/2007-2

TEMPO Spring 2007 • Volume XXVII, Issue 2

Texas A ssociation

for the

G ifted

and

Talented • Member, National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC)

Teacher Leadership

MAKING ALGEBRA ® CHILD'S PLAY

HANDS-ON EQUATIONS

®

Ideal program for introducing algebraic concepts to gifted students in grades 2 – 5.

NEW

Hands-On Equations Verbal Problems Book!

Staff Development Available: Day 1: Introduction to Hands-On Equations, Levels I and II Day 2: Focus on Level III and verbal problems for all three levels Visit us at the CAMT and TAGT conferences.

Borenson and Associates, Inc. PO Box 3328 Allentown, PA 18106 800-993-6284 See video demonstrations at www.Borenson.com

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

TEMPO

Spring 2007 • Volume XXVII, Issue 2

TEMPO Editor

Dr. Jennifer L. Jolly

President

Dr. Keith Yost

President-Elect Ann Studdard

First Vice-President

5

From the President

7

Executive Director’s Update

8

From the Editor

10

Dr. Laura Mackay

Second Vice-President Sheri Plybon

Third Vice-President

Robert Thompson

The Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented (TAGT) is a nonprofit organization of parents and professionals promoting appropriate education for gifted and talented students in the state of Texas.

TAGT Tempo is the official journal of the Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented.

It is published four times a year in January, April, July, and October. The subscription is a benefit for TAGT members. Annual dues are $49.

A Parent’s Perspective …

Enrichment Opportunities Planning for Success

16

Teacher Leadership: The Role of the Teacher of the Gifted

Valerie Ard

Kevin D. Besnoy

Raymond “Rick” Peters Dianne Hughes

Jennifer L. Jolly

12

Immediate Past-President Executive Director

Dianne Hughes

Hilary Pluemer

Joanna Baleson

Secretary/Treasurer

Keith Yost

20

What the Research Says About the Influence of Social Relationships on Gifted Students Susan K. Johnsen & Alexandra Shiu

Material appearing in Tempo may be reprinted unless otherwise noted. When copying an article please cite Tempo and TAGT as the source. We appreciate copies of publications containing Tempo reprints.

Address correspondence concerning the Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented (including subscription questions) to TAGT, 1524 S. IH 35, Suite 205, Austin, Texas, 78704.

Call TAGT at 512/ 499-8248, FAX 512/499-8264.

ADDRESS CORRECTION REQUESTED: Please notify TAGT if you are moving or if your mailing address has changed. TAGT publications are sent via third-class mail and are not forwarded by the Post Office. Be sure to renew your membership. You will not receive TAGT publications or mailings after your membership expiration date.

Opinions expressed by individual authors do not necessarily

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Contributing Authors

Valerie Ard, B.S., has her undergraduate degree in elementary education and is certified in grades 1-8. She is currently working on her master’s degree and certification as a reading specialist. She currently works as a full-time 5th grade associate teacher at the Louisiana State University Lab School. She can be reached at Vard1@lsu.edu.

Kevin D. Besnoy, Ph.D., is an assistant professor at Northern Kentucky University in teacher education and school leadership.

Currently he is teaching courses in gifted, elementary, and middle grades education. Furthermore, he has begun working on connecting classrooms in the United States with classrooms in South Africa. His research interests include appropriate practices for integrating instructional technology into the curriculum and at-risk youth. He can be reached at besnoyk1@nku.edu.

Susan K. Johnsen, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at Baylor University. She directs the Ph.D. program and programs related to gifted and talented education. She is past-president of the Texas Association for Gifted and Talented. She has written more than 100 articles, monographs, technical reports, and

books related to gifted education. She is a frequent presenter at international, national, and state conferences, and is editor of Gifted Child Today and serves on the editorial boards of Gifted Child Quarterly.

She is the author of Identifying Gifted Students: A Practical Guide and co-author of the Independent Study Program and three tests that are used in identifying gifted students: Test of Mathematical Abilities for Gifted Students (TOMAGS), Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (TONI-3), and Screening Assessment for Gifted Students (SAGES-2). She can be reached at Susan_Johnsen@baylor.edu.

Hilary Pluemer is the parent of a gifted child and an active member of Coppell Gifted Association in Coppell, TX. Alexandra Shiu, M.S., received degrees in economics from Baylor University. She is a doctoral student and a graduate assistant in the Department of Educational Psychology at Baylor University. She is managing editor of Gifted Child Today. Her research interests include behavior theory, gifted minority students from lower SES backgrounds, and social capital. She can be reached at Alex_Shiu@baylor.edu.

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

From the President

by Dr. Keith Yost Quality Gifted and Talented Programs Are Needed More Than Ever Picking up the editorial section of the Houston Chronicle on

and revised in 2000, sets minimum standards (acceptable col-

March 12, 2007, I ran across a very interesting editorial entitled,

umn) for gifted programs across the state in the following areas:

“Texas Must Attract More Students to Science, Math.” Authors

student assessment, program design, curriculum and instruction,

Dr. William R. Brinkley, Vice President and Dean of the Graduate

professional development, and family-community involvement.

School of Biomedical Science at Baylor College of Medicine, and

In addition, the plan also challenges districts to go beyond the

Dr. Richard A. Tapia, Rice University engineering and applied

acceptable level of programming by providing benchmarks for

mathematics professor, logically and convincingly shared their

recognized and exemplary levels. To date, only seven districts

growing concern about the United States losing its scientific and

have met the recognized level of the plan; no district has yet to

technological superiority in this century.

meet the exemplary level.

Based on the Congressional report (2005), “Rising Above the

Originally created to improve services for gifted students and

Gathering Storm,” the authors report that only 6% of American

for program accountability, this plan no longer is used by the Texas

college undergraduates major in engineering, as compared to 12%

Education Agency (TEA) for program accountability. The respon-

of European undergraduates, and 40% of Chinese undergradu-

sibility has now been passed on to local school boards/districts

ates. Although these statistics seem alarming, what is even more

to monitor their own gifted and talented programs. Although this

frightening is that historically the link between scientific progress

might seem fine in theory, in reality, the majority of school districts

and a rising standard of living are strongly correlated. As a result,

across the state have paid little attention to their gifted and talented

the question arises: Will the United States become a third-world

programs. As a result, many of our gifted students, held back by an

economic power by the end of the century?

educational culture embedded in the federal mandate No Child Left

Thinking deeply about the above question, I suddenly realized that

Behind, sit day after day, stifled by the current education system.

one way to assure that the United States will remain an economic

If we want to ensure that America will not become a third-rate

power in the future is to offer challenging, rigorous educational

economic power by the end of the century, we must take action by

programs for all students, including the gifted and talented. These

calling our state legislators and informing them of the need for rein-

programs must be flexible in nature, not lockstep; students must

statement of state accountability for gifted programs. Challenging,

progress at their own pace, not a prescribed one; students must en-

appropriate programming for gifted and talented students will

gage in a rigorous curriculum with real-world application.

better prepare them for college and for the global economy we are

Fortunately, Texas has already mandated a plan that requires

experiencing. Most importantly, quality programs for the gifted

all districts to address the above statements and to meet the

and talented may help encourage our brightest students to pursue

intellectual, social, and emotional needs of gifted and talented

careers in science and engineering, thus allowing the United States

students, The Texas State Plan for the Education of the Gifted/

to maintain a competitive edge over Europe, China, and India while

Talented Students. This plan, written and implemented in 1996

providing future generations with a higher standard of living.

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented 2007 Executive Board

President

Dr. Keith Yost

Houston ISD kyost@sprynet.com

President-Elect

I

II

Ann Studdard

Frisco ISD studdara@friscoisd.org

First Vice President Dr. Laura Mackay

Independent Consultant laura@texasmackays.org

III

IV

Second Vice President Sheri Plybon

Carrolton Farmers Branch ISD plybons@cfbisd.edu

Third Vice President Joanna Baleson C. P. I. Inc. juce@hal-pc.org

Secretary/Treasurer

V

VI

Immediate Past President

Raymond “Rick” Peters

Lockheed Martin Aeronautics TAGTdad@gmail.com

Executive Director Dianne Hughes

TAGT dhughes@txgifted.org

XIV Dr. Cecelia Boswell

Tracy Rodriguez

XV Debbie Lopez

Alexandra Schoenemann

XVI Paula Coleman

Lynette Breedlove

XVII Claire King

Collegiate High School tsrodriguez@ccsid.us

Yoakum ISD Palexs@yoakumisd.net Spring Branch ISD lynette.breedlove@springbranchisd.com

Dr. Ron Sims

Lumberton ISD rasims@lumberton.k12.tx.us

Stacey Elston

Magnolia ISD selston@magnoliaisd.org

VII Joe Stokes

Sabine ISD jamesjstokes@msn.com

Robert Thompson

Parent of Gifted Student rfthompson@sbcglobal.net

Patricia Rendon

Region I ESC patty.rendon@esconett.org

VIII Sandra Strom

Paris ISD/Paris HS sstrom@parisisd.net

IX

X

XI

Missy Mayfield

Region IX ESC missy.mayfield@esc9.net

Marilyn Swanson

Gifted Students Institute, SMU mswanson@smu.edu

Dr. Richard Sinclair

TX Academy of Math & Science Sinclair@unt.edu

XII Laura Young

Killeen ISD Clear Creek Elementary laura.young@killeenisd.org

XIII Michelle Swain

Round Rock ISD Michelle_Swain@roundrockisd.org

Austin Creek Education Systems kbc@cctc.net Santa Rita Elementary San Angelo ISD dlopez@saisd.org Borger ISD paula.coleman@borgerisd.net Lubbock ISD claireking@cox.net

XVIII Beverly Jeffcoat Region 18 ECS bjeffcoat@esc18.net

XIX Lynne DeLeon Socorro ISD deleon@sisd.net

XX Jose Laguna

Parent of Gifted Student jlaguna@satx.rr.com

Editorial Board Tempo Editor Dr. Jennifer L. Jolly

jennjolly26@hotmail.com

Editorial Board Members Karen Fitzgerald

kmfitzgerald@academicplanet.com

Tina Forester

tforeste@tomballisd.net

Todd Kettler

tkettler@coppellisd.com

Dr. Joyce E. Kyle Miller

joyce_miller@tamu-commerce.edu

Jennifer Robins jrobins@prufrock.com

Dr. Gail Ryser gr16@txstate.edu

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Executive Director’s Update

by Dianne Hughes When you receive this issue of Tempo, the

TAGT president Keith Yost succinctly covers

to report that Representative Eissler, Chair of

80th Legislative Session will be more than

problems that have evolved over the previous

the House Public Education Committee, has

halfway over and the number of bills that have

decade with adjustments to state education

filed HB 3425 that calls for a Select Committee

a possibility of passage will be significantly

law, specifically the delivery of services and

on Public School Accountability to be estab-

diminished, which is good because of the

accountability of gifted programs. Although

lished. If the bill makes it to a hearing, TAGT

quality of the majority of the legislation filed.

Texas has a mandate for gifted identification

will reinforce through public testimony the

By the final filing deadline, there were 5,921

and education as well as funding, those man-

need for accountability of gifted programs.

bills filed, with almost 4,000 of these in the

dates have suffered because of the deteriora-

One of the biggest challenges for TAGT as

House of Representatives. There are now 189

tion of accountability for the delivery of gifted

an organization is to provide active leadership

education bills on the TAGT tracking report

programs across the state.

supportive of consistently applied standards

and this does not include all education-related

Dr. Yost’s observation is that the No Child

of best practice for gifted education across the

Left Behind Act (NCLB) has fostered an “edu-

state. We need parents of gifted students to

As I sit through committee hearings, I

cation culture embedded” in this unfunded

politely and persuasively demand consistent

am amazed at the issues that people want to

federal mandate. Certainly, Texas’ response to

and qualitative standards from district to dis-

legislate, primarily from a single constituent’s

NCLB demonstrates this alignment with its fo-

trict. Dr. Yost points out that the revised Texas

personal experience. Many of these issues

cus on TAKS testing. During this same period

State Plan for the Education of Gifted/Talented

have merit, but many are the result of inap-

of time, state funding was eliminated for an

Students (2000) sets minimum standards,

propriately applied laws, rules, or local poli-

evaluation process, District Effectiveness and

which are identified as “acceptable.” He also

cies. Additionally, events that threaten public

Compliance (DEC), that sought district ac-

indicates that there are only seven districts

safety and well-being foster new law making.

countability. Again, reactive legislation creates

that have attained the “recognized” level and

Sometimes laws created from such events may

unintended results that undermine qualitative

none the “exemplary” level. I think this demon-

initially overreach, resulting in new laws to

outcomes in all of our public schools.

strates that when we establish an “acceptable”

legislation filed.

modify the original legislation in subsequent

So, how do we reverse trends we know to

goal that is not quantified by outcomes, we,

legislative years. I call this policy “reactive

be the antithesis of productive learning envi-

as leaders (publicly elected or otherwise), fail

legislating.”

ronments? We demonstrate our stated values

our students. To assume that there is an “ac-

Texas forefathers may have had great

through our actions. Dr. Yost has asked that

ceptable” standard for our gifted students is to

foresight to establish only 140 days, biennial

state legislators be called to reinstate account-

limit their full potential. It is time for TAGT to

sessions. Not only does this limit legislative

ability for gifted programs. Tracy Weinberg,

lead, articulating the standards that are accept-

activity, it allows time during the interim

Deputy Director of TAGT, and I have outlined

able for producing exemplary gifted programs

to see where there will be problems in the

this in our visits with members of the House

based on the best practices recognized by

implementation of new laws. In his column,

Public Education Committee. I also am pleased

gifted educators!

