Law School Fair Packet by Texas State University Career Services

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SCHOOL FAIR PACKET

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Law School Exploration & Application Information There are many issues to consider when deciding whether law school is right for you. Follow these steps to learn more about law school exploration and the application process.

Explore Do Your Research Investigate the web for more information about law school and legal careers. Sites with some great resources include:     

Texas State Pre Law Information: www.polisci.txstate.edu/degrees‐programs/prelaw Law School Admission Council: www.lsac.org/ American Bar Association: www.americanbar.org/groups/legal_education/resources/pre_law Association for Legal Career Professionals: www.nalp.org/prelaw Internet Legal Research Group: www.ilrg.com/

Ask Questions   

Talk to professionals in the legal field. Ask about their day‐to‐day routines and what they like and dislike about their jobs. Get as much insight as you can into the field. Meet with a pre law advisor or Career Counselor to obtain information about applying to law school. Apply for an internship or job shadowing experience within the field.

Take the Right Undergraduate Courses There is not a pre law major or minor at Texas State University, and the American Bar Association (ABA) does not recommend any specific courses for those pursing a law degree. Usually, pre law students are required to acquire specific courses for a major and take electives to prepare for law school. Students of any major may apply to law school, but if you already know a specific field of law in which you’d like to practice, you may want to consider the following majors:     

Engineering or Natural Science (if interested in patent law) Accounting (if interested in tax law) Economics or Business (if interested in corporate law) Geography or Natural Sciences (if interested in environmental law) Health or Natural Sciences (if interested in medical law)

Contact Career Services (512.245.2645) to schedule an appointment with a Career Counselor or consult an Academic Advisor to discuss other major possibilities. Even though there are no general requirements, many law schools recommend that students complete coursework in the following areas:   

Literature History Government

  

Philosophy Language Psychology

Be sure to take courses that improve analytical ability, writing, and communication skills.

  

Sociology Economics Accounting

Prepare Take the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) Consider taking the LSAT once you’ve finished your junior year. The LSAT is offered four times a year in February, June, October and December. Plan to take the LSAT only once, and don’t take the official test for practice. Practice tests and questions can be found online. You can register for the LSAT online through the Law School Admission Council at www.lsac.org/. Register early (the deadline for the June test is at the beginning of May) to get the best testing location. Start preparing for the LSAT early. Take practice exams, and make an effort to replicate the conditions that will exist at the actual exam: take the practice exam in a quiet space, away from distractions; time yourself; use only the materials that you’ll have on hand during that real test. In addition to studying on your own, there are many available prep course options. If participating in a course is not for you, prep books and other materials can be purchased at most bookstores. Whatever route you take, be sure you are prepared before taking the LSAT. If your score on your first try is lower than you’d like, consult with a Career Counselor or pre law advisor before registering for a second test. Know that it is LSDAS (Law School Date Assembly Service) policy to average multiple test scores.

Choose a Law School Instead of focusing on the “best” or most prestigious law school, ask yourself: “What is the best law school for me?” Visit a few schools and observe the atmosphere. Talk with faculty and students. Sit in on a few classes if permitted. Some things you should consider before applying include:       

Location. Is the law school in an area that interests you? Would you be interested in staying in that area after graduation? Size. Consider the size of the student body. A smaller school generally offers a smaller student to faculty ratio. Student Body. Some schools are competitive and grade‐conscious, while others are more supportive. Talking with current students is a great way to obtain this information. Faculty. Each school’s website lists the faculty. Spend some time learning more about them and their legal areas of interest. Library. Is the library a sufficient size? Can students be accommodated during exams? Do students have computer access or wireless capabilities? Areas of Focus. If you know the field of law in which you are interested, you should examine law school catalogs closely to find schools that offer strong curriculum in your area of interest. Cost. Consider the total cost for three years of study. This will include tuition, room and board, fees and expenses, and books. Financial aid, work‐study programs, and state or federally funded student loan programs are available. Explore financial assistance when inquiring for admissions information.

Apply! Prepare Your Applications and Target Your Schools Many schools require letters of reference and essays or personal statements in addition to transcripts and LSAT scores. Letters of reference should come from former professors or employers that are familiar with your work. Essays should catch the attention of the reader. Make sure your paper has been edited before submitting it to the admissions committee. For application purposes, schools generally fall into three categories. Apply to a range of schools to ensure your acceptance somewhere. The categories are:

  

Reach. A school where approximately 20% or less of the applicants with your GPA and LSAT scores were recently accepted. Target. A school where your GPA and LSAT scores are approximately the same as the median for last year’s entering class. “Target” schools present at least a 50/50 chance of acceptance. Safety. A law school where at least 80% of the applicants with your GPA and LSAT scores were admitted last year.

Apply early. You should submit an application to each school in which you’re interested, and all applications should be submitted no later than January 1. Some schools have “rolling admissions,” which means they evaluate applications as they are received. Since there are a limited number of openings, applying early can help your chances of being admitted.

Learn about Financial Aid Remember to request information about financial aid while submitting applications. Some deadlines for scholarships can sneak up on you. Do not wait until you’re accepted to begin filling out financial aid forms. Financial aid is defined as any form of monetary aid that helps pay for your education. Some law schools offer scholarships and/or grants, and each school determines their own requirements. Requirements and deadlines can be found on individual law schools’ websites. Eligibility for federal work study will be determined by the individual law schools. Work study programs provide a paid, part‐time position within the law school. Federal loans include:   

Federal Subsidized Stafford Loan. With this loan, interest is paid by the federal government as long as you are enrolled in school at least part‐time. Federal Unsubsidized Stafford Loan. With this loan, interest accrues while you are in school and can be paid monthly or deferred until repayment of the loan. Federal Perkins Loans. These loans are available only at certain schools, and the loan amount is determined by the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FASFA).

Career Services is here for you throughout the law school exploration and application process. Call 512.245.2645 to set up an appointment with a Career Counselor or visit us online at www.careerservices.txstate.edu.

How can I learn more about the legal profession?

Job Options for Lawyers and Law School Graduates

You can learn firsthand about lawyer’s duties by observing trials at your local courthouse or by discussing with a lawyer his or her daily activities. Your high school also may have law-related education courses or activities. Consider volunteer work involving counseling and assisting people to test your abilities to deal with other people’s problems.

Positions Practicing Law: contract (temporary or freelance) lawyer department manager managing attorney managing partner non-equity partner participating attorney partner partnership-track associate of counsel public, pro bono or public service counsel referral attorney staff attorney special counsel

Online resources for those contemplating a law career include: State Bar of Texas, www.texasbar.com American Bar Association, www.abanet.org Law School Admissions Council, www.lsac.org Check your local library for these and other helpful books on the legal profession. Arron, Deborah. “What Can You Do With A Law Degree? A Lawyer’s Guide to Career Alternatives Inside, Outside & Around the Law,” Niche Press, 1999. Cassidy, Carol-June and Goldfarb, Sally F. “Inside the Law Schools: A Guide by Students, for Students,” New York, Dutton, 1997. Hegland, Kenney F. “Introduction to the Study and Practice of Law in a Nutshell,” West Publishing Co., 2000. Munneke,Gary A. “Barron’s Guide to Law Schools,” Rev.ed. Woodbury, New York, Barron’s Educational Series, Inc., 2000. Burchard & Stein. “How to Study Law and Take Exams in a Nutshell,” West Publishing Co., 1996. Morgan & Snyder. “The Official Guide to ABAApproved Law Schools,” New York, ABA, 2002.

Areas of Practice: administrative adoption agricultural alternative-dispute resolution antitrust appellate banking bankruptcy biomedical issues bond business organization commercial finance commercial litigation commercial banking communications computer constitutional construction copyright corporate corporate reorganization disciplinary action by licensing boards discrimination domestic relations elder employee benefits employment employment relations energy entertainment environmental estate planning family franchising general practice governmental relations/ lobbying guardianship

health care immigration insurance insurance defense intellectual property international finance international labor litigation lobbying matrimonial mergers & acquisitions natural resources patent pensions probate public contracts public utility real estate social security sports taxation trademark transportation trust workers’ compensation Law-Related Positions: client services manager director of business development director of client relations director of management and legal information services director of practice development director of professional development director of training (clerical/paralegal) firm manager in-house corporate communications in-house editor law firm administrator law librarian legal assistant manager marketing manager paralegal/legal assistant personnel director professional development training officer public relations director recruiting administrator director strategic planner

THE STATE BAR OF TEXAS For specific information and requirements of a particular law school in Texas, contact that school’s Admissions Office at the address listed below. Baylor School of Law 1114 S. University Parks Dr. Waco, TX 76706 254-710-1911 law.baylor.edu Southern Methodist University Dedman School of Law P.O. Box 750110 Dallas, TX 75275-0110 214-768-2550 www.law.smu.edu South Texas College of Law 1303 San Jacinto Houston, TX 77002 713-646-1810 www.stcl.edu St. Mary’s University School of Law One Camino Santa Maria San Antonio, TX 78228 210-436-3523 http://stmarylaw.stmarytx.edu Texas Southern University Thurgood Marshall School of Law 3100 Cleburne Houston, TX 77004 713-313-7114 www.tsulaw.edu

Texas Tech University School of Law 1802 Hartford Lubbock, TX 79409 806-742-3985 www.law.ttu.edu Texas Wesleyan University School of Law Office of Admissions 1515 Commerce Fort Worth, TX 76102-6509 817-212-4040 www.law.txwes.edu University of Houston Law Center Office of Admissions 100 Law Center Houston, TX 77204-6060 713-743-2100 www.law.uh.edu University of Texas School of Law 727 East Dean Keeton St. Austin, TX 78705-3299 512-232-1200 www.utexas.edu/law

Prepared as a Public Ser vice by the State Bar of Texas For Additional Copies, Contact: Communications Department State Bar of Texas P.O. Box 12487 Austin, Texas 78711-2487 (800) 204-2222, Ext. 2610 www.texasbar.com

Rev.4/02 29391

Becoming A Lawyer

Law is a popular vocational choice for many Americans. To help compare your career goals with the demands of a law career, here are answers to ten frequently asked questions about the legal profession.

