and ineffectiveness.

change drastically. This map, by Emily Cassidy at the

There is no one elegant solution to reducing the

University of Minnesota’s Institute on the Environment,

negative effects of such disconnected policies. Anyone

shows the caloric efficiency of crop production across the

claiming to have a trump card is lying: GMOs will not

world. Caloric efficiency is the ratio of calories produced

solve all of our problems, neither will organic production

on a landscape to the number of produced calories

nor sin taxes on fizzy drinks and new government serving

consumed directly by humans. Developed countries

size suggestions. When dealing with interconnected

producing commodities show horrendous caloric

systems solutions require a full deck of answers.

efficiency. Globally just 41% of calories produced are consumed by humans. According to Cassidy, maximizing

Three cards to add to the deck.

caloric efficiency could feed an additional 4 billion

1. Regenerating Health

people. In the US, food policy structures that support

US consumers shop with their wallets while health policy

big commodity production could be amended to support

targets their minds. Health policy that acts on this fact

crops, meat, and production methods of higher caloric

will be moving in the right direction. The question for the

efficiency including growing more crops for direct human

discerning health policy strategist then is how to make

consumption and more caloric efficient animal proteins

healthy food price competitive?

such as chicken and fish.

One argument that I find persuasive as a low-paid,

Private actors have their own part to play in addressing

full-time change maker is the prudence of home cooking.

this disconnect. Non-governmental actors can work to

Too often on the run I need food that is grab and go.

aggregate and add scale to local food systems: decreasing

Frozen burritos at the store cost me $2.00 each, I can

prices of the freshest produce by harvesting efficiencies

make similar quality, though I must say, far tastier,

of scale.

burritos at home for just $.75.

Two up and coming projects, Urban Oasis in St.Paul,

A more aggressive strategy than home cooking

Minnesota and New Moran in Burlington, Vermont, are

promotion is artificially adding cost to unhealthy food.

examples of private sector innovation. By serving as an

The reasoning goes that if that 76oz soda costs $5.00

aggregation, processing, and distribution hubs for local

instead of $1.00 less people will imbibe. Unfortunately,

farmers these projects can increase the scale of healthy

according to a recent US Supreme Court ruling all

local food systems.

Americans have the right to drink cheap soda.

One inventive way that communities across the

3. Regenerating Governance

United States are improving the cost competitiveness of

Solutions also exist in state and local governments that

healthy food is by offering “bonus bucks” to Electronic

can induce dialogue between government food and health

Benefits Transfer (EBT), government food support,

policy makers.

purchases. Spend $20 of EBT at a participating farmers

At the state level food policy councils are popping

market and get $5 additional “market bucks” good for

up across the nation. These food policy councils are 34

Eric R. Sannerud

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL

often created with the express purpose of increasing

doesn’t know what the right is doing are only effective

dialogue between state departments of agriculture, natural

at continuing the failing status quo. At their best,

resources, and health. The Iowa Food Systems Council

food policy attempts to tackle resource issues in food

is one of the most longstanding and studied State food

production while health policy encourages healthy

councils.

grocery store purchases. Discontinuity contributes to

City level food councils are also developing. Similar

the symptomatic nature of present day solutions and

to the state level councils these organizations are made up

thinking. A focus on symptomatic solutions leaves the

of a diverse group of stakeholders from across the food

underlying disease untouched. In order to cure the cause

system including farmers, nutritionists, academics, and

the US needs a new coordination between food and

entrepreneurs. In Minneapolis, Minnesota “Minneapolis

health policy. Thankfully, there are many luminaries

Homegrown” is a food policy council made up of

across public, private, and government sectors who

appointed community members who serve an advisory role

understand the underlying problem and are generating

to the elected city council on food and health policies.

bold ideas to address it.

Hand, eye coordination.

Food and health policies in which the left hand 35

Photo: NATIA CHKHETIANI 36

Green Summer Chat Interview with Annikken Rustad Jøssund

NATIA CHKHETIANI

Annikken Rustad Jøssund (28) is a master’s

So, this decision was not influenced by your family

student and a “mini-farmer”. She is actively

background, right?

involved in a number of collective urban farming projects in Oslo and has recently got her own

Not really! The turning point for me was at

private garden with her boyfriend at Nesodden.

Folkehøgskolen, where I learned everything about organic

The interview took place in “Geitmyra Skolehage”

farming - from making cheese to slaughtering hens and

at Sagene in Oslo, where she keeps chickens.

riding a horse. I practically walked in my rubber boots for one year. I saw and learnt the whole circle of the farming

How did you end up as an urban farmer and when did you

system and I loved it. It was a fantastic experience!

find out that you wanted to do this?

Afterwards I continued with studies at the University of Life Sciences (NMBU) to learn more about agroforestry

I don’t know if I would like to identify myself as a

and permaculture.

“farmer”. Let’s say mini-farmer then. Actually, it was a reaction to my first educational choice. I studied art at the

Is it difficult to be an urban farmer in Norway?

national art school and I was going to become an artist.

However, in the end I realized that everything we were

There is a big difference between being a farmer in the

doing there was useless, in a way. I remember the last year

countryside and in an urban area. Urban farming is

of the study we threw all of our sketch books and silly

booming nowadays in Norway, unlike in the countryside.

sculptures into a big container outside the school. It felt

More and more people are getting involved in the green

strange – to put so much time and effort into making

world of plants. I think people miss it somehow, since

all these things and then in the end they end up in a

we live in a world where so many things are artificially

container. This was the moment when I realized that I

constructed, and therefore we appreciate everything that

had to do something more practical and useful.

is real. People love having chickens because they see that

37

Green Summer Chat

they are actually tangible, living beings. What’s amazing

packed food in supermarkets. On the other hand there’s

about it is that the green trend is not only about growing

urban farming: you make a glass of jam from scratch, put

food to eat, but the concept of being a part of nature and

effort and love into the entire process and gain the feeling

taking care of it.

that it’s an extremely exclusive jam which you want to share with someone you care about. It seems to me that in

Do you think that this type of approach towards nature is

our stressful society, the process of planting has a healing

stronger in Norway than in other parts of the world?

effect. I do not believe in “green hands”, it’s just about being aware and caring - that’s what plants need.

We have a hiking culture which may seem special to outsiders sometimes. Otherwise, I don’t think Norway is

What kind of farming methods are you using?

an exception in any way – we have lost the connection to nature like the rest of the Western world and are trying

We use permaculture in my garden. Permaculture is an

to regain it. The wish to be involved in urban farming

abbreviation of permanent culture, which means that

can, however, be related to it – having your own piece of

if you plan your garden well, you barely have to do

land and working and growing things on it makes you

anything. It is a lazy man’s garden. The things we do are

appreciate nature much more. In many countries farming

simple - for instance, we always cover soil with hay and

is a natural way to survive - people know that without it

this way keep it moisturized; we never plant things in

they would starve. It’s not the same in Norway.

a row, but intertwine them into each other in order to confuse insects; we plant things according to the sun and

You have been participating in urban collective farming and

the wind direction and so on. Chemicals are generally

now you have your own little farm. How self-sufficient are

short-term solutions, but you cannot be extreme in

you as an urban farmer at the moment? Is self-sufficiency

anything either. For instance the chickens and turkeys

your goal in a long-term perspective?

are free - but sometimes they are fed from leftovers that can be based on conventional food systems. Once in a

It is very difficult to be self-sufficient as an urban gardener

while I will buy some conventional seeds if that’s the

here; it largely depends on how much area you’ve got to

only alternative, but I try my best to avoid it. We use

work with. If self-sufficiency is the goal, one should really

organic fertilizers like compost. We’re experimenting

be creative. For example: do a lot of guerilla gardening,

with a compost toilet at home as well. Some people

pick apples people do not want, find mushrooms in the

think that it is nasty but if you do it in the right way it

forest, go fishing and so on. All these things are possible.

is not nasty at all. I guess one should also be ready for

Personally, the only things I do not need to buy at this

and even try the nasty things sometimes. We should

stage are eggs and honey - I get it from my own hens and

consider our excrement as valuable because we can

bees. My garden is only two acres but my boyfriend and

feed the plants through it. It is one way to think about

I are trying to plan in a way so that we utilize every little

it - interconnection with nature and the outside world:

piece of the plot in order to make something sustainable

Nature is feeding you and you give something back to it.

out of it. We can potentially get a lot of food from it.

It is flexible and creative, not a rigid hard-core entity.

It is important to know how you want to use your garden.

You’re studying at SUM (Center for Development and the

As I mentioned, farming is not only about self-sufficiency

Environment). How do you intend to use your academic

for me, it’s about trying to build a relationship to the land

knowledge in your life as a farmer?

and the nature, and to feel interconnected.

SUM is a very interdisciplinary institute and my These days most of the traditional farming knowledge

general approach is to be interdisciplinary in order to

is lost in Norway - people simply can go and buy nicely

make solutions that are practical, smart and social. To 38

Natia Chkhetiana

create sustainable and well-functioning projects both

and how practices of school gardens have been carried out

environmentally and socially requires a holistic approach

in the country, generally. The number of school gardens

where all the different dimensions are considered equally

and gardeners has largely decreased in recent years. In

important because they feed each other in the cycle. In

my view, we need a better structure to provide valuable

my view, an academic background helps to systematize

practical knowledge to children; this system used to

knowledge in a way that makes you more efficient in your

function well before in Norway.

work and in shaping environmentally efficient systems.

I think children can learn a lot via gardening. Being The only thing I know at the moment is that I do not

around animals and plants is a very direct cause and effect

want to sit in an office. I would love to work with

thing: one can clearly see the result of what you have

gardening and people wherever it will be - hospital, jail or

done and what you have not. This process constitutes

kindergarten.

honest relations, there is no identity pressure involved in it; it’s only you and plants – only you and nature. And

Do you think that urban farming can play a role in the fight

it’s valuable for people to witness this direct link, full of

against poverty and hunger globally?

myriads of miracles: you put a seed in the soil, give it some sun, water and BOOOM! - it will explode into a

I think urban farming as a concept is different in different

huge plant. Isn’t it magical?

parts of the world. Originally, it evolved in Latin America where people began to plant things in streets out of

Yeah!

desperate need for food. In Norway, and maybe in other parts of Europe, people grow food in urban areas

That’s a force of nature that is bigger than us!

because they like it, not because of food shortage. On the other hand, in Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania, 90 % of the vegetables consumed in the city are grown in the same city. That’s amazing, right?! People find a piece of land and they plant things there legally or illegally because they need to do it. Cuba is another excellent example when it comes to urban farming. As we see, urban farming contains a lot of different trends that are adapted to the local context. But generally speaking, more and more people want to participate in the food-growing process.

This trend is booming all over Europe and the world. I do not think that urban farming it is the only solution to feed the world, but it definitely is a part of it.

That’s the beauty of food - it is a link between us and nature. We eat the world and we give something back to it. Imagine if every kid had an education in farming. It can really make a difference.

Tell me a little bit about your Master thesis. As I know it’s related to gardening, right?

I am writing about school gardens in Oslo, specifically, 39

40

Photo: MARTIN HAAGENSEN 41

42

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL

43

44

Photo: MARTIN HAAGENSEN 45

Klima for mat

BORGAR AAMAAS

Matforbruket vårt bidrar betydeleg til

tid, CO2-molekyl tilsvarande 15 til 40 prosent vil vere

global oppvarming

i atmosfæren 1000 år etter utslepp. Grunna det lange

Vårt forbruk og livsstil fører til store utslepp av

tidsperspektivet vert CO2 òg ein svært sentral klimagass.

klimagassar. Å kutte ut ein Sydenferie for å redusere

N20 har ei levetid på omtrent 120 år. Klimaresponsen til

klimaavtrykket sitt er relativt enkelt, mat må vi derimot

N2O liknar difor mykje meir på den for CO2 enn det

uansett ha for å leve. Derfor er det store utfordringar

CH4 gjer. Vi kan samanlikne CO2 og CH4 på mange

med å redusere utsleppa knytt til mat, sjølv om mange

måtar. Om vi er interessert i klimaresponsen kort tid etter

av løysingane er godt kjent. Jordbruket står for omtrent

utsleppa, vekter vi CH4 tungt. Fokuserer vi på klimaet

12 prosent av dei globale klimagassutsleppa.1 Her i

langt fram i tid, vil CO2 vege tungt. Ofte vert Global

Noreg kjem 8 prosent av utsleppa frå jordbruket, mens 2

Warming Potential (GWP) med ein tidshorisont på 100

2

prosent skuldast fiske. Jordbruk og husdyrhald skil seg

år brukt, som i Kyotoprotokollen. GWP summerer opp

ut i forhold til andre sektorar. Karbondioksid (CO2) er

det akkumulerte strålingspådrivet som utslepp fører til,

den viktigaste drivhusgassen for dei fleste kjelder, mens

som er eit enkelt mål på klimaeffekten. Denne artikkelen

maten vi et fører til små direkte utslepp av CO2 og store

baserer seg på denne vektinga. Med det som basis gir

utslepp av metan (CH4) og lystgass (N2O). Faktisk

utslepp av 1 kg CH4 like store klimaeffekt som 28 kg

står jordbruket for over halvparten av utsleppa av andre

CO2.1 Men det er viktig å vere klar over at dette talet kan

klimagassar enn CO2.

vere både langt større og langt mindre, alt avhengig av kva korleis ein måler klimapåverknad. Altså kan det diskuterast kor mykje matforbruket vårt fører til global oppvarming.

Jokeren metan Dette gjer det vanskeleg å samanlikne den reelle klimaeffekten av matvanene våre mot andre aktivitetar.

Kva for utslepp skal med?

CH4 er ein kraftig klimagass, men med ei atmosfærisk

Eit anna spørsmål er kva for direkte og indirekte effektar

levetid på omtrent 12 år. CO2 er faktisk ein svak

vi skal ta med i utsleppsrekneskapet for maten vår.

klimagass som derimot påverkar i atmosfæren i svært lang

Blant anna forsvinn regnskog i dag for å dyrke opp 46

Photo: CICERO Senter for klimaforskning 47

Klima for Mat

område. Europa var tidlegare ein skog, no er store areal

gjødsel, kunstgjødsel, dyrking av ris, nedbryting av

jordbruksområde. Avskoging fører til store utslepp av

planterester og brenning av biomasse. For drøvtyggarar

CO2, opp mot 10 prosent av dei globale klimagassutslepp

dominerer fermentering i fordøyingskanalen, som

i dag. I FNs klimapanel sin siste hovudrapport vert

fører til store mengder metangass. Fermentering er

landbruk, avskoging og andre endringar av landareal

ein fordøyingsprosess der mikroorganismar spaltar

samla i ein stor sektor.1

karbohydrat til enkel molekyl som kroppen kan ta opp.

Vidare er det eit spørsmål om vi ser berre på utslepp

Dette er den enkeltprosessen som gir størst utslepp i

direkte frå jordbruk, eller òg relaterte aktivitetar. I tala frå

jordbruket. Sidan 1961 har utsleppa frå denne prosessen

FNs klimapanel er berre dei direkte utsleppa inkludert.

auka med 0,7 prosent i året. Mikroorganismar frigir

Men motoriserte kjøretøy blir brukt på jorde og maten

CH4 og N2O frå gjødsel, sidan 1961 har utsleppa frå

må bli transportert frå bonden til butikken. Varene blir

dette auka med 1,1 prosent i året. Gjødsling bidrar til

pakka i passe porsjonar, ofte i plast. For å få det totale

auka matproduksjon. Difor aukar bruken av kunstgjødsel

utsleppet må vi sjå på heile livsløpet, på same måte som

kraftig, der klimagassutsleppa går opp med 3,9 prosent

eg diskuterte for elbilen i det førre nummeret.3 Då fører

i året frå 1960. På sikt kan kunstgjødsel bli ein av dei

matforbruket ikkje berre utslepp av CH4 og N2O, men

største utsleppskjeldene frå jordbruket. I ein del av

òg CO2.

livsløpet må ris stå i vatn for å vekse. Dessverre fører dette òg til ideelle forhold for CH4-produserande mikroorganismar.

Prosessane bak utsleppa Klimagassutslepp frå jordbruk kjem frå ei rekkje ulike prosessar. Når planter gror, tar det opp CO2 frå

Inn med grønsaker, ut med kua

atmosfæren og nitrogen (N) frå bakken. Deretter kan

Kor klimavenlege ulike matvarer er vil naturlegvis

karbon og nitrogen bli flytta rundt mellom biomasse

avhenge av kor effektiv drifta er. Di meir mat vi kan få

både over og under bakken, dødt organisk materiale og

ut av ein åkerlapp, di mindre utslepp per kg mat. Ifølgje

jordsmonn med organiske materiale. CO2, CH4 og N2O

IPCC1 fører biffkjøt til størst utslepp, i underkant av 6 kg

blir frigitt når planter pustar, når dødt organisk materiale

CO2-ekvivalentar per kg dyr globalt sett. Deretter følgjer

rotnar eller når organisk materiale brenn. I den naturlege

svin med utslepp like over 1 kg CO2-ekvivalentar per

syklusen ute i naturen vert CO2 årleg tatt opp og frigitt.

kg dyr. Kylling, egg, ris og mjølk fører alle til utslepp litt

Difor er denne CO2en frå jordbruket sett på som nøytral

under 1 kg CO2-ekvivalentar per eining. Aller best kjem

og er dermed ikkje med i utsleppsrekneskap. Men når vi

korn ut, med utslepp under 0,5 kg CO2-ekvivalentar per

endrar bruk av land, kan det føre til utslepp av CO2, og

kg. Om du skal redusere utsleppa dine frå det du et, bør

dette er med. Avskoging er eit eksempel.

du difor på generell basis bytte ut raudt kjøt med kvit kjøt og fisk, og bytte ut kjøt med grønsaker. Men det er store regionale forskjellar,4 blant anna avhengig av praksis. Til

Kyr og sau levde òg før menneskeskapte klimaendringar kom, men det store talet på dyr i dag er heilt unaturleg og bidrar difor i utsleppsrekneskapet.

dømes vil biff basert på kjøt- og mjølkeproduksjon ha mindre utslepp enn på rein kjøtproduksjon. Dermed vil mykje av biffen produsert i Europa ligge under det globale gjennomsnittet. Det same gjeld mjølk, der effektiviteten på produksjonen er stor i Norden.

IPCC såg berre på direkte utslepp. Om vi tar med transport og andre utslepp over livsløpet aukar dei totale utsleppa litt. For villfisk er utsleppa aller størst frå drivstoffbruken til fiskebåtane. Ei utfordring med

Utslepp i jordbruket kjem i hovudsak frå fermentering

overfiske er at fiskarar må bruke meir drivstoff for å fange

i fordøyingskanalen, oppbevaring og bruk av

like mykje fisk. Dermed går utsleppa per kg fangst opp.

48

Borgar Aamaas

Om du skal redusere utsleppa dine frå det du et, bør du difor på generell basis bytte ut raudt kjøt med kvit kjøt og fisk, og bytte ut kjøt med grønsaker.

Dessutan slår bruk av landområde inn. Til dømes vil

Men ein auke i temperaturen er ei tviegga

oppdyrka myr føre til store klimagassutslepp ettersom alt

sverd. Planter har ei grense for kva dei tåler av høge

det organiske materialet i myra vil rotne og frigi CO2 og

temperaturar. Ved varmebølgjer, der temperaturen

N2O i langt større tempo etter at myra er drenert. For

stig over denne grensa, vert avlingane kraftig redusert.

korn, potet og andre rotgrønsaker er dei direkte utsleppa i

Avlingar frå mange av jordas matfat, som lengre sør

utgangspunktet små, slik at ineffektiv bruk av motorkraft

i Europa, vil tåle ei moderat oppvarming, men ikkje

og kunstgjødsel slår relativt sett mykje ut. Generelt sett

om vi fortsett som før med utsleppa. Det same gjeld

er tomatar dyrka ute i det fri meir klimavenlege enn

dyr. Produktive kyr blir langt mindre produktive ved

tomatar i drivhus varma delvis opp av fossil energi. Men

heteslag. Dessutan vil auka temperaturar kunne endre

å transportere tomatar frå Sør-Europa til Noreg fører òg

beiteforholda og auke risikoen for sjukdommar. Ved ei

til utslepp. Omtrent halvparten av utsleppa frå spanske

global oppvarming på 4-5 °C vil difor matproduksjonen

tomatar kjem frå transporten mellom Spania og Noreg.5

globalt gå ned. I tillegg er avlingar svært utsett for

I ein global verden med varetransport over heile

ekstremvêr. Den globale oppvarminga gir meir

kloden kan norsk dyrehushald til dømes føre til utslepp

ekstremnedbør, fleire hetebølgjer, sterkare syklonar

i Brasil. Aftenposten skreiv for over eitt år sidan at norsk

og meir tørke i allereie tørre område. Dermed bør

jordbruk er avhengig av ein båtlast med soya i månaden.6

jordbruket redusere utsleppa viss vi skal unngå dei

I Brasil er det ein klar samanheng mellom soya- og

verste klimaendringane, men òg tilpasse seg til dei

biffproduksjon og avskoging, og dermed utslepp av CO2.7

klimaendringane som allereie er på veg.