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

From the Editor

Jennifer L. Jolly

I am happy to announce that this issue includes a new column, Parents’

Charles Grassley (Iowa) and Representative Paul Gillmor (OH-5) in-

Perspectives. A parent column has been a goal for Tempo since I became

troduced bills (S.493 / H.R. 1156, respectively), that create incentives

the editor, it is gratifying to finally see it come to fruition. Parents are an

through the HEA for states and teacher preparation programs to raise

integral part in finding appropriate educational opportunities for their

awareness among new teachers about the unique educational needs

children and championing gifted education. We are very appreciative

of gifted and talented students during the pre-service teacher training

of the parents who have agreed to help in this endeavor. The remaining

process. All teachers will encounter gifted and talented children in their

articles in this issue focus on teachers of the gifted and the influence of

classrooms. However, few regular education teachers have received any

social relationships of on gifted students.

training in teaching highly able students. According to the National

Besnoy examines transformational leadership as a method for mak-

Research Center for the Gifted and Talented, the majority of gifted

ing educational change. He proposes that teachers of the gifted should

students spend 80% of their school day in the regular classroom. It is

become leaders within their schools to help them become more effective

imperative therefore, that all teachers be trained to recognize and ad-

organizations. Gifted educators can play an integral leadership role in

dress the unique learning needs of this special population of students.

helping to transform curricula in light of today’s standards based edu-

The House and Senate committees that consider education issues

cational environment. School administrators need to be encouraged to

included the gifted education language when they drafted their final

adopt specific gifted education teaching strategies. Besnoy presents

versions of the Higher Education Act. The full House and Senate must

specific teaching strategies and leadership roles.

now pass the Higher Education Act and work out differences between

Ard presents a practical outline for using thematic units of instruction.

The step-by-step plan which includes selecting a topic or theme, choosing activities, and identifying the appropriate assessment tools. She also includes a graphic organizer to be used in the planning process.

the two bills before it can become law, which must occur before the Congress adjourns this fall.

Please contact your Senators and Representative and urge them to support the Higher Education Act when it comes to the floor for consid-

Johnsen and Shiu provide an extensive examination of the research

eration because it contains incentives for colleges of education to incor-

concerning the influence of social relationships on gifted students. The

porate the needs of gifted students into teacher preparation programs.

literature reveals a plethora of relationships examined across a person’s

(reprinted from NAGC, 2007, http://nagc.org/index.aspx?id=584)

lifespan in a variety of contexts. Topics included are social skills, identity, underachievement, perfectionism, talent development, leadership, college transitions, and suicide.

As Dianne Hughes and Keith Yost both touched on advocating for reinstating accountability measures for gifted programs in Texas public schools, there is federal legislation under consideration that would affect gifted children in the state of Texas.

Teacher Preparation Legislation Included in the Higher Education Act

Editor’s Correction: Texas Certification: The Gifted Endorsement has been replaced by the G/T Supplemental Certificate, which is earned through the TExES for G/T education

Thanks to gifted education supporters, legislation to help prepare new

(http://texes.ets.org/). This certificate is, like the endorsement, not required, but

teachers to recognize and meet the unique needs of gifted and talented

recommended for G/T teachers. The 30 + annual 6 hours of training is required,

students has been added to the Higher Education Act (HEA). Senator

and teachers who meet those requirements are considered “G/T Trained.”

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

A Parent’s Perspective…

Enrichment Opportunities

By Hilary Pluemer

I have yet to find a parent who feels that their child’s education perfectly fits their child’s needs. No matter how wonderful the educational environment, it is unlikely that it matches their individual needs and interests. Only you with your child’s input are truly qualified to determine which needs are being met. How then do you go about filling in gaps that are inevitably there? Here are some suggestions: • Evaluate the total child.

• Schedule playtime both alone and with friends.

• Include down time to relax and recover.

• Balance school work, physical activity, and play time.

• Identify and fill the academic holes.

My son is now 10 and is in fourth grade and my daughter is six and is in first grade. Early on, I knew my son was a little “different”. What made him different was his intense interest in all things academic. Fortunately he is also a very active child, so I do not have the pressures of trying to make an academically minded child stay active. Despite his love of school and being engaged most of the time, I knew what he was receiving during the school day was not nearly enough. I found myself on a quest to find programs that would both challenge him and enhance his educational experience. Over the years, I accumulated a file full of extracurricular activities. Other parents began to think of me as the extracurricular expert. Really, I was just a mom on a mission. If you find yourself on a similar mission, the following might help you find activities or programs that best fit your child’s needs.

10

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Building a File of Ideas Where do you get ideas?

• Talk to other parents – Getting started seems to be the biggest hurdle. I simply started by talking to as many people as I could. My ears would perk up if I overheard parents talking about programs their kids were involved in and I would always step in, ask questions, and write down how to find out more about the program.

• Teachers / Gifted teachers – See what programs teachers have heard about or had other students participate. What Web sites or resources can they refer you to?

• Search topic Web sites – Search for topics that interest your child. If your child is interested in ocean life, do a search for sea camp, marine biology camp, or any other possible key words.

• Search district gifted Web sites – look at your school district’s Web site. Other school districts also can be great sources of information. The following nine Web sites represent just a handful of Texas’ school district’s gifted and talented parent organizations, which include information on extracurricular and summer programs.

Carroll ISD www.southlakespace.org Carrollton-Farmers Branch ISD www.cfbgifted.org Highland Park ISD www.pctag.org Hurst-Euless-Bedford ISD www.hebagt.org Fort Bend ISD www.pacefortbend.org Katy ISD www.kpgt.org Pearland ISD www.pearlandgifted.org Clear Creek ISD www.casegiftedchildren.org Coppell ISD www.coppellgifted.org •

•

Search university Web sites – Many Texas universities have gifted programs and resources for younger children. At the 2004 TAGT conference, I ran across a fabulous resource for gifted extracurricular activities, “Finding Good Options and Choosing Worthwhile Adventures” presented by Barbara Hoggan with the University of North Texas. Provided was a 14-page handout listing numerous activities in all different academic areas. This document can be found at: http://www.coe.unt.edu/ gifted/parents/temp/TAGT_Worthwhile_ Adventures_edited.pdf Join the Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented (TAGT) – Within TAGT’s

•

•

publications, such as Insights, program listings are provided. TAGT also provides another network in which to share and gather information.

Attend TAGT conferences – Take the opportunity to attend the annual and parent conferences. As you meet other parents and educators, network to find out about additional program opportunities.

Read, read, and read –Read whatever comes your way. Explore the advertised Web sites and follow the links. I have found extremely useful information by following links.

Building a Database Once you have a file full of possible programs, how do you manage the information?

First of all, determine what types of programs are potentially right for you and your kids.

Begin with his or her interests. If your child has a passion for something, narrow down the possibilities. Some questions to keep in mind…

• Are you only looking for summer programs?

• Does a combination of after-school programs and summer programs best meet your child’s needs?

• Does the activity need to be close by or can you make arrangements for participation out-of-town?

• Does the program need to be something that is attended or online?

• Are their time constraints?

Program information was then organized by age group and grade level, along with a brief description of the program. Contact information and web addresses were also included in the database. Include a section in the database that covers cost. Many programs are very reasonably priced and some even have scholarships or financial aid available. Some programs can be found for as little as $5.

available and appropriate for your child’s age and grade level. Discuss the options with your child. I find each year is like a big puzzle as we determine what is possible to add and what fits in to the schedule.

Create Your Own Program If nothing exists or is convenient, start your own program. If your child loves chess and there are no chess clubs or chess events that work for you, start your own chess club. It may come as a surprise how many other kids share similar interests. For example, last fall as I was determining what programs we might be interested, another parent and I decided that we would form our own after-school club.

We tailored it to meet our boys’ interests. We combined math, science, engineering and economics, and chose a variety of competitions in which to participate. We sought and gained approval through our elementary school to promote the club and include other fourth graders and were allowed to meet at the school.

Imagine our surprise when we had 23 out of the 78 fourth graders sign up for our program.

Many parents came out and helped with the group. We traveled all over the Metroplex for various competitions. .

Ultimately you are responsible for your child’s education. Don’t let busy schedules or lack of information hinder your ability to help your child. It is likely you can find an extracurricular activity to assist you if you just take a little time to find it.

Additional Resources Duke TIPS program http://www.tip/duke/edu Texas Summer Programs for Gifted and Talented Students http://www.txgifted.org

Sharing Information Share information by providing it to your district’s gifted and talented organization. The more information you share, the more likely you will be to find other parents and children who have similar interests. Programs further away from home can be easier to participate if parents can share transportation responsibilities.

Selecting New Activities or Programs Try to pick one new activity or program to add to your child’s schedule. Even one additional outside activity or program will greatly enhance your child’s education. Don’t wait for your teachers or school to participate; do it yourself. At the beginning of each new school year revaluate the list. Find what activities are

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

11

Planning

By Valerie Ard

Almost everyone has played games. Sometimes we teach the rules, and sometimes we’re taught them. Like playing a game, teaching is a skill that one has the opportunity to improve any time a lesson is planned. Similarly, many educators, even veteran teachers, blow straight through the rules of the teaching game using ineffective, disorganized approaches that confuse their audience.

Thematic Units of Instruction Like learning a new game, planning a unit of instruction can, at times, be an overwhelming task. Teachers can make life a little easier on themselves by approaching the task in a logical, organized, and integrated manner. Although a teacher may select a theme based on grade-level objectives and the availability of resources and materials needed to complete the unit, students’ interests also need to be taken into consideration. For example, a teacher may want to use an interest inventory along with observations as a means of determining the students’ preferred areas of study. Schools should look at education as an integrated process for developing abilities required by everyday life, rather than discrete, departmentalized subject matter (Schell & Fisher, 2007). As a result, the most frequent method of implementing integrated instruction is the thematic unit, in which a common theme is selected and addressed in more than one content area. Thematic units are widely used by teachers at all grade levels. They make better use of classroom time and address content in more depth, which helps students see connections within content areas, and build on their background knowledge (Barton & Smith, 2000). A combination of activities and projects within a unit will increase the probability that students will be able to apply what they know to real-world problems. The introduction, development, organization, and culminating activities used when implementing thematic units are crucial to their effectiveness (Wepner, 1993).

Laying the Foundations A thematic unit begins by selecting a suitable concept or theme for study.

Concepts and themes should reflect grade-level expectations, student interest, and experiences (Terry, n.d.). This selection process also gives teachers the opportunity to compact and accelerate student learning. The curriculum guide of a school district will often be the starting point to identify the process skills and content knowledge necessary to meet state standards of accountability. The concept/theme must also be flexible enough to also accommodate these demands. Because teachers are constantly faced with the dilemma of having too many things to teach and not enough time to teach them, strongly organized lessons and activities will allow teachers to provide students with learning experiences that make more efficient use of class time and match student learning styles. Both the teacher and students can participate in the concept/theme selection process.

12

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

for Success

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

13

Students can contribute by brainstorming a list of themes and voting as a class. For example, as a result of a brainstorming activity, a teacher may focus the unit of study around various biomes and its inhabitants. Students may also be involved in developing or selecting activities.

Throughout the unit planning process, the teacher can involve students by ascertaining what they already know about a theme/concept and what they want to learn. In order to activate background knowledge and set a purpose, students may complete a type of KW-L activity. By recording students’ ideas on a chart, the teacher validates the knowledge and experiences the students bring to the study.

For example, a teacher may ask students, “What do you know about biomes?” During the K-W-L activity, teachers should accept all contributions without correction. Students should also be given a chance to discuss their personal experiences relating to biomes. Next, a teacher might want to ask, “What would you like to learn about the various biomes?” The teacher should record students’ responses on a chart and display the list for future reference.

Further development of the unit involves collecting materials and resources related to the selected topic, including pictures, books, artifacts, and guest speakers while keeping in mind specific learning outcomes. Thematic units can be used as an opportunity to integrate reading into other content areas as well as an opportunity to encourage students to visit the school library and get them involved in independent research tasks. At this point of the planning process, the teacher should anticipate student questions, draft a general plan, and review the goals and objectives for the curriculum for all subjects that will be included in the unit of study (Bickart, Jablon, & Dodge, 1999). For example, one objective related to the study of biomes may include the concept of environmental issues affecting the ocean and its organisms.

After examining the areas of interest associated with biomes, the teacher might conclude that language arts, social studies, math, and science are subject areas that could easily be integrated into the unit. However, not all units of study will lend themselves to integration so easily. Shanahan, Robinson, & Schneider (1995) caution teachers not to force subjects together: “If two subjects don’t fit for a given theme, keep them apart” (p. 718). Even with extensive planning during this stage, the unit activities can still be susceptible to revision because a good study entails both advance and ongoing planning and evaluation. According to Coleman and Cross (2005), “Pacing of instruction, feedback, and review, as well as exposure to knowledge and skills, are gov-

14

erned to a large degree by the structure of the materials” (p. 396).

Examples of Content Integration Once a theme and list of lesson activities have been established, various content areas can be integrated into the unit. A math lesson may include calculating the amount of rainfall that a wetland receives in a 1-year period, or determining the percentage of trees that have been destroyed in the rainforest during a 3-year span. Social studies can easily be integrated by having students locate specific biomes on a world map, and/or practice locating regions using latitude and longitude coordinates, along with their distance from the equator. A Venn diagram comparing two biomes could fulfill a science component. In addition, a culminating activity could be a trip to a nearby creek, pond, or lake in order to observe local birds, fish, and plant life. Students can illustrate or journal about their observations or thoughts regarding what kind of human activities may impact the environment (Schell & Fisher, 2007).

Assessment and Evaluation of Learning Formal and informal evaluations and assessments can and should take place throughout the unit. To demonstrate an understanding of core objectives, a variety of assessments can be constructed to meets students’ needs. There should also be congruence between the instructional methods and assessment methods and tools. For example, a teacher may use a combination of the following assessments: observation, prepared tests, workbook pages, portfolios, journals, or a culminating project to assess students’ knowledge of the material covered in the entire unit of study (VanTassel-Baska & Little, 2003).

References Barton, K. C., & Smith, L. A. (2000). Themes or motifs? Aiming for coherence through interdisciplinary outlines. The Reading Teacher, 54, 54–64.

Bickart, T. S., Jablon, J. R., & Dodge, D. T. (1999). Building the primary classroom.

Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies.

Coleman, L. J., & Cross, T. L. (2005). Being gifted in school (2nd ed.). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Schell, E., & Fisher, D. (2007). Teaching social studies: A literacy based approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Shanahan, T., Robinson, B., & Schneider, M. (1995). Integrating curriculum: Avoiding some of the pitfalls of thematic units. The Reading Teacher, 48, 718–719.

Terry, P. J. (n.d.). Using the net to create thematic units. Retrieved March 30, 2006, from http://www.techtrekers.com/Thematic. htm VanTassel-Baska, J., & Little, C.A. (2003).