What does a lawyer do? Working as a lawyer means helping individuals and businesses solve legal problems, understand regulatory matters, and help make business or personal decisions. A lawyer may assist in drafting a will, help a merchant collect overdue bills, advise someone seeking a divorce, answer questions about new federal broadcast regulations, defend a person being accused of a crime, or assist a corporate executive in researching tax law and international trade. Today’s lawyer has many roles and activities based on his or her interests.

What are the education and licensing requirements to be a lawyer? Seven years of education following high school is typically required to obtain a law degree: four years of undergraduate school and three years of law school. Law schools generally require a bachelor’s degree for admission. A law graduate with a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree from a law school approved by the American Bar Association must then take the bar examination, which is a comprehensive test of knowledge in many areas of law. After passing this test, the person is licensed to practice law. Both applicants to law school and candidates for the bar exam are screened by the Texas Board of Law Examiners (www.ble.state.tx.us) for qualifications and standards of moral character.

As an undergraduate, should I take certain types of courses? Many law schools recommend the broadest possible undergraduate education. There is no required or suggested course of study for pre-law students. A legal education is so different from everything which precedes it that no one course (such as business law) will prepare you for it, but any course which stimulates your thinking or gives you insights into some of the legal questions lawyers must face is beneficial. Choose an undergraduate major with ample career alternatives should your law

career plans later change. Consider courses that develop organized thinking, a command of the English language, both written and spoken, and the ability to work well with others. The self-discipline and study habits required in law should be developed in undergraduate courses. Do not choose the least demanding courses for a high grade point average at the expense of achieving valuable learning skills.

What are the entrance requirements to law school? Admission is usually based on undergraduate class standing and scores on the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Many schools also will consider other factors, such as letters of recommendation, student leadership activities, work experience, community involvement, and extracurricular activities. Applying to law school and taking the LSAT should be completed at least eight months, and up to one year, before enrollment.

How do I choose a law school? Base your selection on your individual needs. Location is a factor if you prefer to attend school in the state or city where you intend to practice. Cost considerations may influence your choice of an out-of-state public school or a private school where tuition will be higher than in-state schools. If you are accepted by more than one school, consider the comparative public reputations of the schools, since reputation may affect demand for graduates with employers.

How much will law school cost? Tuition and fees for law school may range from $1,500 to $12,000 per semester for a full-time student. Total cost varies per institution, and whether it is a public or private school. Tuition fees are subject to change. Check with the Admissions Office for the current tuition fees for the school you wish to attend. Books average $500 to $750 for each semester of law school. Financial aid, work/study programs, and state or federally-funded student loan programs are available. Other sources of aid may include local bar association scholarships or private scholarship funds created to assist law students. Some schools also provide special programs for minority students. Investigate financial assistance when asking for admissions information.

What career options are available? Private Practice means practicing law in your own firm or associating with a firm that employs hundreds of attorneys. The private practitioner may be a trial lawyer, or engaged in an office practice, which includes preparing contracts, deeds, wills, and other legal documents and giving written opinions and advice to a client. The attorney in a small firm often must be a “jack of all trades” in order to take a broad variety of cases. Attorneys in large firms often specialize in areas such as income tax law, patent and trademark law, oil and gas law, and labor law. Starting salaries are often higher in larger firms, and the security afforded by large corporate clients is attractive. But the freedom and independence of the small practice, with its close client contact, also has advantages. Corporate Law usually means working in the law department of a large business, performing legal work as varied as the activities of the company. If the company has diverse interests and the counsel staff is large, attorneys may specialize just as in a large law firm. Government Employment at the federal, state or local level involves such activities as hearings conducted by regulatory agencies, prosecuting criminal defendants, representing a government agency in court, drafting regulations or ordinances, and evaluating the legal aspects of policy and other decisions by a governing body or its chief administrator. Public Interest law is the effort to provide representation to people and interests that historically have been unrepresented or underrepresented in the legal process. These include the poor and others without access to courts, administrative agencies, and other forums where decisions affecting them are made. The most visible “public interest” law office in Texas is the local legal aid program; however, there are other programs. Judiciary offers the opportunity to serve the public as a municipal, state or federal judge and preside over criminal and civil court proceedings. Academic Positions include teaching law and lawrelated courses, such as law enforcement, business law, and real estate law at universities and colleges. Other academic positions include law librarians, editors, and administrators.

Military Service in armed services’ legal offices may provide a variety of legal experiences and an opportunity to live in many places. Like private practice, military legal offices may be small or large and may offer an opportunity to gain experience in specialty areas. Other opportunities in fields such as journalism, industry, advertising, banking, politics, administration, and accounting exist for law school graduates. Some graduates may choose to work in these fields immediately and later practice law, while others will move to these areas after initially practicing law.

What are my chances of getting hired after graduation? Job hunting is always competitive because approximately 3,000 new lawyers are licensed in Texas each year. Opportunities vary from area to area, with the most attractive openings having many applicants. The strongest competition for job openings is in large cities, while smaller towns tend to offer more opportunity. Graduates should consider a full range of employment options to be successful in their job search.

Can I be involved in law-related work without a license to practice law? An individual cannot give legal advice, offer representation in court, or handle many other legal matters without a license to practice law in Texas. However, many tasks traditionally performed by lawyers are now done by legal assistants supervised by and responsible to lawyers. Paralegal education and training courses are offered at several Texas colleges and universities and other institutions. A list of these schools is available from the State Bar of Texas Legal Assistants Division. Law-related job areas that do not require a license include trust work at banks, public administration, law enforcement and criminal justice, and judicial administration.

Careers in the Field of Law Traditional Legal Careers Law Firms Approximately 60 to 70 percent of each graduating class enters the practice of law with traditional firms, which vary greatly in size and in the types of law they practice. A large firm may have 200 attorneys (some with more than 500) who practice in virtually every area, while a smaller firm may specialize in only one area (commonly referred to as a “boutique” firm). Others may have a general practice with several specialties. With regards to the timing of law firm hiring, you should be aware of two main categories: law firms that hire early (typically bigger firms in bigger cities), and law firms that do not, meaning that they usually hire only when the need arises (typically smaller firms in smaller cities) Naturally, there is a certain amount of crossover in these categories, and you should research the hiring practices of individual firms and/or geographic areas. Firms that hire early through on‐campus interviews, off‐campus job fairs, and direct mail solicitation frequently seek out students in the top half of their class and emphasize law review, moot court, or other experience. However, many firms do consider other indications of ability. Law firms that have formal, early recruiting programs hire first‐year law students (called “1Ls”) in the spring of their first year and second‐year students (“2Ls”) in the fall of their second year for summer associate programs. 1Ls and 2Ls fortunate enough to pick up summer associate positions with large firms are often being vetted as potential entry‐level associates at the firm. Firms that hire only as required or if there is turnover may advertise their clerking or entry‐level attorney positions through the law school’s Career Services office or in newspapers, or they may ask the departing employee for a replacement recommendation. Academic performance is usually stressed less by firms that do not have formal, early recruiting programs; they often place more emphasis on practical work experience gained through previous legal positions, as well as the ability to “hit the ground running.” For those who are entrepreneurially‐minded, the option of starting a solo practice should also be considered. “Hanging out your own shingle” offers the freedom of running your own practice your way, but also requires a lot of attention to the business side of things: hiring staff, setting up office space, and having contacts and the ability to draw clients to your practice.

Judicial Clerkships & Internships Judicial clerkships, available at the federal, state and local levels, are full‐time positions usually filled by law graduates for one or two years immediately upon graduation. Judicial internships are available at all court levels to law students who volunteer for them during the school year and/or summer months. Both clerkships and internships provide an excellent opportunity to obtain knowledge of the legal system, as well as the chance to hone critical research and writing skills that assist judges in the ultimate task of decision‐making. Law firms and government agencies often seek the experience obtained by judicial clerks, and many employers offer compensation for time spent in these positions before joining their practice. A good academic record is important and excellent research and writing skills are required. Whether an applicant’s personality will “fit” with permanent staff members is also considered. Generally, applications for federal and state court clerkships are sent to individuals judges early in the fall semester of the third year. Interviews with federal judges typically take place from September through November, while state judges interview from November through March of the third year.

Government Agencies Government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels provide many employment opportunities for attorneys. In fact, the federal government is one of the largest employers of attorneys in the U.S. Because of its national scope, diverse areas of operation and large number of departments and agencies, there are many choices of legal fields and geographic locations for a potential employee. Many agencies offer summer clerkship programs for first‐ and second‐year students. Government employers also fall into two main categories for hiring clerks and attorneys: agencies that hire early (usually federal agencies with formal recruitment programs), and agencies that hire when there is a need due to new funding or turnover (usually state and local agencies). Surfing the web is, by far, the best method for finding these types of positions. Most federal government agencies now have their own sites with employment listings, many times with links to local or regional offices. Most state agencies also list job openings, typically through their personnel departments. Local agencies may also use online listings, but oftentimes post jobs on a bulletin board somewhere in a city or county building. Applying for positions with these employers may be cumbersome. Some agencies will accept a cover letter and resume as the only application materials, while others require lengthy application packets. The military also offers significant opportunities for law graduates. Judge Advocate General’s Corps positions are available in all branches of the armed services, with hiring taking place during the third year of law school. Unfortunately, most JAG Corps do not have paid positions for summer clerks and often do not accept volunteers.

Public Interest & Nonprofit Organizations Public interest law can be defined as legal services rendered to groups or individuals not represented by private counsel. This includes employers such as legal aid offices, public defenders, social reform groups, and private law firms that emphasize pro bono work, among others. Though public interest law will not provide a high salary, serving the disadvantaged can provide great personal satisfaction. Once again, this type of employer may hire early (for annually‐funded fellowships or internships), but the majority of jobs are filled when there is a need due to new funding or turnover (legal services offices and nonprofits). There is a job fair help in Washington, D.C., every year during the fall semester that brings together law students and public interest employers from across the country. Sponsored by Equal Justice Works, this event coincides with the organization’s annual conference and gives students a chance to meet advocates working for all types of employers in this field.

