The Scout 1981 Annual

annual 1981

FOR ALL

Sceuts

annual1981 edited by Peter Brooks and Bill Bruce

Page 4 6 7 8 10

13 14 17 20

The Galactic Dustbin If You Want to Know the Time ...

Crossword ... And Off To The Hills - Part One At the Tips of Our Fingers Ron Jeffries Shows You How To Make a Haybox Amusing Moments A Little Knowledge can be DANGEROUS! Rescue!

Life Around the Oak Tree

22 24 27 28 30 32 33 34

The Aviation Record Makers Owls ... And Off To The Hills - Part Two Swimming Safety I'd Love An Ice Cream Make Your Own Pottery More Amusing Moments Life Around the Oak Tree (2)

36 40

Today's The Day! Ron Jeffries Shows You How To ...

Make a Ladder Water Power The Growth of Aviation - 1919 to 1980 Volcano!

Crossword ... And Off To The Hills - Part Three Corn Dollies Even More Amusing Moments In Search of Hooves with Antlers Making Paper At Home ... And Off To The Hills - Part Four Ron Jeffries Shows You How To ...

Make a Charcoal Dustbin-Lid Fire

12

Our Front Cover shows Philip Hill of the 25th Enfield Scout Troop crossing a Monkey Bridge over the 'Bomb Hole' at Danemead Scout Camp Site in Hertfordshire. Photograph by, Peter Brooks.

Back Cover Abseilling - the second quickest way of getting down a rock face, as it is known in rock climbing circles. Photograph by John Elliot. Top Right Stuart Peyton and Maurice Julian check the route during their Advanced Scout Standard hike in Devon.

... AND OFF TO THE HILLS

41 44 48 51 52 54 56 57 60 61 62

Geoff Platt John Deft Peter Walden Dave Budgen Bill Bruce

David Easton David Harwood Bill Bruce Alan Wrangles and Brian Robertshaw Peter Stuckey Jack Cox Dave Budgen

John Deft David Easton Alan Wrangles and Brian Robertshaw --_..:::;;:;~

lan Hughes Smith Peter Stuckey Peter Brooks Peter Walden Dave Budgen John Deft David Easton Jack Cox John Deft Dave Budgen

~WORLD

p.a.

SWIMMING SAFETY

Copyright Š MCMLXXX BY World International Publishing Limited.

All rights reserved throughout the world.

Published in Great Britain by World International Publishing Limited.

A Pentos Company, Box 111. 12 Lever Street. Manchester M60 lTS. Printed in Italy.

SBN 723565856.

...... :.:.~

THE GALACTIC DUSTBIN

IN SEARCH OF HOOVES WITH ANTLERS

The GtlltlctlcDustbin Man has always been fascinated by the sky above and has wondered about what lies beyond ...

Over one hundred miles above our heads, the atmosphere, which helps to support life on this planet, gives way to something that is quite different - space. There is no air to breathe and no protection from the harmful effects of radiation or from a collision with a meteor.

Space exploration has occupied man's mind for many centuries, but it wasn't until the second half of this century that science and technology enabled him to escape the earth's atmosphere and study the 'vast blue yonder'.

On October 4th, 1957, the first artificial satellite was launched from Russia. Sputnik 1 was the first manmade object to orbit in space and it carried instruments for sending scientific information back to earth.

Sputnik 1 (meaning 'Fellow Traveller 1') orbited the earth for 92 days before gravity drew it back towards the earth and the heat caused by its re-entry into the atmosphere destroyed it.

Since that famous flight literally hundreds of satellites and spacecraft, of different descriptions, have been sent into the heavens. Most of them have been put there by the Americans and Russians, although Britain, China, France, Italy and Japan have also launched a few.

The early satellites were used for scientific research but gradually scientists planned to use them for more practical applications ...

The first communications satellite was launched in 1960 by the U.S.A. and it was called Echo 1. This was an aluminium covered balloon and it reflected radio signals that were beamed to it from earth. In 1962, perhaps the most famous communications satellite was launchedTelstar. This received television pictures and relayed them across the Atlantic.

Today the satellites can transmit radio, television and telephone signals, forecast the weather, detect nuclear explosions, survey the earth's resources, detect pollution, act as a navigational aid for aircraft, study other planets and stars and ... keep a watchful eye on other countries' satellites!

All these artificial 'moons' carry names which, to a space scientist, indicate the satellite's purpose, but to you and I may seem rather strange:

1. In telsat A communications satellite. A number of these provide radio, television and telephone links around the world.

geological formations, ocean currents, health of crops and so on.

2. Weather Satellite An American device for giVing information about weather patterns. It transmits photographs of these patterns every hour.

Vanguard, Tiros, Midas, Syncom, Vela, Snapshot, Intelsat, Cosmos, Dodge, Zond, Molniya and Erts!

What happens to all these pieces of metal when they have finished their jobs or when they break down?

Surely there is a saying: 'What goes up must come down.'