Content-based curriculum for high ability learners. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Wepner, S. B. (1993). Technology links to literacy. The Reading Teacher, 46, 442–445.

Conclusion Throughout the study, teachers should be attuned to budgeting their instructional time, monitoring students’ level of involvement, pacing of instruction, and assessing students’ level of enthusiasm for the study. For future reference, teachers may also want to keep a record of books, field trips, and guest speakers used in the study.

Thematic units offer teachers a variety of opportunities for extending and enriching learning across disciplines. The inclusion of thematic units allows students to see relationships among ideas and concepts as they experience theme based inquiry. As a result of student involvement in planning the unit, students will begin to recognize relationships between classroom lessons and their personal experiences, develop a sense of classroom community, and become more responsible for and engaged in their own learning.

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The Path to Success n atio u l Eva thods Me

Recognize Connections: Move Forward One Space

Demonstration of Knowledge

Reflection and Revision: Move Back Four Spaces

Field Trip an d Guest Speake rs

Budget Time

School Library Access

Select Materials and Resources

Integrate Subjects

Pace Activities

Comput er Lab

Student Learning

Use Interest Inventory: Go Forward one Space

Thematic Unit

*Observations *Portfolios *Projects *Tests

Plan Activities: Hands-On Learning Independent Research

Specific Learner Outcomes

Teacher’s Background Knowledge: Move 2 Spaces

t/ Compac te a r le Acce g in n r a Le

KW -L

S

ic at m e t Th nit c e U el

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15

Teacher Leadership: The Role of the Teacher of the Gifted

By Kevin D. Besnoy

Imagine a school and a time when administrators are free to allow teachers to identify the instructional levels of all students. In this school, teachers would have the ability to differentiate the curriculum so that each student learns at his or her instructional level. Further, picture that this school meets all the federal mandates pertaining to yearly progress and minimum student achievement.

Finally, envision that teachers at this school are empowered to make pedagogical decisions and confident that their ideas will be warmly accepted by the administration.

With the federal law No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in effect, the above scenario seems a bit utopian. Rather than ensuring that all students are afforded an instructionally appropriate education, states and school districts are obligated to guarantee that all students meet the new minimum standard. The cur-

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rent federal law mandates that all schools use an accountability plan to measure the progress of student achievement, report student and school progress to parents, identify for improvement those schools not making adequate yearly progress, provide support for the improvement of schools and districts, and provide options for children in underperforming schools. (The White House, 2004, ¶ 1).

Across the nation, new curricula have been designed and tests created that measure each child’s adequate yearly progress. While the effectiveness of these changes is still open for debate, the vital role that school leadership plays in making those changes is not.

In order to affect change that is in keeping with the new federal mandates, administrators must answer the following questions: (a)

how can one provide an omnipotent curriculum that challenges those students who have already met the minimum standards, while at the same time, remediate those students who do not? and (b) how can one effectively train quality teachers in the skills necessary to guarantee that no child is left behind? The solution to this dilemma resides in gifted education pedagogy.

Why Should Teachers of the Gifted Be School-Based Leaders?

The current national trend is for schools to focus on raising the test scores of low achievers and to cut funding for gifted programming (Hardy, 2003). Unfortunately, this trend forces teachers of the gifted to find creative ways to justify their educational value.

More than ever, it is now time for teachers of

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

the gifted to take on leadership roles within their school buildings. They must realize that there is an enormous discrepancy between the requirements of NCLB and the schools’ ability to meet those requirements (Sanders, 2003). Helping to minimize this discrepancy is a concern that teachers of the gifted can seize. Teachers of the gifted are trained to identify the instructional needs of a child and then develop learning activities that meet those needs. These teachers should apply their skills and expertise to serve as teacher leaders and assist with the overhaul of school curriculum.

According to Roberts and Roberts (2001), all educators should differentiate the curriculum to match the various abilities among children who are in the same age bracket. This proven practice among gifted educators is the type of teaching that needs to be infused across all disciplines. Johnsen, Haensly, Ryser, and Ford (2002) asserted that general education teachers must be taught to provide differentiated instruction for all students no matter their ability level. By doing so, students of any ability level will be able to meet the minimum standards while at the same time maximizing their potential.

Keirouz (1993) explained that differentiated curriculum is one where the content is designed in such a manner that allows for flexible pacing and focuses on themes that integrate multiple disciplines into one area of study. The curriculum must be differentiated in terms of content, processes, products, and learning environments. Processes within the curriculum should enhance higher order thinking skills and provide opportunities for enrichment and acceleration. In the differentiated curriculum, products should be developed for real audiences and application (Stephens & Karnes, 2001a). Although the popularity of differentiated curriculum is growing, implementing it within a classroom or a school takes a concerted effort on the part of administrators and teachers (Johnsen et al., 2002; Keirouz, 1993).

Johnsen et al. (2002) conducted a 2-year study to determine the effects of training general education teachers to differentiate curricula for gifted students in the general classroom. The researchers provided support through staff-development activities, teacher leadership, mentoring, and instructional resources. Project staff selected six schools (one urban; five rural), observed teachers in those schools, and interviewed school personnel to provide a training program suitable for all schools. The training program consisted of the following topics: (a) learner differences, (b) differentiated curriculum, (c) assessment, (d) managing the learning environment, (e) learning strategies, (f) teacher facilitation, (g) acceleration, (h) mentoring, (i) peer coaching, (j) collaboration, (k) support, and (l) change (Johnsen et al., 2002).

Project training was divided into two, oneyear long programs with each year containing three staff-development activities (one in the spring, summer, and fall). During each training session, the topics were presented in the following formats: (a) teacher-directed instruction, (b) games, (c) self-paced instruction, (d) showcase, (e) reading, (f) audio-visual, (g) role-play, and (f) problem solving. In essence, teachers and administrators learned about differentiating curriculum through a differentiated curriculum approach (Johnsen et al., 2002).

Johnsen et al. (2002) reported that prior to the project, only 13% of the teachers reported a preference for differentiating the curriculum as compared to 71% at the end of the project. This change indicates that it is possible for teachers of the gifted to successfully implement a gifted teaching strategy at a school-wide level. If gifted teaching strategies can be implemented at a school-wide level, teachers of the gifted can provide leadership beyond the gifted environment. Although the researchers did not provide any quantitative statistics to support student performance, qualitative statistics indicated that students were “successful and enjoyed [learning] so much more” (Johnsen et al., 2002, p. 60).

Transformational Leadership Johnsen et al. (2002) described educational change as complex, noting that each school possesses distinct concerns that necessitate resolution. Strong leadership is needed to identify these unique issues and to develop a rational solution that is agreeable to all parties. The challenge to school administrators is to know how to create an empowering environment where all of those who have a vested interest feel as though their opinions are valued (Short, 1998). One way administrators can create this type of empowering environment is to adopt a transformational leadership approach in the educational setting (Johnsen et al., 2002; Potter, 2001).

A transformational leader facilitates change by empowering his or her colleagues with the opportunity to think and act for themselves (Little, 1995). Rather than telling others what to do, the transformational leader shares ideas.

Conversely, transactional leadership is based on a reward for work relationship between the leader and follower(s). In a transactional relationship, according to Jong (2000–2001), subordinates are neither encouraged nor expected to exceed initial assigned objectives.

In addition, followers are rarely motivated to find creative solutions to problems.

Johnsen et al. (2002) stated that without the teachers’ involvement, permanent change is impossible. Thus, in an educational setting, it is imperative that administrators look for input from teachers. However, teachers of the gifted must approach administrators and inform them of their expertise in developing

curriculum that is appropriate for all students.

Typically, professional development sessions are one-time events that provide little to no follow-up training and fail to produce the desired change (Feiler, Heritage, & Gallimore, 2000; Johnsen et al., 2002). The dilemma is not with the necessity of professional development; rather, it is with the manner in which professional development is implemented. Liontos (1992) noted that educational institutions have historically encompassed a top-down hierarchy where the administration establishes curricular goals, educational strategy to meet goals, and the rubric by which to monitor progress towards achieving the goals. Unfortunately, research has demonstrated that implementing policy and curricular change with this top-down approach is disengaging and counter productive (Bolger, 2001).

Few people question that pedagogical changes need to be made in order to meet the new national standards; however, what must be questioned is the manner in which those changes are made. Rather than waiting for administrators to hand down a directive, teachers of the gifted should volunteer their expertise to the school decision-makers and assist with curricula transformation. Although the notion of using teachers as educational leaders has been around for a long time (Feiler et al., 2000; Harris & Muijs, 2003), rarely have teachers of a particular specialty been more qualified to assume the responsibility.

How Teachers of the Gifted Can Take on a Leadership Role Making and accepting change to a school’s overall educational process is difficult.

Teachers have reported lack of time, feelings of isolation from colleagues, and fear of failure as obstacles to educational change (Cashion & Sullenger, 2000). There are many factors that go into effectively changing the learning program. According to Harris and Muijs (2003) there are three avenues by which a teacher can take on a leadership role. These avenues include: (a) working with colleagues through coaching, mentoring, or leading work groups; (b) developing a curriculum that fosters improvement in both learning and teaching; and (c) creating pedagogy that enables teachers to develop and model 21st century teaching strategies.

Teachers of the gifted, like many other specialists, have the opportunity to instruct a wide age range of students and teach a variety of subjects. Thus, they have valuable experience and skills necessary to design learning activities that are appropriate for a variety of students. There are several methods by which teachers of the gifted can assist with enacting educational change. These include: (a) mentoring beginning teachers, (b) providing curriculum development knowledge, and (c) leading in-service training sessions. If teachers of the

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gifted want to make a change and validate the existence of gifted education within the general school program, then they must be willing to volunteer their time and expertise.

Mentoring Teachers Teacher mentors must be able to provide good role modeling and appropriate assistance that will enable beginning teachers to be successful educators. Johnsen et al. (2002) suggested that mentor teachers are committed to making curricular changes, interested in assisting other teachers, have respect for others’ ideas, are confident and flexible, and have good people skills. Teachers of the gifted can either volunteer to mentor student teachers or to collaborate with other teachers in improving classroom instruction.

As a mentor for student or beginning teachers, educators of the gifted have the opportunity to make a long-lasting impression on a young impressionable teacher. Mentor teachers can serve as good educational role models, help to establish new teachers as competent professionals, and ensure that countless students receive an excellent learning experience (Gehrke, 1988). To be a mentor, teachers of the gifted should contact local universities, school principals, or the school district’s central office.

The idea of transformational leadership can be applied to the teacher-to-teacher relationship as well; therefore, it is important that teacher leaders appear as collaborators, or sharers of knowledge (Feiler et al., 2000).

Although teachers of the gifted want to demonstrate their expertise and full repertoire of skills, they must be willing to collaborate with their colleagues on units of study. This collaboration will enable the teacher of the gifted to demonstrate and support appropriate teaching methods.

Provide Curriculum Development Knowledge Unlike subject area teachers, teachers of the gifted are not bound to a specific content area.

Curriculum development strategies promoted in the field of gifted education are applicable to all subject areas. Still, many general educators believe that teachers of the gifted should remain in their specialty area and only work with identified gifted students. However, Coon (2004) postulated that by including the entire school community (i.e., students, parents, community leaders, teachers, and administrators) in the construct of gifted education, all students can reap the benefits of an instructionally appropriate education.

By sharing knowledge of curriculum development with parents and community leaders, teachers of the gifted then become leaders in the eyes of those two groups. It is then possible to advocate for, and promote, the virtues of gifted education. Cashion and Sullenger

18

(2000) elucidated that advocacy is fundamental to sustaining gifted programs.

In addition to sharing knowledge with the entire school, teachers of the gifted should develop funds to provide curriculum development materials for teachers. For example, a section of the school’s library or teachers’ lounge could be set aside for resource materials (e.g., videos, books, magazines, or CD-ROMs) to aid all teachers in using gifted education strategies in their classrooms.

These materials could provide teachers with resources on how to implement teaching strategies promoted by gifted education into their classrooms (Stephens & Karnes, 2001b).

Leading In-Service Training Sessions As stated above, staff-development sessions that are ongoing, rather than single events, are productive methods for affecting curricular change. Thus, teachers of the gifted should volunteer their time to plan, implement, and lead in-service training sessions. However, according to Feiler et al. (2000), image among peers as an expert is an essential ingredient to being an effective leader. In order to cultivate this image and expertise, teachers of the gifted need to do the following: (a) take classes at a local university and (b) join national organizations in addition to the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) such as the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), or National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). After gaining expertise, teachers of the gifted can return to their school and help to design in-service training sessions.

As the field of education enters the 21st century, there is a need for strong teacher leadership. Still, how does a teacher go about becoming a leader in his or her school?

Changing administration philosophy to one that facilitates teachers leading teachers in transforming school policy is a difficult evolution. Rather than creating a grandiose one-year plan, teachers of the gifted should present their administrators with a multiyear plan that allows for curricular growth and adaptation. Fieler et al. (2000) has developed a set of activities for administrators and teacher leaders to follow when attempting to initiate curricular change with the guidance of teachers. The five-step process that follows has been adapted from those guidelines established by Fieler et al.

The first step is for the principal, teacher leaders, and entire faculty to set curricular goals. At a general faculty meeting, the principal must introduce the idea about the creation of a new school-wide curriculum and how change is going to occur. Additionally, committees need to be created that will facilitate a feeling of teacher empowerment. Examples of committees include: (a) curriculum goal committee, (b) teacher-to-teacher mentor

committee, (c) public relations/communication committee, and (d) teacher support committee.

The second step is for the teacher leaders to observe all classrooms in order to gain an overall perspective of the school’s curriculum.

It is important that the observations are done in a constructive manner so not to offend distrusting teachers. In an effort not to portray an image of superiority, teachers of the gifted should open their classrooms to colleagues and provide opportunities to be observed.

Taking this transformational approach will not only facilitate change, but will also aid in promoting the need for gifted programming.

Step three is to attend annual state and national organizations’ conferences (e.g., NCSS, NCTM, or NSTA). To further promote a team approach, teachers of the gifted must attend these conferences with their colleagues. Additionally, teachers from other subject areas should be invited to attend the National Association for Gifted Children or Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented conferences.