Corporations Most corporations with in‐house legal counsel offices recruit attorneys who have had a least a couple of years of private law firm experience for permanent positions; however, some corporations do hire summer clerks and recent graduates. Depending on the size of the legal department, a corporate attorney may handle all legal matters including litigation, or they may serve as a liaison with outside counsel on certain matters. Again, corporations may hire early (large corporations with many attorneys on staff and formal recruitment programs), or when there is a need (typically corporations with smaller staff). Corporations rarely recruit for in‐ house counsel positions through the on‐campus process at law schools, but a few do participate in off‐campus job fairs.

Non‐Traditional Careers Business Having a legal education makes you an asset to any business, particularly in the areas of management, human resources, and sales. Legal publishing companies, as well as computer companies selling legal research equipment, are also interested in hiring law graduates. The financial planning industry has also seen an increase in its need for attorneys, who may advise clients on estate planning and tax matters, as well as coordinate pension and employee benefit plans.

Banking Most large banks have trust departments. Since this work involves probate, personal trusts, pension and profit‐ sharing agreements, a law degree is especially useful. Banks also employ lawyers to work in the areas of public finance, tax‐exempt securities and international finance.

Insurance Many large insurance companies have in‐house legal departments. Law graduates are hired in this capacity, but are also employed as estate planners and in sales and marketing departments to provide financial planning services to clients. Other law graduates begin insurance careers as claims adjusters.

Accounting In addition to basic accounting and financial duties, accounting firms handle matters in foreign taxation, estate planning, merger and acquisition problems, corporate reorganizations, and personal and corporate tax matters. These firms generally look for lawyers with a background in accounting or finance.

Lobbying Lobbyists work for corporations, state and local governments, political organizations, trade associations, unions, and other groups whose activities are affected by legislation. Attorneys are especially sought after because of their knowledge of laws and the legislative process.

Education There are a variety of opportunities for law graduates in the academic area including teaching law and legal writing, law‐related courses such as business law, political science, constitutional law, law and society, and paralegal courses. Administrative positions dealing with student affairs, career services, and alumni development are also available. Other possibilities are employment as university attorneys, affirmative action officers, employee relations officers, or judicial affairs/student conduct officers. This information was compiled from the University of Tennessee’s Law School Career Services website. Texas State University Career Service is here for you throughout the law school exploration and application process. Call

512.245.2645 to set up an appointment with a Career Counselor or visit us online at http://www.careerservices.txstate.edu./.

Law School Admissions Timeline

2 Years to Law School

{Winter}

*Start thinking LSAT. Most likely, the last admissions exam you took was the SAT or the ACT. The LSAT is a vastly different test; it is a difficult, highstakes exam and one for which you really have to prepare to do well. Take a free practice test. Visit the SLAC Lab or www.PrincetonReview.com to find one near you. *Prep for the LSAT on your own or enroll in a test prep course. The Princeton Review offers private, small group, and online tutoring as well as classroom and online LSAT courses.

{Spring}

*Create a Student Account with LSAC at www.LSAC.org to register for the LSAT online, get your scores via email, assemble credentials, and track your applications. The LSAT is given only four times per year, and we recommend that you take the June test. *Research schools. Use the Internet (LSAC.org) and books, and network with lawyer friends and colleagues. Use the law school search engine on www.PrincetonReview.com and peruse the schools’ websites. During the spring, visit the schools you are most interested in attending. Register for the June LSAT. Don’t miss the deadline. It costs $139 to take the LSAT; late registration not only costs you more, but you risk losing out on your first choice of testing centers. **Contact advisors. If you are an undergraduate, speak with your campus prelaw advisor(s). They can be valuable resources for information and planning purposes. Write a bio. Prepare a brief profile about yourself for your recommenders to use when writing evaluations or recommendations. Contact potential recommenders. Many law school applications require three recommendations. Keep in mind: an indepth personal recommendation will always carry more weight than will a generic one by someone with an impressive reputation.

{Summer} Take the LSAT. It’s essential that you’re well prepared to ace the LSAT the first time, even though few law schools average multiple scores. **Finalize your school list. Once you know your LSAT score, you can start to finalize your list. Think balance: mix toptier with second and thirdtier schools. Keep track of deadlines. Many law schools’ regular deadlines are early February and many have early deadlines in the late fall. Don’t assume that all deadlines are the same. Aim to make the firstround deadline. Register for CAS. When you apply to law school, you work with the Credential Assembly Service (CAS) to coordinate all of the parts of your law school applications. To subscribe to LSDAS ($124 fee), visit www.LSAC.org. Get your undergraduate transcripts sent to CAS. Remember to send transcripts from every undergraduate institution you attended. Schools usually charge you a small fee. **Update your resume. Some law schools require that you submit a current resume. Start your applications. Begin with the essays since these may need several revisions; visit PrincetonReview.com if you need some essay writing advice.

{Fall}

Register for the September/October LSAT. If you need to retake the LSAT, then now is the time to do so. **Fine tune your personal statements. Have an advisor and colleague or friend who attended law school review your essays. Have someone else proofread.

Stay in touch with your recommenders. Check in to make sure that they won’t have problems with their deadlines. Inquire about interviews. Some schools may let you interview prior to application deadlines; others will invite you to interview once they’ve received your application. Complete and send early decision applications. Keep a photocopy of all completed applications for your records. Send thank you notes to your recommenders. Don’t overlook these important people. You may have to call on them again.

1 Year to Law School

{Winter} Keep tweaking. If you didn’t make the early deadlines, then keep working to perfect your personal statement and application forms. Send all regular applications. Quadruple check them and print copies before submitting. Register for the February LSAT only if you need to raise your score AND if any of the schools you are interested in have application deadlines on or after March 1. Relax. If you’re all done, then revel in the fact that all that work is behind you, and, hopefully, your acceptance letters will be arriving soon. *Resources available in SLAC LabAlkek 4th floor & at http://www.txstate.edu/slac/stadtest prep/lsat.html **Scheduled appointments with Dr. Dochen (SLAC Director and prelaw advisor) & SLAC staff 512.245.2515

Used with permission & updated by Dr. Carol Dochen: 92711

L aw School Personal Statements Presented O ctober 2011 According to Law School Essays that Made a Difference, “the personal statement often presents the only opportunity for you to differentiate yourself from the greater pool of applicants and to show that you can string more than a few sentences together” (Owens 10). I. A T ypical Prompt Include a personal statement—two pages maximum—that demonstrates your ability to communicate effectively and concisely. While you have the widest possible latitude in choosing the substance of your personal statements, experience shows that the most successful personal statements are those which develop a sense of the person, his or her values, aspirations, and concerns. A discussion of the unique contributions you would likely make to the student body, the legal profession, and ultimately the larger society would also be well received. I I. A Good Response (by K atherine C hristine H ughes) My father was a biker, my mother an Irish immigrant and a high-school dropout. I’ve got half-brothers and sisters peppered across the state of New Hampshire. I grew up on a farm. ¶1

“Learn all ya can, kid.” While I waited for the school bus on icy, black mornings, these are the words my father would holler from our front porch, his pale, thin legs poking out sped off on his Harley Davidson, his leather jacket billowing, his beard twisting in the wind. Through my education, volunteer work, career, and travels, I have kept my father’s words with me, relying on them to carve my path in life.

¶2

I excelled in high school. I joined every club, participated in athletics, and acted on stage. I edited the school paper and took advanced classes in English and history. I graduated in the top five of my class. While in Boston, I did well, but grew frustrated with the generality of my communications classes; I felt I wasn’t learning specific skills, and I wanted to be challenged. With my father’s words in mind and my Irish grandfather’s encouragement, I took a year off and travelled to Ireland, my mother’s birthplace. While working as a barmaid and living with my cousin in a down-at-heels north Dublin community, I quickly realized that college was a choice. I discovered the vision of achievement that my grandfather had in mind when he immigrated with his family to America in the 1950s. With a promise to my mother, who had never enjoyed the luxury of a college education, that I would graduate on time no matter how many summer courses I had to take, I returned home, transferred schools, and waitressed my way through a degree in writing and literature, determined to learn all I could. My coursework at Emerson College pushed me to develop critical reading skills, refined my writing abilities, and, above all, nurtured my editorial eye—all invaluable tools in my current career and my eventual practice of law.

¶3

It was after my graduation, when I moved to New York City, that I met Jocelyn and began to further examine the implications of immigration. Jocelyn was the near-silent Haitian woman who sat at the back of a class I taught for Literacy Partners. . . . Jocelyn must have been around 65 years old, and her first language was Creole. . . .

¶4

Her dogged determination moved me. I began to seek her out in class, and I accompanied her to the job-bank computers at Federal Plaza in order to assist her in reading helpwanted advertisements. . . . Over time, I found myself thinking more about the diversity of the City and the implications of immigration over generations. It was Jocelyn who revealed to me the tribulations of immigrants in American firsthand. . . .

¶8

My father could never have known how literally I would take his words. Throughout my life, his advice has taunted me into choosing the more unusual route, the road less travelled. His throwaway line, tossed into the wind as an afterthought, continues to push me, to set me on new paths of discovery. I cannot imagine entering law school as the person I was when I graduated from college. It is only now that I can begin to understand the fine gradations of the law’s interpretations, to realize that these interpretations aim to intersect with society and somehow change it. I seek to hone my experiences through further education, especially through the lens of law, in order to understand and help shape our world, in order to learn all I can. (Owens 116-118) I I I. O rganizing the Statement Here is the basic structure of Katherine Christine Hughes’ essay: ¶ 1 Introduction: Grabs attention with a disparate list of facts. (Other options: plop reader into a location, into a scene (in medias res), into a conversation.) ¶ 2 Flashback to childhood: Helps reader to learn where you come from. Thesis: “I have kept my father’s words “learn all ya can, kid” with me.” This will sentence will be threaded throughout the essay. ¶ 3 Flashback to college—academic struggles (possibly accounting for less-than- stellar grades), living abroad (diversity), skill set acquired at Emerson (writing, critical thinking, reading), determination to graduate on time (self-motivation), waitressing (work ethic). ¶ 4 Relating encounter with Haitian immigrant (shows author’s compassion, community service, nascent interest in immigration law). ¶ 5 Insights culled by this encounter (shows social conscience, growing interest in immigration law). ¶ 8 Conclusion: Links back to earlier advice from father. A very specific discussion of why she is now ready to pursue law.