Well, in space that isn't always true. Once a satellite is completely clear of the influence of the earth's atmosphere it is possible for it to orbit the earth for hundreds or thousands of years. But the sophisticated electronics which control these craft do not always work and sometimes the satellites and redundant spacecraft can break up and retu rn to earth.

Since Sputnik 1 was launched, it is estimated that between five and six thousand man-made objects

5. Molniya The Russian equivalent of Intelsat providing a number of communications links.

6. Luna A series of Russian satellites for investigating the moon.

3. Meteor The Russian weather satellite.

7. Explorer A scientific research satellite.

4. Landsat A satellite for surveying the earth and sending back information about its

8. Tiros Another in the variety of weather satellites but it is also used for military reconnaissance.

by Geoff Platt, illustrated by Bill Bruce

(including over 1,400 satellites, several rockets and pieces of debris) have drifted back towards the earth.

Nearly all of them have burnt up during their re-entry into the atmosphere, but occasionally fragments have reached the earth's surface.

The risk of being hit by one of these is probably similar to that of being hit by a meteorite - not very high. In 1978 and 1979 there were two notable exceptions to this. The Russian nuclear spy satellite Cosmos 954 landed in a remote part of Canada with its nuclear batteries still full at life. Eighteen months later the Americans' massive Skylab space station also came back to earth, landing in hundreds of pieces in the Australian outback.

The amount of hardware that is flying about in space is quite staggering. Something like 5,000 objects spin round the earth at heights of between 100 and 70,000 miles. Of these, about 1,000 are satellites belonging to the Americans and Russians while the rest are what space engineers call 'Space Garbage'.

No one really knows how much rubbish is up there but it must be the biggest junkyard that anyone could ever come across! Our illustration shows a few of the satellites that orbit in man's Galactic Dustbin.

9. Vela A military nuclear warning satellite that can pick up nuclear activity.

10. Big Bird The American's top secret spy satellite reputed to be able to photograph individuals on the ground.

11. A Russian equivalent of Big Bird used for photographing and electronic snooping.

12. A Ferret satellite that can eavesdrop on radio and telephone conversations.

13. A Russian satellite that navigation for the Russian navy.

aids

5

If you want to know the time••• John Deft ... ask a policeman, as the song goes. Or look at your electronic digital wristwatch. Or dial 123 and listen to the 'speaking clock'.

Or, if you want a bit of fun, make yourself a sundial.

Sundials were never the only way of telling the time - waterclocks and marked candles have been around for just as long but they were in regular use for about two thousand years, until gradually replaced by mechanical clocks.

The great thing about a sundial is that it is so simple. Unlike a clock or watch, with lots of printed circuits or moving wheels, an ordinary sundial has just two parts: a spike called the gnomon and a dial on which its shadow can be seen. As the day passes, the sun appears to move through the sky in a predictable pattern, and the pusition of the shadow shows the time.

Actual designs are very varied.

In ancient Rome there was a large obelisk in the middle of the Campus Martius (rather like Nelson's Column in the middle of Trafalgar Square) and the hour markings were on the ground around it. The Anglo-Saxons used to scratch vertical sundials on the .walls of churches, and several of these can still be seen. But these were not very accurate, because they did not allow for the different paths the sun takes in different months.

It was the Arabs who overcame this problem, by putting the gnomon at an angle instead of upright. Not just any angle - for accurate readings it has to make an angle with the horizontal that is the same as tl ie latitude of the place where it is used (about 51 0 in London, or 56 0 in Edinburgh you can find your latitude from a school atlas). This makes the gnomon parallel to the earth's axis of rotation, and the shadow moves at the same speed all the year around.

6

The problem now is that the sundial will not work properly at any other latitude - a sundial that you make at your home in Bristol will be useless at your summer camp in the Lake District.

Most of the time, of course, this doesn't matter, but sailors and other travellers used to find it very inconvenient. They had to carry portable sundials, in which the angle could be adjusted to the latitude, and Sir Francis Drake's

sundial was a very complicated affair with eight or ten separate parts, each performing a particular job.

It sounds almost like a joke, like tins of elbow-grease - but portable sundials really do exist, and are not difficult to make. There are two main kinds: one kind measures the altitude of the sun, and so has to be adjusted according to the time of year; the other kind measures the sun's direction, and

This is a form of pocket sundial. The two holes and the length of string must be exactly right. so that when opened out the angle between the string and the

This simple cylindrical sundial can be carried around in the pocket. When

base is the same as your latitude. (Ask your Maths teacher to help you work it out.) The compass is used to point the sundial northsouth (remember to allow for magnetic variation) and the shadow of the string shows the time. (The hour lines fan out from the base hole. with 15° between them.)

needed. it is turned so that the adjustable hole (set to the right month) faces the sun; and the time is then shown by the spot of light on the inside surface opposite.

2' Sept..-nber

These are accurate markings for the sundial shown in the previous illustration. they are correct for the latitude of London. In other places the positions

will be slightly different. Notice that all the date markings are given as the 21st of the month - other dates come in between.

thus has to incorporate a compass. We have shown one of each kind, but these cannot be adjusted for latitude. So long as you stay within about fifty miles north or south of home, this will not matter - after that the errors become noticeable.