The fourth step is to assist other teachers in improving their practices by collaborating with them on the implementation of the new curriculum. A basic precept of transformational leadership is the participation by all parties in enacting the desired change. Harris and Muijs (2003) pointed out that the primary role of teacher leaders is to assist their colleagues in exploring new ideas and providing constructive feedback.

The fifth step is to evaluate the progress.

Many times, evaluation is a culminating activity; however, effective evaluation should be continuous. Monitoring the program’s progress as it proceeds allows any participant to identify elements that are not working and to offer suggestions for correcting the problem.

Final Thoughts For the teachers of the gifted, now is an opportune moment to assume a leadership role in your local school. As available funds for specific gifted programs get diverted to other areas, educators of the gifted must be willing to assert themselves so that they may still serve gifted students. By assuming a leadership role within their local school, teachers of the gifted can help to improve the quality of the general education program while still promoting the pedagogy of gifted education.

References Bogler, R. (2001). The influence of leadership style on teacher job satisfaction.

Educational Administration Quarterly, 37, 662–683.

Cashion, M., & Sullenger, K. (2000). ‘Contact us next year’: Tracing teachers’ use of gifted practices. Roeper Review, 23, 18–21.

Coon, P. (2004). Trigram: A gifted program

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model all students can enjoy. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 23, 22–25.

Feiler, R., Heritage, M., & Gallimore, R. (2000).

Teachers leading teachers. Educational Leadership, 57, 66–69.

Gehrke, N. (1988). Toward a definition of mentoring. Theory into Practice, 27, 190–194.

Hardy, L. (2003). The politics of gifted education.

American School Board Journal, 190, 26–27.

Harris, A., & Muijs, D. (2003). Teachers leadership and school improvement. Education Review, 16, 39–42.

Johnsen, S. K., Haensly, P. A., Ryser, G. R., & Ford, R. F. (2002). Changing general education classroom practices to adapt for gifted students.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 45–63.

Jong, D. I. (2000–2001). Transformational and transactional leadership and their effects on creativity in groups. Creativity Research Journal, 13, 185–195.

Keirouz, K. S. (1993). Gifted curriculum: The state of the art. Gifted Child Today, 16(1), 36–39.

Liontos, L. B. (1992). Transformational leadership (Report No. 72). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED347636) Little, J. W. (1995). Contested ground: The basis of teacher leadership in two restructuring high schools. Elementary School Journal, 96, 48–63.

Potter, T. K. (2001). Teacher leadership. Journal of Correctional Education, 52, 120–125.

Roberts, J. L. & Roberts, R. A. (2001). Writing units that remove the learning ceiling. In F. A. Karnes & S. M. Bean (Eds.). Methods and materials for teaching the gifted (pp.

213–251). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Sanders, T. (2003). Clearing the NCLB hurdle.

American School Board Journal, 190, 26–28.

Short, P. M. (1998). Empowering leadership.

Educational Leadership, 69, 70–72.

Stephens, K. R., & Karnes, F. A. (2001a).

Product development for gifted students In F. A. Karnes & S. M. Bean, (Eds.).

Methods and materials for teaching the

gifted (pp. 181–212). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Stephens, K. R., & Karnes, F. A. (2001b).

Getting what you need: Locating and obtaining money and other resources. In F. A. Karnes & S. M. Bean, (Ed.), Methods and materials for teaching the gifted (pp.

673–692). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

The White House. (2004, January 8). President Bush celebrates 2nd anniversary of No Child Left Behind Act. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.whitehouse. gov/news/releases/2004/01/text/200401081.html

Appendix A

Transformational Leadership Plan Steps

Date of implementation

Date of evaluation

Expected Outcomes

Actual Outcomes

Establish School Wide Curricular Goals

Classroom Observations

Attending National Conferences

Collaboration with Teacher

Continuous Evaluation of Progress

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What the Research Says About the Influence of Social Relationships on Gifted Students

by Susan K. Johnsen and

Alexandra Shiu

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Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

Parents and their extended family, peers, teachers, and other significant adults form a network of social relationships that influence gifted students’ growth in academic, social, and emotional areas. Researchers have examined a variety of relationships across the lifespan in multiple contexts to determine the critical factors that affect not only the development of social skills but also their differential effect on identity, underachievement, perfectionism, talent development, leadership, college transitions, and even suicide among special populations of gifted students.

This review examined articles published since 1997 in Gifted Child Quarterly, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, Roeper Review, and the Journal of Secondary Gifted Education.

Empirical studies whose research questions focused on social relationships between gifted and talented students and their families, peers, teachers, and/or other important adults were included in this review. International samples were excluded. These selection criteria yielded 65 articles with the vast majority (n = 45; 71%) using qualitative research methods such as case study (n = 29; 64.4%), phenomenological inquiry (n = 6; 13.3%), exploratory interviews (n = 4; 8.8%), ethnography (n = 4; 8.8%), psychological autopsy (n = 1; 2.2%), and participant-observer inquiry (n = 1; 2.2%). The qualitative investigators gathered information using a variety of sources and methods: observations, interviews, focus groups, documents, sociometric data, correspondence, resumes, biographies, and student essays. The 20 quantitative studies were mostly descriptive with 11 (50.5%) using surveys and questionnaires, 5 (25%) using standardized tests along with surveys, and 4 (20%) using standardized tests only. Only one of the studies used a pre/post design (Rinn, 2006). Participants included all levels from preschool (n = 3; 4.6%), elementary (n = 8; 12.3%), middle school (n = 11; 16.9%), high school (n = 20; 30.7%), and college (n = 12; 18.5%) as well as adults (n = 9; 13.8%). Two studies (3%) included participants across all levels. Researchers examined the influences and effects of relationships with parents and family, peers, teachers, and other adults such as mentors within different contexts, including schools for the gifted and precollegiate programs. The large number of articles represents not only researchers’ interests but also the influence that social relationships have on the development of gifted and talented children, youth, and adults.

Researchers reported that teachers and parents view gifted and talented students as having better social skills and better social adjustment than general education students (Preuss & Dubow, 2004; Robinson, Lanzi, Weinberg, Ramey, & Ramey, 2002; Robinson, Weinberg, Redden, Ramey, & Ramey, 1998).

Some gifted students may be cognitively aware of their relationships to others, their relationships to teachers, and the accuracy of their communications with others (Bailey & Cross, 1997). Moreover, gifted students scored higher

on self-concept scales, which include peer relationships (Bain & Bell, 2004). Even when minority students from central Harlem, who were identified in kindergarten as potentially academically gifted, were placed in a school for gifted students, they were not isolated and played freely with their classmates (Borland, Schnur, & Wright, 2000). Researchers concluded that students identified as gifted were no more vulnerable to socially related selfconcept problems than the general population. On the other hand, Swiatek and Dorr (1998) suggested that gifted students who emphasized peer acceptance and popularity were more likely to use coping strategies that denied or hid their giftedness. Denial of giftedness did have advantages to improving social status among peers and reduced the possibilities of exploitation and impossibly high expectations from others (Rizza, 1999; Schroeder-Davis, 1999). Girls were more likely to deny their abilities, avoid competitions, and report high levels of interpersonal activity than boys (Langram, 1997; Rizza & Reis, 2001).

Boys, however, understood the idea of a community better than girls (Langram, 1997).

Some groups of gifted students do appear to be particularly at risk for social difficulties that lead to underachievement. Ablard (1997) suggested that gifted students whose abilities were most disparate from peers, whose need to achieve was weaker than their desire to be accepted by peers, and who used strategies that masked their ability were most vulnerable. Teachers appeared to be less tolerant of underachieving students’ challenging behavior and parents were less effective in supporting them (Baker, Bridger, & Evans, 1998). In addition, gifted students with ADHD were more likely to create peer relational problems and have greater “internal dysynchrony” (Moon, Zentall, Grskovic, Hall, & Stormont, 2001, p. 237). In some cases, bullying occurred for those students who were unable to make social connections and adjustments, particularly at the middle school level (Peterson & Ray, 2006a; Peterson & Ray, 2006b). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual young adults with high ability also experienced uncomfortable classroom atmospheres with teachers who “squelched . . . work on gay issues”, and were overtly hostile (Peterson & Rischar, 2000, p. 237).

For minority gifted students, African Americans had less positive racial identities and often felt socially isolated in gifted classes where the majority were White and did not want to forfeit friendships with other minorities who were not identified or who valued other extracurricular activities such as athletics (Ford & Harris, 1997; Grantham & Ford, 1998; Hébert, 2001). Black minority students also felt that their ethnicity was stereotyped when White teachers led discussions about the minority’s ethnic history (Grantham & Ford, 1998). Similar school experiences were noted by gifted Latina women who identified being singled out by peers who did not value good grades and stereotyped by teachers who

advised them into lower achievement tracks (Kitano, 1998b). Latino youth formed gangs in their reaction to a hostile environment in their community with few constructive entertainment options (Díaz, 1998). Asian Americans also experienced negative peer interactions with racial overtones (Kitano, 1997). Moreover, language and cultural barriers added to the challenge of forming social relationships across peer groups (Kitano, 1997, 1998b). Across all minority groups, family challenges played pivotal roles with inconsistent role models, differences in value systems, problems with siblings, and limited parental guidance contributing to underachievement (Díaz, 1998; Hébert, 1998, 2001; Kao & Hébert, 2006; Kitano, 1997, 1998b; Reis, Colbert, & Hébert, 2005).

When members of special groups achieved, researchers reported that a combination of support systems was mothers and extended family members, significant teachers and mentors, high-achieving peers, a racially integrated peer group, favorable social and political movements, and/or interactions with peers in extracurricular activities such as sports, camps, and summer gifted programs (Grantham, 2004; Hébert, 1998, 2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2002; Hébert & Beardsley, 2001; Kitano, 1998a; Kitano & Perkins, 2000; Peterson, 1997; Reis, et al., 2005; Shumow, 1997). For gifted children with learning disabilities, positive identity development took place within the context of a support system formed by family, teachers, mentors, and friends (Dole, 2000; Dole, 2001). In another case, nine rural Black female high school honor graduates formed a peer support group, and set as a learning goal to disprove others’ opinions that they were incompetent (Grant, Battle, Murphy, & Heggoy, 1999). Although high-achieving minority students frequently experienced racism and/or sexism throughout their lives, they reframed their perspectives of traumatic events, made contacts with people in power, adapted their cultural strengths to the majority culture, became more assertive, and derived useful information from observed interactions (Kitano, 1997, 1998a, 1998b). In some cases, their parents also appeared to socialize their children toward academic success by creating a home environment in which the prevailing norms resembled middle-class norms, ignored some instances of racism for their children’s sake, and provided positive role models for success (Borland, et al., 2000).

Besides affecting achievement, social relationships influenced gifted students’ transitions to college, creative talent development and leadership, perfectionism, and even suicide. For early college entrance students, Muratori, Colangelo, and Assouline (2003) reported all were able to make friends on campus even though relationships back home seemed to influence gifted students’ first semester at college. Moreover, the students felt that the early entrance program helped them grow socially because of its acceptance of individual

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differences, its encouragement of academic excellence and personal responsibility, and the solidarity and sense of belonging students felt within the program (Noble, Arndt, Nicholson, Sletten, & Zamora, 1998/1999).

In developing creative talent, Lee (2002) reported that peers played pivotal roles—introducing the student to specific talent fields, developing new interests, influencing motivation, and commitment. Hébert (2006) also discovered the importance of peers, in this case within a Greek fraternity. These men nurtured social skills and leadership talents, which contributed significantly to the personal development of the members. Early peer support also shaped the identity of newly married, gifted young women who viewed their marriages as partnerships, which empowered both partners to achieve their goals (Speirs Neumeister, 2002).

Approval by others, parental models, and parenting style influenced the development of competence and different types of perfectionism (Orange, 1997; Schuler, 2000; Speirs Neumeister, 2004a; Speirs Neumeister & Finch, 2006; Windecker-Nelson, Melson, & Moon, 1997). Parents who were perfectionists and had an authoritarian parenting style contributed to their children’s socially prescribed perfectionism and insecure attachments, which led to stringent expectations, self-worth

22

tied to achievement, and fear of disappointing others (Speirs Neumeister, 2004a). On the other hand, self-oriented perfectionism was influenced by authoritative parenting style mastery, high standards, and early academic success (Speirs Neumeister, 2004a). According to research, socially prescribed perfectionism can lead to fear-of-failure behaviors such as refusing to participate in classes where students are not 100% confident they know the answers, procrastinating so that assignments do not have to be perfect, and using peers as a yardstick to evaluate their performance (Speirs Neumeister, 2004b). On the other hand, selforiented perfectionists often set mastery goals that are linked to evaluating themselves, look for challenges, and have a strong work ethic (Speirs Neumeister, 2004b).

Although multiple factors needed to be present, social isolation can lead to suicide with losses of social supports through death, parental separation or divorce, change in school environments, and problems with peer relationships (Cassady & Cross, 2006; Cross, Gust-Brey, & Ball, 2002). In these extreme cases, students believe that others will be better off after one’s suicide or that the attempt will bring attention or regret. Cassady and Cross (2006) concluded that some of the social factors contributing to suicide were aligned with “egocentric value systems and overall poor social outlets” (p. 301).

Suicidal students consistently reported that they would turn to a friend for help rather than a parent, other relative, teacher, school counselor, or school nurse (Gust-Brey & Cross, 1999).

To improve social relationships, some researchers suggested the use of mentors, parent counseling, professional development of teachers and counselors, and special schools or pro g r a m s .

These investigators reported that mentors had these positive effects on gifted students: improved self-esteem, developed identity, offered emotional support, provided differentiated experiences, increased motivation,

afforded opportunities for career exploration, developed work skills, prepared the students for college, were sources of “real- life” learning, and provided networks to other professionals (Davalos & Haensly, 1997; Dole, 2001; Hébert, 2002, 2006; Hébert & Speirs Neumeister, 2000; Hébert & Olenchak, 2000; Kitano, 1997, 1998a). Successful mentors appeared to be open-minded and nonjudgmental, consistent, provided social/emotional support and advocacy beyond that associated with simple instructor-student relationships, and offered a plan that focused on the student’s strengths and interests (Hébert & Olenchak, 2000).