Soya er ei viktig proteinkjelde, til dømes til bruk i kraftfôr.

Mange mogelege tiltak Klimaendringar påverkar matproduksjonen

Dermed er spørsmålet korleis vi kan redusere utsleppa frå

I tillegg til at matforbruket vårt fører til klimagassutslepp,

matforbruket vårt. Grovt sett er tiltak retta mot tilbod

påverkar klimaendringar matproduksjonen.

eller etterspurnad. På tilbodsida har vi ønsket om å

Klimaendringane er her allereie i dag, og temperaturen

redusere klimagassutsleppa per dyr eller per avling. Større

vil fortsette å stige ifølgje utsleppsbanene [8]. Men

avlingar frå same åkerlapp er ein måte å gjere det på.

klimaendringar er ikkje nødvendigvis alltid dårleg nytt.

Sidan 1970 har kornavlingane meir enn dobla seg grunna

Til dømes vil ei dobling av CO2-konsentrasjonen i

meir effektiv bruk av land, teknologisk utvikling og

atmosfæren få fortgang i fotosyntesen, slik at avlingar

diverse andre forbetringar.1 Jordsmonnet inneheld store

kan auke med 20 til 40 prosent. I tillegg vil høgare

mengder karbon, der mogelege tiltak er å bevare og gjere

CO2-konsentrasjonar redusere vassbehovet til vekstar

desse karbonlagra større. Til dømes kan åkrar bli omgjort

og dermed toler vekstane tørke betre. Her i Noreg

til beiteenger. Dessutan bør myr- og skogsområde ikkje

blir vekstsesongen lengre og perioden i den lyse

bli dyrka opp. Å kunne fange CH4-gassen frå gjødsel og

sommarhalvåret utan frost blir lengre. Alt dette kan bidra

bruke denne energien er eit anna eksempel. I dag kjører

til auka produktivitet.

bussar på biogass frå avfall fleire plassar i Noreg.

49

Klima for Mat

Etterspurnaden etter mat aukar først og fremst av den

NOTES

enkle grunn at vi blir stadig fleire på denne planeten.

1. IPCC, Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of

Dermed har talet på dyr globalt sett auka med omtrent 50

Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the

prosent sidan 1970, med aller størst vekst for kyllingar.1

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. O. Edenhofer,

Økonomisk vekst betyr at fleire har råd og lyst på

et al. 2014, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,

meir proteinrik kost, altså meir kjøt. Dette bidrar òg

USA: Cambridge University Press.

til vekst i utsleppa. FNs klimapanel viser at endringar

2. SSB. Utslipp av klimagasser, 2013, foreløpige tall. 2014 June

i dietten må gå motsett veg for effektivt å redusere

30th 2014]; Available from: http://www.ssb.no/natur-og-miljo/

utsleppa, med andre ord meir frukt og grønt og mindre

statistikker/klimagassn/aar-forelopige/2014-05-14.

kjøt. Dette er eit sensitivt tema som det er vanskeleg

3. Aamaas, B., Elbilen er ikkje berre grøn, in Tvergastein

å gjere noko med så lenge store folkegrupper slit med

Interdisciplinary Journal of the Environment. 2014. p. 30-33.

svolt, feilernæring og manglande mattryggleik. Ei anna

4. Gerber, P.J., et al., Tackling climate change through

sentral utfordring er kasting av mat. Omtrent 30 til 40

livestock - A Global assessment of emissions and mitigation

prosent av alt mat blir kasta ein plass mellom garden og

opportunities. 2013, Food and Agricultural Organization of the

1

måltidet. I utviklingsland er tapet størst på garden og i

United States (FAO): Rome.

distribusjonsledda. Her i Noreg er derimot produksjonen

5. Sonesson, U., J. Davis, and F. Ziegler, Food production and

og leveringa av mat effektiv, mens desto meir svinn

emissions of greenhouse gases. 2010, The Swedish Institute for

oppstår i butikkar og i heimar. Litt kasting er uunngåeleg,

Food and Biotechnology.

men potensialet for å redusere kastinga, og dermed

6. Ekern, Y., Båten som berger oss, in Aftenposten. 2013.

utsleppa, er store.

7. Aamaas, B., Biff med bismak, in Argument. 2013. p. 26-27.

Mat og eting er ein heilt fundamental del av det å

8. IPCC, The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working

vere menneske. Sjølv den klimabevisste forbrukar duger

Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental

ikkje utan mat og drikke. Dermed er kutt i utsleppa frå

Panel on Climate Change, ed. T.F. Stocker, et al. 2013,

jordbruket vanskeleg, men mogeleg.

Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. 1535.

50

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL 51

Kva gjer matvanane v책re med jorda v책r?

SOLVEIG LYNGRE

52

At matvanane våre fører til klimaendringar er eit stort problem for den globale matsikkerheita, og problemet vert størst for dei som er mest matusikre frå før.

Dei siste hundre åra har matvanane våre endra seg på ein

høgt som 16 kg CO2 per kg kjøtt. Til samanlikning er

måte me ikkje har sett maken til sidan menneskja byrja å

utslepp frå kveite 0.8 kg CO2 per kilo. Den effektive

dyrke jorda, og for vanlege forbrukarar er det ikkje berre

måten ein i dag produserer kjøtt på, har gjort kjøtt til eit

lett å forstå dei globale konsekvensane av vala ein tek

kvardagsprodukt for fleire og fleire folk over heile verda,

framfor hyllene i matbutikken. Dette vert ikkje lettare ved

og etterspurnad etter kjøtt vert stadig større på grunn av

at ei handfull multinasjonale selskap kontrollerer store

høgare inntekter og folkevekst.

delar av den globale landbrukssektoren. Desse selskapa

Den stadig aukande etterspurnaden etter kjøtt har

gjer det dei kan for å skjule dei negative effektane ved

gitt opphav til det som vert kalla ”Factory Farms”. På slike

storskalaproduksjon, eller ”factory farming”, som er den

”fabrikkar” er målet å produsere mest mogleg kjøtt til

rådande forma for landbruk over størsteparten av verda.

lavast mogleg pris. Resultatet er at dyra vert stua saman så

Som forbrukar er det difor viktig å ta i betraktning at kvart

tett som mogleg, og den største kjøttprodusenten i USA

måltid me et har globale konsekvensar, og at det er opp til

har 700.000 kyr. Desse vert avla på kraftfôr som inneheld

oss sjølv å velje om desse konsekvensane skal vera positive

soya eller mais, som i stor grad er produsert på store gardar

eller negative for klima, miljø, dyr og menneskjer.

i Argentina og Brasil. På slike gardar er stikkorda for

Ein ekspanderande økonomi som gir større kjøpekraft

produksjonsmetoden monokultur, mykje sprøytemiddel

over store delar av verda fører til at fleire og fleire endrar

og kunstgjødsel; metodar som fører til øydelegging av jord

kosthaldet sitt til ein måte som går hardt ut over blant

og grunnvatn.

anna jord- og vassresursar, biodiversitet og det globale

Største parten av desse avlingane er også

klima. I følgje ein rapport frå den Europeiske kommisjon

genmodifiserte (GMO), noko som fører til endå meir

har maten me et større innverknad på klimaendringar

bruk av sprøytemiddel. Det mest brukte sprøytemiddelet

enn noko anna aspekt av dagleglivet. Matproduksjonen

består av glyfosat, og restar av dette vert funne i produkt

står for 31 prosent av den globale oppvarminga, og

frå dyr som et fôr med GMO-planter, blant anna kjøtt,

kjøttproduksjonen utgjer 18 prosent av klimagassutsleppa.

egg og mjølk. I områda der slike planter vert dyrka har

Ein britisk studie finn at utslepp frå oksekjøtt er så

biodiversiteten sunke dramatisk, og kjemikalie kan også 53

Kva gjer matvanane våre med jorda vår?

søkke ned i grunnvatnet. Krefttilfella har det siste tiåret

før. Klimaendringane fører til dårlegare avlingar av viktige

tredobla seg der dette sprøytemiddelet vert brukt, og

matvarer i Sør, og FAO antar at dette problemet vil bli

mødrer som bur i ein omkrins på ein kilometer rundt

større etter kvart som jorda vert varmare. Ekstremvær

plantasjar der dei bruker glyfosat har dobbel så stor risiko

og tørke vil førekoma oftare, og dette går hardt ut over

for å føde barn med misdanningar.

matsikkerheita både på lokalt og globalt nivå.

Det norske landbruket er svert avhengig av

Dersom forbrukarar over heile verda vert gjort meir merksame på problema med eigne matvanar, vil mange truleg få eit anna forhold til kva dei kjøper i butikken.

soyaimport frå Brasil. Kvart år importerer norsk landbruk over ein halv milliard tonn soya til kraftfôrproduksjon frå dette landet på andre sida av jorda. I Noreg er GMO-fôr forbode ved genteknologilova, men oppdrettsnæringa har dispensasjon til å bruke slikt fôr. Det er også eit stadig aukande press på norske myndigheiter om å opne opp for import av GMO-produkt.

I tillegg til å øydeleggje grunnvatn med blant anna gjødsel og sprøytemiddel, er storskalaproduksjon forbunde med intensivt vassforbruk. Landbruk er hovudkjelda for den globale vasskrisa, og konsumerer 70% av ferskvatnet

Ein bevisst forbrukar vil krevje meir berekraftige

som er tilgjengeleg på verdsbasis. Ein tredjedel av

produksjonsmåtar som blant anna småskalalandbruk

vatnet som vert brukt i landbruksproduksjon går til

representerer. Denne forma for landbruk vert utøvd i pakt

husdyrbestanden, hovudsakleg indirekte gjennom fôr. I

med naturen og økosystemet, og utnyttar jord og vatn

følgje WWF trengst det 15.500 liter vatn for å produsere 1

meir effektivt enn storskalalandbruk. Dyra får beite ute, og

kg oksekjøtt. Når ein tredjedel av verdas befolkning ikkje

slik vert det mindre trong for kraftfôr basert på soya som

har nok drikkevatn og 1.1 milliardar menneskjer ikkje har

er produsert på andre sida av jorda. Denne måten å drive

tilgang til reint drikkevatn seier det seg sjølv at dette er ei

landbruk på er også med på å redusere CO2 utslepp, då

urettvis fordeling av jordas vassresursar; for at folk i den

graset fangar opp mykje av denne gassen.

vestlige verda skal få ete kjøtt i store mengder må folk i Sør

Det er også trong for å kutte ned på kjøttforbruket.

svelte og tørste. Det er langt i frå gitt at folk ikkje hadde

I store delar av den vestlige verda er dette ein trend

vore svoltne og tørste om me hadde ete mindre kjøtt. Det

som byrja å vise seg for nokre år sidan. I mange land

er derimot sikkert at fordelinga ville vorte jamnare då

har kjøttforbruket stagnert, og i nokre land har det

mykje av det som vert dyrka til dyrefôr vert dyrka i allereie

gått litt ned, men i land med voksande økonomiar er

vassfattige land, og det vatnet som fins er i fare for å bli

trenden den motsette. For å snu denne trenden trengst

utsatt for forureining.

det bevisstgjering og politisk mot og vilje. Likevel er det

Dersom kjøttforbruket fortset å auke i det

forbrukarane som til sjuande og sist har det siste ordet; det

tempoet det gjer i dag, vil vassmengda som trengst

er vala me tek i butikken som kan hjelpe til at me får ei

til kraftforproduksjon doblast innan midten av dette

betre verd å leve i.

hundreåret hevdar Worldwatch Institute. I tillegg vil klimaendringar som følgje av global oppvarming truleg redusere vassmengda endå meir. 2.5 milliardar menneskjer lev allereie i områder med ustabil vassforsyning, og innan 2025 vil dette talet vera over halvparten av verdas befolkning. Dette kan føre til konfliktar i desse områda.

At matvanane våre fører til klimaendringar er eit stort problem for den globale matsikkerheita, og problemet vert størst for dei som er mest matusikre frå 54

Solveig Lyngre

Photo: MAGNUS WITTERSØ

NOTES 1. Tukker, A., Huppes, G., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., de Koning,

doi:10.1186/2190-4715-24-24 http://www.enveurope.com/

A., van Oers, L., Suh, S., Geerken, T., Van Holderbeke, M.,

content/24/1/24

Jansen, B., Nilsen, P. (2006)Environmental Impact of Products

7. Heinrich Böll Foundation 2014. Meat Atlas

(EIPRO): Analyses of the Life Cycle Environmental Impacts

http://www.boell.de/en/2014/01/07/meat-atlas

Related to the Total Finalconsumption of the EU 25. Brussels:

8. Dagens næringsliv. (06.03.2013). Norges avhengighet av soya

Institute for Prospective Technological Studies/European Science

bekymrer. http://www.dn.no/nyheter/politikkSamfunn/2013/03/06/

and Technology Observatory, European Commission Joint

norges-avhengighet-av-soyaimport- bekymrer

Research Center, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ipp/pdf/

9. Heinrich Böll Foundation 2014. Meat Atlas

eipro_report.pdf

http://www.boell.de/en/2014/01/07/meat-atlas

2. Ibid

10. Heinrich Böll Foundation 2014. Meat Atlas http://www.boell.

3. UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service. (2012). http://

de/en/2014/01/07/meat-atlas

www.unep.org/pdf/unep- geas_oct_2012.pdf

11. De Schutter, Olivier, 2011, The Green Rush: The Global Race

4. food & water watch. (2010). http://documents.

for Farmland and the Rights of Landusers. Harvard International

foodandwaterwatch.org/doc/FactoryFarmNation- web.pdf#_ga=1.

Law Journal / Volum 52. http://www.harvardilj.org/wp- content/

37133152.1718243390.1405589561

uploads/2011/07/HILJ_52-2_De-Schutter.pdf

5. UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service. (2012). http://

12. Gåsvatn, Kari. (26.06 2014). Kan Dagros berge klimaet? I

www.unep.org/pdf/unep- geas_oct_2012.pdf

Nationen http://www.nationen.no/landbruk/kommentar-kan-

6. Benbrook, C.M. (2012). Impacts of Genetically Engineered

dagros-berge-klimaet/

Crops on Pesticide Use in the U.S. -- the First Sixteen Years.

55

A Thirty Year Fight for Healthier Food

ARTHUR (TEX) HAWKINS

Issues concerning sustainable production of healthy food

devastated by drought. On the other hand, farms

through proper stewardship of soil and water are taking on

became increasingly dependent on mechanization, fuels,

global significance. In recent decades, industrial farming

fertilizers and an ever-growing list of pesticides and other

methods across the United States have damaged the health

chemicals. Pressure to produce commodities on a finite

of land, water, and people. But experience tells us that

supply of suitable land created a growing list of abuses

land abuse can also be a catalyst for change.

and issues, summarized here from the book, Harvest of

This is a brief case study of one organization’s fight

Rage by Joel Dyer:

to sustain small-scale farms, ecosystem health, and safe food across the north-central United States. The Land

During the 1970s and 1980s, farmers in the United

Stewardship Project’s goals, techniques, and agenda may

States were encouraged to plant “fence row to fence row”

provide a useful model for those who are studying or

by the government. Larger industrial operations were

designing alternative food systems in other parts of the

given incentives and financing to expand ownership

world. As watershed biologist with the federal government,

and intensify methods to maximize high-input factory

I have worked closely with the Land Stewardship

livestock and mono-crop production. Consequently,

Project (LSP) and a variety of other public and private

smaller producers using less intensive methods found

organizations for over 25 years to cooperatively build a

themselves caught in the economic squeeze. Families

resilient culture of conservation and sustainability with

found it harder to keep up and make ends meet. Many

healthy local foods at its core.

farms faced foreclosure and suicide rates escalated.

In the aftermath of the Dustbowl and Great

As the populations of rural communities across the

Depression of the 1930s, farming methods in the United

nation’s “breadbasket” declined, businesses were shuttered

States began to change dramatically. On one hand, a

and schools were closed. Main streets began to look

nation-wide network of Soil and Water Conservation

deserted, as they had appeared during the Dustbowl and

Districts was formed to promote better farming practices

Great Depression of the 1930s. Policies had been brokered

in a variety of ways - this helped heal a landscape

by the multinational food companies during the 1950s to 56

Photo: BRIAN DEVORE

accelerate the transition from a decentralized, independent

LSP has been primarily concerned about land health and the

and self-sufficient rural society to a nation of wage-earners

well-being of diversified, often organic and nature-friendly,

and consumers. This created an economic system in which

small family farmers. It has also been concerned with

agriculture became increasingly dependent on global

maintaining access to healthy local foods. The organization

markets and vulnerable to rising costs, ranging from land

and it members are great sustainability partners.

and fuel to fertilizer and petrochemicals.

Maintaining natural soil fertility and water quality using biologically diverse conservation buffers, contour

As documented in the Land Stewardship Project’s web

strip crops in rotation, well-managed pastures and hay,

pages, some of the diversified crop/livestock farmers in

perennial crops and cover crops - all of these things and

southeastern Minnesota began hosting “kitchen table

more, backed by reformed agricultural policies - are

meetings” in the 1980s with neighbors and local activists

considered essential by Land Stewardship Project members

concerned about the purchase of family farms by distant

for future sustainable landscapes and lifestyles across rural

investors, representing some of the country’s largest banks

and urban America. This is good news for wildlife.

and insurance companies. These corporate giants were

At about the same time LSP was getting started, I

systematically buying up bankrupt farms and stripping

began piloting a new position as watershed biologist for

them of conservation practices that had been installed and

the Upper Mississippi National Wildlife and Fish Refuge,

maintained by local farmers, with assistance from natural

administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

resource agencies. The Land Stewardship Project began

Through the Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program, my

organizing with small farmers and conservation allies to

job was to assist grassroots conservation efforts in order

fend off the assault.

to help reduce floods, sedimentation and contamination

This was the first major battle of the organization,

of floodplain habitats along a 500 km stretch of river. We

which has since enlarged its mission and geographic scope,

improved upland wildlife habitat quality and connectivity

in collaboration with other institutions, to serve the north-

in order to protect and enhance bottomland habitats

central region of the United States. From the beginning,

bordering tributary streams and the river.

57

A Thirty Year Fight for Healthier Food

LSP members – many of them small farmers – were

Over the past 30 years, I have been impressed with

interested in using habitat buffers to keep soil, water and

LSP’s willingness to tackle new challenges, ranging from

biological diversity on their farms, instead of watching

mega-feedlots and silica sand mining for oil or gas “fracking”

their land wash downstream to the Gulf of Mexico, so

to high-input feedlots and mono-cropping in areas where

I welcomed an invitation from LSP to attend a two-day

steep fractured limestone (karst) topography invites severe

workshop for grass-based livestock farmers. The workshop

surface and ground water impacts. The organization has

introduced “holistic resource management” concepts

never hesitated to address controversy and complexity

developed by Alan Savory. I liked the idea of blending

that others might avoid, fearing over-extension or political

esthetics and science, ecology and culture in ways designed

fallout. For people who care, LSP has been there.

to help farmers meet the challenges of producing food

When there was an attempt by agribusiness interests to

more sustainably. While the science supporting managed

censor and limit circulation of research findings presented

pastures in rotation remains controversial, it was successful

in the film, Troubled Waters, LSP launched an immediate

and satisfying for the farm families I had the privilege of

and effective campaign to assure public access to the film

working with, and our friendships continue.

and ensure wider circulation of information it contained

In the late 1990s, LSP Executive Director George

pertaining to water quality, food systems and public health.

Boody invited six of these grass-based farm families to

The campaign to suppress the film backfired and citizens

team up with University of Minnesota researchers and

benefitted.

natural resource agency professionals. We developed and

As I see it, the Land Stewardship Project provides an

tested a “toolbox” for farmers interested in monitoring

excellent model to consider for organizations that are willing

their progress toward sustainable food production

to accept the ambivalence and uncertainties of intertwined

methods. Over a three-year period, we developed a suite

issues affecting growers and eaters. The organization seeks

of biological and socio-economic “indicators” to be used

to balance its membership among urban and rural, young

in tracking soil health, water quality, biodiversity, finances

and old, upper and lower income levels. LSP addresses issues

and quality of life.

by engaging both grassroots citizens and policymakers in

Use of the Monitoring Toolbox spread through LSP’s

constructive discussions around real-world projects.