Do remember, though, that however carefully you make a sundial there will always be some

inaccuracy, ql<Jite apart from the fact that it will not work unless the sun is shiningl In the first place, modern clocks show mean (average) time instead of real sun time: in summer the difference is only about five minutes, but in winter it can be as much as a quarter of an hour either side.

Secondly, all clocks in Britain show Greenwich time, which is always about ten minutes ahead of true Manchester time, and

twenty-five minutes ahead of Belfast time. (Not to mention British Summer Time, which puts everything wrong by a whole hour!) In truth it is your sundial that is right and the clock that is wrong, but when you are late for school or miss a television programme, that's not much consolation I No - for accurate timekeeping an ordinary watch is much more use, but a sundial is certainly more fun!

"That was a really great hike we just djd." "Oh yes, and what did you enjoy about it so much then?" "Oh the part where we left the fields behind and went over the open moorland - you could see for miles, and with no one else around we really felt we were miles from anywhere - it was great."

very useful in camp, bad weather, when working in the garden or on some Troop project and at lots of other times. And you don't need a very expensive pair when you start walking either - just make sure that those soles give a good grip though.

After your feet, there is the rest of you to look after. You will need some sort of waterproof and wind proof jacket or anorak to use in poor weather (most of the time, in other words). A strong nylon jacket is best ideally something like a G & H Cag-Jac - and it is obviously useful at lots of other times too.

Beware of light nylon jackets as many soon wear through and let water in at the seams. A front zip will help you to avoid getting too hot and sweaty. If you don't have a very good jacket you can make quite a serviceable waterpoof and wind proof cover out of a strong

polythene bag by cutting holes for your head and arms.

What about the rest of your kit then? Well, most Scouts have football socks which will go inside walking boots equally well (but leave the football boots behind, please!). For your trousers, an old pair of wool or terylene school or Scout trousers will do - or much better, try looking out for a pair of old wool trousers in a Jumble Sale and get your mother to cut them down for you. Wool is by far the best thing for keeping you warm and dry. A big DON'T concerns cotton jeans - when wet these will chill your legs and can be very dangerous. You will also need a warm shirt and two thin woollen jumpers, one to wear and one to carry as a spare, and, of course, a woollen hat - it is surprising how cold your bare head soon gets on a windy hillside.

There are also a few things that can be shared between you. In the party you should have at least one torch (plus spare batteries and bulbs), a small first-aid kit, some emergency rations (for just that - and no other time!) and a strong polythene bag to use as a shelter in an emergency - this should be big enough for everyone to sit in; if not, carry more.

Make sure you know how to use your first-aid kit and that you know how to recognise and treat for exposure - this is a big hill and mountain hazard to the unprepared and ill-equipped - but that won't be you, will it?

So now we are almost ready to start, but wait, what else do we need before donning those boots that are inviting us on? Turn now to page 27 for Part Two of ...

And Off To The Hills where Dave covers The Essentials.

..-

That sort of conversation happens all too rarely, but there is no reason why it should be so rare. Everyone should have the chance to enjoy that sort of thing. Provided you take care to prepare everything and practise the skills needed, there is no reason why you can't go with your Patrol or Troop on the sort of hikes that have, up to now, been reserved almost exclusively for Venture Units.

On this and three other pages Dave Budgen takes you through the sort of preparation and skills you should make and be proficient in before setting out on a hike onto the moors or into the hills.

Part One - The Kit Like many of the more adventurous things in life, walking in the hills does need a certain amount of basic equipment to make sure that we can cope safely with the weather and with the countryside itself. But this doesn't mean that every walker needs to take around large amounts of expensive and special equipment. The things that you need in order to protect yourself from the weather and the rough ground are really quite ordinary, and can also be used around the home or with your bicycle. The main difference is that you need to be that bit better protected out in the hills, where any form of

8

shelter may be much further away than normal. So, what do we need to wear in order to meet the tracks and the weather in safety?

Let's start with the feet, because on any walk these are going to have to do a lot of hard work. Your feet need to be protected from rough ground by a pair of strong boots. Shoes are all very well for roads and good tracks, but they don't give any support to your ankles on rough ground and they don't really protect your toes very well either.

New boots don't really have to be waterproof (very few of the expensive boots are) as lots of

dubbin, 'Wetpruf' or 'Hydrolan' will help to put that right; after all, while wet feet may be uncomfortable they aren't dangerous. The soles of your boots should be thick and have good deep treads cut into them.

So a pair of boots is really a 'must' for safe hill-walking.

Wellington boots, shoes, sandals, etc., are just not strong enough to protect your feet properly - and you will need that protection!

Having said all that, it doesn't mean having to spend a lot of money on something that can only be used when you go walking. A pair of boots can be

9

At the

tips ofour flNGERS Bill Bruce

Take a look at the tips of your fingers, they're covered in tiny patterns of ridges and furrows and those patterns are unique!