Because parents must assume a variety of roles (Sankar-DeLeeuw, 2007; Shumow, 1997), they may need counseling in learning how to support their children’s basic, emotional, and developmental needs (Baker, Bridger, & Evans, 1998). For example, Speirs Neumeister (2004a) suggested that parents with an authoritarian approach may need guidance regarding how this approach may contribute to the development of socially prescribed perfectionism with children. Peterson (2001a, 2001b, 2002) also noted that some underachieving gifted students needed to resolve conflicts with their family before they were able to fully develop their abilities. If these conflicts are a result of mixed messages from different cultures, Kao and Hébert (2006) suggested more education and guidance for gifted Asian American young men and their parents about how the American educational system works and ways of addressing emotional needs.

Similar to parents, teachers also assume a variety of roles (Sankar-DeLeeuw, 2007) and may need professional development in the areas of individual differences (Peterson, 2001b); managing behaviors of underachieving students (Baker, et al., 1998); differentiating curriculum, particularly for diverse students, (Díaz, 1998); compensation strategies for gifted students with learning disabilities (Dole, 2001); multicultural issues (Grantham & Ford, 1998); creating safe learning environments (Peterson & Ray, 2006a, 2006b), and/or specific social skills such as developing friendships, making good choices, expressing feelings (Peterson & Ray, 2006b). Counselors may also want to consider providing support to parents, teachers, and gifted students in the areas of assessment, peer relationships, emotional adjustment, social adjustment, and stress management (Moon, Kelly, & Feldhusen, 1997). In one case, Frey (1998) shared her experiences in starting a group for gifted girls in middle school that addressed emotional and social topics. This group created a safe place for the girls to voice their concerns and learn new coping strategies.

Special high schools for gifted students appeared to create a climate that was nonhierarchical and where differentness was recognized, acknowledged, and accepted (Coleman, 2001). The social system within the school was influenced by an interaction between the community, the institution, and the students (Coleman, 2001). These innovative schools

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tended to create a sense of community where students shared personal and group accomplishments (Buchanan & Woerner, 2002).

Follow-up data indicate that such schools created lifelong friends who helped shape future aspirations (Clasen, 2006). Moreover, Rinn (2006) reported that even a summer program positively influenced peer relationships and the social self-concepts of gifted adolescents.

Coleman (2001) suggested that these schools provide evidence that it is possible to have a social system that differs from those found in most schools—one that supports individual differences. If so, parents, teachers, counselors, and administrators should use this research and try to work together in creating safe environments where gifted students have opportunities to form supportive social relationships that will help their development and achievement of their learning goals.

Ablard, K. E. (1997). Self-perceptions and needs as a function of type of academic ability and gender. Roeper Review, 20, 110–115.

Students in the Institute for the Academic Advancement of Youth were mailed two questionnaires to assess their perceptions in academic and social areas and their overall self-confidence and adjustment. Forty-nine percent of the males, and 42% of the females participated (n = 174 students) participated.

Overall, academically talented students did not report lower social self-perceptions.

However, results indicated that gifted students vary in their self-perceptions and needs. Students at risk for social difficulties included those whose abilities are most disparate from their peers, whose need to achieve is weaker than their desire to be accepted by peers, and who use strategies that mask their high ability.

Bailey, N. M., & Cross, T. L. (1997). A phenomenological case study of the social cognition of one gifted adolescent in school. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 8, 137–148.

This study examined the social cognition of one gifted adolescent in school—the nature of his perception of the school experience and his teacher’s intent of his personal development.

Data were collected using interviews and classroom observations. The authors reported that the student experienced school (a) with awareness of self, awareness of self in relation to others, and awareness of the teacher and his peers; (b) with involvement or lack of involvement; and (c) with concern for the accuracy about his and others’ communication. The student had an overall perception of a teacher’s intent as a positive regard for his future.

Bain, S. K., & Bell, S. M. (2004). Social selfconcept, social attributions, and peer relationships in fourth, fifth, and sixth graders who are gifted compared to high achievers.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 48, 167–178.

The purpose of this study was to investigate socially related self-concept, attributions for social success and failure, and peer relationships of 93 fourth through sixth graders identified as gifted and a comparison group of students who are high achievers, but not identified as gifted. Two questionnaires, the SelfDescription Questionnaire and the Student Social Attribution Scale, were administered to groups ranging in size from 6 to 10. The group identified as gifted scored significantly higher on the self-concept scales on both questionnaires and attributed their success to ability and effort rather than luck or task difficulty.

The gifted group also scored higher on three of four socially related self-concept areas: physical ability, physical appearance, and peer relations. The authors concluded that children identified as gifted are no more vulnerable to socially related self-concept problems than the general population.

Baker, J. A., Bridger, R., & Evans, K. (1998).

Models of underachievement among gifted preadolescents: The role of personal, family, and school factors. Gifted Child Quarterly, 42, 5–15.

This study explored individual, family, and school-related factors contributing to underachievement among 26 gifted underachievers in grades 4–8. These students were compared to a group of 30 gifted students at the same grade levels who were achieving well. Students and one of their parents completed a battery of psychological and educational tests. Along with individual deficits in behavioral control and in organizational skills, parents of underachieving students may not have the skills to support their children and teachers may be less tolerant of the children’s challenging behavior. Relationships with teachers are important in influencing a student’s satisfaction with school and achievement.

Borland, J. H., Schnur, R., & Wright, L. (2000).

Economically disadvantaged students in a school for the academically gifted: A postpositivist inquiry into individual and family adjustment. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 13–32.

This study examined the effects of the placement of five economically disadvantaged minority students from central Harlem, who were identified in kindergarten as potentially academically gifted, in a school for gifted students. Using observations, interviews, focus groups, sociometric data, and psychometric data collected from students, parents, and teachers, the researchers reported that the students were not socially isolated and played and associated freely with their classmates. Parents tended to socialize their children toward academic success, created a home environment in which the prevailing norms resembled middleclass norms, ignored some instances of racism for their children’s sake, and provided positive role models for success.

Buchanan, N., & Woerner, B. (2002). Meeting the needs of gifted learners through innovative high school programs. Roeper Review, 24, 213–219.

This article described five high school gifted and talented programs that employed innovative curricular programs. The sites were selected by deviant case sampling. The researchers visited schools in Colorado, Minnesota, and Washington, and two in California. The researchers observed student interactions, interviewed students, and reviewed campus administrative reports. One theme that was persistent in all five schools was the sense of community. The students proudly shared personal and group accomplishments with the researchers. The smaller schools allowed for the students to know all of their peers, including those from different backgrounds.

Cassady, J. C., & Cross, T. L. (2006). A factorial representation of suicidal ideation among academically gifted adolescents. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 29, 290–304.

The purpose of this article was to examine the factorial representation for suicidal ideation among a gifted population in light of recent research demonstrating that gifted youth differ from their nongifted peers in mental representations of self. The sample included 186 girls and 148 boys enrolled in a 2-year public high school for academically gifted students. The students complete the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ) and the responses were analyzed with an exploratory factor analysis. The researchers identified a four-factor model: (a) suicide pragmatics (consideration of strategy of suicide), (b) morbidity factor (focused attention on death or serious injury), (c) social isolation (belief that others will be better off after one’s suicide), and (d) social impact (communicating suicidal thoughts to others and assuming the attempt or completion of a suicide will bring attention or regret). The third and fourth factors are dealing with social relationships and seem to align with “egocentric value systems and overall poor social outlets” (p. 301).

Clasen, D. R. (2006). Project STREAM: A 13year follow-up of a pre-college program for middle- and high-school underrepresented gifted. Roeper Review, 29, 55–63.

This study examined identification and programming of underrepresented gifted students. Project STREAM had these major components: (a) identification of gifted minority students and in-school accommodations to meet their educational needs; (b) a summer campus residency; (c) out-of-school offering and Saturday classes at area universities; and (d) at least one visit per semester to an institution of higher learning. The students identified for this program were from four school

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districts: urban, suburban, midsize, and rural.

The follow-up sample 13 years later included 95 African American, 48 Latino, 11 Southeast Asian, and 4 Native American students who were identified as gifted in sixth or seventh grade. There were 84 girls and 74 boys. Data collected included school documents, surveys, and interviews regarding career information.

The content analysis of the qualitative data indicated that a sense of community was an important program characteristic of Project STREAM. Participants reported making lifelong friends who helped shape future aspirations as a result of being in the program.

Coleman, L. J. (2001). A “rag quilt”: Social relationships among students in a special high school. Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 164–173.

This ethnographic and phenomenological study examined the experience of being gifted in a selective residential program over the course of one academic year. The author described the social relationships that were created in this system. He discovered that the relationships among students were neither fixed nor hierarchical. “Groups were loosely formed with boundaries that were permeable.

Indicators of status, coolness, and popularity were minor issues of concern to students.

Differentness or being different was recognized, acknowledged, and accepted” (p. 168).

The author concluded that it is possible to have a social system that differs from those found in most high schools. The social system is influenced by an interaction between the community, the institution, and the students.

Cross, T. L., Gust-Brey, K., & Ball, P. B. (2002).

A psychological autopsy of the suicide of an academically gifted student: Researchers’ and parents’ perspectives. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 247–259.

The purpose of this study was to describe the life of a gifted 21-year-old college student who committed suicide. The authors wanted to discover the interaction of his psychological characteristics with the environment, significant life stages, and events so that factors contributing to suicidal behavior might be identified and reduce the likelihood of suicide among similar groups of individuals.

The authors used the data-gathering methods of a psychological autopsy such as interviews with significant people in the student’s life and archival information of the victim (medical records, school records) to assess a variety of factors including behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and relationships. The authors concluded that parents need immediate information about suicide and that aberrant behavior should never be considered typical of a gifted individual. Professionals should provide safe environments for gifted students to learn and grow. Communication and intervention are essential in preventing suicide.

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Davalos, R. A., & Haensly, P A. (1997). After the dust has settled: Youth reflect on their high school mentored research experience.

Roeper Review, 19, 204–207.

This study investigated the perceived value of a year-long mentorship/independent study course. The sample included 90 gifted high school students who responded to a questionnaire from six high schools in a large southwestern city school district. They had participated in the program during 1989–1994. The results of the questionnaire and written comments revealed these effects of mentorships: improved self-esteem, provided opportunities for career exploration, developed work skills, prepared students for college, and were sources of “real-life” learning. The researchers concluded that personal access to caring adults can promote the development of gifts and talents of youth.

Díaz, E. I. (1998). Perceived factors influencing the academic underachievement of talented students of Puerto Rican descent. Gifted Child Quarterly 42, 105–122.

This qualitative investigation explored the self and environmental perceptions of six talented students of Puerto Rican descent who were underachieving in an urban high school in the northeastern section of the United States. Data were collected using interviews, participant-observation, and document review. Four factors were identified as influencing underachievement: family (strained relationships, unhappy home, inappropriate parental expectations, minimal academic guidance, inconsistency); school (inappropriate early curricula experiences, noninspiring teachers, unrewarding curriculum, questionable counseling); community (hostile environment, gangs, prejudice, few constructive entertainment options); and personal (insufficient perseverance, low self-efficacy, inappropriate coping strategies). The absence of early appropriate academic experiences appeared to be a major factor in the students’ future success.

Dole, S. (2000). The implications of the risk and resilience literature for gifted students with learning disabilities. Roeper Review, 23, 91–96.

This article surveyed the literature and focused on why some gifted learning-disabled students give up while some can be successful in school and in life. Dole emphasized gifted students with learning disabilities have exceptional realized or potential talent or ability but also have a deficit in auditory, visual, or memory processing that causes specific academic problems. With this group of students, characteristics that would increase their vulnerability included poor self-concept, poor self-efficacy, hypersensitivity, emotional ability, and high levels of frustration, anxiety,

and self-criticism. Dole noted that parental and external support was one of the most “potent” factors mentioned in the literature.

Parents, teachers, and mentors that foster self-esteem through caring relationships play a critical role in successful outcomes of gifted learning disabled youth. Adolescence is a time when these key relationships with peers and adults outside of the family take on added importance.

Dole, S. (2001). Reconciling contradictions: Identity formation in individuals with giftedness and learning disabilities. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 25, 103-37.

The purpose of this article was to explore the identity formation in four undergraduate college students who are gifted with learning disabilities. Data were collected through unstructured interviews and were analyzed using narrative analysis and analysis of narratives. Two themes emerged in the data analysis as being integral to the identity formation of the participants: (a) identity development taking place within the context of a support system formed by family, teachers, mentors, and friends, and (b) involvement in extracurricular activities, volunteer work, and jobs.

Personal themes important to identity formation included: self-knowledge, self-acceptance, self-advocacy, and self-determination. Caring teachers, compensation strategies taught at an early age, and academically supportive peers are important factors for gifted learning disabled students.

Ford, D. Y., & Harris J., III (1997). At study of the racial identity and achievement of Black males and females. Roeper Review, 20, 105–110.

This study examined the racial identity and achievement of 152 Black males and females who were in grades 6–9. Sixty-two students were underachieving with the greatest percentage being male. Students were administered the Racial Identity Scale for Black Students. Underachievers had less positive racial identities than achieving students. The authors concluded that counseling strategies may have to focus on helping some Black students cope with the difficulties inherent in attending gifted programs that are often predominantly white—negative peer pressures, poor peer relations, feelings of isolation, and sensitivity about feeling different.

Frey, C. P. (1998). Struggling with identity: Working with seventh- and eighth-grade gifted girls to air issues of concern. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 437–451.

Frey shared her experiences in starting a program for gifted girls in middle school designed to address emotional and social topics. Ground rules were (a) respecting others, (b) maintaining confidentiality of responses, and (c) having an opportunity to speak during

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meetings. The bimonthly meetings involved discussions about topics selected by the researcher and a counselor as well as issues that were of importance to the girls: “different crowds, nastiness to smart people, differences between identified-gifted boys and gifted girls in attitude . . . ‘how to be yourself’ and how to be ‘popular’ at the same time, and life goals” (p. 443). The girls felt that this created group was a safe place to voice their concerns. By the end of the academic year, most of the students in this group reported an improved ability to deal with teasing for being smart and being more assertive in class. Frey pointed out the importance of “a core group of identifiedgifted peers” and the opportunity to speak freely in a clustered single-sex group.