“Beginning Farmers” training and mentoring programs,

Education and action are LSP priorities. LSP’s Director

with expansion of social media and networking to promote

for Programs and Policy Mark Schultz describes the

healthier food, better access to markets and worker rights.

organization as both member–driven and mission-driven.

Watershed-scale modeling was developed with university

He says that it is designed to work at both personal and

researchers to demonstrate costs and benefits of different

systemic scales. It helps eliminate the “silos” that characterize

management scenarios. These models illustrated multiple

institutions where each discipline is isolated from all others.

benefits to be expected from establishing more perennial

On the subject of member activism, Schultz says that LSP

cover on the land.

tries to “fight the worst and promote the best.” This is

In the late 1990s, LSP brought a group of

augmented by telling the stories about real people willing to

conservation writers and professionals together at the

try unconventional approaches and make sacrifices for the

“Shack” of Aldo Leopold, near Baraboo, Wisconsin, to

common good.

begin work on a project that would document some of the

By intentionally uniting its rural, small-town base with

progress in sustainable farming made after the posthumous

urban dwellers and suburban communities, LSP achieves its

publication of Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac in

mission of connecting people more closely with the land and

1949. The result of our efforts, The Farm as Natural

one another. A seemingly bipolar approach helps LSP build

Habitat: Reconnecting Food Systems with Ecosystems,

long-term credibility and effectiveness, while promoting

was published by Island Press in 2002. This book provides

ethical stewardship for food system sustainability. I think

essential multiple perspectives on profitable alternatives to

that this is good lesson for all to learn.

highly industrialized agriculture.

58

Arthur Hawkins

NOTES Dyer, J. (1998): Harvest of Rage. Boulder CO and Oxford UK.

Leopold, A (1949): A Sand County Almanac. New York and

Westview Press.

Oxford, Oxford U Press.

LSP “Our History” URL: HYPERLINK “http://

Jackson and Jackson, ed. (2002) The Farm as Natural Habitat:

landstewardshipproject.org/about/history”http://

Reconnecting Food Systems with Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.

landstewardshipproject.org/about/history (retrieved 15 August 2014)

Island Press.

Savory, A. (1999): Holistic Resource Management. Washington

University of Minnesota, Bell Museum of Natural

D.C. Island Press.

History (2011): “Troubled Waters” URL: HYPERLINK

LSP “The Monitoring Toolbox” URL: HYPERLINK

“http://landstewardshipproject.org/posts/290”http://

“http://landstewardshipproject.org/about/libraryresources/

landstewardshipproject.org/posts/290 (retrieved15 August 2014)

scienceandresearch/monitoringtoolbox”http://

LSP “Long Range Plan 2014-2019” HYPERLINK

landstewardshipproject.org/about/libraryresources/

“http://landstewardshipproject.org/repository/1/1222/

scienceandresearch/monitoringtoolbox (retrieved 15 August 2014)

long_range_2014_2019.pdf ”http://landstewardshipproject.

LSP “The Multiple Benefits of Agriculture” URL: HYPERLINK

org/repository/1/1222/long_range_2014_2019.pdf (retrieved

“http://landstewardshipproject.org/about/libraryresources/

15August 2014)

scienceandresearch/benefitsofag”http://landstewardshipproject.org/

LSP “About Us” HYPERLINK “http://landstewardshipproject.

about/libraryresources/scienceandresearch/benefitsofag (retrieved 15

org/about”http://landstewardshipproject.org/about (retrieved 15

August 2014)

August 2014)

59

Money Can’t Be Eaten

MEREDITH GARTIN

In a Paraguayan city, a pillar rises up in a park that rests

and revitalize marginalized neighborhoods. Their efforts

within the boundaries of a food desert. On the pillar, a

reversed their obesity risk from their exposure to food

message is painted. Translated, it reads: When we’ve cut

deserts and created new and equitable trajectories into

down the last tree/ when we’ve contaminated the last river/

more sustainable and resilient paths.

when we’ve killed the last fish/ you’ll find that you can’t eat money.

Food deserts provide the opportunity to transform spaces of exclusion, inequity, and injustice into spaces of opportunities and health.

This issue on Food Fights and Food Rights offers the opportunity to consider food deserts as an abstraction of space. Food deserts are a type of food environment that lacks equitable retailing access to healthy and affordable foods. In food deserts, much of the available food is processed, canned, or prepared packaged snacks and entrees (e.g. obeseogenic foods). If fresh and healthy food is available, the foods are higher priced. As a result, residents are forced to bargain for with their health

In less developed countries, food deserts also exist.

by making a decision to purchase the “economical”

Researchers have found them in Brazil, South Africa, and

choice or the “healthy” choice. The economical choice

Paraguay; however, they do differ from food deserts in

can lead to obesity. Food deserts are also considered as

developed countries. In developed countries, food deserts

an abstraction of systemic social injustices over time

can be transformed by city initiatives. In less developed

because food deserts are thought to have developed from

countries, this kind of infrastructural change is rare,

historic, exclusionary planning and segregation policies.

mostly because cities lack the kind of revenue needed

As a result, food desert residents in the US and the UK

to fund city wide development and change. Instead,

have mobilized community campaigns to redevelop

residents must draw upon the people who work in the 60

Instead of examining city food environments for food deserts, researchers and practitioners should examine how community partnerships and social interactions exist to remove food deserts and increase food access.

food system more directly. Open air markets, in particular, are key retailers that help to stabilize food prices and conserve food supplies in anticipation of food shortages.

Furthermore, the building of trust between vendors, producers, and consumers can manifest into informal credit lines that help people obtain food while they work to accumulate cash. In my own research of a Paraguayan food desert, the open market reduced bulk prices for smaller store owners. The smaller store owners brought market food to their homes for resale to their neighbors; and for the poorest neighbors, store owners allow credit.

A shopper explained that “the [food] price is raised more every day, every month… and the [store owner] gets it...

Questions raised by studying food deserts with this

We can always count on her to trust us.”

perspective could focus on whether the exportation of

Yet, when smaller stores are in competition with

food in supermarkets also includes the exportation of

global networks, the food environment remains vulnerable

cash-for-food food environments and subsequently food

to global forces (e.g. price fluctuations). During the Global

deserts. If the local food system depends on cash for food

Food Crisis of 2008, for example, the director of the

profiting, then will food deserts emerge as the poverty

World Hunger Program stated that there is ‘food on the

gap widens between countries? And, finally, at what point

shelves but people are priced out of the market’. Today, the

do people realize that money can’t be eaten and seek new

problem endures. The idea of global as a ‘force’ resonates

policies to change the food system in local cities to ensure

among residents of a food desert and can cause local food

food equity and justice?

systems to buckle under global pressures. Residents in

This material is based upon work supported by the

Paraguay explained how politicians profited from opening

National Science Foundation (RCN 1140070). Any

trade and increased prices. “Meat used to be really cheap

opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations

and it would be from here,” explained one resident, “but

expressed in this material are those of the author and do

now it’s more expensive. It’s the politician’s fault for

not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science

closing down the meat factories and it’s the reason that

Foundation.

the city infrastructure is shutting down.” The integration of Paraguay into the global food system is relatively recent

NOTES

and has resulted in local food stores and factory closings,

1. Wrigley, N. (2002): “Food Deserts in British Cities:

including the loss of urban agriculture. Even more

Policy context and research priorities”. Urban Studies, 39,

recently, open air markets are at risk of being closed down.

2029-40.

In response, protests occur and signs of public outrage are

2. Petticrew, M. et al. (2007): “Validating health impact

revealed- like in the photo - with a message that amplifies

assessment: Prediction is difficult (especially about the

discourses of sustainability and justice.

future)”. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 27,

Environmental science tells us that place matters.

101-107.

Food desert research tells us that where people shop

3. Gartin, M., and L. Zautner (2013): “Gardens Feed and

matters. It is in a food desert residents are forced to

Fuel Grassroot Organization: Neighborhood Progress Inc.”.

bargain for their food. And, it is in how we consider and

Anthropology News [online] 54, Mar.

approach food deserts in the global food system that will

4. Holt-Giménez, E. and Peabody, L. (2008): “From food

help us find new ways to reduce inequity and restore food

rebellions to food sovereignty: Urgent call to fix a broken food

rights worldwide.

system”. Institute for Food Development and Policy, 14, 1-6.

61

Struggles for Food Sovereignity in Latin America CECILIE HIRSCH

New social movements for food sovereignty are

have risen. The peak was reached with the food crisis in

arising worldwide, and Latin America is home to

2007 and 2008, with aftershocks in 2011.

Farmers and small-scale producers make up half of

many of these. The movements have emerged for different reasons; as a reaction to a system

the global work force, and the livelihoods of 2.2 billion

that excludes small peasants from the production

people are still linked to small-scale agriculture. There are

system, as protests to rising food prices, threats

approximately 1.5 billion smallholders worldwide, and 350

against traditional crops, and yet others again

million small farms. In Latin America alone, there are 65

are fighting for their local production of food and

million small farmers, a majority of which are indigenous

access to land. Agroecology is being promoted

peoples (40-55 million). Local food systems are the core of

as part of the solution to the food crisis by

peoples’ nutrition, incomes, economies and culture. As an

these movements, with hopes that others will

example of their importance, half of the maize, three fourths

acknowledge its importance for feeding the world

of the beans and over 60 percent of the potatoes in Latin

in a sustainable manner.

America are produced in local food systems.

The new global food system has especially been

The international food system has gone through important

developed at the cost of two groups. The first is small

changes in recent years. These include the privatization of

producers who remain at the margins of the global food

grain markets and the deregulation of the international

market, unable to fully engage in it and at the same time

commodity markets. In many places, land use has changed

competing in asymmetrical conditions with products

from food production to the production of biofuels and

imported from other countries. The second group is

large agribusiness, coupled with increases in oil and fertilizer

poor consumers who suffer from the increase in costs of

prices, increases in meat consumption and climate change-

food. The situation has been further aggravated with the

linked droughts. Profits have largely gone to merchants of

elimination of national production capacities, selective

agricultural input and seed providers, large companies, and

subsidies (e.g. to agro exports and biofuels), land grabbing

“food speculators�, while the prices of important food grains

and lack of support to small farmers. National economies 62

Photo: CECILIE HIRSCH 63

Struggles for Food Sovereignity in Latin America

have been put under pressure from trade policies to

threats of displacement, destruction of local ecosystems

open their markets, without the ability to maintain farm

and loss of livelihoods resulting from extractive projects,

programs, price support, and import restrictions.

plantations, and expansion of agri-business or biofuels.11 Local struggles: different paths and challenges

Latin America is a continent characterized by extremely unequal land distribution and contested patterns of land ownership.

Small peasant and indigenous groups recently won an important victory in Guatemala against a law that would permit 25-year patents for new plant varieties including hybrid and genetically modified (GM) varieties and sanctions of the unauthorized use of the plants or seeds.

Thousands of indigenous peasants took to the streets and blocked the Inter-American highway to demand the law’s revocation, arguing it would contaminate local crop varieties, disrupt traditional indigenous farming

Most arable land in Latin America is in the hands of a small

and prioritize large-scale farmers. Although considered

elite. Small peasants and indigenous peoples on the other

an important accomplishment, the success of this

hand have historically been the least privileged groups,

achievement is still dependent on Guatemala’s international

something that is reflected in their poor access to land.

commitments in treaties such as the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA).

In Brazil, the Landless Workers Movement (MST) is

Food protests Peasant and indigenous movements, as well as the urban

working to put an end to the enormous agrarian injustices

poor have not kept silent, and have engaged in street

in Brazil. The MST fights for agrarian reform by occupying

protests, demonstrations, campaigns and other creative

large and often uncultivated estates (latifundios), to remind

strategies to face these challenges. Food related protests

the federal government of its constitutional responsibility.

happen at the local, national and international level.8

The occupation by the landless commences a legal process

At the international level, social movements

to expropriate the land and grant title to the landless

have organized against unfair trade systems and trade

workers. The movement has three central aims: land

agreements discriminating local small producers, and

reform, food sovereignty and a more just and equal society.

the dumping of food in local markets from subsidized

MST is in strong opposition to the use of land for biofuels,

farmers in the developed countries. Via Campesina, an

or as they call it, agro fuels, which refer to the use of land

international alliance of organizations of peasants, family

that could have been used for local food production. The

farmers and farm workers, has been one of the most

cultivation of soya for export as animal food is yet another

central actors in these protests, along with academics and

cause for their opposition to an unjust system. MST has

activists.9 According to Via Campesina, food production

been very successful in achieving access to land for their

should stay in the hands of small scale sustainable farmers

members and have had considerable political influence in

and not be left under the control of large agribusiness

recent years. However, MST activists have also been subject

companies or supermarket chains.10

to criminalization and repression, as well as violence from the private landholders as a result of their acts.12

At the national level in many countries, large movements of urban and rural people have been protesting

Yet another important movement is the Zapatista

against rising food prices and government policies, the

movement, a movement largely consistent of small

lack of provision of technology and support for local food

indigenous peasants in Chiapas, Mexico. The Zapatista

production, unequal land distribution, monoculture and

movement emerged as a reaction to the North American

the absence of or insufficient agrarian and land reforms.

Free Trade Agreement in 1994, which has had terrible

At the local level, communities are fighting against

consequences for small peasants, the livelihoods of 64

Cecilie Hirsch

indigenous peoples and the right to communal lands

from free trade policies and an end to the dumping of

(ejidos). The massive import of subsidized maize from the

cheap food on southern markets by rich nations, agrarian

United States has had severe impacts on small peasants’

reform, and peasant-based sustainable farming practices.

possibilities to sell their products, in addition to the

Food sovereignty has also acted as a new channel for

consequences the imports have had for the local varieties.

seeking gender equality and as space for empowerment,

The movement demands access to land and food,13 and

by recognizing the role of women and their knowledge in

has fought over a decade for the creation of their own

food systems and promoting their participation.

autonomous society, with autonomous production systems, cooperatives, education and health systems, and a different

Agroecology as the solution?

way of doing politics. The Zapatista movement is under

Agroecology-based production refers to systems that are

constant pressure, control, vigilance and threats from both

“biodiverse, resilient, energetically efficient, socially just

the government and paramilitary groups, at times with

and comprise the basis of an energy, productive and food

violent outcomes.

sovereignty strategy”.16 The concept of agroecology is prominent in the agenda of several social organizations,

Alternatives and food sovereignty

who argue that agroecology in combination with energy

Many social movements in Latin America have embraced

and technological sovereignty is the basis for how

the concept of food sovereignty as an alternative to the

rural communities and even countries can reach food

neoliberal and marked oriented approach with a focus

sovereignty. Agroecology is based on small and family

on high-chemical input industrial agriculture. Farmers,

farms, minimal dependence on agrochemicals and energy,

indigenous peoples, pastoralists, women and migrants

diversification and beneficial biological interaction and

are getting organised and linking together with their

synergies. Important parts of the production systems

counterparts in other countries. Whereas the neoliberal

include the regeneration of soil fertility and polycultures

approach has to a large extent put its faith in international

with rotations, such as agroforestry, crops and livestock.

trade to solve the world’s food problem under state and

The system is knowledge intensive and based on local

corporate control, these movements seek to develop

techniques, community involvement and empowerment.

a diversity of food systems. The movements opt for a

By exploiting the environmental functions in a sustainable

transformation away from uniformity, concentration,

manner, and using locally available resources, farmers

coercion and centralisation towards diversity,

are able to produce without external inputs. According

decentralisation, adaptation and democracy.

to Cohn et al. such systems have the potential to reduce

The concept of food sovereignty arose in 1996,

producer’s dependence on costly inputs and to mimic the

presented by La Vía Campesina at the World Food

functioning of natural ecosystems to maintain soil fertility,

Summit held by FAO. The concept has since then

enhance yields and control pests.17

undergone changes, with some common features. The

Countries with considerable experience in agroecology

main principles of food sovereignty include the right to

include Brazil, Cuba and the Andean countries.14 The

food and land, respect for the producers, localized food

AS-PTA (Assessoria e Serviços a Projetos em Agricultura

systems, local control over local resources, support to local

Alternativa) network in Brazil started in the 1980s, and

knowledge and skills, and the protection, not destruction,

include NGOs, farmer’s organizations and agriculture

of nature.14 Altieri15 has defined food sovereignty as “the

students. MST has adopted agroecology and actively

right of people to produce, distribute and consume

promotes it among its 1.5 million members. In Cuba, the

healthy food in and near their territory in an ecologically

farmer-to-farmer movement produces over 65 percent of

sustainable manner”. Different parts of the movement also

the food on only 25 percent of the land, where the state

include the right of each nation/people to define their own

provides land and inputs to the farmers.19 20 In Peru,

agricultural/food policies; indigenous territorial rights,

Ecuador and Bolivia, communities, cooperatives and

traditional fisherfolk’s right to fishing areas, a retreat

farmers organizations have recreated the native Andean 65

Struggles for Food Sovereignity in Latin America

agriculture with special rotation practices, terraces and

On the 16th of October the World Food Day is being

irrigation systems, and the selection of animals, crops,

held in Norway with the main topic “Family Farming”,

and crop varieties, providing the communities with an

and Norwegian and Brazilian small farmers (from the

adequate diet through local resources while avoiding soil

MST) are joining forces for a joint campaign.

erosion. In Bolivia, a strong peasant movement has moved into the government’s offices with president Evo Morales, and agroecology is defined as one of the four central goals of his mandate. Food sovereignty is defined as a national priority together with a national seed bank.

Hopes for the future?

The dominant rules for agriculture and food governance have, the last decades, been poorly designed for the strengthening of local organizations and autonomous food production systems. In 2006, Cohn et al. warned that mainstream agricultural research had largely ignored acroecology’s potential.

However, through important counter trends and “food fights,” peasants, urban and indigenous movements are recreating a political realm as well as autonomous foods systems, questioning free markets’ logic as well as centralization, with the final goal of a just food system.

They argue that a sustainable and sovereign foods system will require cooperation, where both pro-poor and pronature voices are heard.

Since the food crisis in 2007-2008, there has been an increased interest in the future of agriculture and the role of small farmers, and there are hopes that the tides are changing.21 Two recent major international reports22 23 recommend a fundamental shift towards agroecology as a way to boost food production and improve the situation of the poorest. In September 2014, the International Symposium on Agroecology for Food and Nutritional Security was held at the headquarters of the Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) in Rome.

The meeting was a milestone as it marked the first time that the FAO has ever officially and directly addressed the topic of agroecology. Via Campesina points to advances due to the organization of ‘dialog og knowledges,’ (dialogo de sabers) between small scale farmers, indigenous knowledge and sciences such as ecology, agronomy, and rural sociology, and the growth of new collaborations and alliances between rural social movements, consumers, environmentalists and academics.

66

Cecilie Hirsch

NOTES Altieri M.A., Nicholls C.I., Funes F., (2012). The scaling up

consumer side in developed countries, but here we mainly focus

of agroecology: spreading the hope for food sovereignty and

on the food movements of small peasants, the urban poor and

resiliency; A contribution to discussions at Rio+20 on issues at the

indigenous peoples.

interface of hunger, agriculture, environment and social justice,

12 http://www.acciontierra.org/spip.php?article330&lang=en

SOCLA (Sociedad Cientifica Latinoamericana de Agroecología.

13 As well as shelter, health, education, independence, freedom,

1 FAO (2009). The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets

democracy, justice, and peace

High food prices and the food crisis –experiences and lessons

14 Millstone, E et al (2008). The Atlas of Food. Who Eats What,

learned. Knowledge and Communication Department. Food and

Where, and Why. University of California Press.

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

15 Altieri 2009

2 Cohn, A, Cook, J Fernández,M and Steward, C. (2006).

16 Altieri 1995 and Gliessman 1998 in Altieri and Toledo 2011

(eds) Agroecology and the Struggle for Food Sovereignty in the

17 Cohn et al 2006

Americas. IIED, CEESP and Yale F&ES.

18 See Altieri and Toledo 2011

3 Singh, S. (2012). The woes of rural labour. Capcity.org 44:8-9.

19 Altieri and Toledo 2011

4 See also http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16521IIED.pdf

20 For more information, see also http://viacampesina.org/

5 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_

downloads/pdf/en/Agroecological-revolution-ENGLISH.pdf

pathways/docs/Factsheet_SMALLHOLDERS.pdf

21 Altieri et al 2012

6 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_

22 IAASTD (International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge,

pathways/docs/Factsheet_SMALLHOLDERS.pdf

Science and Technology for Development) (2009) Agriculture at a

7 Altieri and Toledo 2011

crossroads. In: International assessment of agricultural knowledge,

8 See e.g. Cohn et al 2006

science and technology for development. Global report. Island

9 http://www.viacampesina.org/en/index.php/actions-and-events-

Press, Washington, DC

mainmenu-26/10-years-of-wto-is-enough-mainmenu-35

23 de Schutter, O. 2010. Report submitted by the Special

10 http://viacampesina.org/en/

Rapporteur on the right to food. UN General Assembly. Human

11 A number of food movements have also emerged at the

Rights Council Sixteenth Session, Agenda item 3 A/HRC/ 16/49.