I V . B rainstorming List three of your traits that you think would impress the admissions officer.

Capture here notes for a narrative that SHOWS how you came by each trait.

V . General W riting T ips: BAD Poor writing: wordy, confusing, incorrect, too informal.

G O O D! Strong writing: concise, clear, correct, powerful (show, don’t tell), appropriate. Have several people look over your statement before you send it off. SEVERAL! Sending a customized essay to the Customizing your essay to each school. WRONG SCHOOL. Showing the school that you’ve done your homework. Lying. Telling the truth. HOWEVER, if (and only if) you need to discuss bad grades and/or a low LSAT, do so in an addendum, a brief letter that accompanies your personal statement. Writing a vague, boring essay that never Focused writing that SHOWS who you are, moves beyond platitudes and where you come from, where you are generalizations such as “I’ve always going, and why you have chosen this path wanted to be a lawyer” or “everyone says I to get there. should be a lawyer” or “I want to change the world.” Repeating information found elsewhere in Using this opportunity to say what isn’t your application materials. revealed in your application materials.

Failing to stick to the length requirement. Joking around, especially in ways that call into question your professionalism, your intellectual commitment, your ethics, your intelligence and good judgment. Also, you might consider how social media sites are depicting you. Projecting too much into the FUTURE. Plans change + you know far less about law school and practicing law than the individuals reviewing your statement. If you presume to know too much, they may view you as naĂŻve and/or cocky. Writing a standard essay. Waiting until the last minute to write this statement.

Sticking to the length requirement. You want them to see that you can follow directions. Project a personality, but preferably in ways that highlight characteristics your audience will value: determination, intellectual curiosity, resilience, a strong work ethic, diversity, critical thinking, maturity, experience. Always keep in mind that your audience values the law profession and will be selective in choosing who joins it. Focus on one or two key moments, achievements, projects, etc. in the PAST that helped define who you are. Focus on HOW you were impacted. For example, just studying abroad is not enough; loads of people study abroad. However, while studying abroad did you meet someone or visit a place that impacted you? How? Writing a narrative that is compellingâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; vivid, suspenseful, telling. Beginning now and working and reworking your personal statement.

Bibliography: Owens, Eric. Law School Essays that Made a Difference. 4th ed. New York: Random House, 2010. Print. Contact information: Nancy Wilson, Texas State Writing Center, Flowers Hall G09, 512.245.3018. www.writingcenter.txstate.edu.

Pre Law Handbook Department of Political Science & Department of Philosophy August 25, 2011

Department of Political Science 601 University Drive, ELA 266 San Marcos, TX 78666-4616 (512) 245-2143 (512) 245-7815 Texas State UniversitySan Marcos is a member of the Texas State University System

CONTENTS

1. PreLaw Advising at Texas State...........................................................p. 3

2. Frequently Asked Questions..................................................................p. 5

3. The PreLaw Course of Study...............................................................p. 11

4. Some Thoughts About Law School......................................................p. 21

5. Financing Law School……..................................................................p. 24 6. Diversity in Law School……………………………………………..p. 29

Pre Law Advising at Texas State Departments of Political Science and Philosophy Faculty: The Departments of Political Science and Philosophy at Texas State have a number of faculty members who are educated and experienced in the law. Professor Vicki Brittain, B.A., Southwestern College; J.D., Washburn University. Professor Christopher Brown, B.A., Northwestern University; M.P.A., J.D., University of Texas at Austin Professor Lynn Crossett, B.B.A., University of Texas at Austin; J.D., Texas Tech University Professor Paul Kens, B.A., NorthernIllinois University; J.D., Ph.D., The University of Texas at Austin. Professor Vincent Luizzi, A.B. University of Rochester; J,D., Boston University School of Law; Ph.D. University of Pennsylvania. Professor Kenneth Ward, B.A., Drew University; J.D., Yale University; M. Phil., Ph.D., Columbia University. Professor Walter Wright, B.A., J.D., University Houston; LL. M., New York University. Other members of the faculty have special interest in administrative law, international law and the law of foreign countries. Still others strive to improve their students' analytical and communications skills through courses in political philosophy. Department of Political Science Pre Law Advisor phone email office Prof. Paul Kens 53260 pk05 ELA336 Prof. Kenneth Ward 52068 kw12 ELA237 Department of Philosophy Prof. Vincent Luizzi 52285 vl01 PSY 130A The pre law advisors are here to help you with questions about courses of study in preparation for law school, the LSAT, application to law school, and the law school experience.

General advising for political science and philosophy students is provided by the department undergraduate advisors who are available to answer your questions about the requirements and general course of study for majors and minors in political science and philosophy, respectively. Prof. Sherri Mora 57427 sm43 ELA250 Prof. Vincent Luizzi 52285 v101 PSY130A

F requently Asked Q uestions Concerning L aw School A dmissions 1. Is there a pre law major? No, there is not a pre law major or minor at Texas State. This is not unusual. Typically, pre law students must fulfill the requirements of a specific major and take electives to round out their preparation for law school. 2. Is any major best for law school? Again, the answer is no. Law schools seek students who write clearly and logically, and who think analytically. Prospective law students should keep this in mind when selecting courses as well as majors. Remember that logical thinking comprises a significant percentage of the law school admissions test (LSAT), which must be taken by all law school applicants. 3. Do law schools consider the major of the applicant? The answer to this question is a qualified no. Law schools do not consider one major superior to another as preparation for legal studies. Law schools, however, do take into consideration the difficulty of the applicant’s college program. For example, when considering an applicant’s grades, some law schools recognize that some majors (such as the sciences and math) produce significantly lower grades. 4. What courses should I take to prepare me for law school? Our first advice is to study subjects that interest you the things you like and do very well. Our second piece of advice is to take courses that will: 1) improve your analytical ability; and 2) improve your writing and communication skills. 5. Do I really want to go to law school? Some people go to law school because they have been accepted and do not believe they have anything better to do. In most cases, they would be better off deferring their admission and thinking about why to go to law school. Law school is expensive, time consuming, and stressful. While there are great advantages to having a law school degree and while many people find law school an exhilarating intellectual experience, the advantages of a law school degree for someone who does not want to practice law will often be offset by these costs. Moreover, it is likely that your performance in law school will reflect your lack of interest, and thereby further reduce the value of your law degree. Before deciding to go to law school, you should talk to law school placement officers, lawyers, and other professionals you know. Consider: (1) the expense and time needed to obtain the degree; (2) the type of jobs that law school graduates obtain (pay, hours, nature of the work-don’t forget to consider non-traditional job opportunities open to people with law degrees); and (3) the opportunities you foreclose by going to law school. 6. Should I work before I go to law school? Working before law school can be advantageous, and thus, it is not surprising that the average age of law students has been increasing. By deferring law school, you gain time to make certain that you really want to go to law school as you experience the working world. Moreover, work experience might give you a better sense of your interests, and might influence your course

selections should you decide to go to law school. Also, the discipline and organizational skills one gains from a work environment might enhance your performance in law school. Working before law school can also ease the burden of your first year, which is usually the most difficult time in law school. It allows you to save money so that you can concentrate on law, and not have to work part time during this period of intense study. Finally, if you believe that your undergraduate record does not qualify you for the law school you wish to attend, professional experience can sometimes strengthen your application. Professional experience allows you to develop new skills--or demonstrate old skills that were not previously evident--and some admission committees might think that your work experience makes you a more interesting candidate. 7. When do I begin the application process? If you want to start law school immediately after college, you should formulate a strategy for the application process by your junior year. But, as is often the case, it pays to plan early. If you think you might be interested in law school, gather information during your freshman and sophomore years. Talk to people who know about law school, including professors, students, recent graduates and even lawyers. Also, keep in mind that maintaining a high G.P.A. works to your advantage whether or not you decide to apply to law school. 8. How important is the LSAT? The LSAT is very important (perhaps too important). Most law schools will count it as much--if not more--than your G.P.A. Together, the LSAT and G.P.A. will largely determine your admission chances at most law schools. 9. When should I take the LSAT? The LSAT is offered in June, twice in the fall semester--usually in early October and early December--and in February. Remember, it is very much to your advantage to only take the LSAT once. Therefore, you should take the exam at a time that you feel will maximize your score. Consider the time you have to study given class work and other commitments--it is smart to take a reduced class load the semester you prepare for the LSAT. You should also consider the time you will need to prepare your law school applications (getting applications in early might increase your chances of admission to some law schools). While it is best to take the June or October exams--when you will have less stress from class work-- it is better to take the June exam. Taking the June exam allows you to spend the summer putting your applications in order. Moreover, if you do not feel ready for the exam, you can continue your preparations and take the October exam instead. (Note: if you are thinking about working after graduation and applying to law school later, you should take the exam at a time that you think will maximize your score. Remember, it still might be to your advantage to take the exam while college insulates you from the rigors of the working world.) 10. Should I retake the test if I am disappointed with my score? If you are disappointed with your score or if you think you would do much better if you took the exam again, consult with a pre-law advisor about taking the test again. In most cases, though not all, law schools will not be impressed by multiple scores. Though the LSDAS (Law