No one in the world has fingertip patterns exactly like anyone else's in every detail and even the fingerprints of identical twins are not exactly the same ',' , The fact that the skin at the tips of our fingers carries a uni~ue 'code' and that it never changes, was first discovered in the 17th Century, but wasn't put to use until 1860. It took another forty years of research before fingerprints were first used in detective work, and in July 1901 the Fingerprint Branch of Scotland Yard was opened.

The. Fingerprint Department was founded with just three people, but has expanded over the years so that now it has a staff of over 350. The importance of having a National Fingerprint Collection has been recognised by all the Police Forces in Britain and has played a very important part in many major criminal investigations.

Each day the fingerprints of people who have been sentenced to terms of imprisonment and those who have been arrested and charged with anything other than minor offences are sent to the Fingerprint Branch for processing. The fingerprints of those who are not later convicted are, of course, destroyed, One of the earliest cases involving the use of fingerprints as evidence was in 1905 when a thumbprint left on a cash box at the scene of a murder in Deptford resulted in the conviction and execution of the murderer, Since then fingerprint evidence has played a major part in thousands of criminal investigations and hundreds of murder cases.

One of the main functions of the Fingerprint Branch is to find out whether the person has a previous record or not. First of all they check the name of the suspect against their records, and if this brings no result then prints are coded and transmitted to the National Police Computer.

10

OPOL\TAN OL\CE

A Fingerprint Officer from New Scotland Yard uses items from the 'scene of the crime' box to examine a stolen car for possible prints, If he

finds any they will be processed and sent to the Fingerprint Branch where they will be checked against the records of known criminals.

Photograph by courtesy of Commissioner of Police, New Scotland Yard.

Until 1975 the searching of the fingerprint files had to be done by hand and with many hundreds of thousands of prints in the collection this was a very time-consuming process. Since 1975 all the prints have been put onto a computer in coded form and the comparison of prints can now be completed in a very short time.

Within the Fingerprint B~anch of the Metropolitan Police District in London, there is a 'field force' of sixteen Technical Officers who, together with the 'Scene of the Crime' Officers, are responsible for examining places where crimes have been committed on their 'patch'.

The Officers try to discover fingerprints that the criminal has left behind, and then try to make them visible for photography. The print is a thin layer of perspiration or grease deposited in the pattern of the friction ridges from the ends of the criminal's fingers. Hard and glossy materials such as glass or gloss paints are the ideal surface for the development of prints and almost always present a 'full set' of clearly defined images. Dirty objects and materials with absorbent surfaces do not readily bear prints.

On smooth surfaces the print is made visible by carefully applying a fine powder, such as french chalk, with a brush. The powder sticks to the small amount of fat present in the perspiration, or to the grease which has been left behind. The print is then 'visible' and can be photographed.

It is more difficult to obtain prints from paper, so chemicals are used which react with the grease and then 'develop' in a bright light just like a photograph.

Fingerpri.nts are divided into four

Arches

Loops

Whorls

Composites

The four basic types of fingerprint classification.

main types: arches, loops, whorls and composites. Arches have ridges that run from one side of the finger to the other without turning back or twisting. Loops turn back on themselves and there are two types, those that curve towards the thumb, which are' called radial, and those which curve away from the thumb, which are called ulnar. Whorls have at least one ridge which makes a complete circuit, and composites are patterns which have at least two of the characteristics of the others.

Try taking your own fingerprints and then those of your friends.

All you need is some paper and an inked stamp pad (and some soap and water to wash afterwards!). Roll the ends of each finger, and your thumb, on the ink pad and then, before the ink dries, roll it carefully onto the paper. It will probably take you a few attempts to get the rolling action

right but keep trying and you can build up your own fingerprint file.

If you can get some french chalk you could also try to get prints from items that other people have handled, in the same way that the police do . . . All you need is a very soft brush, some french chalk and some newspaper. Sprinkle the chalk from the brush onto the surface where the prints are and try to catch the excess with the newspaper (chalk that doesn't stick can be used again).

It will take time to get the technique right, but after a while you should be able to see the fingerprints quite clearly. You can get french chalk in all sorts of colours so that you can find prints on almost anything.

When you've put your fingerprint files together remember to classify them as Arches, Loops, Whorls or Composites ... you'll soon see that no one has the same prints.

11

Ron Jeffries shows Let's imagine you are in camp.

It's a cool, pleasant summer evening and someone suggests that it would be a good idea to have an early night and set the alarm clock for four in the morning so that you can climb that nearby hill to see the sun rising on a new day.

Now that's the kind of thing that makes a summer camp memorable - once you have got over the initial shock of waking up in the middle of the night, finding your clothes and stumbling through the dark to the top of that nearby hilll Seeing the sun rise is an experience that every Scout should have at his first summer camp but it can be spoiled if you arrive back in camp later than you have expected and have to dash around getting breakfast ready and everything cleaned up in time for inspection!

12

DU how to...