67

Matkunnskap - billig løsning på dyrt problem 1

ANDREAS VIESTAD

Å lære barn og unge om mat, kan løse et av våre

unge amerikanere overvektige, og antall sykelig overvektige

største problemer: overvekt. Så hvorfor snakker

er mangedoblet.

politikerne bare om veier og eldre?

Helsebudsjettene øker mest Et av de viktigste temaene i vår tid blir sjelden tatt opp i

Problemene er ikke ukjente. Da den rødgrønne

politiske diskusjoner. Men, for at vi skal sikre folkehelsen

Regjeringen la frem Folkehelsemeldingen i fjor, var sunt

for fremtiden, må vi gjøre noe for å demme opp om den

kosthold, sammen med fysisk aktivitet trukket frem

kommende fedmeepidemien. Og for å gjøre dette må vi

som den viktigste måten å sørge for en sunn befolkning

sørge for at de oppvoksende generasjonene har en helt

på. Myndigheter og helsepolitikere er også akutt klar

grunnleggende ferdighet: Matmessig alfabetisme.

over de rent praktisk-økonomiske problemene ved at helsebudsjettene øker mer enn verdiskapningen ellers i samfunnet.

Tredobling av de tyngste Noen tall først: Undersøkelser fra Universitetet i Bergen

Så hvorfor i er ikke dette et større tema for offentlig

viser at 17 prosent av barn mellom seks og 12 år er

debatt?

overvektige. Siden 1970-tallet har det skjedd en tredobling

Det er ikke slik at oppskriften på en sunn befolkning er

av antall barn i den tyngste vektklassen. Det er særlig disse

ukjent. Hvis barn og unge lærer mer om mat, og blir glad i

som er spesielt utsatt for å få alvorlig redusert livskvalitet.

mat, vil de også bli i stand til å ta sunne matvalg resten av

De har større fare for livsstilssykdommer som diabetes 2.

livet. Så enkelt er det.

Og de opplever redusert livskvalitet knyttet til lek og andre

Tidligere var det slik at alle fikk med seg den kunnskapen hjemmefra.

Slik er det ikke nå lenger.

hverdagslige aktiviteter.

Dette er dramatisk i seg selv, og ekstra dramatisk når man ser på tallene fra USA og Storbritannia. Der var de omtrent på vårt nivå for 20 til 25 år siden. Siden den tid har problemene eskalert med rekordfart. I dag er én av tre 68

Når Folkehelsemeldinga peker på at vi har et individuelt

Overlates den enkelte

ansvar for å spise sunt, er det helt riktig. Men det er ikke

Konkrete tiltak for å styrke barns matkunnskap har vært

tilstrekkelig, når stadig flere er matmessige analfabeter.

mye drøftet i andre land, blant annet i USA, Finland, Danmark og Frankrike. Men det er nærmest et ikke-tema her hjemme.

Kan ikke lage mat Vi treffer dem hver dag på Geitmyra matkultursenter for

En satsing på å bidra til matmessig alfabetisme hos

barn. Unge mennesker som kommer fra hjem hvor ingen

barn og unge, handler om å gi dem en ferdighet som er

av foreldrene kan lage mat. Hvor man ikke vet hvordan

minst like grunnleggende som de man trenger for å lære

poteten vokser, langt mindre hvordan man kan tilberede

matte eller engelsk. Det handler om å gi dem muligheten

den. Hvor de har fått med seg at potetgull og cola ikke

til å ta egne valg og leve sunne og meningsfulle liv.

er det sunneste man kan spise, men hvor man ikke er matmessig kyndige nok til å ta andre og sunnere valg når

Mindre enn Meråkerbanen

man skal kose seg.

Det er nyttig å huske på at dette er et billig tiltak. Et

Disse barna får ikke kunnskapen på skolen heller.

skikkelig nasjonalt løft på dette feltet vil ikke koste

Mat- og helsefaget har vært systematisk bygd ned de

mer enn et middels viktig lokalt samferdselstiltak, som

siste tiårene, til fordel for opplæring i de fagene som

oppgradering av Meråkerbanen, eller en finjustering av

oppfattes som viktigere. Tidligere i år hadde vi besøk av en

rikingskatten.

sjetteklasse hvor barna aldri hadde vært på et skolekjøkken

De som er opptatt av ansvarlighet i den økonomiske

før. De var nysgjerrige, sultne på alt som vokste og grodde,

politikken bør også merke seg at dette er et tiltak som kan

og på nye smaker. Men de hadde aldri før holdt i en skarp

spare mye penger i det lange løp. Dessuten vil det være

kniv, stekt eller kokt noe, eller blitt fortalt om hva ulike

med på å gi en oppvoksende generasjon et bedre liv. At

typer fett og stivelse gjør med kroppen.

mat også er glede og nytelse, bør ikke være grunn nok til

Man kan innvende at denne klassen hadde fått

at politikerne holder seg unna temaet.

et dårligere grunnlag enn gjennomsnittet. Men ikke

“En nasjons skjebne avhenger av hvordan den ernærer

mye: Gjennomsnittlig har bare en tredjedel av mat- og

seg”, skrev den franske gastronomen Brillat-Savarin i

helselærerne fagkompetanse, og gjennomsnittlig er

1825. Det har aldri vært mer sant enn nå. Kom igjen,

råvaretilskuddet i mat- og helsetimene fire kroner pr. elev.

snakk om det!

NOTES 1 Denne artikkelen har tidligere stått på trykk i Aftenposten.

En satsing på å bidra til matmessig alfabetisme hos barn og unge, handler om å gi dem en ferdighet som er minst like grunnleggende som de man trenger for å lære matte eller engelsk.

69

Smallholder Agricultural Production Regimes 1

KJELL HAVNEVIK

The current process of developing principles and

30 per cent of the total or less. The average size of farms

guidelines for responsible agricultural investments (RAI)

is declining over time in China and Africa. The threat

under the auspices of the Committee on World Food

to smallholders is particularly strong in Africa: “25 per

Security, CFS2 emerged largely because previous attempts

cent of the small-scale farm households in the countries

gave smallholders inadequate consideration. In order to

surveyed are approaching landlessness,” claim Jayne,

contribute to this process it is important to reflect on the

Mather and Mghenyi,4 based on their study of Ethiopia,

features of smallholder farming regimes. Smallholders

Malawi, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda and Zambia. This

are different from both large-scale agriculture and land

finding challenges the claims of high availability of unused

labourers. What distinguishes them is the centrality of

or extensively cultivated lands in Africa. The alienation

the family unit both for production and consumption.

of African smallholders should be seen in the context of

Family labour is used, which means there is little, if any,

increasing land inequalities and in relation to increased

wage labour. Smallholders also perform multiple functions

competition for lands with good access to water, urban

– economic, social and cultural – through their farming

markets, infrastructure and services.5

and off-farm activities, both. In addition, the land they

Beyond size, there are wide variations among

cultivate is obviously small in relation to even medium-

smallholders. Some could be described as rural residents,

sized farms in their area or country, but what is meant by

since they mainly farm for subsistence. Others cultivate

‘small’ differs from one context to another.

chiefly for the market and are commercially oriented. In

When measured as farms cultivating less than 1 ha

practice, they may function as enterprises and may be

of land, 73 per cent of the farms in the world are small,

highly productive in terms of area and labour. Research

according to a study based on statistics from 81 countries

from several African countries indicates that around 10

across all continents.3 The largest share of smallholders is

per cent of smallholders belong to this category.6 Many

found in China (93 per cent), followed by India, ‘Other

variations exist between these extremes.

Asia’ and Africa (all in the 57-63 per cent range). In

Over the years there has been a debate about the

Europe and in the Americas, farms below 1 ha constitute

efficiency of scale in agriculture. Smallholders have often 70

Photo: CHARLOTTE LILLEBY KILDAL 71

Smallholder Agricultural Production Regimes

been found to cultivate more efficiently than large-scale

mainly because of decline in deforestation in Brazilian

farms.7 This depends, however, on the kind of smallholders

Amazon in the period. On the other hand from 2005

in focus. In sub-Saharan Africa generally, where

to 2010 GHG emissions from Brazilian agriculture as a

smallholders dominate, agricultural labour productivity

share of total GHS emissions, increased from 20 to 35 per

is lower than in other parts of the world. In Brazil, by

cent. This made agriculture the major sector of Brazilian

contrast, according to the 2006 Agricultural Census,

GHG emissions in 2010.12 Since large scale agricultural

large landowners and agro-businesses dominate and

expansion into new areas has been a characteristic feature

cultivate 76 per cent of agricultural land, whereas they

of Brazilian agriculture during the period in question,

contribute 62 per cent of the annual gross agricultural

it is likely that this form of agriculture also accounts for

value. Smallholders across Brazil, who cultivate 24 per cent

the major share of the negative climate change connected

of the land, contribute as much as 38 per cent of gross

with the sector. Recent reports, however, show that

annual value of agricultural production, including the

deforestation in the Amazon increased by 28 per cent

major share of food production. In addition, smallholder

during 2013, however from a low level.13 This may indicate

farms are much more labour intensive than large-scale

that the New Forest Code which granted amnesty to 58

holdings, employing 15 persons per 100 ha cultivated,

per cent of Brazil’s deforestation before 200814 has given

8

while large-scale agriculture employs 2 persons. The UN

the wrong signals by government and may possibly lead to

Special Rapporteur on the right to food, argues that the

a break in trend of declining deforestation in the Amazon.

coexistence in Brazil of both a competitive agro-industrial,

Rajao et al. have also pointed to the negative experiences

export-focused sector and a family agricultural sector that

as regards deforestation connected with the system for

is responsible for the greater part of the domestic market

environmental licencing of rural properties outside the

while also contributing to exports has, “served the country

Amazon, i.e. in Mato Grosso.

well in different contexts.....Brazil should therefore

In spite of this labour-intensive character, smallholder

continue to promote family agriculture, and ensure that it

farms may utilise their labour force more efficiently than

is afforded the support required to face the challenges of

large-scale farms, as their costs for supervising labour are

an eventual liberalisation of agricultural trade.”9

lower. However, the most important reasons small-scale agriculture may be more efficient are agronomic.15 For

The UN Special Rapporteur on the right to food, however, as well refers to the heated debate within Brazil

instance, intercropping of different plants may provide

about the conflictual relationships between large scale

shadow and better microclimates for plants, nitrogen

agriculture and family farming. His argument is to

fixation from the air to the benefit of other plants and

welcome such a debate, but “it should take into account

less damage from pests and diseases because of lower

not only the question of productivity per hectare or per

uniformity. There are also gains to be made in terms of

active labourer, but also the environmental and social

less weeding in some cases of intercropping. Furthermore,

dimensions of farming”10. Brazilian researchers on their

the use of animal and plant manure lowers input costs,

side, including Fernandes et al. 2012 and Mendonca et al.

and simpler forms of mechanisation may be efficient on

2013, have in their research pointed to the negative trends

soils of varying quality. In sum, a variety of agronomic

as regards social concerns and yield, i.e. area productivity

factors taken together may make smallholder farming

in large scale sugarcane cultivation from 2009 onwards.

more efficient than larger scale farming. However, the

However, overall area productivity in Brazilian agriculture

end result depends on how farming is organised, which

has shown great increases, in particular in the centre-

cultivation techniques and farming systems are used and

eastern part of the country.11

how efficiently factor and output markets are working.

On the environmental side, findings from the period

One way of structuring the description of smallholder

2005 - 2010 show that greenhouse gas emissions (GHG)

farms is to look at their entitlements in terms of assets,

in Brazil was reduced by 38 per cent, from 2.03 billion ton

functioning markets and functioning institutions. When

of CO2eq to 1.25 billion ton of CO2eq. This took place

smallholders have access to certain assets, they may use 72

Kjell Havnevik

them as collateral for obtaining credits, and they may also

factors, which can be considered production conditions,

access more effective cultivation techniques. Hence, their

are missing or weak, they constitute major hindrances

productivity has a potential of being raised through such

for smallholder farmers to develop. However, such a

mechanisms. But assets are not sufficient for smallholders

statistical perspective does not capture well historical

to be successful. It is only when, in addition, they have

trajectories, dynamic evolution or local context. Moreover,

access to functioning markets that they may translate

to understand smallholder farming systems, it is crucial

their productivity and production into higher incomes.

to envisage the wider framework within which they are

Furthermore, markets need to enable smallholders to

placed. Unlike the situation in many Latin American

participate on an equal footing with other actors. Clearly

countries, India and parts of Africa agriculture is largely

defined standards and qualities, accepted and enforceable

dominated by smallholders. This situation is changing in

rules for conflict resolution and enforcement of sanctions

countries where labour opportunities in other economic

are desirable. However, the cost of certification and

sectors are increasing and large-scale farms are increasing.

attaining certain standards is generally high and has for

In parts of Europe and Canada, but also parts of Asia,

this reason the tendency to exclude smallholders.

smallholders still play central roles in providing ecosystem

All the above elements constitute the institutions

services, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, conserving

that are necessary for markets to work properly. Other

biodiversity and maintaining landscapes. In other settings,

institutions include rules and functions needed to hinder

smallholders are pushed to the margins, and in fighting for

gender, class or ethnic factors as expressed in terms of

their survival they destroy the environment, e.g. through

agricultural markets, tenure security or property rights.

deforestation to expand their agricultural acreage.17

When smallholder farms are structured around

Contexts and frameworks differ distinctively

their access to assets, markets and institutions, eight

between countries and continents. Some smallholders

possible combinations emerge, and these illustrate various

live in countries with strong state-led strategies, some in

categories of smallholder farms. These should be seen as

systems with heavy subsidies and others still in contexts

typical cases, and do not exclude other possibilities.16

where policies of deregulation and laissez faire dominate.

The table clearly shows that some of the characteristics

It may nevertheless be noted that similar policies have

ascribed to farmers themselves most likely are linked to

been promoted in low-income countries over the past

contextual factors.

few decades by International organisations, the donor

The table indicates that when one or more of these

community and country governments that (1) focus on

SOURCE: HLPE 2013:43, + INDICATES THE EXISTENCE AND – THE NON-EXISTENCE OF THE FACTORS

73

Smallholder Agricultural Production Regimes

increased production through technical packages rather than broader improvements to farming systems and markets; (2) reduce or withdraw state involvement in agriculture; and (3) close down agricultural banks, state-led extension services, rural infrastructure work as well as agricultural research. Many of the strategies promoted by international institutions for low-income countries differ considerably from what currently industrialised and developed countries employed during their own efforts to develop.18 The larger part of investment in smallholder agriculture is made by farming families themselves. This indicates the importance of access to credits, infrastructure and functioning factor and output markets. HLPE highlights three core areas connected to small-scale agriculture if investments are to be realised: (1) smallholder families need to feel hope for their future in order to invest; (2) there has to be long-term security in terms of tenure and user rights and (3) prices on output markets need to be remunerative.19 In parts of the world where smallholders are becoming numerous and where their relative incomes are falling, effective social security systems can be an important compensating mechanism. An international debate on this is emerging (see 19). Smallholder contexts where functioning institutions are weak or lacking leads to increased insecurity and vulnerability. Social security systems cannot compensate fully for weak institutions, but they can facilitate the build-up of better functioning and more relevant institutions.

72

Kjell Havnevik

NOTES 1 The author is thankful to Mats Hårsmar for constructive

Brazil.” United Nations General Assembly. A/HRC/13/33/Add.6.

contributions to this article. A more comprehensive analysis of the

New York. De Schutter, O. (2009a), “Preliminary Conclusions:

features of smallholder production regimes in comparison to those

Mission to Brazil, 12-18 October 2009, press release- annex.

of large scale agricultural regimes can be found in Kjell Havnevik,

10 Klink, C. A. (2013), “Brazilian strategies to reduce forestation

“Responsible agricultural investments. How to make principles

in Brazil?” Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brazil.” Presentation at

and guidelines effective.” The Swedish FAO Committee and the

conference, Deforestation and REDD+ in Brazil. What is going on?

Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, March 2014.

Oslo, 28 October 2013.

2 CFS, Committee on World Food Security (2013), “Rai Zero

11 (Nobre 2013).

Draft.” 1 August. Rome. CFS, Committee on World Food Security

12 BBC World Service (2013), November 15.

(2014), 2nd Draft 14 August. Rome.

13 Rajao, R. (2013), “Implications of the Forest Code and

3 HLPE (2013), “Investing in smallholder agriculture for food

Challenges of leakage: An institutional Outlook.” Presentation at

security”, Report No. 6, High Level Panel of Experts on Food

seminar, Deforestation and REDD+ in Brazil, What’s going on?

Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

Oslo, 28 October.

4 Jayne, T. S., D. Mather and E, Mghenyi (2010), “Principal

14 Coulson, A. (2013), “The end of the peasanty? Reflections

Challenges Confronting Smallholder Agriculture in Sub-Saharan

based on Henry Bernstein’ “Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change.”

Africa.” World Development, Vol 36:10, pp 1384 – 1398

Kumarian Press and Fernwood Publishing 2013.

5 Olanya, D. (2012), “From Global Land Grabbing for Biofuels

15 HLPE (2013), “Investing in smallholder agriculture for food

to Acquisitions of African Water for Commercial Agriculture.”

security”, Report No. 6, High Level Panel of Experts on Food

Current African Issues, No. 50, Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala.

Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

HLPE (2012), “Social Protection for Food Security.” Report, High

16 HLPE (2013), “Investing in smallholder agriculture for food

Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition, FAO,

security”, Report No. 6, High Level Panel of Experts on Food

Rome. Jägerskog, A., A. Cascão, M. Hårsmar and K. Kim (2012),

Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

”Land

17 Bairoch, P. (1993), Economic and World History: Myth and

Acquisitions: How will they Impact Transboundary Waters?”

Paradoxes. The University of Chicago Press. Bhaduri, A. and

Report No 30, Stockholm International Water Institute,

R. Skarstein (1997), Economic Development and Agricultural

Stockholm, Sweden

Productivity. Edward Elgar Publisher. Chang, H-J. (2002), Kicking

6 Djurfeldt, G., H. Holmén et al. (2005), The African Food Crisis

Away the Ladder. Development Strategy in HistoricalPerspective.

– Lessons from the Asian Green Revolution. Wallingford, Oxon.:

Anthem,London.

CABI. Djurfeldt, G. E. Aryeteey and A. Isinika (eds) (2010),

18 HLPE (2013), “Investing in smallholder agriculture for food

African Smallholders: Food Crops, Market and Policy. Wallingford,

security”, Report No. 6, High Level Panel of Experts on Food

Oxon.: CABI.

Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

7 Binswanger, H. and P. Pingali (1988),”Technological Priorities

19 HLPE (2013), “Investing in smallholder agriculture for food

for Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The World Bank Research

security”, Report No. 6, High Level Panel of Experts on Food

Observer, Vol 3, No. 1, Washington. D. C. Coulson, A. (2013),

Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

“The end of the peasanty? Reflections based on Henry Bernstein’ “Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change.” Kumarian Press and

REFERENCES:

Fernwood Publishing 2013.

Mendonca, G. L., F. T. Pitta and C. V. Xavier (2013), “The

8 Fernandes, B. M., C. A. Welch and E. C. Goncalves (2012),

Sugarcane Industry Rajao, R. (2013), “Implications of the Forest

Land Governance in Brazil. A geo- historical review of land

Code and Challenges of leakage: An institutional Outlook.”

governance in Brazil. International Land Coalition Framing the

Presentation at seminar, Deforestation and REDD+ in Brazil,

Debate Series No. 2, Rome.

What’s going on? Oslo, 28 October.

9 De Schutter, O. (2009b), “Report of the Special Rapporteur on

Soares-Filho et al 2013 Swedfund (2013), “Addax Bioenery, Sierra

the right to food, Olivier De Schutter. Addendum. Mission to

Leone. Fakta.” First published December 4 2011.

75

Is more nutrition information really going to help us eat healthier?