School Data Assembly Service) policy is to average multiple scores, individual schools seem to vary in their response to multiple scores. 11. How can I find out more about the LSAT? The Law School Admission Council (LSAC) provides a great deal of information on its website: www.lsac.org. This includes LSAT dates and deadlines, prep tools, as well as law school and financial aid information. Information is also available on campus at the Texas State Student Learning Assistance Center (phone 5-2515). 12. Do I have to study for the exam? You should be familiar, and ideally, comfortable with the exam before you take it. Taking practice exams is an excellent idea. In addition to the LSAC website (www.lsac.org), most book stores have materials about how to do well on the LSAT, and often, these materials contain practice exams. When taking practice exams, you should strive to maintain the conditions--especially the time pressure--that will exist at the actual exam. 13. Should I take a preparation course? Many students find that prep courses provide a regimented environment in which they become familiar with the exam and learn strategies for grappling with the more difficult questions. But remember, prep courses are expensive--although it is worth asking whether the company offering the course provides special discounts or financial aid. For some people, these courses might not be worth the time and money. Students who excel at standardized exams or are highly disciplined, for example, might not need to take such a course. In addition, students waste their time and money when they don't put forth the effort to take advantage of the classes and testing opportunities offered by a prep course. One of the best things to do is to talk with graduates--or soon to be graduates--who have successfully navigated the law school application process, and gather their impressions about what they believe contributed to their success. 14. Do law schools look beyond an applicant’s G.P.A. and LSAT score? Although your G.P.A. and LSAT score largely determine your admission chances at most law schools, some schools consider other parts of your application materials. Moreover, at many schools, these materials become more important as admission committees must choose among those whose G.P.As and LSAT scores place them in the middle of the applicant pool. (a.) Letters of Reference Letters of reference are helpful when they come from someone in a position to evaluate your academic skills. Specific examples of papers you have written or comments you have made in class demonstrate that a person is familiar with your work. Choose references that know your work well and who are willing to write a strong letter. Though difficult, it is helpful to ask a reference if they feel comfortable writing a strong letter that will help your application. A vague letter from an important professor will not be helpful. Remember, you can improve the recommendations you receive by helping your references. Give them opportunity to complete the letter without time pressure, and provide them materials (exams, papers, resumes, transcripts or refresh their memories about class discussions) that will help them write detailed letters--it is also good to provide your references with stamped envelops. In addition, reference letters can be

used to communicate other information about your application. For example, a reference can comment on the difficulty of your program, can emphasize your interest in a field, or describe your new found love of academic work. Non-academic references are not usually helpful, although there is an important exception: If you have been out of school for a period of time, an employer can write--again detailed recommendations are best--about your analytical abilities, writing skills, and industriousness. Also, non-academic references can be helpful if they identify abilities that you have that are somehow related to your law school plans. If possible, you should also submit an academic reference. Finally, remember that people like to be thanked for their reference and to be told where you end up going to school. (b.) Essays and Personal Statements Admission committees will read these essays, and at a minimum, will consider them evidence of your ability (or inability!) to write clearly, grammatically, and coherently. Make sure that someone with good editing skills reviews your essay. It should be well written and mistake free. As for substance, these essays provide your only opportunity to catch the attention of the admissions committee. You help your application to the extent that these essays reveal something of your personality in a way that makes an admissions committee think this is someone who might be interesting to have in a class. Keep in mind that admission committees get many letters that address the theme of “why I always wanted to be a lawyer;” such letters are not helpful. In addition, the essays provide an opportunity to clarify your application. Why was your G.P.A. unusually low one semester, how do certain experiences explain your interest in law, or, if you are an older student, discuss what you did during the break in your education--for example, you might have raised a family or had experience in the military. 15. How many schools should I apply to? You should apply to as many law schools as necessary to make you confident that you will be admitted to a school that you wish to attend. If you have unlimited resources--and too much free time--then you might apply to many law schools in which admission is a long shot. Most people do not want to spend lots of time and money applying to schools for which they have little hope of getting admitted. A better, and common strategy, is to pick a few '"dream schools," schools that you would really like to attend but feel that your chances of admission are not very good (there is a reason that Harvard gets so many applications each year). You should also pick a few safety schools, places where you feel certain of admission, and more importantly, where you would actually go. Finally, concentrate your resources on schools at which you are competitive--where your chances of admission are roughly 40% to 60%, and where you would like to go (sometimes, you can increase your chances at these schools by targeting applications to those whose student body does not include many people from the southwest). The Prelaw Handbook, published annually by the American Association of Law Schools and the Law School Admission Council, provides information that will allow you to make reasonable guesses as to your chance of admission to different schools given your G.P.A. and L.S.A.T score. For a list of Texas Law Schools, see Appendix A. 16. Is there any advantage to submitting my applications early?

In addition to the comfort of not having applications hanging over your head, it is sometimes to your advantage to submit your applications as early as possible--and by January 1 at the latest. Some schools have “rolling admissions,” which means that they evaluate applications as they receive them. In years in which the application pool is unusually competitive, these schools might admit too many students early in the year, and thus your chances of admission could diminish as the year progresses. 17. Is there anything I can do after my applications are submitted? You should make sure that the schools have received your entire application--not all schools will tell you when your application is complete. If a school is wavering about whether to admit you or if a school places you on a waiting list, it might pay to contact someone in the admissions’ office and find out if there is anything else you can provide to strengthen your application--additional recommendations, a fall grade report, or an additional essay might be helpful. Most law schools do not conduct personal interviews, but it wouldn't hurt to ask if one can be arranged. Showing interest in your application demonstrates enthusiasm about attending their law school. Often that is helpful, but you must be careful not to allow reasonable enthusiasm to be regarded as annoying pestering. 18. How do I choose among the law schools that admit me? You should consider the reputation of the school, the tuition and other costs of attending the school, the employment opportunities enjoyed by alumni of the school, the location of the school, and the academic and social environment at the school. While it is to your advantage to choose a school with a better reputation, it is often difficult to determine among schools with comparable reputations. There are different sources that rank law schools (the U.S. News and World Report is the most famous of these, and reliance on this source has been discouraged by the deans of many law schools), but remember that the rankings change over time and there is often little difference among schools clustered together. One would be hard pressed to distinguish the twentieth ranked school from the school ranked twenty-fifth. When choosing among schools that are roughly comparable, you should consider what aspects of your legal education are most important to you, and compare those schools along those specific dimensions. Where do their students get jobs and what types of jobs do they get? Do you want to attend a large school or a small school, one with a reputation for competitiveness among students or one with a collegial reputation, a school that offers an active social life or one in which students keep to themselves, a school located in a rural or an urban environment? At this stage, it pays to visit schools, sit in on classes and get a sense of the environment at different schools. 19. Where can I find more information about the law school application process? Probably the best source for information concerning the law school application process is the website of the Law School Admission Council (LSAC) at www.lsac.org.

Appendix A: Texas Law Schools Baylor University St. Mary's University Southern Methodist University South Texas School of Law Texas Southern University Texas Tech University Texas Wesleyan University University of Houston University of Texas at Austin

The Pre Law Course of Study at Texas State

Political Science and Philosophy as Majors or Minors for Pre Law Students Texas State offers a wide variety of courses to suit students with diverse interests. While the political science and philosophy departments offer a number of courses of special interest to pre law students, remember to investigate relevant courses offered by other departments, such as the College of Business. More importantly, remember that how well you perform in a course often depends on your interest in that subject; law schools do not base admission decisions on the majors of the applicants. Major in a field that interests you! Political Science: All political science majors must take a minimum of 30 hours in political science. These thirty hours must include one advanced course in four of the five fields within political science. Below, we have listed the courses in these fields that should be of interest to pre law students. I. Political Theory V. Public Law and Public Administration 3331 American Political Thought 3310 Constitutional Law 3311 Constitutional Law: Individual Liberties II. American Government 3312 Constitutional Law: Civil Rights 3305 The American Founding 4302 Legal Theories and Research 3314 State and Local Government 4303 Civil Law in American Society 4304 Issues in Law and Public Policy III. Comparative Government 4311 The Supreme Court and Jud. Process 4313 Islamic Law and Politics 4361 Administrative Law IV. International Relations 4356 International Law Courses of Special interest to Pre law students: POSI 3310 Constitutional Law: Structures and Principles. (30) A case study approach to an analysis of fundamental principles of governmental structure with an emphasis on the office and powers of the President and intergovernmental relationships in the main body (Articles I through VII) of the U.S. Constitution. POSI 3311 Constitutional Law: Individual Liberties. (30) An examination of that area of Constitutional interpretation commonly known as Civil Liberties or the relations between the individual and the government. POSI 3312 Constitutional Law: Civil Rights. (30) A thorough and rigorous analysis of the development of Civil Rights in the United States including Congressional statutes, constitutional amendments, and decisions of the Supreme Court.

POSI 4302 Legal Theories and Research: (30) The course examines the American Legal System at both the state and federal levels involving civil and criminal procedure. Emphasis is on the process of these systems and the framework within which disputes are resolved. Students will become familiar with legal research methods so as to better understand the composition of legal options. POSI 4303 Civil Law & American Society: (30) This course considers in structure and functions of government together with the law regulating private social relations, i.e., contract law, property law, tort law, and the causal relations between legal policies and societal goals and regulations. POSI 4304 Issues in Law and Public Policy (30) This course examines contemporary legal issues by focusing on their relationship to public policy. Selected topics will vary, i.e., AIDS, abortion, affirmative action/reverse discrimination, capital punishment, environmental protection, euthanasia and surrogate motherhood. In connection with these controversial issues we will address: (1) alternative views; (2) social consequences; and, (3) political responses to and legal issues resulting from alternative positions. POSI 4311 The Supreme Court and the Judicial Process, (30) An intensive examination of the judiciary, focusing upon the politics of judicial selection and the decisionmaking process of the judiciary as well as the position of the judiciary in the entire political process: Prerequisite: Political Science 3310 or 3311, or permission of the instructor. POSI 4356 International Law, (30) This course will examine the nature, sources, and development of international law as both a legal and political process. Areas to be studied include: The law of treaties, acquisition of personality, territorial jurisdiction, the law of the sea, land and air, diplomatic immunities, nationally. state responsibility, human rights, and the law of war. Students will do research on contemporary international problems and participate in a Moot International Court of Justice (ICI) proceeding. POSI 4313 Islamic Law & Politics, (30) This course is a study of the law, origins, development, divisions, and politics of Islam. Special emphasis will be given to law, political thought, history and the culture of the Middle East. Topics covered include Muslim law and political institutions, the Arab and Persian roles in Islam; the Islamic Community as a political system; major points of the Islamic faith and their political significance and the political and historical significance of Muslim mysticism. POSI 4361 Administrative Law, (30) Course stresses the legal principles and practical doctrines involved in the work of administrative tribunals vested with quasilegislative or quasijudicial powers or both. Primary focus on development, practice, and procedures of federal administrative agencies.