Grant, D. F., Battle, D. A., Murphy, S. C., & Heggoy, J. (1999). Black female secondary honor graduates: Influences on achievement motivation. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 10, 103–119.

Nine rural Black female high school honor graduates participated in this qualitative study to examine influences on achievement motivation. Data were collected from seven sources: questionnaires, interviews, intelligence test, self-perception test, motivation orientation scale, and scales for assessing the purposes of school. Based on the results, learning goals and mastery orientation appeared to influence the achievement motivation. Their learning goals included disproving incompetence and serving as role models for other black students. They “purposefully developed a Black community within the high school that valued academic achievement among Blacks” and “connected with each other as peers and friends based on common goals and understanding and without regard for their socioeconomic differences” (p. 116). While not together in classes, they encouraged each other, studies, and played together outside of class.

Grantham, T. C. (2004). Rocky Jones: Case study of a high-achieving Black male’s motivation to participate in gifted classes.

Roeper Review, 26, 208–216.

The purpose of this case study was to explore a Black male’s motivation to participate in advanced academic programs. The subject, Rocky, was in ninth grade and was identified as gifted in kindergarten. He was only one of two identified gifted Black males out of the 123 identified students at a semi-rural Virginia high school. Data collection included participant-focused interviews and collection of archival records over a period of 4 months.

Social influences were noted as contributing factors in Rocky’s motivation to achieve academically. Rocky felt that he was respected by his peers and was able to maintain friendships with both White and Black peers. Rocky acknowledged that his teachers’ high expectations also were an important social influence

in his life. The school’s environmental influences also contributed to his favorable perceptions of doing well at school by recognizing his achievement during his elementary and middle school years.

Grantham, T., & Ford, D. (1998). A case study of the social needs of Danisha: An underachieving gifted African American female.

Roeper Review, 21, 96–101.

This case study of a 15-year-old underachieving gifted African-American female was conducted to identify social and emotional needs of gifted students. Data were collected through interviews, field observations, and school data.

The authors found that Danisha struggled to accept Caucasian students’ social norms and felt isolated in her gifted and talented classes. She wanted to integrate into the gifted classes, yet she did not want to forfeit her relations with her African-American friends. With regard to her teachers, Danisha felt that her ethnicity was stereotyped in her classes and did not like reading about her ethnic history unless a Black teacher was leading the discussion. They suggested that counselors needed to focus on issues related to racial identity, teachers needed multicultural training, and coordinators needed to identify more minority students in classes.

can include loss of social supports through death, parental separation or divorce, change in school environments, and problems with peer relationships. A previous study on suicide prevention and intervention suggested that suicidal students consistently report that they would turn to a friend for help rather than a parent, other relative, teacher, school counselor, or school nurse.

Hébert, T. P. (1998). Gifted Black males in an urban high school: Factors that influence achievement and underachievement.

Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 385–414.

The purpose of this study was to examine experiences of two gifted African American males in an urban high school. One student, Warren, achieved at high levels and the other, John, underachieved as evidenced by the discrepancy between his standardized achievement scores and low grade point average. Both had been identified as gifted in elementary or junior high school. The researcher employed a multiple case study research design. Data were collected through observations and six in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with the subjects as well as their teachers, school counselors, coaches, and

Gust-Brey, K., & Cross, T. (1999).

An examination of the literature base on the suicidal behaviors of gifted students.

Roeper Review, 22, 28-35.

This ar ticle exa m ined t he literature pertaining to the background of suicide, suicide among the general student population, suicide among gifted students, and the schools’ role in suicide prevention. Social risk factors related to suicide included family relations, env ironmenta l stressors, social isolation, social and economic problems, and problems in personal interaction.

Family factors associated with a high risk of suicide

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peers. Supportive factors in the life of Warren included his supportive parents, younger brother, and grandmother who monitored his academic and athletic progress. It was his family who kept him “on track” even when some of his friends joked with him about not playing ball on weekdays. He also mentioned the encouragement of caring teachers and principals, coaches, and school counselors as positive influences. Hébert noted, “this network was absolutely essential to his academic success” (p. 399). On the other hand, John had three older siblings who all had dropped out of high school, and he was working 37 hours a week. Hébert noted that this heavy workload limited John’s interactions with potential supportive role models that he might meet if he were involved in extracurricular activities. In addition to suboptimal course enrollment and counseling experiences, John faced “troublesome family issues, including inconsistent role models within his family and an inconsistent family value system” while trying to be the first in his family finish high school (p. 405).

Hébert, T. P. (2000a). Defining belief in self: Intelligent young men in an urban high school. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 91–114.

Using a qualitative research design that integrated features of case study and ethnographic research, the study examined how the experiences of six intelligent young men in an urban high school influenced academic achievement. Data were collected through participant observation, ethnographic interviews, and document reviews. Along with a strong belief in self, the author reported that relationships with supportive adults; involvement in extracurricular activities, sports, special programs, and summer school experiences; and family support influenced their achievement.

Hébert, T. P. (2000b). Gifted males pursuing careers in elementary education: Factors that influence a belief in self. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24, 7–45.

This article examined the relationship between identity development and career selection of six gifted males in a university setting. The sample was comprised of six undergraduate students enrolled at a state university in the Southeast who were majoring in elementary education. There was one African American participant and the students’ ages ranged from 18–21 at the start of the study.

The investigator served as their academic advisor and employed a multiple case study research. Over a period of 4 years, data were collected by semistructured interviews, observations, and review of university documents.

One African American student spoke about having to choose between racial peer groups in junior high. The other participants also had difficult issues of fitting in at school during adolescence. All of the participants described

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male teachers who had been important role models in their lives influencing their career path. All of the participants also received support from their parents and family regarding their college major.

Hébert, T. P. (2001). “If I had a new notebook, I know things would change”: Bright underachieving young men in urban classrooms.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 174-194.

This study examines the lives of gifted males and how their urban life experiences inf luence their underachievement. Six boys in grades 10–12 were included in this sample. Two were African American, one was Hispanic, and three were White. School administrators recommended these students based on achievement test results at or above the 85th percentile but with a GPA of 2.0 or lower. A qualitative research design was used with a case study approach. Data were collected through participant observation, ethnographic interviews, and document reviews.

He found two factors that influenced their underachievement: “inappropriate curricular experiences and questionable counseling experiences and a series of family issues” (p. 182).

Family issues included problems with siblings, inconsistent role models within the family, and family dysfunction. Also evidence was the peer group’s value of athletics over academics. The author suggested that for gifted males facing family adversities or contending with peer groups that do not value academic achievement, male mentors may help facilitate healthy psychosocial development.

Hébert, T. P. (2002). Gifted Black males in a predominantly White university: Portraits of high achievement. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 26, 25–64.

This article focused on the experiences of high-achieving African American students at a predominantly White university. The sample included five gifted Black males ages 21–25 at the beginning of the study. One was in a master’s degree program while the rest were undergraduates. All were full-time students at a Southeastern state university and were identified as gifted during their K–12 school years. This campus had undergone federal desegregation during the civil rights era of the 1960s and now had 10% Black enrollment.

A qualitative case study design was used and data were collected through eight in-depth semistructured interviews, observations, and document review over a period of 4 years. Key relationships with influential mothers, significant teachers and mentors, and a racially integrated peer group contributed to the minority students’ success. Hébert also found that institutional recognition of gifts and talents at school and in the community reinforced academic achievement. All five participants were able to ignore racism on their campus, drawing from the emotional support of their mothers and African American friends.

Hébert, T. P. (2006). Gifted university males in a Greek fraternity: Creating a culture of achievement. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50, 26–41.

Using qualitative methods, this study examined five participants who were enrolled in their university degree programs and active in their Greek fraternity over a 4-year-period.

The author found that these males focused on athletics rather than academics during high school. As student-athletes, they were recruited to the fraternity as high potential contributors and discovered that the fraternity acted as a bridge to student leadership on campus. Their talents were nurtured within a culture of well-rounded achievers striving for self-improvement. The fraternity also nurtured social skills and leadership talents, contributing significantly to personal development. The author concludes by calling attention to the importance of male mentors in the lives of gifted young men.

Hébert, T. P., & Beardsley, T. M. (2001).

Jermaine: A critical case study of a gifted Black child living in rural poverty. Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 85–103.

The purpose of this study was to understand how a rural environment influenced the academic achievement of a gifted Black child living in rural poverty during his elementary years. Data were collected through portfolio information, participant observation, correspondence, and in-depth interviews with the child. Of primary performance was the child’s extended family who supported him, particularly his relationships with his uncles. In addition, the child also had extrafamilial support from a teacher, the school’s lunchroom chef, and the football coach.

Hébert, T. P., & Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2000). University mentors in the elementary classroom: Supporting the intellectual, motivational, and emotional needs of highability students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24, 122–148.

This article described the experiences of matching university student mentors with fourth grade students. This study took place in a fourth grade mixed ability classroom at an elementary school comprised of 38% minority students. About one third of the students qualified for free or reduced lunch. Eighteen successful partnerships were created with three full-time graduate student mentors and the elementary students. They met twice a week for a total of 2 to 4 hours. Interactions ranged from spending time in the library to taking trips to sites relating to historical figures they were studying. The researchers used case study and ethnographic research methods in this study. Data were collected via interviews, observations, and document review. The mentors were able to influence the classroom students in the following ways:

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offering a differentiated learning/research experience, motivating the students in their project, and providing emotional support.

Hébert, T. P., & Olenchak, F. R. (2000).

Mentors for gifted underachieving males: Developing potential and realizing promise.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 196–207.

The qualitative study examined the significance of mentorships in reversing the underachievement of gifted males. Three gifted males were selected across developmental levels: early elementary, early middle, and early collegiate. Using a comparative case study design, the authors gathered data using semistructured interviews and documents.

The authors found that these characteristics appeared to sustain an ongoing relationship: open-minded and nonjudgmental, consistent and personalized social/emotional support and advocacy beyond that associated with simple instructor-student relationships, and a plan of strength and interest-based strategies.

Kao, C., & Hébert, T. P. (2006). Gifted Asian American adolescent males: Portraits of cultural dilemmas. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30, 88–117.

The authors pointed out that integrating the dominant Caucasian American culture with the Asian culture is a major challenge of Asian American students. In this article, they examined the cultural dilemmas faced by two gifted Asian American boys. One was in seventh grade and other was a senior in high school.

Both were of Taiwanese origin. Data were collected through daily observations, student interviews, and interviews with the students’ mothers. The authors found that the cultural dilemma involved two concerns: (a) parental expectations for academic performance and (b) differing views regarding acculturation.

One of the students noted that his immigrant parents, who were educated in a traditional Chinese system of memorization, did not understand the emphasis on book discussions, creating a “gap” of understanding. The other student struggled with being rewarded for expressing his opinion at school but for showing obedience at home. His mother would say, “Remember, you are Chinese. Don’t learn American bad habits” (p. 106). One father was more acculturated than the mother and the mixed messages may have contributed to the student’s underachievement. The authors advocated more education and guidance for both gifted Asian American young men and their parents about how the American educational system works and ways of addressing emotional needs.

Kitano, M. K. (1997). Gifted Asian American women. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 3–37.

This article analyzed personal, socialization, and structural factors affecting the lifespan of

high-achieving Asian American women. This national retrospective study included seven Chinese Americans; five Japanese Americans; two women of mixed ancestry, including Hawaiian, Korean, Japanese, and White; and one Filipina women. Trained interviewers were matched by ethnicity to the participants and conducted face-to-face open-ended interviews at the individual’s home, workplace, or over the phone with a parent or informant.

Additional data were collected from resumes, a demographic form, and a standardized biography form. The data were analyzed using cross-case analyses of participant and parent interview responses with the supplemental data and were interpreted within a culturalecological framework. The major socialization agents included parents, schools, peers, and colleagues in the workplace. Twelve participants (80%) described their parents (biological or foster) as being academically supportive.

Four parents (33.3%) described “education as a vehicle for acquiring good jobs in a racist society” (p. 21). All but one participant (93.3%) enjoyed school and 10 participants or their parents (66.7%) mentioned one or more K–12 educators as being supportive at school. Affirmation by a teacher or professor was significant for one third of the cases in which there was perceived parental discouragement in schooling. Although the majority of the participants enjoyed their friends from grades K–12, negative peer interactions, sometimes with racial overtones were noted, and one participant (6.7%) cited this interaction as the reason for motivation to do well in school.

All in the sample were satisfied and challenged in their current jobs despite glass ceilings and stereotypes. Three (20%) identified specific mentors who had supported their career advancement while two (13.3%) viewed a lack of mentoring in their life as a barrier to achievement. Individually, some participants needed to change unassertive behavior patterns to advance in their positions. The feminism movement was also cited as a positive influence.

Kitano, M. (1998a). Gifted African American women. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 254–287.

This article described factors influencing the life-span achievement of 15 high-achieving African American women. The sample was comprised of African Americans from nine different states who were nominated by professional organizations. The mean age was 43. Seven (46.7%) attended racially segregated schools for all or part of their grade school.

Trained interviewers were matched by ethnicity to the participants and conducted face-toface open-ended interviews at the individual’s home, workplace, or over the phone. Eight (53.3%) provided the name of a parent or informant to interview. Additional data were collected from resumes, a demographic form, and a standardized biography form. The data were analyzed using cross-case analyses of participant and parent interview responses with

the supplemental data and were interpreted within a cultural-ecological framework. The major socialization agents included parents and family, the community, and teachers and schools. Thirteen (86.7%) described their families as being academically supportive. Twelve (80%) of the participants felt that values instilled in them from their parents and families supported their achievement. Two (13.3%) women described their families as being less encouraging of school and cited mentors at school who cared about them. Almost all of the women identified family or community members who encouraged them. In school, a key factor seemed to be having contact with an African American teacher who supported their potential. Five (33.3%) reported that motivation in school was influenced by their friends and competing with achieving peers.

As adults, three (20%) cited networking with Black peers or female friends as supportive factors. All participants experienced racism and/or sexism in their lives. One reported this as “a life-long struggle” (p. 272). The Civil Rights Movement and affirmative action were cited as positive influences. Seeking support from others, reframing one’s perspective of traumatic events, making contacts with people in power, and deriving useful information from observed interactions were cited as adaptive coping strategies.

Kitano, M. (1998b). Gifted Latina women.

Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 21, 131–159.