The issue with health claims and food labeling

MARIJE OOSTINDJER

Consumers get bombarded by nutritional information

Many of these informational messages consist of

on a daily basis through a host of different channels:

different levels that can contribute to contradictory

newspapers, TV, magazines, radio, Facebook, celebrity

messages. These levels consist of the scientific background,

tweets, and through the many blogs that can be found

the interpretation of the background information, and

online. While many welcome nutritional information, it

the framing and source of the message. The scientific

is not so easy to sort through it all. In addition, different

background is often the first, for example, a study might

pieces of information may give contradictory messages.

show a relationship between the intake of food A, and

Why do we get contradictory information? Would

health parameter Z. There are different ways in which

providing crystal clear information on what is healthy and

this result may have been obtained: for example through

what is not be enough to get people to eat healthier?

epidemiological studies, randomized controlled trials 76

or cohort studies. Each type of study has its advantages

for low reputation or expertise of the source. Framing

and its limitations. Epidemiological studies may show a

of the message is also important: use of fear appeal for

relationship but do not say anything about causality (does

example, such as the cigarette packaging with photos of

food A directly affect parameter Z, or is food A related to

the consequences of smoking that are used in Australia

food B, which actually has the effect on Z?). Randomized

and some other countries, will have a different effect on

controlled trials are better for looking at mechanisms,

consumer attitudes than messages in which fear is not

but such trials are often difficult to conduct for a long

induced. While fear appeal can be effective in the short

time or with extreme food intakes. In addition, people

term, it is not known what the long term effects are of

eat a diet, not single foods, and the interactions between

using fear appeal to frame messages to consumers.

different foods in the diet may be complex.1 This is why

In Europe there are strict regulations on what type

in many cases the science underlying the effects that food

and in what format information messages can be used

has on our health is not completely bullet-proof, but with

when communicating about relationships between food

new advances in analytical tools and systems biology the

and health. This is particularly true for information

knowledge will continue to evolve.

provided on food itself, in the form of food labels,

The second level underlying informational messages is

nutrition claims or health claims. The European Food

the interpretation by the one who presents the message to

Safety Authority (EFSA) is involved in the regulation

the consumers. This person or organization has a certain

of food labels, and new regulations will soon (end of

level of understanding, focus, and opinion that can impact

2014) result in new labels not only in the EU but also

on how they interpret the message, and how they frame it.

in Norway.3 Nutrition claim examples include ‘no added

This can often be seen in blogs, where the same scientific

sugar’ and ‘low fat’, and a regulatory framework is in

article may be interpreted and framed very differently in

place with rules on the nutritional requirements that

different blogs.

foods must have before it can have a nutrition claim. This

The third level that underlies informational messages

framework also is present for health claims, though more

consists of both the frame and the source of the message.2

complicated. Health claim examples are ‘Food X boosts

Reputation and expertise of the source is important for

the immune system’ or ‘Food Z helps to reduce blood

people to trust the message and to help them accurately

cholesterol’. EFSA looks at whether the food or ingredient

assess the risks or benefits of eating a food. However,

is properly defined, whether the claim is well-phrased

certainty of the message, as well as strength of the

and concrete enough to be scientifically evaluated, and

arguments are also important and can even compensate

what the evidence is for this effect.4 EFSA also provides

Foods with health claims, particularly from food categories that are normally not considered as healthy, are expected by many consumers to be less tasty. However, there is variation within and between populations in consumer taste expectation of healthy food.

77

Is More Nutrition Information Really Going to Help Us Eat Healthier?

documentation on how studies that may serve as evidence

variation within and between populations in consumer

for the claim should be conducted. Such studies should

taste expectation of healthy food. For example, in almost

be extensive in order to provide sufficient evidence for the

all of the Nordic countries taste expectations is reduced

claim, and so far only 250 claims have been authorized,5

by providing health claims, but not in Iceland. Variation

many of which are related to vitamins and minerals.

was large in a Uruguayan consumer sample who tasted

Cholesterol reduction by certain type of fats or fibers is

chocolate desserts with antioxidants: some found it very

another frequent category in the authorized claims list.

healthy and tasty, while others found the products to be

There are more than 2000 applications that have not

healthy and having an off-flavour.7 Making consumers

been authorized so far, as EFSA panels judged the claim

combine taste of the food product with health information

not validated sufficiently. The regulatory framework on

can affect consumer perception and acceptance: if the

health claims is strict in order to protect consumers from

product really does taste less good than its unhealthy cousin,

non-validated health claim use in marketing and branding

many consumers will not choose the healthier option.8

of products.

It is a serious problem that consumers expect healthier products to be more expensive and less tasty, as taste and price are two of the major motivators for choosing certain

Even if more conclusive studies were done and many health claims were authorized and used in food labeling, would it really help consumers to eat healthier?

food products. This is why researchers are taking an alternative route to motivating consumers to eat healthier: nudging. A nudge is a change in the environment that results in changed behaviour, but does not forbid any options, and does not change economic incentives. A successful example in terms of eating behaviour is an intervention in a salad bar in a cafeteria, which made calorie-dense foods slightly harder to reach, and changed the serving utensils from spoons to tongs (with which it is harder to take large quantities of for example cheese cubes), which resulted in an 8-16% decrease in intake of these foods.9 Such effects are modest, but reliable, and may

This requires that consumers are motivated to buy

very well add-up.

food items that claim to be healthy. However, food that

Although providing consumers with information

is labeled as healthier, or food that has been altered

about nutrition is complex and may not always work as

to incorporate health promoting ingredients change

desired, it is still considered a major way to get consumers

expectations and attitudes of consumers. Consumers

to eat healthier. Many countries are looking into ways to

typically expect such products to be more expensive,

make it easier for consumers to use nutrition information

as many healthy foods to tend to be more expensive.

to make healthier choices. Simplified labels such as the

Consumers also may expect the product to be less natural

traffic light system that is used in the UK are easier for

though this depends on the combination of the health

consumers to understand as they use colours in addition

promoting ingredient and the medium in which the

to more detailed information. The Nordic Keyhole

ingredient has been used. Pork with a health claim is

Label is another simplified label, which signals healthier

6

expected to be less natural than yoghurt or bread. Such

alternatives within the food product category. The labeling

effects may affect the attractiveness of the product and

is voluntary and not yet available for all categories, though

most importantly the expectations of taste. Foods with

regulations around the label are continuously updated.

health claims, particularly from food categories that

Products with the Keyhole label typically contain more

are normally not considered as healthy, are expected

dietary fiber, and less salt, sugar and saturated fats. The

by many consumers to be less tasty. However, there is

vast majority of consumers in the Nordic countries 78

Marije Oostindjer

It is a serious problem that consumers expect healthier products to be more expensive and less tasty, as taste and price are two of the major motivators for choosing certain food products.

recognizes and buys products with the Keyhole label,

URL: http://www.mattilsynet.no/mat_og_vann/merking_av_mat/

though the consumer may lack precise understanding of it.

generelle_krav_til_merking_av_mat/merkeforskriften_

However, the majority of Nordic consumers says that the

revideres.4711

label makes it easier for them to choose healthier.

10

4. EFSA (2014) “Nutrition and health claims.” [online]. URL:

In conclusion, it will not be enough for the scientific

http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/nutrition.htm

community to just work on gaining more knowledge on

5. European Commission (2014) “EU register of nutrition and

nutrition, as this information alone may not be enough

health claims made on food.” [online]. URL: http://ec.europa.eu/

to get consumers to eat healthier. Providing accurate,

nuhclaims/

clear and easy-to-understand information is key to ensure

6. Lähteenmäki, L., Lampila, P., Grunert, K., Boztug, Y., Ueland,

consumer trust in the product. As there is variation

Ø., Åström, A., & E. Martinsdóttir (2010) “Impact of health-

between consumers in how information is perceived and

related claims on the perception of other product attributes.” Food

how information affects expectations and attitudes towards

Policy 35: p. 230.

foods, it is important to also explore alternative strategies

7. Ares, G., Barreiro, C., Deliza, R., Giménez, A., & A. Gámbaro

that do not involve direct communication towards the

(2010) “Consumer expectations and perception of chocolate milk

consumer, such as nudging, which can work in synergy with

desserts enriched with antioxidants.” Journal of Sensory Studies

information campaigns to get consumers to eat healthier.

25: p. S243.

8. Carrillo, E., Varela P., & S. Fiszman (2012) “Effects of food

NOTES:

package information and sensory characteristics on the perception

1. Oostindjer, M., Alexander, J., Amdam, G.V., Andersen, G.,

of healthiness and the acceptability of enriched biscuits.” Food

Bryan, N.S., Chen, D., Corpet, D.E., De Smet, S., Dragsted,

Research International 48: p. 209.

L.O., Haug, A., Karlsson, A.H., Kleter, G., de Kok, T.M., Kulseng,

9. Rozin, P., Scott, S., Dingley, M., Urbanek, J.K., Jiang, H.,

B., Milkowski, A.L., Martin, R.J., Pajari, A.M., Paulsen, J.E.,

& M. Kaltenbach (2011) “Nudge to nobesity I: Minor changes in

Pickova, J., Rudi, K., Sødring, M., Weed, D.L., & B Egelandsdal

accessibility decrease food intake.” Judgment and Decision Making

(2014) “The role of red and processed meat in colorectal cancer

6: p. 323.

development: a perspective.” Meat Science 97: p. 583.

10. Mattilsynet & Helsedirektoratet (2014) “Nøkkelhullsmerket”.

2. Oostindjer, M. (2014) “Food communication: the source and

[online]. URL: http://www.nokkelhullsmerket.no/

the message.” [online]. URL: http://www.umb.no/statisk/forsiden/ presentation_11_feb_marije.pdf 3. Mattilsynet (2012) “Merkeforskriften revideres”. [online].

79

Photo: MARCELA OLIVEIRA 80

Laksen tar vi den for god fisk?

CHARLOTTE ANDERSEN

matpolitikken er at forvaltningen strekker seg utover hele

Tilgang til mat er en menneskerett og matsikkerhet er

matkjeden, «fra fjord, jord til bord». I denne tilnærmingen

en av vår tids største problemstillinger. Det er imidlertid

ligger det en forutsetning om at sluttproduktet gjenspeiler

ikke bare retten til å bli mett som er et sentralt aspekt i

produksjonsmetoder og den behandlingen varen har

dagens matpolitikk. Også mattrygghet er blitt en viktig

fått gjennom hele matkjeden. Det betyr at den varen

dimensjon som ikke kan utelukkes i diskusjonen om

som vi enten får servert i frysedisken i butikken, eller

rettigheter. Bør det ikke også være en rettighet at maten er

på restaurant, skal være helsemessig trygg. Både mat- og

trygg og sunn? Hvis svaret er ja, er vi i stor grad avhengig

ernæringspolitikken skal sikre oss veier til trygg mat.

av kvalitetssikret informasjon, ettersom mye av ansvaret er overført til den individuelle forbruker. Å sikre helsemessig

Vi kan få god helse via et ernæringsrikt kosthold, men like viktig via den kunnskapen vi mottar om varer vi bør unngå.

trygg mat er blitt en stadig større utfordring med moderne matproduksjon. Matkjeden er blitt mer sammensatt, og økt antall ledd mellom det som produseres og serveres gjør det mer utfordrende å utføre helhetlige matkontroller.

Maten og kostholdet betyr mye for helsen vår, og forbrukerne har fått økende interesse for hva de tilfører kroppen, både av hensyn til kvalitet, men også av hensyn til helse. Vi lever i et risikosamfunn preget av komplekse informasjonsstrømmer. Som forbrukere eksponeres vi

På den måten er trygghetsaspektet og ernæringsaspektet

stadig for avisoverskrifter der eksperter og tilfeldige

to viktige elementer som er ment å integreres innenfor

aktører uttaler seg om effektene av ulike matvarer. Disse

et samlet matpolitikkfelt. Forvaltningen er bygget opp

er gjerne motstridende og media bidrar til å polarisere

av ulike institusjoner som både grenser til og overlapper

debatten; i dag var varen trygg, i morgen er den farlig.

hverandre. Et administrativt skille mellom mat- og

Forbrukerne blir forvirret, og usikkerheten undergraver

helsesektoren gjør det derfor mulig å snakke om et skille

trygghetsfølelsen. Dermed blir det desto viktigere med god

mellom det trygge og det sunne. Sektorene har hvert sitt

informasjon fra uavhengige organ.

ansvarsområde og sine hensyn å ivareta. Et eksempel på

Grunnidéen om en helhetlig tilnærming til

hvordan sektorene krysses og kobles kan illustreres med 81

Laksen - tar vi den for god fisk?

enn ett måltid laks i måneden for å unngå risiko for kreft.3

deres tilnærming til kostholdsråd.

Et skille mellom sektorene kommer til uttrykk ved

Kritikken skapte uro i matforvaltningen og i

at matforvaltningen har fokus på fremmedstoffene, mens

sjømatsektoren i Norge. Mattilsynet svarte på kritikken

helseforvaltningen gir råd og anbefalinger om de positive

ved å bestille en risikovurdering fra Vitenskapskomiteen

næringsstoffene i maten. Matforvaltningen advarer altså

for mattrygghet (VKM). Vurderingen skulle ta for seg

mot matvarer som inneholder høye nivåer av miljøgifter.

både ernæringsmessige fordeler ved å spise fisk, og se disse

Helseforvaltningen gir derimot kostholdsråd utelukkende

i lys av ulempene fra fremmedstoffene. Risikovurderingen

på helseeffekter.1 Kostholdsrådene har over lang tid vært

ble lagt frem i 2006 og konklusjonen var at de

matvarebasert ved at man har oppmuntret befolkningen

helsemessige fordelene ved å spise fisk var langt større enn

til å konsumere varer med viktig næringsinnhold.

ulempene. Det skjedde ingen endring i kostholdsrådene,

Utfordringen som melder seg når man opererer med et

og fisken beholdt sunnhetsstemplet.

klart skille mellom det trygge og det sunne, er at det kan

Nå, ti år senere etter den store urolighetsbølgen,

resultere i ulike råd fra mat- og helseforvaltningen.

er debatten tilbake. Det er fortsatt usikkerhet knyttet

Som et ledd i retning av å integrere hensynet til

til risikoen rundt miljøgiftene, og til hvorvidt laksen

det «giftige» og det sunne, har det blitt gjennomført

er så sunn som man skal ha det til. Som en følge av

nytte-risikovurderinger som vurderer fremmedstoffer og

sushitrenden er det grunn til å tro at langt flere av oss

næringsstoffer opp mot hverandre. Dette er foreløpig kun

spiser mer laks. Endringer i vårt kostholdsmønster kan gi

blitt gjort på én matvaregruppe i Norge, fisk. Debatten

grunnlag for revidering av råd. I tillegg er en annen viktig

om norsk laks illustrerer problemstillingene som oppstår

dimensjon at fiskefôret nå inneholder mer plantebasert

når det blir foretatt en helhetsvurdering etter trygghets- og

fôr. På mattrygghetssiden hevder vitenskapelige miljøer

sunnhetsaspektet.

at miljøgiftinnholdet har gått ned i laksen,4 og at den er

Helt siden 1980- tallet har matsektoren gitt råd om

trygg. På ernæringssiden er det grunnlag for å stille seg

å begrense inntak av sjømat som kan inneholde for høye

spørsmålet om den er like sunn. Dette henger sammen

nivåer av fremmedstoffer. Disse rådene har gjerne vært

med at det stilles spørsmål til at overgangen til et

geografisk avgrenset og tatt utgangspunkt i områder med

plantebasert fôr påvirker innholdet av omega 3. Risikoen

mye industrivirksomhet. Råd har for eksempel blitt gitt

er altså ikke lenger bare en følge av forurensning, men også

til lokalbefolkning nært et forurenset område, som for

en effekt av at endringer i matproduksjonen.

eksempel i Grenland der myndighetene var bekymret

I lang tid har helsemyndighetene sett på laksen som

for sammenhengen mellom industrivirket, selvfiske hos

en kilde til omega 3 og andre viktige næringsstoffer. Laks

lokalbefolkningen og inntak av for mye miljøgifter.2 I

har derfor vært en selvsagt vare å fremme som en viktig

de senere årene har praksisen endret seg. Økt kunnskap

del av et norsk sunt kosthold. Da debatten om laksen

om flere miljøgifter og de negative effektene disse kan

igjen dukket opp i fjor sommer, utviklet det seg en stor

ha for helsen vår, har resultert i at matforvaltningen

mediedebatt omkring miljøgifter, sprikende kostholdsråd,

nå kommuniserer mer generelle kostholdsråd. For

usikkerhet og risiko. Urolighetene ble ikke mindre da

eksempel rådes gravide kvinner til å begrense inntaket

det ble vist en dokumentar i Frankrike som kritiserte

av fet fisk til to ganger i uken. Dette gjelder da matvarer

norsk oppdrettslaks. Rundt samme tid opplevde Norge

som overholder grenseverdiene, og som flyter fritt over

nedgang i lakseeksporten til Frankrike. Den norske laksen

landegrensene, men som visse grupper likevel må være

hadde ikke lenger referansepunkt som kvalitetsfisk, og

forsiktige med.

franskmennene så heller til Skottland for å få kvalitet. Om

I dag er det velkjent at laksen inneholder miljøgifter.

eksportnedgangen skyldes en negativ dokumentar eller økt

Allerede i 2004 ble norsk laks kritisert av amerikanske

pris på fisken er ikke godt å vite. Uansett illustrerer dette

forskere i det vitenskapelige tidsskriftet Science. Det ble

at laksen fortsatt sliter med omdømme, både her i Norge

argumentert for at konsum av laks medførte risiko for kreft,

og i utlandet.

og forskerne konkluderte med at man ikke burde spise mer

Når laksen skal frikjennes fra all kritikk, samt fortsatt 82

Charlotte Andersen

Siden vi ikke har data som viser hvor mye miljøgifter vi eksponeres for totalt sett gjennom vårt kostholdsmønster, er det desto viktigere at giften fjernes der det er mulig.

Dette er et steg i riktig retning dersom målet er å redusere eksponeringen for miljøgiftene mest mulig.

bli merket med kvalitet og sunnhetsstempel, har næringen

Denne høsten kommer vitenskapskomiteen

selv et viktig ansvar. Tidligere i år gikk verdens største

for mattrygghet (VKM) ut med en oppdatering av

lakseprodusent, Marine Harvest, ut med melding om at

risikovurderingen på fisk og annen sjømat. Vurderingen

de skal rense fôret fritt for giftstoffer. Dette kan være en

skal ta utgangspunkt i ny kunnskap om fremmedstoffer

omdømmestrategi og et forsøk på fjerne all tvil omkring

og næringsstoffer, og se om dette danner grunnlag for

laksen, men det positive er at teknologien er på plass.

revidering av offisielle anbefalinger om kostholdet.

Siden vi ikke har data som viser hvor mye miljøgifter vi

La oss håpe myndighetene, med bakgrunn i en

eksponeres for totalt sett gjennom vårt kostholdsmønster,

helhetlig kunnskapsvurdering, lykkes i å kommunisere

er det desto viktigere at giften fjernes der det er mulig.

informasjonen til forbrukerne. Uavhengig av hva

Dette er et steg i riktig retning dersom målet er å redusere

konklusjonen blir, er det best for alle parter at

eksponeringen for miljøgiftene mest mulig.

forbrukerens usikkerhet reduseres.

Ofte hører vi argumentet «varen overskrider ikke grenseverdien, og er derfor trygg». Å forstå hva som ligger

NOTES

i en grenseverdi er komplekst, men spissformulert kan

1 Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet (2006: 19), ”Et helhetssyn på

man si at det handler om regulering av handel. Målet

fisk og annen sjømat i norsk kosthold” (1- 171)

med å sette grenseverdier er at varer med høye stoffer av

2 Tom Erik Økland (2005) ” Kostholdsråd i norske havner og

miljøgifter ikke skal nå ut til oss forbrukere. Grenseverdier kan derfor ikke kun betraktes som grenser for helseskade.

fjorder”. En gjennomgang av kostholdsråd i norske havner og

5

fjorder fra 1960- tallet og frem til i dag. Rapport utarbeidet av

Grenseverdier skal også ta høyde for eventuelle storspisere

Bergfald & Co as, på oppdrag fra Mattilsynet, Vitenskapskomiteen

av en bestemt vare. Likevel er det her mye av utfordringen

for Mattrygghet (VKM) og statens forurensningstilsyn

ligger for myndighetene. Det er mangel på data som

3 RF (2005: 105) “Mat, risiko og kriser”, Matvaretrygghet

forteller oss hvor mye miljøgifter vi utsettes for gjennom

i endring i Norge, Tyskland og Storbritannia. Forfatter av

vårt totale kostholdsmønster. Koblingen mellom

rapporten er: Hauge, Jarleiv og Allred, Kirsten. URL: http://

fremmedstoffer og næringsstoffer burde derfor ses mer

evalueringsportalen.no/evaluering/mat-risiko-og- kriser-

i sammenheng når myndighetene kommuniserer sine

matvaretrygghet-i-endring-i-norge-tyskland-og-storbritannia/

kostholdsråd. Dette skjer nå på fisken, og i fremtiden

Mat_risiko_kriser.pdf/@@inline

også kanskje på andre typer varer. Gjennom en

4 NIFES ”Fet fisk er trygg mat” (nett) URL: http://nifes.no/fet-

helhetsvurdering og tilegning av kunnskap om hva stoffene

fisk-er-trygg-mat/

gjør med oss blir vår evne til å gjøre egne risikovurderinger

5 NIFES ”Uønskede stoffer: hva er en grenseverdi og hva

styrket. Vi trenger tydelig og sikker kunnskap om hvilke

er tolerabelt ukentlig inntak?” (nett) URL: http://nifes.no/

helserisiko som følger med de ulike stoffene i matvarene.

forskningstema/trygg-sjomat/grenseverdier-for-uonskede-stoffer/

83

Oslo Food Coop local, organic and sustainable

ANDREAS FÆRØVIG OLSEN

A couple of weeks ago I was working for Kooperativet

organic certification.