Philosophy Courses of Interest to All Pre Law Students The study of philosophy offers pre law students opportunities to develop their skills of arguing and thinking logically and to study substantive matters related to law like the nature of justice, law, ethics, and society. Some pre law students choose philosophy as a major or minor for these reasons. Attached is a copy of Professor Luizzi’s article, “Philosophy in Legal Education,” which explores the utility of philosophy for lawyers. Requirements for the Major and Minor The 30 hour major requires 12 hours of lower division philosophy and 18 hours of advanced philosophy. The 18 hour minor requires six hours of lower division philosophy and 12 hours of advanced philosophy. Details are in the catalog. Below is a list of philosophy courses of special interest to pre law students which can be used to build a minor or major. A New Minor in Value Studies The Department of Philosophy began offering a Minor in Value Studies in 1997. This minor may be of special interest to some pre law students, given that it culminates in an independent research project. The research project can take the form of a values internship where the student investigates value issues in such work settings as a court or a law or government office. Details are in the catalog. Philosophy Courses of Special Interest to Pre Law Students: PHIL 1330 Reasoning and Analysis Study of informal fallacies, valid argument forms, problem solving strategies, language clarification, and application of analytic skills. PHIL 2330 Elementary Logic A study of the nature and forms of correct reasoning, inductive and deductive. PHIL 3340 Symbolic Logic A study of the logic of propositions through propositional calculi, formal proofs, and firstorder functional calculi. PHIL 3320 Ethics A study of classical and contemporary inquiries into our knowledge of the good and the grounds of moral obligation. PHIL 3321 Contemporary Moral Problems Exploration of philosophical dimensions of such contemporary moral problems as abortion, euthanasia, poverty, animal rights, nuclear war, and privacy in a computer age. PHIL 3322 Business and Professional Ethics Study of major topics in business and professional ethics, including what a profession is, whether it differs from business, and what is involved with the moral education, social responsibilities, and ethical standards of professionals and business people.

PHIL 3323 Environmental Ethics Study of ethical issues associated with the environment, including the nature, use, preservation, and restoration of the environment. PHIL 3331 Philosophy of Law The major theses which have been set forth in the history of jurisprudence including foundations of law, natural law, legal positivism, and the judicial process. PHIL 3332 Social and Political Philosophy Critical examination of major theories concerning the organization of societies and governments.

PHILOSOPHY IN LEGAL EDUCATION Vincent Luizzi* American legal education displays a privation when philosophy and its methods play no or only a casual role in molding the modern lawyer. The satisfaction of this need for philosophy brings with it multiple benefits for the law student. I hope to clarify and expand this thesis in what follows. The Need for Philosophy and Specific Courses to Meet the Need Now the legal profession is a profession where much turns on the argument, its development, and evaluation; arguments are essential parts of any trial, brief, or opinion. The profession should then necessarily be concerned with developing good arguers. The question is how. On the one hand, there is the view or, more accurately, myth, that legal argumentation is a peculiar breed or separate department of reasoning. At best, this orientation provides a glass house asylum for those holding that law schools teach law students to think like lawyers. For it is the case (and this is the other school of thought) that right thinking in the law involves nothing more than the traditional modes of inference—inductive and deductive.1 On this view, it is conceded that legal reasoning draws on a specialized vocabulary and particular modes of analysis more so than other areas of inquiry and problem solving. But that we see more occurrences in legal discourse of analogical reasoning, balancing tests, specialized talk of the interests of society and the individual, costs and benefits, good faith, and reasonableness does not imply that the reasoning involved is unique or at all departs from the fundamental principles of human ratiocination. If so, it follows that only good thinkers can be good legal thinkers. And since philosophy and logic are where one turns to build logical muscle tone, the good legal thinker should have some philosophy under his belt. While I am not suggesting that anyone needs a course in logic or training in philosophy to think, it is the case that philosophy is the province where the principles of thought are analyzed and employed in their strictest form such that students exposed to it cannot help but become better, more careful arguers.2 It thus seems that some course in practical or applied logic and the construction of arguments would be well suited for a law curriculum. *

Chair and Professor of Philosophy, Texas State UniversitySan Marcos. A.B., University of Rochester; J.D., Boston University School of Law; Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania. 1 As is probably already apparent. I am writing, to a certain extent, from a testimonial posture, offering what may be analogous to the informed opinion or conclusion of the expert witness in the courtroom. Arguments as to why legal reasoning should not properly be considered as a unique mode of reasoning, I believe, are more appropriate for our journals of jurisprudence and legal philosophy. 2 Hume made the point that philosophy can be helpful to all of the arts and professions, including law: “... we may observe, in every art or profession, even those which most concern life or action, that a spirit of accuracy, however acquired, carries all of them nearer their perfection, and renders them more subservient to the interests of society. And though a philosopher may live remote from business, the genius of philosophy, if carefully cultivated by several, must gradually diffuse itself throughout the whole society, and bestow a similar correctness on every art and calling. The politicians will acquire greater foresight and subtlety, in the subdividing and balancing of power; the lawyer more method and finer principles in his reasoning; and the general more regularity in his discipline, and more

Besides instruction in logic, it would seem that to avoid a shallow grasp or even a total failure to apprehend the jurisprudential and moral underpinnings of our legal system, a course in legal and moral philosophy should occupy some claim on the law student’s time. By moral philosophy I do not mean simply a course in professional ethics where a survey is made of how the former canons or the present disciplinary rules have been interpreted in disciplinary proceedings. I speak of exposure to fundamental values upon which the legal system rests. Few are aware of historical and contemporary thought on the value of freedom for a legal system. Awareness, however, of the foundational Enlightenment view that without freedom one cannot function as a moral agent and the contemporary expression of the theme that the development of healthy personality and society is intimately intertwined with one’s ability to act freely gives important content to values as freedom. Without such firm root in reason and experience, such values can be treated more as sacred entities to revere and preserve for their own sake rather than as valuable commodities that we need for a well functioning society and legal system. Without this content, erosion of such fundamental values cannot be understood as being a threat to the healthy development of society. Another reason for such instruction is this. In law, concepts as the “legal system,” “legal and moral rules,” “morality,” “human nature,” “the good of society," "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "justice," "injustice," "rights," "duties," "privileges" and the like are all tossed about undoubtedly as responsibly and accurately as is practicable. But lawyers and judges are engaged in the demanding pursuit of the resolution of practical legal problems and have neither the time nor equipment to obtain a very precise understanding of these vitally functional concepts. Accordingly, they need, and should demand, professional assistance in acquiring such information and the only group specifically trained in the careful analysis of such are legal and moral philosophers. This is not only a call for the legal profession to turn to philosophy but also for philosophers to recognize that their audience need not be other philosophers which has been the cause of much inbred debating both to the disservice of the profession of philosophy and the public. Bonus Benefits from Studying Philosophy The study of philosophy is replete with benefits. In the pursuit of any form of philosophy, one always prospers by acquiring, in addition to an exposure to the subject matter, more powerful, analytical reasoning abilities. One becomes more logical and can more readily perceive errors in reasoning. Now it is the case that the law student expends no special effort to search for and uncover logical error in judicial reasoning. Let us explore this observation. Along these lines it is interesting to contrast the orientation of the law student with that of the philosophy graduate student. Both are required to construct and analyze arguments but each perceives quite differently the discovery and existence of logical error. The philosophy graduate student cautious in his plans and operations.” D. Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748). If we can agree with Hume that the rewards of philosophy are great, it seems we should be willing to insure that professionals, lawyers included, are exposed to it rather than embracing, as Hume did, a blind confidence in the spirit of philosophy diffusing through society.

searches for it and considers it fatal for an argument whereas it seems to play a lesser role in the world of the law student. This is the case for the law student, I think, for two reasons primarily: (1) lack of exposure to strict logical argumentation and (2) his cognizance of the workings of the legal system wherein the conclusion of a judicial opinion, or the rule of law the case can be seen as standing for, is still law even if it was erroneously arrived at; he recognizes that at some later time the court can simply revise its reasoning and retain the conclusion; he is aware that the argument is not the beall and endall, since his discovery of error need not have any practical results. But because of this is does not follow that the existence of logical error should not be conceptualized by the law student as serious. It would be paradoxical for the results of illreasoning logical error to be taken lightly when a profession is using reason, of course informed by experience, as its primary tool to arrive at correct results. It thus seems That while we might not want our lawyers to be philosophers, we might agree that they should be more like philosophers with regard to their shared domain reason and argument. If so, studying philosophy can be seen as an advantageous pursuit. More needs to be said about our observations in (2) above. One of the serious dangers this presents is that it can lead to confusion over the function of reason. That wrong reasoning may lead to a conclusion or rule of law we may be forced to stick to for a time does not imply that the reasoning itself is not terribly important and that any will do. The main purpose of the judicial opinion is not to give an opinion with which one may agree or disagree but rather it is to provide a justification for the decision, an argument for why the decision should be accepted by the community. The justification is to be a product of careful reasoning about the matter at hand, and the legal community is called upon to evaluate that reasoning. Accordingly, if such evaluation is to be cogent, there should be an attitude among members of the profession that one can tell when a piece of reasoning is faulty. Any other attitude would be skeptical and would lead to arbitrariness; it would deny what is true that right reasoning proceeds via standards and it is by reference to such standards that we evaluate reasoning as right or wrong. Without such means of attacking a faulty justification, the legal profession is forced to construct merely external critiques of opinions based on general principles of policy and models drawing on the lingo of economists and the business world to explain why an opinion may not be acceptable. In consequence, it may never get to the heart of the reasoning of the court. Training in philosophy could help prevent this. Exposure to philosophy can also enrich the lawyer’s analyses by providing models for arguing that go to the structure of thought itself. This is not to suggest that thought is to proceed in an uninformed manner apart from the advice of experience. Nor is it meant as an attempt to counter the Holmesian adage that “the life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience.” For Holmes’ insight, it should be noted, says something only about the law not the life of the legal profession. About lawyers and the legal profession, Sir Robert Morton, the renowned defense attorney in The Winslow Boy, makes the appropriate observation: “Cold, clear logic and buckets of it should be the lawyer’s only equipment.”3 3

Rattigan, The Winslow Boy, The Law in Literature 131 (1960)