So why not make life a little easier for that rushed morning after your Patrol has seen the sun rise by preparing your breakfast overnight so that it is piping hot on your return?

A haybox is the answer and here's how to make one.

You will need a wooden box which is large enough to take your cooking pot with about 7cm to spare all round.

Line the box inside with several thicknesses of brown paper or polystyrene to make it as airtight as possible. Now pack hay to a depth of about 7cm at the bottom and place your empty cooking pot on this, packing more hay tightly around it. Pack the hay in very well, for this will form your insulation.

The lid of your box should fit well. Attach a pad of brown paper and hay to it. Fasten the lid to the box with two leather straps or something similar.

liE 111111 Your haybox is now ready for use.

Let's assume that you are going to have porridge for breakfast. Make the porridge in the usual way, bringing it to the boil and using the cooking pot from your haybox. While it is still nice and hot, remove it from the fire, place it in the haybox and secure the lid down firmly.

The porridge will continue to cook and remain warm for some hours, provided it was boiling when you put it into the haybox.

That's the important point (although the insulation of your haybox has to be right, too, of course!)

If you make the porridge the evening before your daylight hike, it will be ready for you warm and inviting - on your return.

You can cook many other foods in this way, too. If you are going out on a day hike and want some potatoes ready for your return (to eat with a salad, perhaps), bring them to the boil in your cooking pot, pop it into the haybox and the potatoes will continue to cook throughout the day.

It's best to make the haybox at home and experiment with it before you go to camp (or are out on that sunrise daylight hike!. In this way you will be able to test the insulation of your box and make any refinements that are necessary before going to camp.

Illustrations by Doug Mountford

by David Easton

... IT'S A DETERRENT â&#x20AC;˘..â&#x20AC;˘ IF ANYONE TRIES TO CREEP IN I JUST PULL THE STRING .........

13

fi LITTLE K"OWLEDGE cfirt BE

Every day of the year accidents claim the lives of many people. Thousands are seriously hurt. A fair proportion of these casualties would not have died. or would have been less severely injured if they had been more careful and/or had observed certain safety rules. Also. if more of those who did go to the assistance of the injured had known exactly what to do. more people would have lived or be less severely handicapped. While everyone should do their best to prevent accidents. it's a fact of life that. however careful people are. accidents will always happen.

I

GEIIII!

Illustrated by Peter Harrison

by David Harwood

Could you have learnt to swim without going in the water or to ride a bicycle without a machine? Of course you couldn't! While anyone can find out a lot about swimming or cycling from reading books, that's not enough. Practical training and experience are needed.

First aid is essentially an applied practical skill. You need some knowledge and some practical instruction under the guidance of an expert to become proficient.

In an emergency you may have to do something. If you've been trained in first aid, you'll know what action

~ ,,

to take. If you're not a trained first aider, no doubt you'll do your best but, despite your good intentions, your best might not be enough. This article is not so much an instant doit-yourself first aid course, but more a personal appeal to you to become trained in first aid. Let's look at the facts.

2. If necessary and possible either remove the cause of the accident from the casualty or remove the casualty from the cause of the accident to reduce the danger of the casualty becoming worse or lessen the possibility of further accidents.

If casualties are seriously injured andlor they are unconscious, they should not usually be moved, as they may have broken bones or internal injuries. Until you are trained in first aid, do what you can for the injured where they are UNLESS the risks of fire, fumes, rising water, etc. are such that they will be in greater danger if left where they are.

If a casualty has to be moved, give him as much support as possible, and carry him only as far as the nearest place of safety.

3. Find out what is the matter with the casualty by: looking at his injuries asking him where he feels pain Give the correct first aid treatment, but do no more than is necessary.

These four objectives are general guidelines. So that you can get a better idea of what first aid is all about let's consider the basic principles of first aid in a little more detail.

4. If the casualty's heart has stopped . . . a special method of treatment called external cardiac compression is used. This can be dangerous if not done properly: it has to be taught by a medically qualified person.

If the casualty's breathing has stopped . . . artificial resuscitation must be applied very quickly. Every second counts because when a person is not breathing he is not taking in air which contains oxygen.

Without oxygen, the body's organs cannot work and, if the brain is affected, the person becomes unconscious. Unless the oxygen supply is restored very quickly, his heart will also stop, and he will die.

1. Go into action quickly, calmly and quietly. If someone IS already 'in charge', do as he or she asks speed, efficiency and teamwork are vitally important. If you are first on the scene, take charge yourself.

Make sure someone goes for help.

Unless the casualty has only minor injuries (e.g. a graze, small blister.or a bruise) even a trained first aider needs to get expert help. So, wherever an accident happens and however an accident occurs, get qualified assistance as fast as possible. Be prepared to make an emergency telephone call to one of the emergency services (fire, police, ambulance or coastguard).

5. Stop bleeding: if a main blood vessel has been cut, bleeding will be particularly heavy, and must be stopped at once. Sit or lie the casualty down and, if there are no broken bones, raise the wounded part, making sure it is well supported. Place a clean, thick pad of material or dressing directly over the wound, and secure firmly with a bandage, tie, stocking, etc. If blood seeps through the bandage, place another pad over the top, and secure with another bandage.