(Oslo Food Coop) at Mathallen, filling bags of vegetables

We want the food to be grown as locally as possible.

together with other volunteers. Looking around, I made

This reduces the negative impacts of transportation, and

eye contact with a woman who had been studying the

it allows us to receive vegetables that most of the time

carrots destined for our bags. “They look just like the ones

are harvested the same day. Minimizing the time spent

I grow myself!” she enthusiastically exclaimed. I quickly

on transportation and storage also improves freshness

replied, “and I am sure they also taste just as good.”

and taste. For this to work as intended, we have to let the

In the fall of 2013, the UN issued a report called,

current season and the farmers’ ability to deliver decide

“Trade and Environment Review 2013” subtitled “Wake

what to offer in our bags. In practice, our members simply

up before it is too late.” It claimed that we need a shift

order an unspecified bag of vegetables and other produce,

towards more organic, local and small-scale farming.

and the contents are based on what is available at the time

Kooperativet, a cooperative based on letting its members

of delivery.

buy organic/biodynamic produce directly from local

Sustainability is important not only when it comes

farmers, handed out their first bags one month before the

to the farming itself. Kooperativet is run independent

report was published, and those values are some of our

of external support, and in a way that minimizes waste

core principles.

generation. The members, for instance, have to return

In order to encourage sustainable agriculture, reduce

the bag they received the last time when collecting their

the environmental impact and promote animal welfare,

vegetables. All the work is done by volunteers. That

we require our suppliers (or “our farmers,” as we usually

means 95% of the income goes directly to the farmers.

call them) to be certified organic. In practice, however,

Without any intermediaries, we can offer a fair price

many of them have a biodynamic approach to farming

for the produce, encouraging them to keep focusing

or in other ways take special interest in sustainable food

on sustainable farming practices, while maintaining a

production. Several of them therefore follow even stricter

reasonable charge for the members. Profit is not a goal for

guidelines than what is found in the standard rules of

Kooperativet, but being able to offer our members high 84

Photo: SVEIN GUNNAR SKJØDE

quality food at an affordable price – and offer our farmers

At the same time we have been trying to

the price they need for their crops – certainly is!

communicate our values to the general public. A lot of

What has Kooperativet accomplished since the launch

people approach us when we fill the bags at Mathallen,

last year? We currently have just above 1000 members,

and we get plenty of opportunities to generate interest in

with a rapidly growing waiting list containing just as

what we are doing. Through cooperation with others, like

many. The members have the opportunity to support

our recent contribution to the festival “Piknik i Parken”,

what we consider sustainable agriculture, replacing some

we get to show even more people how sustainable farming

of their previous purchases with the bags we offer. The

can result in high quality food.

farmers are able to sell their produce directly to someone

Like I told the woman admiring our carrots, the

who appreciates their work, and they get a fair price. This

contents of Kooperativet’s bags taste good; not only for the

might encourage them to keep up their good practices and

taste buds, but also for the conscience.

others to switch to organic farming.

85

Photo x 4: FINN DALE IVERSEN 86

87

88

89

90

91

Between mining and food security: The case of Colombia

PALOMA LEON CAMPOS

Thanks to globalization, we can today enjoy greater

increased dramatically in the region during the last decade.

interaction between people and countries. We can enjoy

Latin-America has become the largest destination for

the delicious flavors of sushi in Halden and play virtual

international mining investments; from 12% in 1990s to

soccer games with friends in Quito. This development

33% by 2000.1

has also integrated the global economy making different

The boom of international investment in the mining

nations more dependent on each other. A good example

industry can be seen in relation to two major factors; a

of this is the production of iPod’s, Apple computers

growing demand and consumption worldwide and the

and other electronic devices that requires certain

decrease of primary natural resources. Economically

amount of minerals that need to be extracted from the

speaking, this situation has generated an attractive

soil. Extraction activities have inevitable a great socio-

investment climate. The Economic Commission for

environmental impact in countries rich in minerals such

Latin-America and the Caribbean registered in 2010

as gold and copper. With the acceleration of large-

an economic growth of 6% in the total GDP of the

scale mining on prime agricultural land, it is crucial to

region.2 According to Bebbington the extractive booms

investigate the implications these activities might have for

are each part of a far larger re-ordering of Latin-America’s

local and national food security. In this article I attempt to

geopolitical economy and economic geography. This might

analyze this complex topic by focusing on Latin- America,

explain why as the mining sector is expanding, social and

more specifically Colombia.

environmental conflicts are increasing.

According to the OCMAL (Observatorio de

Mining activities: A brief overview

conflictos mineros en America Latina) 185 socio-

Mining exploitation has always existed in Latin-America

environment conflicts were registered in the region at the

since the presence of millenaries cultures. Today, many

end of 2012.3

communities including indigenous and afro-descendants are

Although conflicts triggered by mining exploitation

sustained by artisanal mining activities or small-scale mining.

are not a new phenomenon, they are now emerging, not

However, the expansion of large-scale mining has

just as a fight for labor rights, but for socio-environmental 92

rights as well. This is due to the characteristics of modern

tendency, the governments of the region should “not yield

mining itself, which both depends on a large workforce

to the private interests of the agro-business sector, which

and to a larger extent, on land and water, used to extract

oftentimes go against the generation and production of

minerals. In the report published by Minerals Yearbook

basic food” and to “invest in the sustainable productivity

2010 it is stated that recent mining initiatives have

of small- scale farmers within the framework of food

directed their interest towards rural territories where

security policies that will guarantee the provision of food

exploration costs are relatively high. In this way mining

for everyone.”6

activities also affects local livelihoods by expanding their

Food security in this regard is understood as

activities to agricultural land.

“a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and

Mining and Food security

nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food

Latin-American and especially Colombia are not only

preferences for an active and healthy life.” However, in

rich in minerals. The region is also characterized by its

different debates it has being argued that food security

abundance of diverse crops, vegetables, fruits and its

should also include how and where food is produced.

great biodiversity. Still, the investments in agricultural

According to Raj Patel (2009) food security “moved from

development in the region have decreased considerably the

being simply about producing and distributing food, to a

last years, and are now competing with more profitable

whole nexus of concerns around nutrition, social control,

activities such as the agroindustry and extraction of

and public health.” These debates led to the broadening

minerals, oil and carbon. As the General Director of FAO

of the concept to “food sovereignty” introduced by Via

asserts; “in the last three decades, national investments in

Campesina in 1996.8

agriculture and development have decreased, and millions

Food sovereignty is understood as: the right of each

of small farmers have had to fight to adapt too many

nation to maintain and develop its own capacity to produce

changes; climate, market and price.”4 Yet, small-scale

its basic foods respecting cultural and productive diversity. We

farmers and agriculture have long been a low priority for

have the right to produce our own food in our own territory.

policymaking and the governments. Peasant’s permanent

Food sovereignty is a precondition to genuine food security”.9

fight for agrarian reform illustrates that access to land and

A precondition to food sovereignty and food security

territory has been and still is a significant problem.

is then access to land, water, seeds and control of one’s

In the wake of the 1990s, the major tendency in

food system, but this is not a guaranteed right for all.

Latin-America was drawn upon liberal economic measures

According to Raj Patel, it is not only property rights that

promoting “structural adjustment programs” in order to

need to be changed, but a full spectrum of social, physical

achieve economic growth. Deregulation, privatization

and economic goods.10 In other words, as Raj Patel

and trade liberalization became the guiding economic

suggests, food sovereignty cannot be reduced to access to

principles for policy makers. According to Daniel Shepard,

land simply, but it involves challenging deep inequalities

liberalization encouraged the withdrawal of the state from

of power. Talking about food security and sovereignty

agricultural production leading to a decline in agricultural

involves then to talk about structural inequalities of power.

expenditure.5 This situation has converted many countries

Therefore, as Hills affirms; the continent should

from being food self-sufficient to become food importers,

strengthen small-scale agriculture through major

and in that way undermining local production.

investment in agricultural technology and policies, not

This situation ultimately puts at risk the possibility

only to decrease hunger but also to protect the region

to enhance a national agricultural development based

against the economic crisis in Europe and other parts of

on the food security of the population. This spurred

the world.10

Antonio Hill, the representative for Latin American

However, this seems far away from being possible

Oxfam’s CRECE Campaign, a campaign directed to boost

considering the large extension of land that has been

small-scale agriculture, to insist that in order to offset this

authorized to mining exploitation. According to some 93

Between Mining and Food Security: The Case of Colombia

studies; in the region, the averages of mining concessions

According to the latest available data on mining

by countries have increased to cover more than 10%

concessions in Colombia; between 1990 and 2001,

11

of each national territory. This situation invites us to

the Government conveyed 1.880 mining rights while

rethink the territorial configuration that is being shaped

in 2010 there were registered 8.928 concessions and

by activities such as mining, and how these will affect

20.000 in process applications.15 Half of these concessions

the food security of its population. This has undoubtedly

are concentrated in the mountainous areas of four

contributed to a high concentration of agricultural

departments: Cauca, Nariño, Antioquia and Chocó.16

land that again can have serious consequences for the

Moreover, the government has enhanced a strategy that

agricultural development of small-scale producers and as

favors agribusiness (African palm oil, flowers, sugar

such the food security of peasants in the long-run.

etc.) which illustrates that the development model that the Colombian government is promoting sees national

The case of Colombia

agriculture more as an obstacle rather than a potential area

Colombia has had some of the most prolonged social and

to invest. According to the United Nations Development

armed conflict in Latin-America, contributing to high

programme (UNDP): “this situation renders Colombia

rates of dispossession and forced displacement. According

more dependent on imports (including basic staples as

to the latest report by the International Office on Human

rice, cereals and corn) to guarantee food security.” 17

Rights - Action Colombia, the country has one of the

Along with the pressure exerted by mining

highest land concentrations in the world, which is under-

explorations between 2001 and 2011, the Database of

used for agricultural purposes.12 Only 4,9 million hectares,

social conflicts (Base de Datos de Luchas Sociales de CINEP/

of a total amount of 21,5 million hectares suitable for food

PPP) registered 274 social conflicts associated with

cultivation, are cultivated land.

the extraction of mineral, oil and carbon.18 There is no

Colombia’s social and armed conflict has been

doubt that the historical unresolved conflict of Colombia

triggered by a historically unequal land distribution.

concerning access to land is still present, but during the

Before the year 2000, the country attracted little mining

last years these conflicts has got new actors and been

investment as a result of the internal conflict. However,

intensified. Mega-projects have in many cases involved

with the government of Alvaro Uribe Velez from 2002 to

the expropriation of farmers, indigenous people and afro-

2008 and his policy of democratic security, this situation

descendants forcing them to leave and abandon their land

changed creating a sense of security that has driven foreign

and contribute to the concentration of land ownership.19 As Mabel Gonzales Bustelo20 asserts, “the semi-feudal

investment. In 2001 a new mining code compiled in the law 685 was introduced and is considered to be one

land-ownership and power model has been replaced by

of the most flexible mining policies in the continent,

a neoliberal model that confronts indigenous farming

making Colombia one of the most attractive places for

economies with major national farming and stockbreeding

multinationals investment opportunities. This has caused

interests, and with world economies, as well as finance

a general deregulation in social and environmental terms

capital, mega-projects, and transnational investments.” 21

allowing what PBI states as: “the unilateral expropriation of land suspected of containing minerals irrespective of

Some final remarks

who occupied that land, the policy cleared the way for

Today mining represents one of the main sources of

intensifying exploration and mining activities.”13

income in Latin-America that has generated further

The aim of the present government is to further

economic growth. This can encourage further industrial

stimulate mining exploitation in the coming years. The

development and economic benefits. However, these

President Juan Manuel Santos announced publically that

industries are today penetrating rural land that has great

mining would become one of the economic engines of

agricultural potential generating socio-environmental

Colombia’s development, bringing “prosperity to all, more

conflicts. Although the region today represents a major

jobs, less poverty and more security.” 14

food exporter and therefore plays an important role in 94

Paloma Leon Campos

maintaining global food supplies, there are many reasons

Food sovereignty; A Future without Hunger. November 11-17, 1996

to be worried about the accelerating extraction of mining

in Rome, Italy. Localized on 7 of April 2013, URL: http://www.

now and in future years and its pressure on cultivable land.

voiceoftheturtle.org/library/1996%20Declaration%20of%20Food%20

In order to achieve integral food security it is crucial

Sovereignty.pf

not only to have access to food, but also to control

10 Raj, Patel (2009): Food Sovereignty. In the Journal of Peasant

territories and water supply. This is why it is important

Studies, 36. Localized on 12 of April 2013, URL http://dx.doi.

to promote sustainable agricultural policies in which

org/10.1080/03066150903143079

small farmers can have access to markets, infrastructure

11 Villaroel, C.Ricardo (2006): Environmental Conflicts and the

and economic support. Otherwise, I am afraid that

Plundering of Resources in Latin America . In: Observatorio de

we might end up in and absurd paradox where we are

Multinacionales de America Latina. Localized on 7 of April 2013

obligated to choose between iPods or food on our table.

http://www.palgravejournals.com/development/journal/v49/n3/full/1100270a.html

NOTES

12 Oidhac (2013): Land in Colombia, between usurpation and trade;

1 Bebbington. A , et.al (2008): Contention and Ambiguity: Mining

current situation of a central issue within the conflict. The international

and the Possibilities of Development. In Development and Change.

Office on Human Rights- Action Colombia. Bruxelles. Localized on

Institute of Social Studies. Published by Blackwell Publishing, USA.

10 of April 2013

2 Minerals Yearbook (2010): The mineral Industries of Latin-

www.oidhaco.org

America and Canada. US. Geological Survey (USGS). URL: http://

13 PBI- Colombia (2011): Mining in Colombia at what cost?

minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb3-sum-2010-

Newsletter nr.17. Editorial CODIVA

latin-canada.pdf

14 Ibid

3 Observatorio de Conflictos Mineros de America Latina

15 Gonzales Posso, Camilo. La renta minera y el Plan de Desarrollo

(OCMAL): Sistema de informacion para la gestion comunitaria de

2010- 2014. Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz

Conflictos Socio- Ambientales mineros en Latinoamerica. Localized

(INDEPAZ)

on 30 of March 2013, URL http://basedatos.conflictosmineros.net/

16 Ibid

ocmal_db/

17 UNDP (2011): Report on Colombia: It’s rural economy, stupid.

4 Vivas, Esther (2011): La Via Campesina: Food sovereignty and

Localized on 2 of April 2013 https://nacla.org/blog/2011/9/26/

Global feminist struggle: In Food movements Unite! Strategies to

latest-undp-report-colombia-its-rural-economy-stupid

transform Our food System (Food first, 2011)

18 CINEP (2012): Informe Especial: Minería, Conflictos Sociales y

5 “Overall, in Latin America and the Caribbean, real expenditure

Violación de Derechos Humanos en Colombia. CINEP/ Programa

on agriculture declined sharply between 1980 and 1990 from 30.5

por la Paz. Centro de Ivestigacion y Educacion Popular, Bogotá-

billion dollars to 11.5 billion. It has recovered somewhat since then

Octubre 2012

but remains below the 1980 level” (Shepard 2008).

19 PBI- Colombia (2011): Mining in Colombia at what cost?

6 Shepard, Daniel (2008): The food crisis and Latin America:

Newsletter nr.17. Editorial CODIVA

Framing a new policy approach. Policy Brief, The Oakland Institute.

20 Mabél González Bustelo is a journalist and researcher for the

Localized on 4 of April 2013, URL: http://www.essex.ac.uk/

Peace Research Center (Centro de Investigacion para la paz, CIP-

armedcon/themes/food_security/Latin_America-Food_Prices_Brief.

FUHEM), in Madrid.

pdf

21 Ibid

7 FAO. 2002. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2001.

Rome. Localized on 2 of April 2013, URL: http://www.fao.org/ docrep/005/y4671e/y4671e06.htm 8 Food sovereignty emerged as a policy framework and discourse elaborated by Via Campesina, an international farming and peasant movement, and introduced at the World Food Summit in 1996.

9 Via Campesina (1996): The Right to produce and access to land:

95

Illustration: NINA BELLIKA 96

Beef of Burden?

SIRI KARLSEN BELLIKA

As much as 181 per cent of global greenhouse

beef consumption has many different aspects and

gas emissions originate from the production of

consideration. Some may claim that the only sustainable

livestock. This is a fact that to a large extent

choice would be to not eat beef. Yet, others will argue that

is neglected by the Norwegian consumer. Meat

the degree of sustainability depends on the way the beef

consumption is still increasing and no other

is produced. In this case, I argue that the amount being

actors seem to be interested in raising the issue.

consumed is the most pressing problem.

The number of cattle has a large impact of the

This is problematic.

greenhouse gas composition in the atmosphere, mostly Norway has always been unsuitable for large-scale

through their emission of methane, but also due to the

agricultural production; the climate is rough, the soil

amount of energy used to produce beef. Beef production

is poor and the terrain is difficult. As the arable land

has a 40:1 ratio for energy input to protein output and

was scarce, Norwegian farmers traditionally made use

demands about 200 000 litres of water per kilo beef.3 In a

of rough grazing in outfields and harvesting fodder. As a

world were freshwater is becoming a scarce resource, this

result, contemporary Norwegian agricultural production

illustrates how pressing the problem is.

2

is focused mainly on livestock farming. A high degree

This article is based on the findings from my research

of self-sufficiency in food production has always been

conducted for my master thesis. I focused on how meat

an important goal in Norwegian agricultural politics.

consumption and sustainability is seen among Norwegian

However, Norwegian beef production is currently

consumers. Through collaboration with the Norwegian

declining due to a decrease in the demand for dairy

Consumer Research Institute (SIFO) I got access to data

products and increased productivity per cattle. Today close

material revealing Norwegians attitude towards climate

to one out of five steaks are imported. The proportion of

change and their ability to actively contribute to the

foreign meat on the market is predicted to increase further,

solution. Here, meat consumption was also touched upon.

together with the level of consumption.

I will elaborate on some of the quantitative findings to

The debate on what is considered sustainable

show some of the general opinions regarding climate 97

Beef of Burden?

change, consumption and meat. I also interviewed people

food waste’, ‘increase the production and consumption

about their thoughts on meat and sustainability.

of organic food’ and ‘increase the production and consumption of local food’. A reduction of food waste

Lack of political incentives

and eating more local was seen to be the most efficient

The debate about meat consumption in Norway has

measures. Buying more organic food was seen to be the least

been close to non-existing. To understand why this is, we

effective measure and only 11 percent saw reduced meat

need to look at the political and economic role of meat

consumption and production as the most effective measure.

production in Norway`s agricultural politics.

This reveals how most people in Norway do not

Cattle farming secure food production throughout

consider reduced intake of beef to be an efficient

the country, in areas where it otherwise would be hard to

measure in reducing climate change and environmental

cultivate the land. The economic and political incentives

degradation. Not only does the national survey show

to support beef production are therefore strong. Politically,

this, but it became evident in the interviews as well.

the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party are the two

The sustainability issues related to a high intake of beef

most significant political actors in the debate, and holds

was at large seen as a consequence of an industrialized

two different views on the issue. In the Stoltenberg II

agricultural sector and as something that was out of the

government, the Socialist Left Party held the Ministry of

hands of the consumer.

the Environment and the Centre Party held the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. This made it hard for them to

Alienation

agree upon a common policy on the area of sustainable

Several of the informants were critical of the

meat consumption.

industrialization of the food system and what they

This has led to a debate where the government’s

perceived as asymmetrical power relations between the

representatives and other politicians are vague and make

consumer and the food distribution chains. The food

little references to what political measures can be used to

chain’s pursuit of profits was seen to compromise the

deal with the sustainability issue of meat consumption,

quality of the food and the diversity of products. It was

essentially leaving the problem to the consumers.4 So, the

evident that many of the informants felt as if they had

question is:

become alienated from food in different ways. This was both in regards to the origin of the product and the content

«Are Norwegian consumers willing to voluntarily reduce their consumption of beef?»

of the highly standardized and processed food products.