Along these lines, it might be noted that one of the few models for dealing with problems that the law student is expected to conform to is that of the identification or spotting of issues concealed in narratives on examinations. His orientation becomes that of gaining knowledge that certain problems exist, knowledge that; he is without any formal training in, and exposure to, models for the cogent solution of problems, a knowledge how. His notion of solutions to problems might ultimately be cognized as predictions of how various courts might dispose of the issues. This can lead to a mind turning to case authority alone rather than employing panoply of techniques to effect creative solutions that are consistent with but not solely dictated by precedent. And the advantages of developing law students able to effect cogent and inspired solutions in addition to molding students knowledgeable of what the law is extend beyond simply creating more able lawyers. For much of the discourse of legal opinions is shaped by the manner in which the issues are framed and argued to the court. Accordingly, we expect that as the input mechanism is enriched, so too will the output. A final benefit philosophy brings is that the law student becomes more attuned to the guiding ideals of legal systems as expressed by leading social philosophies. Awareness of the possibilities and the need for an informed choice is essential if one’s operation within some system is to be directed toward a goal or be consistent with some overarching societal aims. Legal activity in the mind of the lawyer can be seen as divorced from the progress of society if society’s goals are imperfectly perceived. On the other hand, activity that is goal directed is characteristically and fundamentally rational human activity; one actualizes his potential as a rational agent as he formulates his plans in accord with clearly perceived long range goals and executes them. Probably little can be said to dispel traditional and deep seated prejudices and misunderstandings about philosophers and what they are about. Philosophers are accused of spinning theories that fly in the face of experience; one is dubbed a philosopher when he points to the unrealistic, idealistic solutions to pressing issues or when his contact with reality is tenuous. All such views are, however, wrongheaded and anyone holding them pragmatically self contradicts himself, as the very person making such charges that philosophers are out of touch is totally out of touch with what philosophers are really doing. But the legal community is not forced to draw on the talents of those whom they may not trust, for whatever reason, in order to expose law students to philosophy. For there is an increasingly large number of lawyerphilosophers who have been trained formally in philosophy and law, who are sensitive to the interests, aspirations, and problems of law students, and who are, accordingly, well equipped to share with law students those aspects of a cognate area most beneficial to the law student. I leave the reader with a final thought. If he were presented with the following two blueprints for the American lawyer, which would he choose? The first is a design for producing the present

product of our law schools, there being no doubt that the product is that of a competent professional. The second is of a lawyer that is a cleaner (in the sense of more precise) arguer, one who can argue more flexibly and innovatively within the confines marked out by the law, one who is aware of, conversant with, and has opinions about current and traditional legal philosophy and jurisprudence. If the latter image is seen merely as embracing attributes that are needless flourishes, we might well leave things much as they are. but if the latter is more appealing, then we ought not simply to hoist the flag for the ideal and then march in the direction of the expedient but rather create a better state of affairs guided by the ideal we wish to achieve.

Some Thoughts About Law School

WHY DO YOU WANT TO GO TO LAW SCHOOL? “If you don't know where you're going, when you get there you'll be lost.” Yogi Berra “Why do you want to go to law school?” Or, “what do you want to do with your law degree?” Ask a prospective law student either of these questions and you may learn more from what they don't say than from what they do. Some want to save or change the world. Some want the power, prestige and money they believe comes with a law degree. Some have no idea what they want to do and find them going to law school by default. And some, the fortunate ones, decide to go to law school after careful analysis of the time, effort and money involved, with a realistic expectation of what life as a lawyer will be like and the career options a law degree will offer them. These are the prospective students we want to encourage to go to law school, the ones who will find practicing law an exciting, challenging and rewarding career. The decision to go to law school is, in itself, not a career choice. Instead, law is a field of study that offers the recipient a wide range of career options, each requiring different skills but also possessing common characteristics. The options are endless in terms of practice areas and work environments. Lawyers might find themselves arresting a ship or zoning a playground, working independently in their home or with others in a high rise corporate office. Lawyers can practice law by helping clients plan to avoid problems, by solving problems once they develop, by representing and counseling businesses in a particular industry, by representing individuals sharing a common status or problem and by appearing (or not appearing) in court. I am not suggesting all prospective law students must have decided, before entering law school, the specific career path they intend to follow. In reality, most who think they do know will change their mind many times before graduation. But I am suggesting that prospective law students need to recognize that a wide variety of career options are available. And, as a result, that they must accept responsibility for a proactive, not reactive, role in their own career planning. Students must avoid making career decisions based on the same reasons underlying their decision to enter law school for money or prestige or by default. Instead, students must use the same critical and analytical thinking skills they demonstrated to get into law school, the same skills that will be necessary to succeed in school and as a lawyer, in making their career choices. Different types of legal careers require different skills and satisfy different interests. One lawyer may negotiate the terms of an agreement for the sale of a business, another may draft the agreement, and yet another may defend the terms of the agreement in a court action. The abilities and interests necessary to flourish as a tax lawyer for a large law firm are different from those of a juvenile rights lawyer for a legal aid office. Prospective students should understand that in making decisions about what type of practice to pursue they will need to take the time to identify their own skills and interests and match them to the demands of a particular career. Different legal practices also share in varying degrees some common skills and characteristics. Skills generally required include analytical thinking, creative writing, research, communication, counseling, problem solving, negotiation and the ability to work independently.

The life of most lawyers is not full of the glamour, excitement and financial regards popularly portrayed. Lawyers must tolerate, and hopefully thrive on, the adversarial nature of law practice and the hard work, long hours, and stress of juggling numerous projects and the competing demands of clients. And although all lawyers may not necessarily agree on which features are positive and which are negative, aspiring lawyers must determine if they will enjoy a career where these features are, to a degree, inevitable. In my experience as a law school career services professional, the students who enter law school understanding the realities of law practice and then explore the career options available to them enjoy their legal career after school. The ones who go to law school with unrealistic expectations, the ones who want to save, run, or buy the world, or who believe that their decision to go to law school is the only career choice they need to make, are the ones most likely to be unhappy and dissatisfied. These are the ones who, after several years of practicing law, will return to my office and ask what else they can do with their law degree. Fortunately, more prospective students appear to be making informed choices. Law school career services directors report they have talked to more prospective law students in the last several years than in the previous ten years. This “new breed” of prospective students has an increased awareness of the realities of law practice and an increasing desire to know as much as possible about what life as a lawyer will be like and what their options will be upon graduation. It is crucial that aspiring lawyers be challenged to ask themselves why they want to go to law school and what they want to do with their law degree. Given the investment of time and money, the decision to pursue a career in law deserves careful consideration. Prospective law students should make a decision based on accurate selfanalysis, correct perceptions about the life of a lawyer and realistic expectations so they will find an exciting, challenging and rewarding career. Andrea Swanner Redding, J.D. Assistant Dean for Career Services Northwestern School of Law of Lewis & Clark College

FINANCING LAW SCHOOL The following information is excerpted from the website of the Law School Admission Council at www.lsac.org. Financial Aid: An Overview Legal education is an investment in your future and is, in most cases, a serious financial investment as well. As with any investment, it is important to consider the pros and cons of entering into such a large expenditure of effort, time, and money. Particularly in uncertain financial times, a realistic assessment of why you are seeking a legal education and how you will pay for it is critical. The single best source of information about financing a legal education is the financial aid office (or the website) of any LSACmember law school. This site provides links to many law schools as well as several good sources of financial aid information. The cost of a law school education could exceed $150,000. Tuition alone can range from a few thousand dollars to more than $50,000 a year. When calculating the total cost of attending law school, you also have to include the cost of housing, food, books, transportation, and personal expenses. Law schools will determine the student expense budget for you. Today, approximately 80 percent of law school students rely on education loans as their primary, but not exclusive, source of financial aid for law school. These loans must be paid back, and the more a student borrows, the longer the debt will have an impact on a student's life after graduation. Loans from governmental and private sources at low and moderate interest rates are available to qualified students. Both federal and private loans are based on the law school's estimate of your need and the overall cost of attendance. Credit history is a factor for private loans. Students must have excellent credit to be approved for most private loans. Typically, the lowest interest rates are associated with federal loans; private education loans are available at higher rates. Institutional loans may be available from the school. Scholarships, grants, and fellowships exist, but are limited. Some students are offered parttime employment through the federal workstudy program in their second and third years of law school. Firstyear students are expected to concentrate fully on schoolwork. Changes in financial aid rules and regulations are ongoing. Law school policies vary. Therefore, it is your responsibility to stay current and to educate yourself about financial aid in much the same way that you research law schools when deciding where to apply. In our video, Financing a Legal Education: Investing in Your Future, students and lawyers, along with law school admission and financial aid experts, talk about how to select from a number of financing strategies tailored to your particular needs, ways to cut costs while living on a budget, repayment options after graduation, and mistakes that you can avoid.

Financial Aid Options Scholarships and Grants A scholarship or grant is an award that does not have to be repaid. It may be given on the basis of need, or merit, or both. Most scholarships are conferred by individual law schools. Some organizations may also have scholarships to offer. Among them are local bar associations; fraternities, sororities, and other social clubs; religious or business organizations; and the US Department of Veterans Affairs. The availability of scholarships and grants is limited, but worth researching. Law school admission and financial aid offices can provide information about the resources available. Be aware that many scholarships and grants are meritbased and may require a certain level of academic performance for continuation. A number of companies offer tuition reimbursement benefits to their employees and to their employees' dependents as well. Federal Direct Loan ProgramSM * (Subsidized) William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan. Up to $8,500 a year is available to students who meet the need criteria.* Interest is paid by the federal government while you are enrolled in school at least half time. You must begin repaying the loan six months after you graduate, withdraw, or drop below half time. The interest rate for the subsidized William D. Ford Federal Direct loan is 6.8 percent. You can obtain an application from any lender that participates in the federal loan program, or from any law school. * (Unsubsidized) William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan. In combination with the subsidized loan, a student may borrow up to a combined total of $20,500 in subsidized and unsubsidized loans.* The amount the student receives in the subsidized loan is deducted from the $20,500 in order to determine eligibility for the unsubsidized loan (for example, if the student is only eligible for $3,000 in subsidized loans, he or she could receive $17,500 in unsubsidized loans). The interest rate for the unsubsidized William D. Ford Federal Direct loan is 6.8 percent. Interest starts accruing as soon as you receive the funds. * Graduate PLUS Loans for Law Students. Students with an absence of bad credit may be eligible to secure a Graduate PLUS loan. The Graduate PLUS is federally guaranteed and the interest rate is subsidized. Interest accrues while the student is in school, and repayment begins immediately. The interest rate is 7.9 percent. The interest rate is fixed for the life of the loan. Forbearance is available while the student is in school. Many students who have good credit are choosing Graduate PLUS instead of private loans. Federal Perkins Loan This loan is available to students at some schools. Each student's award is determined by the school based on information obtained from the FAFSA. The maximum annual loan is $8,000. Private Loans There are a number of private loan programs available to creditworthy borrowers. Some lenders make available postgraduate loans for barreview study. Eligibility for these bar loans is based on the borrower's credit history and the lending institution's willingness to lend.