This article examined factors affecting the achievement of 15 high-achieving Latina women with a mean age of 42 years. The sample included 3 women born or raised in Puerto Rico and 12 born in the United States of Mexican American descent. Eight spoke Spanish as their first language. A bilingual Latina interviewer conducted face-to-face open-ended interviews at the individual’s home, workplace, or over the phone. Twelve provided the name of a parent or informant to interview. Additional data were collected from resumes, a demographic form, and a standardized biography form. The data were analyzed using cross-case analyses of participant and parent interview responses with the supplemental data and were interpreted within a cultural-ecological framework. The major socialization agents included family, schools, peers, and adult relationships. Ten (66.7%) of the sample reported at least one parent was academically supportive. Nine (60%) families gave mixed messages or were not academically supportive. One family actively punished a student’s priority of schoolwork over chores.

Three (20%) of the families discouraged the student to go to college or go away to college.

Traditional gender roles were cited as a reason.

At school, 12 (80%) reported discouraging incidents of school with grades, language barriers, stereotyping by educators, and being advised into low achievement tracks. Some participants recalled being singled out by peers who

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did not value good grades and studying. In their adult relationships, three women (20%) reported that their spouse had trouble accepting their high achievements. Kitano pointed out that these successful Latina women learned “to adapt their cultural strengths . . . to the majority culture’s individualist orientation by achieving as a way of fulfilling their responsibility to their communities” (p. 155).

Kitano, M. K., & Perkins, C. O. (2000). Gifted European American Women. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 23, 287–313.

The purpose of this article was to examine factors influencing the achievement of 15 accomplished European American women. The sample included women from 12 states in the fields of business, higher education, law, and government and the mean age was 44.8.

Trained interviewers were matched by ethnicity to the participants and conducted face-toface open-ended interviews at the individual’s home, workplace, or over the phone. Twelve of the participants provided a name of a parent or informant to also be interviewed. Additional data were collected from resumes, a demographic form, and a standardized biography form. The data were analyzed using cross-case analyses of participant and parent interview responses with the supplemental data and were interpreted within a cultural-ecological framework. The major socialization agents included parents, schools, peers, and communities.

Only one participant (6.7 %) described her family as not being academically supportive. Most parents monitored homework completion and engaged in discussions about current events.

Only seven (46.7 %) of the sample enjoyed school and were able to recall a teacher, coach, or principal who made them feel special. Two participants (13.3 %) felt ignored or discouraged by a teacher in grade school. Almost all of the participants noted that their community held strong values such as hard work that contributed to their success. Five (33.3 %) found that there were mixed messages for women in the community (e.g., stay home but still succeed).

Fourteen (93.3 %) participants felt that social and political movements favorably positioned women and minorities. Twelve (80%) experienced gender or heterosexist discrimination at some point their lives. This was cited as an obstacle to professional success. At least three (20%) relied on social and/or professional networks to acquire information and help them accomplish their career goals.

Langram, C. M. (1997). Adolescent voices— who’s listening? Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 8, 189–199.

The purpose of this study was to assess how 44 gifted, low-income, minority eighth grade students self-reported on various psychosocial dimensions while attending a 3-year high school preparatory program.

Data were collected using questionnaires and interviews with 24 of the students. Four

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common themes emerged: locus of control, peer relations, leadership, and community orientation. Locus of control appeared to influence the other three themes with males exhibiting more of an external locus and females a more internal locus.

Males more frequently mentioned parents as support sources and male peers than females. Although females had positive descriptions of their classmates, they had overwhelmingly negative comments as well.

Interestingly, males were more concerned with their interpersonal success and the girls were more interested in their professional identity. Males appeared to understand the idea of a community better than the girls. The author suggested that the school might have influenced the gender socialization with “men being encouraged to reveal and show their feelings to a greater extent and women to take a stand and no longer be directed” (p. 196).

Lee, S-Y. (2002). The effects of peers on the academic and creative talent development of a gifted adolescent male. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14, 19–29.

This case study examined the relationship between a talented 12-year-old male how his relationships with five peers impacted the development of his academic and creative talents. Data were collected using interview, observation, and a review of documents. The peer interactions fell into four categories of influence: (a) competitors, (b) supporters, (c) motivators, and (d) role models. The author concluded that peers played pivotal roles in the adolescent’s talent development—introducing the student to specific talent fields, developing new interests, influencing motivation and commitment.

Moon, S. M., Zentall, S. S., Grskovic, J. A., Hall, A., & Stormont, M. (2001). Emotional and social characteristics of boys with AD/HD and giftedness: A comparative case study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24, 207–247.

This multiple case study examined the emotional and social characteristics of gifted boys with ADHD as compared to nongifted boys with ADHD. Three students with both ADHD and giftedness were compared to two other groups: three students with giftedness only and three students with ADHD only. All subjects were from the same Midwest school district and were 8–10 years old. Their identification as ADHD or gifted was determined by the district as was their need for medication. A variety of methods were used, including collecting data with multiple methods from multiple sources, conducting analyses at three different levels (individual case, within-group, and cross group), and using researchers with different theoretical perspectives. The authors found that ADHD is more likely to create peer relational problems and

greater emotional difficulties as compared to giftedness. High intelligence did not serve as a protective factor on social relationships in young children. Being gifted and ADHD “seemed to increase emotional intensity and internal dysynchrony” and may cause “more emotional distress than is typical for gifted children” (p. 237).

Moon, S. M., Kelly, K. R., & Feldhusen, J. F. (1997). Specialized counseling services for gifted youth and their families: A needs assessment. Gifted Child Quarterly, 41, 16–25.

The purpose of this study was to examine the types of counseling services that parents, teachers, counselors, and related professionals perceived as important for gifted youth and their families. A survey was mailed to parents (n = 64), school personnel (n = 238), counseling professionals (n = 15), and professors (n = 18). Needs were found in these areas: testing and assessment services; guidance and educational planning; training programs for teachers, principal, counselors, psychologists, and parents; and counseling in peer relationships, emotional adjustment, social adjustment and stress management. The researchers conclude that specialized counseling needs of the gifted are high but that services are not readily available.

Muratori, M., Colangelo, N., & Assouline, S. (2003). Early-entrance students: Impressions of their first semester of college. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47, 219–238.

This study explored the first semester of college of 10 students who were in the National Academy of Arts, Sciences, and Engineering (NAASE). The authors examined the students’ transition from high school, academic and social experiences, family relationships, perceptions of missed high school experiences, and choices. One of the primary themes that emerged from the study was that of social relationships. “While relationships back home seemed to influence the students’ abilities to become socially integrated, every student without exception was able to make friends on campus” (p. 231). Few students invested a great deal of energy into long-distance romantic relationships and experienced conflict or tension at some point during the semester although one student left college and went back home to her boyfriend. Family relationships either remained the same or were improved by the students’ entrance to college. The one missed opportunity that the students reported was high school athletics.

While the majority said that they would make the same choice again, two reported mixed feelings, and two wanted to return to their home high school because of athletics and boyfriend.

Noble, K. D., Arndt, T., Nicholson, T., Sletten, T., & Zamora, A. (1998/1999). Different strokes:

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Perceptions of social and emotional development among early college entrants. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 10, 77–84.

This study examined the social and emotional impact of early college entrance on 31 students. Data were collected through three one-hour focus groups. According to this group of students, the early entrance program helped them grow socially and emotionally because of its acceptance of individual differences, its encouragement of academic excellence and personal responsibility, and the solidarity and sense of belonging students felt within the program. All believed themselves to be more mature than if they had gone to high school, well-socialized with friendships among both adults and peers, and comfortable in social environments.

Orange, C. (1997). Gifted students and perfectionism. Roeper Review, 20, 39–41.

During an honors conference, 109 of the 356 participants chose to respond to a Perfectionism Quiz. The gifted students tended to score high on the quiz, with 89% of the participants responding “almost always” to “I sometimes needlessly delay doing something I have to do.” The author believed that knowledge of items with high scores may be

useful for identifying problem areas of gifted students. These areas included need for order, need for approval of others, obsessive-compulsive demands on self, anxiety and excessive worry, indecision, and procrastination.

Peterson, J. S. (1997). Bright, tough, and resilient—and not in a gifted program. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 8, 121–136.

This exploratory study examined the experiences of 11 high-ability, at-risk middle school children who had not been identified for special programming. Using interviews, the researcher identified a variety of themes in their responses. Although some chafed under the structure of the school system, the majority listed school personnel as significant, supportive adults in their lives. Five of the 11 participants indicated that teachers, counselors, or both had offered crucial, valued support. Only three of the students spoke of a stable, comfortable communication with a parent although parents were central to their lives. Comments that pertained to the classroom were rare.

Peterson, J. S. (2001a). Gifted and at risk: Four longitudinal case studies of posthigh-school development. Roeper Review, 24, 31–39.

This study explored the experiences of four gifted at-risk students after high school.

These four students were of high ability and attended a Midwestern high school. All subjects were White, middle class, and scored at or above the 98th percentile on a nationally standardized ability or achievement assessment. The sample included two boys and two girls who participated in affectively oriented discussion groups that were part of the gifted education curriculum. The facilitator of the groups designated that the students in the sample may be at risk due to factors such as underachievement, depression, and family conflict or distress. For the first 2 years out of high school, participants completed researcher-developed questionnaires every 6 months. During the third and fourth years, participants were contacted annually. The students also took the three assessments associated with the Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems (Olson, 1990).

All four students reported a low satisfaction with their family. This theme continued for three of the participants and contributed to an intense struggle to explore individual identify. The author noted that resolution of conflict with parents seemed to be associated with developmental task-accomplishment and improvement in emotional health and academic motivation.

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Peterson, J. S. (2001b). Successful adults who were once adolescent underachievers.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 236–249.

To explore the phenomenological experience of underachievement, this study focused on 31 professionally successful adults who were academic underachievers during adolescence. Data were collected using questionnaires. In general, the underachievers perceived parental underinvolvement and a lack of support for academic achievement.

The majority also came from conflicted homes—parental violence, substance abuse, or both. The school milieu also influenced their underachievement (e.g., attitudes of teachers, males receiving more attention than females, teaching methods, teacher hostility, poor fit in school, and peer emphasis on socializing). Academic achievement came late for most of the underachievers during college or in graduate school.

Peterson, J. S. (2002). A longitudinal study of post-high-school development in gifted individuals at risk for poor educational outcomes. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14, 6–18.

Fourteen gifted late adolescents (6 females and 8 males) participated in a 4-year qualitative longitudinal study, which focused on how the students gained autonomy, became differentiated, established career direction, and developed a mature relationship. They were considered at risk because of underachievement, depression, or their family situation. Data were collected through one nonstandardized questionnaire and three standardized measures (e.g., Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales, Family Satisfaction Scale, and a Stress Scale for Couples and Families).

By the end of the study, the majority of the participants still lacked direction and a mature relationship but most had resolved conflicts, felt autonomous, and reported good emotional health. The process of resolving conflict with parents generated the largest portion of narrative data and influenced the developmental processes.

Peterson, J. S., & Ray, K. E. (2006a). Bullying and the gifted: Victims, perpetrators, prevalence, and effects. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50, 148–168.

The purpose of this study was to explore the phenomenon of bullying among gifted children and early adolescents, giving attention to both victims and perpetrators.

Participants were 432 gifted 8th graders in 16 school districts in 11 states. A nonstandardized survey instrument was used to collect data. The prevalence of being bullied was 67% with peak years being in middle school.

Name calling was the most prevalent (35%), followed by teasing about appearance (24%), teasing about intelligence and grades (19%), pushing/shoving (13%), beating up (12%),

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knocking books (11%), and hitting/punching (9%). Of all the participants, 28% had bullied someone at some time during the first 9 years of school, with 16% of the gifted participants acting as bullies in grade 8. While bullying bothered some victims (10–12%), the majority was not distressed at all. More surprising was that 41% of the gifted eighth graders in this study worried about violence in school daily.

The author concluded that counselors and teachers need to be trained to conduct proactive, prevention-oriented classroom lessons on topics such as problem solving, friendship skills, making good choices, expressing feelings, organization, and career development.

Peterson, J. S., & Ray, K. E. (2006b). Bullying among the gifted: The subjective experience. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50, 253–269.

As part of the national study on bullying among gifted children and early adolescents (N = 432), structured interviews were conducted with 57 of the participants. The authors identified five major themes from the interviews: giftedness is associated with unique vulnerability to bullying; gifted victims perceive that external factors cause bullying, but assume responsibility for resolving it themselves; gifted children can be highly distressed by nonphysical kinds of bullying; coping strategies improve with age and emotional repair can occur over time; and gifted bullies can change their behavior. The authors concluded that teachers need to help students make social connections and adjustments, particularly during the early middle school years so that they will feel safe at school.

Peterson, J. S., & Rischar, H. (2000). Gifted and gay: A study of the adolescent experience. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 231-244.

This retrospective study examined the adolescent experience of 19 gay, lesbian, or bisexual young adults with high ability.

Participants filled out a nonstandardized 10-page questionnaire. Results from the questionnaire indicated that these gifted individuals felt isolated and different, which contributed to their social withdrawal. Some participants also mentioned an uncomfortable classroom atmosphere, and teachers who “squelched . . . work on gay issues”, and were overtly hostile (p. 237). In general, 67% of the students had better social relationships in high schools than junior high and participated in extracurricular activities. However, 50% still experienced depression.

Preuss, L. J., & Dubow, E. F. (2004). A comparison between intellectually gifted and typical children in their coping responses to a school and a peer stressor. Roeper Review, 26, 105–111.

This article investigated the coping responses of gifted and typical children to childhood stressors. The sample included

52 gifted and 55 typical children in fifth and sixth grades from semi-rural elementary schools. Fifty percent of the typical participants and 45% of the gifted participants were female. Ninety-six percent of the sample was Caucasian. Data were collected from the administration of the Self-Report Coping Scale for school and peer stressors, a demographic questionnaire, and from teacher ratings of social adjustment, academic adjustment, and academic potential (adapted from Work, Cowen, Parker, & Wyman, 1990). The gifted children reported using more problem-solving strategies to cope with academic and peer stressors. The gifted boys endorsed fewer coping strategies as compared with the typical girls, typical boys, and gifted girls groups. Teacher ratings showed better academic and social adjustment for the gifted students.