If a bandage is not immediately available, use your thumbs and fingers to press directly onto and around the wound to hold the sides of the wound together.

15

6. Guard against shock: many casualties requiring first aid, particularly those who have been involved in major accidents, will also experience shock. Shock results from an insufficient blood supply to the brain, caused by the loss of blood and/or a nervous reaction to something unpleasant.

The signs of shock are: pale face; sweaty forehead; cold, clammy skin; a rapid pulse; fast, shallow breathing. The casualty will feel faint, giddy or sick.

An advanced state of shock is very dangerous and requires urgent medical treatment.

It is the first aider's task to PREVENT shock. He should: a. Stop bleeding. b. Not move the casualty (see 2 above); keep crowds away; protect him from the weather. Lie him down on his back on blankets, clothes or rugs. c. Loosen any tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist. Turn his head to one side and (providing there are no injuries) raise his legs above the level of his head, supporting his feet and legs with cushions, folded clothing, boxes, etc. d. Keep the' casualty warm by covering him with a blanket, coat, etc. but avoid overheating. A casualty should never be placed close to a fire or given a hot water bottle. . e. Never give the casualty anything to drink. f. Stay with the casualty to comfort and reassure him.

7. Talk to the casualty to keep his mind off his injuries, and to let him know that help is on the way.

Most of the photographs on thesa pages were taken during Search and Rescue training exercises as photo路 graphers are not permitted to travel in helicopters during real missions. Photographs kindly supplied by the Ministry of Defence (RAF).

A crewman from a Search and Rescue Helicopter carrying a stretcher A crew member reaches survivors in their Iiferaft prior to winching them aboard the RAF Whirlwind helicopter

An RAF Whirlwind helicopter rescues survivors from the sea

sea, using mainly RAF motor launches and flying boats.

Many of the rescues in the Second World War were extremely dangerous, with the rescue boats coming under constant attack from enemy aircraft, and at one time the Dover Search and Rescue station was known to RAF boat crews as 'Hell's Corner'!

The Search and Rescue service continued with its launches and flying boats after the war, but experience in the later Korean War showed the potential of a machine that would revolutionise Search and Rescue - the helicopter.

ALWAYS ON CALL The RAF maintains a Search and Rescue (SAR) service 24 hours a day, every day of the year, and at each airfield in Britain where an SAR flight is based a helicopter and crew is ready to scramble within ten or fifteen minutes of a distress call being received. SAR crews on standby rarely take longer than three minutes to get airborne. .

For many years th':l RAF have used the familiar yellow Whirlwind helicopter for SAR work, but it has a limited range and capacity and cannot fly in all weathers or hover at night, so at some stations it has been replaced by the more versatile Wessex.

The latest development in .Search and Rescue is the addition of the new twin-engined Sea King helicopter, which has been designed specifically for Search and Rescue and AntiSubmarine Warfare purposes.

The Sea King's range is nearly 180 miles greater than that of the Whirlwind or' Wessex and it can hover automatically over the sea at night or in fog or low cloud. A computerised navigation system enables extremely accurate searches to be carried out, and the aircraft can carry a much larger payload than any other Search and Rescue helicopter: twelve passengers and three stretchers as well as the crew of four.

With a range of over 600 miles, the Sea King is ideal for use around Britain's North Sea oil fields, and is used as a freight carrier by many of the oil companies. A development of the Sea King is the Westland Commando, which has been designed mainly for military use and which can carry up to 30 fully armed troops. The Commando carries machine guns and rockets and is currently in use in the Middle East with the Army in Egypt and Qatar and is also in service with the Royal Marines.

The Sea King helicopter is very versatile and ideal for use on Search and Rescue missions as, in emergencies, it can land and take-off from the water. With the ability to remain 'on station' for over four hours in any conditions and the capacity to carry more survivors, the Sea King has made the RAF's Search and Rescue teams even more efficient.

An RAF Search and Rescue Whirlwind about to rendezvous with a launch

A helicopter crewman carrying a stretcher is winched onto a launch

One of the new Sea King helicopters used for SAR work Photograph courtesy WESTLANO HELICOPTERS L TO.

We would like to thank the Ministry of Defence (RAF) and Westland Helicopters Ltd. for their help with the production of this feature and for supplying the photographs.

A crewman and a survivor are winched into an RAF Whirlwind A Royal Navy Sea King helicopter used for anti-submarine work lands on the deck of HMS Tiger Photograph counesy WESTLANO HELICOPTERS L TO. A survivor is 'unloaded' from a Search and Rescue helicopter to be taken to hospital (photograph taken in Cyprus)

THEAVIATIO Researched and illustrated by Peter Stuckey When a new form of transport comes into being there are records being set and broken seemingly every day (although in reality it is only every month, which is itself fairly fast when you think about it!). Illustrated here are some of the distance, height and speed records which were set between the 1930s and the 1970s. This is not all of them - we could have filled the whole book and still had some over, it is just a sample. You can find out more about the history of aviation by turning to pages 44 to 47.