The terms and conditions of these programs vary greatly. Pay careful attention to the explanations found in loan application brochures and consumer information. You can also contact the individual programs or visit their websites for further details. Federal WorkStudy Federal workstudy is a program that provides funding for students to work part time during the school year and full time during the summer months. Students sometimes work on campus in a variety of settings or in offcampus nonprofit agencies. Additional information is available from any law school financial aid office. Not all schools participate in the federal workstudy program. Credit Graduate PLUS and private loans are approved on the basis of your credit. Lenders will analyze your credit report before approving a private loan. Most offer prequalification services on the Internet or by phone. If you have a poor credit history, you may be denied a loan. If there is a mistake on your credit report—and there are often mistakes—you will want adequate time to correct the error. It is essential to clear up errors or other discrepancies before you apply for a private or Graduate PLUS loan. * NOTE: All figures and calculations are based on current interest rates, loan terms, and fees, and are subject to change. You may want to obtain a copy of your credit report so that you can track and clear up any problems. You can order your free copy from one of the major credit reporting agencies by calling 1.877.322.8228, or you can go to www.annualcreditreport.com. You may also mail a request to: Annual Credit Report Request Service PO BOX 105283 Atlanta GA 303485283

Applying for Aid Step by Step Here is a list of steps you must take to apply for financial aid. If you are applying for federal aid: 1. Start the financial aid process in January to be well in advance of the school's particular filing deadline. You should not wait until after you receive admission offers to begin the planning process. 2. Obtain the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) online or on paper from your college or university financial aid office, or from a law school to which you are applying. FAFSA is a needanalysis tool developed by the US Department of Education. As the name implies, there is no charge for the collection and processing of data or the delivery of financial aid through this form. Do not pay to process your free application. * When completing the FAFSA form, you will designate the names and school codes of up to 10 law schools to which you are applying. Additional schools may be added once the FAFSA is processed. Information on school codes is available from any law school financial aid office or at www.fafsa.ed.gov. * The FAFSA form asks for information about your income, assets, and other financial resources. Be sure to answer "yes" to the following two questions: o Are you a graduate or professional student? o Have you completed a bachelor's degree by July 1 of the year you will be attending law school? All graduate/professional students are considered independent of their parents for the federal loan programs. 3. Prepare your federal income tax returns as early as possible after the first of the year. Most schools will want to see a copy of your actual tax return, so be sure to keep a photocopy for your files. The FAFSA requires information that is requested directly from your tax return. While information packets (including the FAFSA) may be available from some law school financial aid offices in the fall, the FAFSA cannot be filed until after January 1. (It will not be accepted if received before the first of the year.) However, you can file any time after the first of the year—the earlier, the better. 4. The law schools to which you apply will determine your eligibility for federal financial aid. The amount offered by each law school will vary, and each student's financial need will be assessed individually because costs vary from school to school.

5. Once you determine the school that you will attend, you may begin the federal loan application process. You can begin your research early, however. If you are applying for institutional aid: Call, write, email, or visit the website of the financial aid office of the law schools to which you are applying. Some schools may require you to submit information in addition to the FAFSA. You may be asked to complete an institutional financial aid application or an additional form from another agency such as Need Access or CSS Profiles. It is important to know which schools require additional information. Many schools have very early filing deadlines.

DIVERSITY IN LAW SCHOOLS The following information is excerpted from the website of the Law School Admission Council at www.lsac.org. Racial/Ethnic Minority Applicants We use the term diversity broadly to include all aspects of human differences, including but not limited to socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, language, nationality, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, geography, disability, and age. Historically, minority group members have been underrepresented in the legal profession. The law school population (as well as the legal profession) does not reflect accurately the vibrant and expanding racial and ethnic population in our society. To promote diversity, law schools actively seek qualified African American, Latino, Asian, and Native American students, as well as other students of color. Law schools increasingly find that diversity within the classroom enriches the learning process for all students. Why am I considered a minority applicant? Law schools consider your ethnic or racial status to be whatever you indicate on your LSAT registration forms. This factor alone is not a guarantee of admission, but it helps admission committees form a more complete picture of who you are. They are interested in how your individual history has affected your life, including whatever disadvantages you may have overcome. Is the LSAT biased against minorities? The passages and questions on the LSAT go through a rigorous screening and pretesting process to make sure that the individual test items are not biased. The primary reason that minority test takers perform less well on the LSAT is lack of preparation. In addition, research indicates that minority group members, particularly African Americans, are more vulnerable to test anxiety than other test takers. The best way to avoid test anxiety is to prepare thoroughly for the LSAT by familiarizing yourself with the types of questions on the test and by taking disclosed (previously administered) tests. Take the entire test—not just a few sections at a time—under actual timed conditions. Do law schools apply different admission criteria to minorities? No. However, some law schools may take your race or ethnicity into account as one of many factors in a wholefile review. Each applicant may potentially offer something distinctive to a class—diversity being one factor among many. While LSAT scores and undergraduate GPAs are important factors in admission decisions, they are not the only factors. Others may include a strong letter of recommendation or personal statement, work experience, or community service that demonstrates a special interest or strength of character, diversity status that may contribute to

a robust exchange of ideas in the classroom and the law school community, graduate work or other specialized studies, and so on. All of these are factors that a law school may consider in determining if an applicant is a good fit for their law school. Law schools select from among the applicants who fall somewhere on a flexible continuum of their particular academic parameters. What part should my race or ethnicity play in my personal statement? Most law schools are genuinely interested in the overall diversity of their student body—but you must show how your race or ethnicity will contribute to the richness of the law school education of every student. It is not enough to simply state your ethnicity or even to describe your personal history as it has been affected by your ethnicity. A key strategy is to do thorough research on every law school to which you are applying and determine the diversity goals of each school. Structure your personal statement with a purpose and with these goals in mind. Keep in mind that you should follow any instructions on the application about what is expected in your personal statement. Remember that diversity is broader than ethnicity, and ethnicity is not synonymous with adversity. Do not assume that your ethnicity is the only way in which you can add to the diversity of the student body; consider your entire life experience. Also, do not assume that ethnicity must be broached in stories of hardships and misfortune. However you convey it, you are welladvised to be sincere in relaying your authentic story. Anything less will come across as contrived to the reader and will not be to your benefit. Why should I consider a career in law? A law career provides a singular opportunity to effect change both on an individual level—by representing the interests of a client—and on a global level—by setting policy or establishing a precedent in the governmental or business arenas. Additionally, you will have spent approximately three years thinking critically, reading broadly, and debating forcefully, and these skills are worthwhile in most everything you do. What actions are being taken to increase minority participation in law school and the legal profession? Individual law schools and legal organizations have worked hard to assure continued progress toward alleviating the historic shortage of minority lawyers. For example, the Law School Admission Council established a Diversity Committee, which thus far has spent in excess of $5 million on projects designed to increase the number of minority men and women who attend law schools. The American Bar Association adopted a law school standard calling for specific commitments to provide full opportunities for members of minority groups. In addition, the ABA Presidential Advisory Council on Diversity and the Law School Admission Council created the Pipeline Diversity Directory in response to the critical need to increase diversity in the educational pipeline leading to the legal profession. The Association of American Law Schools also requires that member schools provide full opportunities in legal education for minorities and has programs to increase the number of minority faculty.

Although minority participation in law school and the legal profession has increased over the last three decades, more can and is being done to attract minority men and women to the profession. Outreach efforts by the legal system can and do counteract the shortage of minority lawyers. Helpful Links Tips * Apply early. * Contact each law school you're interested in for specific information and requirements. * Prepare well for the LSAT; take timed practice tests. * Research the right school for you. * Talk to lawyers and find out what they do. * Have realistic expectations. * Know what you are getting into. * Prepare a wellthoughtout and intriguing personal statement. * Do your best academic work as an undergraduate. * Round out your portfolio with activities and leadership positions. * Attend a Law School Forum. * Reach out to and consult with prelaw advisors. Resources Various legal organizations can provide helpful insights on pursuing a legal career. This list provides a useful starting point for further research. * American Bar Association * American Indian College Fund * American Indian Law Center, Inc. * Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund * Council on Legal Education Opportunity * DiscoverLaw.org * Hispanic National Bar Association * Law School Admission Council * Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) * Minority Corporate Counsel Association * NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. * National Association of Women Judges * The National Asian Pacific American Bar Association (NAPABA) * The National Bar Association (NBA) * The National Native American Bar Association (NNABA) * North American South Asian Bar Association

* Practicing Attorneys for Law Students * The Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund (PRLDEF) * Sidley Prelaw Scholars Initiative Scholarship Opportunities * American Bar Association * American Indian College Fund * American Intellectual Property Law Education Foundation * California Bar Foundation Diversity Scholarship * Fastweb * The Gates Millennium Scholars * Hispanic College Fund * Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund * Minority Corporate Counsel Association * NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. * The National Asian Pacific American Bar Association * The Puerto Rican Bar Association Scholarship Fund * Sponsors for Educational Opportunity * United Negro College Fund (UNCF) * University of Idaho College of Law * Women Lawyers Association of Los Angeles Other * Conditional Admission Programs