Reis, S. M., Colbert, R. D., & Hébert, T. P. (2005). Understanding resilience in diverse, talented students in an urban high school.

Roeper Review, 27, 110–120.

This article examined factors that contributed to the achievement or underachievement of economically disadvantaged high school students. The sample included 35 high-ability freshman and sophomores. There were 9 male achievers, 9 female achievers, 12 male underachievers, and 5 female underachievers.

High-ability students were defined as those demonstrating above average potential as measured by a score above the 90th percentile on standardized intelligence or achievement tests. Underachieving students were defined as high-ability students who were not achieving at an expected level based on their potential. The researchers used a comparative case study and ethnographic methods.

The participants were observed for 3 years in their homes and community. The students who highly achieved developed support networks within the high school that included other high achieving peers, family members, supportive teachers in previous years, and other adults such as coaches, counselors, and administrators. Social risk factors experienced by the high-ability underachieving students included difficult relations with family members, sibling problems and rivalry, inconsistent role models and value systems within the family, and minimal parental academic guidance and support. The key factors that may have affected the development of resilience or succeeding in school included the presence of positive peer support, involvement in extracurricular activities, sports, summer, and gifted programs, positive parental role modeling, type and degree of parental involvement and parental education, participation in gifted programs in either elementary or middle school, and involvement with a teacher or a counselor as a role model. The researchers found that participation in religious training was also a factor, although to a lesser degree, and for

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girls a conscious decision not to date was a key factor in their level of achievement.

Rinn, A. N. (2006). Effects of a summer program on the social self-concepts of gifted adolescents. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17, 65–75.

This study investigated the change in social self-concepts among 140 gifted adolescents who participated in a summer program. Social self-concept was measured at the beginning and end of the summer camp using the same-sex peer relations and opposite-sex peer relations subscales of the Self-Description Questionnaire II. Both of the males and females experienced a significant increase in their perceived same-sex peer relations over the course of the summer program with males experiencing an even greater gain than females. The author suggested that increased interaction with like-minded peers may lead to an increase in social self concept.

Rizza, M. G., (1999). Learning to play the game: Female students discuss their success in high school. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 22, 243–265.

This article examined individual students’ learning preferences at school. The sample included 9 high-achieving girls from a coeducational high school and 11 girls from a single-sex Catholic academy. Both high schools were in the northeast and the participants were 16- or 17-year-olds nominated by teachers and counselors on the basis of grades, academic attitudes, and positive classroom behavior. The ethnicity of the group included 13 Caucasian, 3 African American, 3 Latina, and 1 Asian American student. Data were collected through semistructured interviews, student surveys, observations, and document reviews and then coded. Students in this study preferred working alone when studying or completing a project because of “negative experiences in working with classmates who were not on the same academic level and abused the situation for their own gain” (p. 261).

Rizza, M. G., & Reis, S. M. (2001). Comparing and contrasting: Stories of competition.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 54–62.

This qualitative study investigated how a group of 11 successful high school female students described the impact of competition on their academic and social lives. According to the participants, competition involved the direct interaction with other students over social position, grades, or honors. Because participants viewed competition as a negative behavior, comparing was a preferred word to describe their competitive actions.

Participants avoided competition because they wished to avoid conflict and hurting their peers’ feelings. Relationships meant being a positive person and a trustworthy friend.

Participants also believed that everyone had the opportunity to do well and that success was determined by the amount of effort exerted. The authors concluded that educators should encourage students to direct their competitive energies in positive ways—increasing efforts to do well, increasing a climate of mastery.

Robinson, N. M., Lanzi, R. G., Weinberg, R. A., Ramey, S. L., & Ramy, C. T. (2002). Family factors associated with high academic competence in former head start children at third grade. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 278–290.

This study examined family factors that influenced 162 of the highest achieving students at the end of the third grade who were in the 5,400 children in the National Head Start/ Public School Early Childhood Transition Demonstration Project. Results indicated that these families had fewer children and had access to greater monetary resources. They also had more positive parenting attitudes and encouraged their children’s progress. The study tended to substantiate the generally favorable social adjustment of children of advanced ability.

Robinson, N. M., Weinberg, R. A., Redden, D., Ramey, S. L., & Ramey, C. T. (1998). Family factors associated with high academic competence among former Head Start children.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 42, 148–156.

This study examined family and child factors associated with advanced academic performance. Using a database generated by the multi-site National Head Start/Public School Early Childhood Transition Demonstration Project, the researchers selected a subsample of 154 children with the highest academic achievement from a 5,142 nonhandicapped participants form English-speaking homes in the spring of first grade. Among a myriad of other factors, parents of the high-achieving children reported significantly higher responsiveness to child input and less restrictive parenting attitudes and marginally greater consistency of parenting practices. Parents rated their high achieving children as significantly higher in assertiveness, responsibility, and self-control but not cooperation. Both teachers and parents saw these children as more socially skilled and more mature then their past-Head Start classmates.

Sankar-DeLeeuw, N. (2007). Case studies of gifted kindergarten children part II: The parents and teachers. Roeper Review, 29, 93–99.

This article reported the second part of a study of early life experiences of young gifted children focusing on parent and teacher roles.

The sample included three boy and two girl kindergarten students between the ages of 5 years, 7 months and 5 years, 11 months whose

IQs ranged from 131 to 141. The researcher used a case study methodology. Data were gathered through standardized assessments, observations, parent and teacher questionnaires, and interviews. The parents had many roles in the lives of their young gifted children: teacher, coach, role model, facilitator, and provider of information. The parents reported that they provided for their children’s basic, emotional, and developmental needs.

The children’s teachers had different styles in approaching participants’ learning needs and filled the roles of facilitator, observer, parent-substitute, confidant to parents, and companion (peer). The author noted that parental identification of giftedness occurred at early ages while teacher identification was more difficult. Both play important roles in helping young gifted children grow intellectually, socially, and psychologically.

Schroeder-Davis, S. J. (1999). Brains, brawn, or beauty: Adolescent attitudes toward three superlatives. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 10, 134–147.

Quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed on 3,514 Minnesota secondary student essays sent to a newspaper column in response to the questions: “Would you rather be the best-looking, most athletic, or smartest student in your class? Why? Why didn’t you choose the others?” Although 53.8% chose “most intelligent,” data suggested a significant awareness of an anti-intellectual stigma advanced by peers. Most of the students (79.1%) who chose most intelligent did so for a “post high school” rationale, 15.3% for “immediate academic benefits,” and only 9 (.002%) for “immediate social benefits.” The price paid for demonstrating intelligence was loss of peer social status, exploitation by peers, and impossibly high expectations by adults. The author made a variety of recommendations to high schools to balance academics with athletics.

Schuler, P. A. (2000). Perfectionism and gifted adolescents. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 11, 183–196.

This study examined perfectionism in gifted rural middle school students enrolled in accelerated math, science, and English courses using a multiple-case research design. The Goals and Work Habits Survey (Schuler, 1994) and an adaptation of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost et al., 1990) were administered to 66 gifted girls and 46 gifted boys in grades 7–8 (n = 112). Of the gifted sample, 12.5% were nonperfectionists and 87.5% (n = 98) were perfectionists, with 29.5% (n = 33) of this group being perfectionists at the neurotic level. A cluster analysis of the scores from the Goals and Work Habits Survey indicated differences in both gender and perfectionist characteristics. More boys (64%) than girls (35%) were in the nonperfectionist cluster, while more girls (68%) than boys (32%) were in the normal per-

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fectionist cluster. The neurotic student cluster contained almost equal numbers of boys (48% or n = 16) and girls (51% or n = 17). These students were in a continual state of anxiety over making a mistake. Normal perfectionists had a main theme of order and organization along with striving for their personal best.

Twenty students were then selected for the multiple-case study. Semistructured interviews and detailed explanations of responses to the Goals and Work Habits survey were conducted with the students. In addition, teachers, counselors, and parents of the 20 students completed the Empowering Gifted Behavior Scale (Jenkins-Friedman, Bransky, & Murphy, 1986). Fifteen students (75%) reported that at least one of their parents had perfectionist tendencies. The author points out that because many of these gifted perfectionists are model students, many educators and parents are surprised when the stress of perfectionism drives students to harmful behavior such as suicide or eating disorders.

Shumow, L. (1997). Daily experiences and adjustment of gifted low-income urban children at home and school. Roeper Review, 20, 35–38.

This article documented the activities, resources, and relationships available to three gifted urban elementary children who were living in poverty. The sample included two girls and one boy who were interviewed from the third grade to the fifth grade. Data were also collected from mothers’ interviews, school records, neighborhood descriptive data, and measures about the students’ relationships, interests, self-appraised competence, family activities, social support, neighborhood safety, and psychological adjustment. The children in this study felt that their mothers were caring and supportive of them and took the time to listen to them.

All of the children also spent time with their parents visiting places or making things. Each of the mothers was proactively involved with her child’s academic progress by checking on homework, talking about school, and visiting the public library.

Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2004a). Factors influencing the development of perfectionism in gifted college students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48, 259–274.

Using a qualitative interview design, this study examined factors that contributed to

the development of socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism in 12 gifted college students. Parents who are perfectionists and have an authoritarian parenting style contributed to their children’s stringent expectations, self-worth tied to achievement and fear of disappointing others, which led to socially prescribed perfectionism. On the other hand, mastery of early academic experiences without effort, no previous experience with academic failure, authoritative parenting style, high self-standards, and modeling of parental perfectionism led to self-oriented perfectionism. The author concluded that parents with an authoritarian approach need guidance regarding how this approach may contribute to the development of socially prescribed perfectionism within children.

Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2004b).

Understanding the relationship between perfectionism and achievement motivation in gifted college students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48, 219–231.

Using a qualitative interview design, this study examined how either socially prescribed or self-oriented perfectionists at the college level perceived achievement motivation. Data indicated that the 12 college students with socially prescribed perfectionism described behaviors that were influenced by fear-of-failure such as refusing to participate in classes where they were not 100% confident they knew the answers, procrastinating so that it’s acceptable to not do well, and using peers as a yardstick to evaluate their performance. On the other hand, self-oriented perfectionists were motivated to achieve as opposed to avoid failure and set mastery goals that were linked to evaluating themselves in relationship to their peers. The self-oriented perfectionists looked for challenges and had a strong work ethic. The author concluded that teachers and counselors need to identify the motives behind perfectionism since sociallyprescribed perfectionism can lead to high levels of anxiety, depression, and negative feelings of self-worth.

Speirs Neumeister, K. L. (2002). Shaping an identity: Factors influencing the achievement of newly married, gifted young women.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 291–305.

Using a case study approach, the author examined factors that influenced the achievement of three newly married, gifted young women. Results indicated that achievement was a salient component of the gifted women’s identities. Early educational experiences, consistent high-achieving peer groups, and supportive family members and adults influenced these identities. Defining their marriages as partnerships allowed each to operate independently and empower both partners to achieve their goals. The authors

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concluded that educators may want to create organizations that bring high-achieving women together to offer both academic and social/emotional support.

Speirs Neumeister, K. L., & Finch, H. (2006).

Perfectionism in high-ability students: Relational precursors and influences on achievement motivation. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50, 238–251.

The purpose of the present study was to test a model that illustrated variables influencing the development of perfectionism and demonstrated how different types of perfectionism may influence the achievement goals of a high-ability population. A sample of 265 college freshman honor students was given a number of questionnaires and assessments during their orientation that assessed parenting style, perfectionism, relationships, and achievement goals. The authors reported that authoritative and permissive parenting was associated with secure attachment.

Insecure attachment is related to perfectionism and searching for acceptance. The authors concluded that for perfectionists,

the school and home need to create psychologically safe environments where children are reassured that they are loved and accepted regardless of their performance.

Perfectionism was closely associated with achievement goal orientation with people with high socially prescribed perfectionism more likely to adopt performance-approach and performance avoidance goals.

that females are more likely than males to deny their abilities and report high levels of interpersonal activity.

Swiatek, M. A., & Dorr, R. M. (1998). Revision of the social coping questionnaire: replication and extension of previous findings.

Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 10, 151–259.

This study assessed the relationships of multiple dimensions of parenting to young gifted children’s perceptions of competence.

Twenty-eight preschool-age intellectually gifted children and their mothers were participants. The children attended a private preschool for gifted students. The children were given measures of giftedness and perceived competence. The mothers were given a measure of their perceptions of their parenting behavior and support networks. Moderate attitudes toward strictness and independence were associated with positive competence and social acceptance. Moreover, mothers with a social support network were more likely to help their child acquire developmentally appropriate cognitive and social skills.

This study examined the Social Coping Questionnaire as a method for measuring strategies that gifted adolescents use when coping with the stigma of being identified as gifted. Two hundred twenty-nine gifted junior and senior high school students participated in this study. Five social coping strategies were identified: denial of giftedness, hiding giftedness, emphasis on popularity, peer acceptance, and social interaction. Gender differences suggested

Windecker-Nelson, E., Melson, G. F., & Moon, S. M. (1997). Intellectually gifted preschoolers’ perceived competence: Relations to maternal attitudes, concerns, and support.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 41, 133–144.

Guidelines for Article Submissions Tempo welcomes manuscripts from educators, parents, and other advocates of gifted education. Tempo is a juried publication, and manuscripts are evaluated by members of the editorial board and/or other reviewers.

Please keep in mind the following when submitting manuscripts: 1. Manuscripts should be 5–12 pages on a topic related to gifted education.

2. References should follow the APA style outlined in the fifth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

3. Submit an electronic copy, typed, 12 pt. font, double-spaced manuscript. Use a 1½” margin on all sides.

4. In addition to title page, a cover page must be attached that includes the author’s name, title, school or program affiliation, home and work address, e-mail address, phone numbers, and fax number.

5. Place tables, figures, illustrations, and photographs on separate pages. Each should have a title.

6. Authors of accepted manuscripts must transfer copyright to Tempo, which holds copyright to all articles and reviews.

Please send manuscripts and inquiries to: Dr. Jennifer L. Jolly, Tempo Editor jennjolly26@hotmail.com Upcoming Issues: Summer 2007 Deadline: June 1 Fall 2007 Deadline: September 1 Winter 2008 Deadline: December 1

Spring 2007 • Temp o • Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented

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