RECORD MAKERS BRISTOL 138A (U.K.J Altitude record 1937 53,937 ft. (16,440 m) Pilot fitted with a special pressurised suit and helmet, in order to save weight in pressurising the aircraft.

MIKOYAN MIG25 (U.S.S.R.) Altitude record 1977 123,523 ft. (37,650 m)

MACCHI MC.72 (ITALY) Speed record 1934 440.681 m.p.h. (709.209 km/h)

LOCKHEED P71A (U.S.A.J Speed record 1976 2193.167 m.p.h. (3,529.56 km/h)

22

FAIREY Long range monoplane (U.K.)

BOEING B52 (U.S.A.J

Distance record 1933 5,309 miles (8,544 km)

Distance record 1962 12,532,274 miles (20,168,780 km)

STUe:taY

23

Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) brings a water shrew to the nest

The Barn Owl is our only common big 'white' owl. Its colour really is golden-buff mottled with grey, but it does look white and is the ghost of many, many ghost stories.

The Tawny is a solitary bird except in the breeding season, holding a territory of between thirty and forty acres. So jealous are Tawny Owls of their territory that when the young ones are shoved out to fend for themselves they have the greatest difficulty in finding an area of their own. They tend to be harried everywhere by adult owls and many die of starvation as a result. The toughest ones survive ... Nature's way.

The Tawny is our commonest owl. It hunts by ear and can turn its head round almost in a full circle - a most useful asset. At my former home on the borders of Middlesex and Hertfordshire, a Tawny Owl perched for some years on my wooden front gatepost and was usually there in autumn and winter when I returned home at about 7.30 p.m. It would fly off into a horse-chestnut tree on the verge as I approached. It nested in a tree hollow in early spring, with no nesting material. Between two and four young were produced each year and they were shooed off at three months or so into a harsh world.

By Jack Cox with photographs by Eric Hosking FRPS

24

British owls make an absorbing in路 terest for Scouts because we have five different species. four of which are with us all the year round. Owls keep out of sight during the day when Scouts are at school. and hunt at dusk and by night In two distinct periods with a rest in between. Most of their hunting takes place when they are really hungry and that is around Troop Meeting time.

A Cub Scout once told me that he liked owls because they had propar faces. But those round. innocent, featherad. flattish 'faces' with tha big, big eyes. conceal a vicious hooked beak which combines with tremendous talons to make a super

striking force. Owls are farmers' and gardeners' friends because they eat mice, rats. bank voles, stoats, weasels, rabbits and house sparrows. They also eat frogs, snails, fish and kittens.

Take the Tawny Owi, also known as the Brown or Wood Owl. This large owl, with the big head and black eyes, is about fifteen inches long and glides silently among established trees in quiet suburban roads; sodium street lamps often give you a wonderful sight of them hunting.

Like all owls, the wings are broad and round, like those of the lapwing.

On a full moon night I would see a Tawny perched on an ornamental bit of wrought-iron on the corner of the house beside my study window.

Every now and then it glided in to take a house sparrow from a noisy roost under the eaves easy pickings! In North Wales, where I now live, Tawny Owls glide in on moonlit nights and take sparrows roosting in winter in the deserted nests of house martins.

In daytime I know I can find owls skulking in ivy climbing over old oaks on stream edges, or perched low against the trunks of chestnut trees, deep in green foliage. If owls venture out, and they are tempted sometimes on dark, thundery days, they will be mobbed by flocks of small birds.

Barn Owl (Tyto alba) carrying a vole

A family of them have lived for years in an old cottage of mine in the wild western expanse of Anglesey, ridding all surrounding fields of bank voles and other farm pests. Some live in old trees in the grounds of a hospital in Middlesex, flying into the high reaches of spacious old wards on warm summer nights. In spring they are often seen in semi-daylight in the late afternoons hunting mice and voles. If disturbed at their nesting sites they may shock and surprise you by flying straight at your head in getting away. They snore, hiss loudly, groan and utter terrifying screeches like a vixen in search of a mate! You can't take Barn Owls for grar.ted, they will always delight and surprise you with the variety of their activities.

The Little Owl is the smallest of our owls, little more than the size of a thrush in fact. It was introduced here in the last century and is really a Continental species.

Uttle Owl (Athene noctua) with worm showing eyes accommodated for twilight vision

Look for it hovering for moths insects and beetles on roadsides. It~ clear call kiew, kiew is often answered by another owl. It has a 'song' which is like the curlew's breeding call. Like the other owls it nests in holes in trees.

The Short-eared Owl is not a woodland bird. It loves wide open spaces, moorlands, commons and downs . _ . the places where its favourite food, bank and field voles abound. '

long-eared Owl (Asio otus) perched above nest

The Long-eared Owl is smaller and sli.mmer than a Tawny, with longer Wings, yellow eyes and big ear tufts which rise at rest. Its hoot call is longer than a Tawny's effort. It is not easy to track down at all, but if you find a daytime roost in an old, leafy tree there may well be several Longears there. It likes woods best but may be found on tidal reaches and estuaries with Tawny Owls and Barn Owls in hard winters.