Beef production and consumption is seen as one of the many problematic issues in the food system. The highly technical and abstract food system left many of the informants feeling powerless. In general, it was the

Lack of knowledge

mass production and commodification of food that was

First of all, in order for people to act meat consumption

regarded as problematic. The majority of the informants

must be recognized as a problem. An important question

have addressed the issue of beef consumption as an issue of

here is: «Do Norwegians know that meat consumption

choice and production, not seeing their aggregate level of

has negative effects on climate change?». The answer to the

consumption to be problematic.

question is largely no. The data from the survey I accessed

The level of consumption needs to be addressed. The

investigating Norwegians attitudes to climate change and

environmental issues linked to beef are only addressed as

consumer responsibility confirmed this.

a problem of production methods, yet addressing how

The respondents were asked to range various measures

one can make the production more environmentally

according to which they believe has the most positive

sustainable and still keep the consumption at today’s level

effect on the environment. The alternatives were ‘reduce

is not clear.

the production and consumption of meat’, ‘reduce 98

Siri Karlsen Bellika

Information about the environmental effects of beef consumption need to be communicated and the government should also address this as an issue of consumption levels.

Addressing responsibility

emphasize the importance of reducing the total beef

A European study shows how Norwegian consumers,

consumption. Information about the environmental

together with Danish consumers are beneath the European

effects of beef consumption need to be communicated

average when it comes to all topics indicating consumer

and the government should also address this as an issue of

responsibility. Norwegian consumers also seem to believe

consumption levels.

their voices matter very little and express consistently that

In order to contribute to solving the issues related

they have little responsibility for key food issues such as

to climate change and resource depletion, reducing the

safety, nutrition and ethics.5

overall consumption of beef is significant, irrespective

My findings indicate that beef consumption is a

of the type of beef consumed. Still, this cannot be left

question of quality, rather than a question of quantity.

solely to the consumers. Norwegian consumers still lack

Here, organic and locally produced beef is used as a

knowledge about the topic and largely do not see it as

medium to promote individual and ethical consideration.

an issue for the consumer to solve. The government,

In the case of the informants, it was not explicitly stated

producers and consumers all need to play a role in trying

that ‘ethical consumption’ implies less consumption. It is

to reduce the overall consumption of beef.

often quite the contrary: as long as one buys sustainably produced beef, they can buy as much as they want.

NOTES

While the informants stated they wanted more natural

1 Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M. &

and specialty beef, this does not mean that they abstain

de Haan, C. (2006): “Livestock’s Long Shadow”, in FAO [online]

from factory-farmed beef sold by Gilde when that is

URL: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e00.pdf

convenient. Local and environmentally friendly beef is of

[cited 15.01.2013]

course ideal, but the option of reducing their consumption

2 Syse, K. L. (2012):”Nationhood and Landscape Management”,

of beef was not considered by most of the informants.

in Bjørkdahl, Kristian & Nielsen, Kenneth Bo (eds.):

The informants clearly lacked a sense of agency as

Development and Environment: Practices, Theories, Policies.

consumers and other actors were seen to be the ones who

Oslo: Akademika Publishing

have to take action and encourage a change. The lack of

3 Pimentel, D. & Pimentel, M. (2003): “Sustainability of a

political consensus on the issue further complicates this

meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment”, in The

matter. This problem cannot be left to the Norwegian

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition [online] 78(3): 660S-663S,

consumer to self-regulate.

URL: http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/78/3/660S.full.pdf+html

As the study shows, Norwegian consumers still lack

[accessed 12.03.2013]

information about the environmental effects of meat

4 Austgulen, M. H. (2013): Sustainable Consumption of

consumption and in addition to this it is not seen to be

Meat - an Analysis of the Norwegian Public Debate. Manuscript

a consumer issue, but rather something the government

submitted for publishing.

needs to regulate.

5 Kjærnes, U., Harvey, M. & Warde, A. (2007): Trust in Food.

A Comparative and Institutional Analysis. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Where do we go from here?

MacMillan.

In the debate about beef and sustainability we need to 99

The trouble with Sushi: the environmental cost of fish farming practices CHRISTINA CAMPO

In the US alone, the popularity and consumption of sushi

alike have praised aquaculture and mariculture as the

has exploded in the last 20 years,1 as this eastern delicacy

best solution to tackle the wild fish stock “crisis,” it is

went from exotic snack to preferred staple. It is here that

important to take a look at the environmental impacts

we must analyze how market forces might be impacting

that these practices are having and how they can cause

the health of the oceans and what kind of measures can be

serious issues such as the disruption of trophic systems, the

taken to mitigate the impact this industry is having on the

degradation of endemic species’ natural habitats and the

environment. It is also imperative to ensure the sustainable

depletion of the natural seed stock.

In their report on threats to Oceans and Coasts4 the

development of operations such as aquaculture.

Mariculture and aquaculture are “fish farming”

World Wide Fund for Nature lists some of the issues

practices, practiced in both salt water and freshwater

found within aquaculture and wild-caught fish ranching,

environments. There are predictions from organizations

such as competition for space, pollution, exotic escapees,

like The Ocean Foundation, the Institute of Food

parasites and disease, fish feed and predator conflicts.

Technologists and the International Food Policy Research

When considering the issue of space, suitable conditions

Institute, calling these practices the future of fish and

on land to set up fish farms can only be found in limited

seafood sourcing, given that finding fishing grounds is

locations. These locales would need optimal water quality

becoming an ever growing challenge. Fishing fleets are

and frequent water exchange. Since the habitat of wild fish

forced to venture further into remote areas as catches get

population as well as other marine life is found in these

smaller. The percentage of seafood supply sourced from

kinds of locales, these species face habitat loss once the

aquaculture for example, has grown from 25% to 50% in

infrastructure for aquaculture operations is put in place.

the last couple of years.2 According to Ken Stier at Time

For example, fish farms in Europe have been placed in the

Magazine “close to 40% of the seafood we eat nowadays

migratory routes of wild salmon, and shrimp farms in Asia

comes from aquaculture and the $78 billion industry has

and Latin-America have destroyed mangrove forests.

grown 9% a year since 1975.”

3

In terms of pollution, the impact stems from

Although many scholars and industry insiders

discharges of wastewater coming from open net cage 100

and land-based fish farms. This wastewater can cause

establishment of a certification that could influence

eutrophication due to the increase in algal bloom looking

consumer behavior. Consumers might be drawn to

to feed on fish feces and leftover fish feed. Eutrophication

a product proven to be environmentally friendly and

translates to reduced oxygen in the water, which can

produced according to sustainability standards.

generate toxic chemicals in the water, killing marine

Perhaps what we need in order to deal with the issues

life. The use of antibiotics and anti-fouling agents in

of aquaculture is a similar approach to other industrial

the practices can also cause significant impact to the

endeavors, a uniform branding campaign similar to

environment.

what is being done with green labeling in Europe. This

Due to the alarming number of problems and

could make consumers more aware of their consumption

environmental impacts these operations are causing, there

patterns and the environmental impacts related to their

is a pressing need to take measures to achieve sustainability

food choices.

in the management of aquaculture operations. Several

Though the development of a certification through

solutions have been suggested: a call for stricter domestic

initiatives of the WWF and the Marine Stewardship

policies, increased efforts in waste water management and

Council have begun, the latter has drawn heavy criticism

the development of a certification scheme, to name a few.

for both lax policies towards fisheries and approval of

Stricter domestic policies could help regulate measures

sustainable operators who only pass inspection due to less

for discharging waste water and reduce pollution. At the

than stringent standards.

same time, using a carrot and stick method, whereby

Fish farming practices, such as aquaculture and

environmentally friendly operation is encouraged, could

mariculture, are regarded as the future of seafood

yield very positive results. The challenge with achieving

sourcing, yet there are many issues regarding the harmful

local government support often has to do with the issue

environmental impacts these industries are having.

of capacity; some of the biggest aquaculture centers are

Increasing consumer awareness of these issues could help

located in developing countries in South East Asia or Latin

raise awareness that in turn could help drive solutions on

America, where achieving compliance and developing

a governmental and market level. If we follow the saying

stringent enforcement measures is a challenging feat due

that, “we are what we eat,” how can we become more

to the limited resources these countries can allocate for

environmentally in tune with the health of our oceans

this purpose.

through our choices of fish and seafood sourcing?

Fish farms, unlike the management of fisheries resources, are industrial enterprises. Therefore, the notion

NOTES

of implementing legislation to regulate the practice

1 Yamaguchi, Adam; Slobig, Zach. Can bluefin tuna farms work?

might pose a significant challenge for fish farms. When

Los Angeles Times. July 21 2011. http://articles.latimes.com/2011/

talking about waste water management, a measure that

jul/21/food/la-fo-bluefin-20110721

could significantly reduce the impact of aquaculture

2 Casson,Trenor. The Question of certification. Sustainable Sushi.

operations, the dilemma of protecting the environment

net. December 2009. http://www.sustainablesushi.net/2009/12/22/

vs. economic development comes to mind. In his research,

the-question-of-certification

Stern found that in the case of South America, many

3 Stier, Ken. Fish Farming Growing Dangers. Time Magazine.

farmers still do not perceive the private financial benefits

September 2007 http://content.time.com/time/health/

of water amendments implemented on a commercial

article/0,8599,1663604,00.html

scale. Financial analyses to date have not demonstrated

4 Marine Problems: Aquaculture. World Wildlife Fund Report. http://

an overwhelming economic gain through the adoption of

wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/aquaculture/

waste water treatment measures for operators.5 Farmers’

5 Samuel Stern presented at the 1995 Special Session on Shrimp

aversion to adopting new technologies also hampers their

Farming of the Meeting of the World Aquaculture Society a country

will to embrace environmentally friendly techniques.

review of shrimp farming in Ecuador, including aspects of the history

Another way to tackle the issue would be through the

and development of the ship farming industry in the country.

101

Permakultur i din miljøhverdag1

THALE LINDSTAD & JØRGEN RAFN

Det blir det stadig tydeligere at det industrielle

og vinduskarmer. Bedrifter med sans for god helse hos

landbruket er basert på bruk av ikke-fornybare

sine ansatte vender og vrir sine ressurser slik at det

ressurser, nyttiggjør seg av sprøytemidler vi

investeres i langsiktig helhet snarere enn kortsiktig utbytte.

ikke kjenner den samlede effekten av, reduserer

Asfaltflekker grønnes, tidligere prydbed fylles med spiselige

biodiversiteten, og skaper miljøproblemer.

vekster, og frukthager popper opp i bykjernene.

Betegnelsen permakultur ble innført av Bill Mollison

Permakultur representerer et nedenfra-opp alternativ for matproduksjon og matglede i

og David Holmgren på 1970-tallet, men har røtter langt

lavutslippssamfunnet vi er i ferd med å skape.

tilbake i tiden. Mange av teknikkene er velkjente, men tilføres noe nytt ved å bli satt mer i system. Ofte ansees

Permakultur er en helhetlig planleggingsmetode som

permakultur som en av flere postmoderne reaksjoner på

samarbeider med naturen for å oppnå bærekraft og lar deg

det moderne, industrialiserte landbruket. Som en del

gi og skape mer enn du tar. Metoden både benytter og

av denne større bevegelsen finner vi også blant annet

bygger økosystemer, bevarer permanente livssykluser, og

Masanobu Fukuoka’s Natural Farming og Rudolf Steiners

fungerer i alle klimasoner. Menneskers omgivelser designes

biologisk-dynamiske jordbruk, som har visse paralleller

ved å ta i betraktning helhet, langsiktige konsekvenser og

til permakultur ved at de erkjenner flere av de ikke-

permanent ressursbruk. Betegnelsen permakultur leses

bærekraftige aspektene ved det moderne landbruket og

gjerne som en forkortelse for «permanent agriculture»,

at de setter økologien mer sentralt. Mye av det Mollison

altså permanent jordbruk på norsk. Gå ikke i den

og Holmgren satte i system var influert av blant andre

vanlige fella å tro at permakultur bare er for bønder!

systemteoretiker og økolog Howard T. Odum og Limits to

Permakultur er dynamisk, alltid i utvikling og rommer

Growth-forfatter Donella Meadows. Permakultur løftes i

i bredere forstand tanken om at hele samfunnskulturen

dag frem av en stadig mer kunnskapsrik bevegelse som har

må være bærekraftig. Mye av den seneste utviklingen

rukket å bli mainstream i Australia og vinner mer og mer

har også skjedd på storbyers skyskrapertak, i bakgårder

oppmerksomhet i USA, Canada og mange europeiske land.

102

Heldigvis skorter det ikke på oppfordringer til

Står på flere ben Permakultur handler bl.a. om å dyrke mat i polykultur.

hvordan vi kan justere hverdagen vår til å bli litt mer

Det innebærer å dyrke flere forskjellige planter sammen,

i takt med naturen. Idealismen er i vekst, og vi hører

i stedet for å dyrke i monokultur, som vil si å dyrke én

stadig oftere om gode miljøvalg vi kan ta. Vi hører om

type planter over et større område. Polykultur gir større

bievennlige blomster til hagen, om miljøsertifiseringer,

motstandsdyktighet mot insektsangrep fordi angriperne

hjemmelaget vindusvask og hårvask, at bestemors

ikke har like store, ensartete områder å boltre seg på, og

nøysomhet atter er trendy, og om hvordan vi best vasker

fordi polykultur sørger for tilstedeværelse av flere insekter

plasten før vi sender den tilbake i produksjonssystemet.

som kan spise de uønskete insektene. Polykultur gjør det

Mange vegrer seg nok ennå for å la alvoret om

mulig å utnytte åkerplassen smartere og å dyrke planter

naturødeleggelser og klimatruslene synke inn, men vi

som har gunstig påvirkning på hverandre. For eksempel

mangler heller ikke informasjon om farene eller mulige

kan samplanting av basilikum og tomater gi tomatene

tiltak.

inntil 30 % mer vekst. Når ulike elementer settes sammen

Bærekraftsbegrepets målsetning om å etterlate

i synergiske konstellasjoner, skapes et syklisk system

jorden i like god eller bedre stand som vi selv har fått

som maksimerer utbyttet og lager sterkere samarbeid.

nyte godt av, kan fremstå utopisk hvis vi ikke samtidig

Polykultur handler om å ha flere ben å stå på og gir langt

tenker oss store endringer i livsstil og produksjonsomfang.

mer resistente avlinger.

Miljøutfordringene vi står overfor i dag medfører på mange måter at naturens verdi blir viktigere enn

Utvidet perspektiv

økonomiens – også fra et økonomisk perspektiv. Truende

Permakultur dreier seg i stor grad om å være oppmerksom

jorderosjon, avskoging, farlig forurensing, negative

på konsekvensene av det du foretar deg og hva som skjer

virkninger av sprøytemidler og en mengde andre

rundt deg i forlengelsen av det du gjør. Det gir deg gode

miljøproblemer kan spores tilbake til industri og teknologi

vaner hvor du forholder deg mer helhetlig til hva du gjør

som drives med kortsiktige metoder. Derfor har det

med ressursene dine, og hva ressursene dine gjør for deg.

betydning at vi lærer oss å tenke annerledes når vi handler for fremtiden.

Hvordan du velger å forholde deg til din forbrukermakt, din velgermakt og din tilgang på jordens ressurser har større innflytelse enn det kan være behagelig å tenke på.

Du kan starte enkelt Kanskje du kan dyrke noe spiselig eller insektsvennlig på balkongen eller i hagen? Kanskje finnes det en parselleller kolonihage i nærheten? Etter all sannsynlighet finnes det andre i nabolaget som vil være med å dyrke, men som ikke vil gjøre det alene. Kanskje ønsker du et kort innføringskurs for å komme i gang? Mat som dyrkes lokalt kan produseres helt uten sprøytemidler og kunstgjødsel.

Den bidrar ikke til utslippene forbundet med storproduksjon, lang transport og prosessering og behøver

Med innblikk i sammenhengen mellom valg vi gjør i

ikke masse emballasje til pakking. Samtidig kan det være

hverdagen og global ressursforvaltning, bidrar kunnskapen

både inspirerende og samlende for individer, familier eller

om permakultur til at positive muligheter åpenbarer

nabolag å dyrke noe selv.

seg. Dette gir deg større bevissthet om den helheten ditt

Kanskje kan du kompostere mat- og hageavfall?

liv er en del av. Bredere perspektiver og økt bevissthet

Dersom du ikke har hage kan du ha markkompost inne.

kan påvirke både de store politiske beslutningene og de

Markkompost er enkelt, og betyr rett og slett at en spesiell

mindre, men like betydningsfulle hverdagsvalgene. De

type mark bryter ned matavfallet ditt sammen med litt

henger nemlig i hop.

avispapir, og dermed produserer en av de mest næringsrike 103

Permakultur i din Miljøhverdag

Hva hvis drømmen om å leve et liv der du gradvis beriker naturen mer enn du belaster den ikke er så langt unna?

kompostene vi vet om – perfekt for planter i potter, på

samarbeider (i.e. mykorrhiza) om å sende hverandre

balkong eller i hagen. Fordi den er luktfri når det gjøres

næring er også fascinerende kunnskap for fremtiden.

riktig, kan den være akkurat hvor du vil – nylig hørte vi til

Det finnes i dag kunnskap og teknikker som gjør

og med om en dame som har den innerst i klesskapet sitt!

ørkenlandskap frodig, fruktbart og matproduserende.

Enkle gjør-det-selv-oppskrifter finnes på internett (google

Afrikanske landområder så inntørket av sol at de

«wormery» eller «vermicompost»). Slik kan vi nyttiggjøre

ser ut som papp er blitt vekket til live ved hjelp av

oss av næring som ellers ville blitt sendt ut av husstanden.

permakulturteknikker. Kinesiske utmagrede, overbelastede

Kanskje kan du resirkulere plast, metall, glass og papir

åkre er igjen gjort produktive og selvoppholdende.

eller undersøke muligheter for å redusere strømforbruket

Arabiske stater har tatt i bruk permakultur for å helbrede

og samtidig spare penger? Ikke alle har tid, ønske, eller

tørke, hindre vannmangel og maksimere avlinger. Denne

ressurser til å gjøre noe av dette hjemme. Da er det godt å

formen for revitalisering av skrantende økosystemer er

huske at vi gjennom vår forbrukermakt bidrar konkret til

en del av den fremvoksende fagdisiplinen Regenerative

hvordan våre naturressurser forvaltes. Du kan velge å kjøpe

Agriculture (RegenAG).

økologisk og/eller lokal mat, besøke bondens marked, kjøpe

Flere FN-rapporter viser at bønder i utviklingsland

mat direkte fra et nærliggende økologisk andelslandbruk

som tar i bruk økologiske prinsipper får forhøyede

eller økologisk gårdsbruk. Du kan hente ferske og lokale

avlinger, større inntekter, samt bedre helse og mindre

øko-grønnsaker fra et kooperativ, og kanskje har du selv

avhengighet til kommersielle aktører innen såfrø og

mangfoldige ideer til hvordan du kan bidra.

kunstgjødsel. Det fremheves fra flere hold at permakultur kan bidra til å bekjempe naturressursnød og uforutsette

Videre skritt

kriser som følge av klimaendringer. Tørke, flom,

Når sollys treffer planter, henter plantene karbondioksid

forurensning, brann og sult kan håndteres bedre. Vi må

fra luften og danner organisk materiale. Noe av dette lagres

være flere som fortsetter å lære oss mer om hvordan –

i jorden hvor det nærer liv og danner humusforbindelser.

siden kan vi dele det med flere. Slik får kanskje det du

At planter kan binde karbon ned i jorden er et enkelt

gjør i din polykulturelle permapotte på din balkong i

faktum som kan hjelpe oss til å utnytte plass og planter

velstandslandet også betydning for den som sitter alene

bedre. Byene våre byr på mange små smutthull og åpne

med et mer utarmet livsgrunnlag, sykdom og redsel for

flater, som kan fylles med store og små karbonfangere

fremtiden. Ikke nødvendigvis fordi det gjør deg til bonde,

og samtidig gi helse og trivsel. Når du også vet at store

men fordi det kan gi deg litt større tanker. Permakultur

rotsystemer binder mer karbon enn de små, får du kanskje

har potensiale til å gi mange flere mennesker mulighet til å

også lyst til å utforske flerårige planter, som står i jorden

leve liv som handler om mer enn å overleve – det fortjener

i flere sesonger og har røtter som får lov til å vokse seg

vi alle sammen.

store og effektive. Hvordan underjordisk fungi og røtter 104

Thale Lindstad & Jørgen Rafn

Det er faktisk ganske morsomt å oppdage sammenhengene i vår værens mangfold og å leke med å lage gode, samarbeidende kretsløp. Naturen gjør det, og det kan du også. Et PDC-kurs (Permaculture Design Certificate course) gir sertifisering som er gyldig over hele verden. Undervisningen gir innføring i blant annet økosystemforståelse, jordliv, vann- og næringssykluser, alternativ økonomi, dyrking, og urban økologi. Å ta et grunnkurs i permakultur (PDC) er en god begynnelse eller tilleggskompetanse til det du har med deg fra før. Du og dine valg er viktige. www.permaculture.no Bærum permakulturforening www.permakultur.no Norsk permakulturforening NOTES 1 En lengre versjon av denne teksten har stått på trykk i Pengevirke 3/14

105

The protection gap in the palm oil 1 sector in Indonesia

AKSEL TØMTE

Palm oil is the world’s most traded vegetable oil. Indonesia

Under the following democratic reform period,

is the country that produces most palm oil in the world.

management of natural resources was de-centralised, and

The palm oil industry’s impact on human rights and

local authorities gained a much larger say in decision-

the environment has received much attention worldwide.

making. This has not yet resulted in the improvement in

I will take it as a starting point that there are serious

‘democratic representation’ and accountability that was

human rights concerns. What I seek to address is how

hoped for – local authorities tend to be closely linked

legal norms affect realities on the ground in the palm

with commercial interests, interests they often depended

oil sector in Indonesia; and how this impacts on human

on in order to be elected in the first place. Corruption

rights protection. Then I will ask what implications these

at district level has increased, and so has the number of

experiences have for an international regime that aims to

issued operating permits for palm oil companies. The palm

regulate the impacts of businesses on human rights.

oil expansion mostly takes place in Indonesia’s so-called

Most of the human rights challenges in the palm oil

’outer islands’, that are comparatively less populated and

sector are directly related to land. Today there are more

less developed than Java, and where the state generally has

than 4,200 land conflicts according to the national land

less capacity to hold local actors to account.

agency, and many of these involve palm oil companies and

My first point is that in spite of weak law

local communities.

enforcement and in spite of a gap between laws and

Historically, Indonesia’s Forestry Law has defined

policies on the one hand, and realities on the ground on

all forest land as state land (much like the colonial laws),

the other, laws and policies do ‘set the stage’ for what

which covered 70% of Indonesia’s total land area. This has

happens at the local level.

been the basis for Indonesian forest management until

The stipulation that all forest land belongs to the

today. Under Suharto’s New Order regime, the state was

state did not fully remove the various normative systems

very centralised, and forest management was top-down. In

that land management previously was based on, but it put

order to implement large-scale projects, investors needed

local communities in a very weak position whenever there

good relations with the President.

was a conflict of interest between the communities and 106

Photo: MAGNUS WITTERSØ 107

The Protection Gap in the Palm Oil Sector in Indonesia

commercial interests backed by the state.

from the law being implemented in their favour, yet at the

Similarly, the fact that a plantation permit is

same time they are able to operate outside the law, without

issued for a given area does not necessarily result in any

suffering any sanctions. Law enforcement is agenda-

plantation being established, but it puts those living

driven. Powerful actors, such as business enterprises with

within the concession area in a weak bargaining position;

close links to state and local governments, media and the

especially when (as is often the case) these communities

police, have much influence on how laws are enforced. It

don’t possess any formal acknowledgement of ownership

is well documented that both the police and the judiciary

over the lands they traditionally have been living off. The

are perceived to be among the country’s most corrupt

land takeover that happens ‘on paper’ has been fittingly

institutions, and the police is often accused of one-sidedly

described as ‘virtual land-grabbing’.

protecting the interests of palm oil companies. Almost any

A company possessing operating permits would still

law that has an operational aspect can potentially be used

be legally obliged to respect people’s land use rights within

for extracting bribes.

its concession area. Beside the above-mentioned problem

One underlying reason for partial law enforcement

that many communities lack formal acknowledgement

is the imbalance in power between companies and

over their lands, the people tasked with obtaining land

communities with regards to financial resources, legal

for companies are often able to use a variety of means to

understanding, access to information, access to decision-

make local population give up its lands. To take just one

makers and law enforcers. Companies are generally in a

example, in our work in Central Kalimantan we have met

much more powerful position. The parts of the country

communities who claimed that companies had put fire

with the largest projected growth in palm oil plantation

to their fruit gardens first, and then started negotiations

development tend also to be places where the civil society

about buying their land afterwards. Obviously, the option

is particularly weak and education levels are low. Therefore;

of not selling their land was much less attractive after their

the social foundations for accountability are weak.

fruits trees were gone.

Another – related - problem behind the partial law

Faced with such realities, communities would often

enforcement is the law-and policy framework itself. There

settle for what they could get, such as compensation

are legal grey areas, unclear lines of responsibility, and the

(which technically speaking often would be considered

problems of state institutions with overlapping mandates.

‘charity’, if their ownership is not formally recognized), or promises of jobs at the plantations or participation in

Consequently, having the law on your side can be perceived more as a sign of privilege than any indication of ethical behaviour (or even legal/procedural compliance).

The ‘underprivileged’ in this context, will be those with the least protection.

smallholder schemes. This pragmatic approach leaves out any question of Free, Prior, Informed Consent (FPIC).

However, companies seeking to get palm oil plantation permits do not necessarily have any clear intention of establishing a plantation.2 Motivations for seeking permits could be 1 - that the permit would enable them to clear-cut a forest and extract the timber in it; 2 – that the permit could give access to bank loans or subsidy schemes; or 3 – possibilities of ‘selling out’, waiting for a possibility to give up the licence to a different company in the palm oil or extractive industry sector.

Perhaps companies could even hope to ‘sell out’ to an environmental/climate project.

Even though law implementation is weak, law still plays a large role in facilitating plantation establishment

In the palm oil sector, those that lack formal land

and land acquisition. The elites are often able to benefit

ownership would have weak protection of their rights.

108

Aksel Tømte

Gaining acknowledgement of ownership can be seen as

On a larger scale, avoiding ‘elite capture’ and ensuring genuine democratic representation constitutes one of the most fundamental challenges for democracy in Indonesia as a whole.

an investment, and may require considerable financial resources, even when no bribing is involved.3 (Plantation workers who lack work contracts are also in a particularly vulnerable position).

There are also examples from other sectors: • Hundreds of thousand illegal artisan miners operate every day throughout the country. The fact that their operations are ‘illegal’ does not necessarily hinder them from working but it puts them in an extremely vulnerable legal position.

Ethical industry initiatives have failed to guarantee FPIC The

• Or logging; sustainable small-scale logging for

Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) constitutes

personal consumption in traditionally managed

the most prominent ethical industry initiative. RSPO’s

forest may be technically illegal whereas large-scale

own criteria oblige companies to apply FPIC, but case-

commercial logging which has much more significant

studies find that compliance with these criteria is low even

social and environmental impact may be legal.

among RSPO-members.7 One important reason for this is that in most areas,

The processes supposedly intended to include local

traditional land ownership is not acknowledged by the

communities in decision-making, or ensure that their land

state, and companies tend to base themselves on state law

right is protected often does not work very well. A main

in questions of land ownership.

challenge is to ensure genuine representation, and avoid ‘elite capture’.

Conclusion

In Central Kalimantan, we have encountered many

There is a normative protection gap (as even companies

examples of how village heads or traditional leaders have

that comply with national laws can end up abusing human

been bribed to make statements about the traditional

rights.) There is also a gap in law enforcement (which to

customary land, getting rich by giving up common village

some extent is caused by the legal framework itself ). The

land. As a result, it is quite common that there are conflicts

elite is able to use both these gaps to its advantage.

within communities affected by the palm oil industry. Case

Due to the imbalance in power between companies

studies elsewhere have found similar patterns.4

and communities, any attempt to establish a regulatory

‘Elite capture’ is also perceived to threaten the

scheme that guarantees FPIC will risk being undermined

indigenous movement in Central Kalimantan in a different

by the same forces that make law enforcement so partial

way. The ‘indigenous institution’ 5 is acknowledged and

and rights protection so weak in the first place, which I

given certain authorities through a province law, but

refer to as ‘elite capture’. A main challenge is to ensure that

this law also gives provincial authorities a great deal of

affected groups are genuinely represented.

influence over the appointment of indigenous leaders.

It is crucial for human rights protection in

The governor is himself the head of the national Dayak

Indonesia that civil society manages to hold governments

council.6 At the same time, ‘indigenous rights’ are

accountable for how it manages its natural resources.

probably the human rights that are most often invoked for social mobilization purposes in land conflicts. Thus there is a risk that the ‘counterforces’ will be co- opted, and the indigenous leaders will end up representing elite interests.

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Photo: MAGNUS WITTERSØ 110

Aksel Tømte

NOTES 1 This text is based on a presentation given at the conference

3 For example, indigenous/customary communities that seek

‘Seminar on Corporations in the Global Food System and

formal acknowledgement of their lands may need considerable

Human Rights’, in Oslo September 2014. The presentation was

resources to map their lands, and lobby and train local

based on the experiences of NCHR’s Indonesia-programme in

parliamentarians in order to (possibly) get a ‘by-law’ passed that

implementing project activities in Central-Kalimantan (mostly

would recognize their traditional lands

data-collection and trainings for local civil society actors in

4 For example, case studies done by the Forest People’s Programme

cooperation with the Jakarta-based Institute for Ecosoc Rights). It

lembaga adat, could also be translated as ‘customary institution’

also owns much to the works of Luke Arnold and John McCarthy

5 Dayaks are the main group of indigenous people in Kalimantan

and the Forest People’s Programme, among others.

6 See for example ‘Conflict or Consent? The oil palm sector at a

2 As pointed out by McCarthy

crossroads’ ed. by M. Colchester and S. Chao

111

About the Contributors

Borgar Aamaas is a Research Fellow at Centre for

on a project about science communication related to the

International Climate and Environmental Research – Oslo

A(H1N1) – “Swine Flu” – pandemic in 2009. He has

(CICERO). His research focuses on how to assess and

submitted a PhD thesis about the rhetoric of human-

compare the climate impact of different emission types

animal relations, but the committee cannot decide

and sources. He holds a master’s degree in Geosciences

whether it is gold or granite boulder – as the (Norwegian)

with specialization in Meteorology and Oceanography.

saying goes. Kristian himself can never decide whether he prefers food over drink, but tends to conclude,

Charlotte Andersen is a master’s student at the

pragmatically, that the two go rather well together. He

Department of Political Science at UiO. Some of her main

blogs at Hvordan leve livet (hvordanlevelivet.tumblr.com)

fields of interest include food policy and food safety. She

and is supposed to blog at Matlære (blogg.uio.no/sum/

is interested in identifying how different sectors can best

matlaere).

interact to solve complex problems in an interdisciplinary manner. She has a huge interest in communicating the

Natia Chkhetiani is from Kutaisi, Georgia. She is

importance of food policies and their impact worldwide,

a master’s student at the Centre for Development

as well as challenging our own perceptions on the matter.

and Environment and studies Culture, Environment and Sustainability. She holds a bachelor’s degree in

Siri Karlsen Bellika is a former master’s student at

International Relations from Akaki Tsereteli State

Centre for Development and the Environment at UiO.

University (Georgia).

She is part of the blog collective ”Grønne Jenter”, a blog dedicated to the concept of green living. She also writes

Christina Campo is a master’s student of Environmental

for the UiO blog ”Matlære”, as food is her passion.

Law at Ocean University of China. Her current research focuses on sustainability and shipping in the Arctic region.

Kristian Bjørkdahl is a researcher at the Rokkan Centre

Christina has a bachelor’s degree in International Relations

for Social Studies in Bergen, where he is currently working

and a master’s degree in Business Administration.

112

Paloma Leon Campos has a master’s degree from

Kjell Havnevik is currently senior researcher at the

the Department of International Environment and

Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, and professor of

Development Studies, Noragric. Her master’s thesis was

development studies at the University of Agder. His

a study on the different perspectives on development and

has worked with Norwegian, Swedish and Tanzanian

its linkages with indigenous food systems. Paloma holds

universities and research institutions for four decades

a Bachelor in Pedagogy with a major in Sociology from

developing and conducting research and education

the University of Oslo and has worked as a teacher and

relating to rural development, agrarian change, the role

seminar leader in Nicaragua. She is also a lover of music,

of international financial institutions and development

literature, movies and plans to take a course in video

assistance. He is currently developing cross-continental

editing in the future.

and cross-cultural research networks (Latin-America, Africa and the Nordic countries) addressing the critical

Piper Donlin is a master’s student at the Centre for

role of agriculture and rural development (production/

Environment and Development studying indigenous

food security, environmental- and employment issues) for

food systems and food sovereignty in the US. Piper

an alternative sustainable development model.

holds a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Policy and Sustainability from the University of Minnesota. Piper is

Tex Hawkins is a retired conservation biologist from

a contributor to the UiO blog, “Matlære.” She is also an

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Hawkins graduated

avid lover of food and cooking and spends a great deal

from the University of Minnesota in Wildlife Biology

of time in the kitchen experimenting to the delight (and

and Mass Communication, and conducted post-graduate

dismay) of her partner, Carl Frederik.

fieldwork at Texas A&M. He was the North American Representative to the Scientific and Technical Review

Dr. Meredith Gartin is a scholar of global health and a

Panel of the International Treaty on Wetlands, known

postdoctoral fellow with the Urban Sustainability Research

as the Ramsar Convention, and reviewed draft reports

Coordination Network. Dr. Gartin examines urban food

and proposals of related U.N. treaties, on biodiversity,

systems. Prior to conducting her research in Paraguay, it

desertification and climate. He currently works at Winona

was implied that food deserts could exist in the Global

State University on interdisciplinary sustainability, climate,

South; yet, no prior empirical evidence provided support

and agriculture. Hawkins lives in Winona with his Costa

for food deserts in the region. Nor was there evidence to

Rican wife Amalfi.

support if the impacts on individuals who reside in food deserts are the same (or even worse) in the Global South

Cecilie Hirsch is a Phd fellow at the Centre for

as compared to various cases from the Global North. Her

Development and the Environment, and a PhD student

empirical research has been published in a special issue

at Noragric at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences.

on Global Obesity in 2012 with the American Journal of

Cecilie has worked with social movements in Latin

Human Biology.

America the last 10 years, and has done both fieldwork and organizational work in Mexico, Guatemala and

Arve Hansen works at the Centre for Development

Bolivia. She is currently writing her PhD thesis about civil

and the Environment, University of Oslo, and has spent

society’s participation in environmental policy making in

a considerable amount of time in Vietnam during the last

Bolivia, REDD and socio environmental conflicts. Fan

5 years. Normally a development geographer studying

of Latin American cuisine, such as beans, quinoa, maize

consumption and capitalism, he has made a serious

tortillas and hot chili-tomato-coriander sauce (aji), or a

attempt to taste every dish (excluding dog and cat) offered

real seafood ceviche made by her Ecuadorian partner.

in the amazing variety of Hanoian street food.

113

About the Contributors

Thale Lindstad is currently a Master’s student at the

Marije Oostindjer was born in the Netherlands. She

Faculty of Law at the University of Oslo. She is writing

is a senior researcher at the Department of Chemistry,

her thesis on the potential to prosecute environmental

Biotechnology and Food Science at the Norwegian

crime. In addition to being a student, she is busy

University of Life Sciences.

juggling numerous other activities, such as fundraising, coaching,teaching yoga, as well as being part of the

Jørgen Rafn is currently studying Development

Integralt Forum and being a board member of the Bærum

Management at the University of Agder, and wrote his

permakulturforening. Thale appreciates organically

bachelor thesis on rain forest management (REDD+)

grown and quality food. She seeks to learn more about

in Indonesia. Jørgen is a part of Integralt Forum and

permaculture by taking part in cooperative farming and

a board member of Bærum Permakulturforening, and

is a certified permaculture designer from the Patrick

he has a special interest in regenerative agriculture and

Whitefield Associates in England.

agroecology - both in countries in the north and south.

He is a certified permaculture designer from the Patrick

Solveig Lyngre is a master’s student in political science

Whitefield Associates in England.

at the University of Oslo and is the coordinator of the youth organisation Spire’s food committee.

Eric Sannerud is a graduate of the University of Minnesota. He is a farmer, thinker, and entrepreneur

Anna Milford is a researcher at the Norwegian Agricultural

in Ham Lake, Minnesota. Among many other things,

Economics research Institute (NILF), where she is working

Eric is the Director of Sandbox Center for Regenerative

with projects related to organic and Fairtrade food

Entrepreneurship and a member of the Minneapolis Hub

production, diets and climate change, and food waste. She

of the Global Shapers.

has a PhD in Economics from the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration (NHH). She always

Aksel Tømte works as project coordinator at the

eats lovely dinner leftovers for lunch the next day, and makes

Indonesia Programme of the Norwegian Centre for

a big effort to try to make her three daughters finish all the

Human Rights, University of Oslo. He has held

food on their plates.

this position since 2009. Currently, he manages the programme’s portfolio within the thematic area of

Will Nicholson lives in Oslo and works as a food

’business and human rights’. This portfolio consists of

sustainability consultant. His company IntoLife works

human rights trainings for civil society actors, as well

with restaurants, caterers and consumers to develop more

as research on the human rights impact of the palm

responsible approaches to food, through measurement of

oil industry. Before working with NCHR, he lived in

carbon footprints, levels of sustainable consumption, and

Indonesia for four years, working at the Norwegian

reduced food waste. He previously owned restaurants and

Embassy in Jakarta as well as Peace Brigades International’s

cafes in both France and Norway, has worked for a long

Indonesia project.

time as a professional chef, and is currently completing an MSc in Green Economy via Bournemouth University. He

Andreas Viestad is a Norwegian home cook and

can be contacted on will@intolife.no.

food writer. He has been the host of New Scandinavian Cooking for 6 seasons, and co-host of Perfect Day.

Andreas Færøvig Olsen studies computer science

Andreas also started the non-profit organization, Geitmyra

at the University of Oslo and is a board member of

Culinary Center for Children in 2011. Andreas’ passion

Kooperativet, a cooperative where the members may

for food is not about making the “right” kind of food, or

purchase organic and biodynamic produce directly

fancy food, rather about nurturing family, friends – and

from the farmers. He is interested in sustainable food

finding out more about the world we live in.

production and environmentalism in general.

114

About the Contributors

Editorial Board

Despina Gleitsmann (1987) from Stuttgart, Germany

Marcela Oliveira (1985) from Cabo Frio, Brazil, studies

studies Culture, Environment and Sustainability at SUM

Culture, Environment and Sustainability at SUM.

and has a master’s degree in Politics and Government of the

She has a bachelor’s degree in Social Communications

European Union from the London School of Economics.

from the Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and a post-graduation degree in

Charlotte Lilleby Kildal (1988) from Asker, Norway

Environmental Management from the Universidade

studies Culture, Environment and Sustainability at SUM

Federal do Rio de Janeiro.

and has a bachelor’s degree in Development Studies from University of Bergen.

Stephen Bell (1990) from Waterloo, Canada studies

International Environmental Studies at NMBU and has Natia Chkhetiani (1988) from Kutaisi, Georgia, studies

a bachelor’s degree in Geography and Environmental

Culture, Environment and Sustainability at SUM, and has

Management from the University of Waterloo.

a bachelor’s degree in International Relations from Akaki Tsereteli State University (Georgia).

Jonathan Frænkel-Eidse (1981) from Kelowna, Canada,

studies Culture, Environment and Sustainability at SUM. Piper Donlin (1991) from Minneapolis, Minnesota studies

He has a bachelor’s degree in Sociology from Athabasca

Culture Environment and Sustainability at SUM, and has

University.

a bachelor’s degree from the University of Minnesota in Environmental Policy, Sustainability Studies and Art.

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Do you want to contribute to Tvergastein?

We accept contributions in Norwegian and English in two categories: Op-ed style (2,000-5,000 characters) Academic style (10,000-20,000 characters) If you have a finished text, an old exam paper that can be edited, or simply a good idea for an article, send us an e-mail. We promise you fair feedback and help in the editing process before publication.

We are also looking for illustrations, drawings, photos, for our texts.

Please contact us if you have a finished work, a sketch or an idea. tvergastein@sum.uio.no

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Tvergastein is grateful for all the help and support of:

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Tvergastein bears the name of Arne Næss’ cabin retreat in the mountains of Hallingskarvet. It was there that Næss, an activist and one of the most wide ranging philosophers of the last century, wrote the majority of his work. These writings, his unique ecophilosophy, and his life of activism continue to inspire environmentalists and scholars in Norway and abroad. In making this journal its namesake, we aim to similarly join academia with advocacy for the environment.

We aspire to the ”enormous open views at Tvergastein” and the perspective Næss found there.

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