It is nearly as big as a Tawny, but its habit of flying by daylight in open unmolested country marks it for recognition. It breeds on moorland and much depends on the abundance of field voles. Plagues of voles occur from time to time and Short-ea red Owls may gather and breed in a relatively small area. Their ear tufts really are short and rarely erect. Migrant Short-ears arrive from the Continent in the winter so if you live in the South or South East, you are more likely to see them.

Short-eared Owl

On pages 8 and 9 we talked about what we should wear and a few of the things we need with us when going into the hills, but apart from these there are also four essential things that we must never leave behind or go without. Safety should always be the chief aim in all that we do, so. to ensure that we can find our way around and cope with likely problems. we need four things: a map (preferably for the area we will be walking in); a compass; a watch and a whistle. But what do we need them for?

Well, we need the map to navigate by. For most open countryside the Ordnance Survey's 1:50,000 scale maps give plenty of detail, as do the older 1" to the mile (1: 63,360 scale) maps. The 1:25,000 scale maps (in the green or blue covers) give a lot more detail which can help with difficult areas, but, to start with, the larger scale maps should be quite enough. The compass, of course, goes with the map and is used both to help us walk a correct course in poor visibility

and for helping us to check just where we are (this happens to us all). Before setting out make sure you know how to use both map and compass, you can practise as a part of Troop evenings - you will be needing them for real, not just to pass a requirament in the Scout Standard or the Advanced Scout Standard!

And what about the watch, then? Well, as we will see, once our day has been planned we need to check that we are keeping to time. If we fall a lot behind then we may need to cut our walk short - so we need the watch to check on how we are getting on.

In bad weather we may need to walk through mist by compass and if we know how fast we are walking then our watch can help us know how far we have gone.

And the whistle? Well, accidents do happen and when they do we need sOme way of asking for help. You should learn the Mountain Distress Signal and how to use it. The Signal is as follows: Six short blasts on your whistle (or flashes on your torch), wait a minute and repeat. Keep this up until someone hears or sees

you. The reply that lets you know this. is three long blasts of a whistle, or three long torch flashes. every minute.

So, you must have a whistle with you - but don't go blowing it for 'fun' either - the Mountain Rescue Team might not see the joke!

One last thing about the essentials. You should always carry them handy and ready for use. Fold your map open to the part you need and then wrap it in a clear plastic bag. Make sure it stays in a handy pocket. The best place for your compass is around your neck on a long bootlace it is then always available for a quick check. Your watch can go on your wrist as usual, of course, and the whistle can go in a pocket - but as a precaution tie it to your belt as well. One last thing about the whistle, if it is a metal one make sure that you keep it away from the compass (this applies to all metal objects, in fact) as it takes very little to affect a compass needle that vital few degrees!

That's covered your kit and the essentials you will need to take.

Part Three of this series covers Preparation and can be found on pages 52 and 53.

27

SWlmmlnli SAFETV

Don't throw people in from the side of the pool. They, or you, can easily slip on the wet surface or they could land awkwardly in the water.

Illustrated by Peter Harrison

REMEMBER: • Do not swim for at least an hour after a meal or when you are tired.

• Use the Buddy System (See Policy, Organisation and Rules - Part 2, Rule 75 xiv (d)) when you go swimming anywhere but a swimming pool.

Swimming, although great fun, can be very dangerous if a few basic safety hints are ignored. Read these two pages and try to remember them next time you go swimming.

IN SWIMMING POOLS Never run along the side of the pool, it is usually wet and can be very slippery and you could easily fall and hurt yourself.

ALWAYS WALK.

Don't hold someone else under the water - he might not be able to hold his breath as long as you, and could be in trouble without you realising it.

-------------

~ IN RIVER, LAKE OR SEA

-

- - -. ----::--_-1...

_

Don't go swimming on your own, go with one or more other people - if someone gets into trouble the others can help him.

,,~~

•

Post two good swimmers as pickets, ready to go in at a moment's noticey;/ /

Keep away from the diving area - unless you want to dive, that isl Don't swim under the diving boards when they are in use. People enter the water very fast from a dive and if they land on top of you you will come off worst.

28

If you are going to swim in the sea, check the state of the tide first. The current is strongest for at least one hour either side of low water.

Obey warnings. If there is a red flag flying DO NOT GO IN. If you see red and yellow flags you can swim safely between them as this area is patrolled by lifeguards.

29

The ingredients, on arrival at the factory, are subject to stringent quality control tests before they are pumped into the storage tanks. The temperatures are also carefully controlled. Butter, for instance, is stored at 20째F (-7째C) until it is required, it is then melted into its liquid form. Chocolate, however, is kept in liquid form all the time.

Automation plays a very large part in all the stages of production of ice cream. The correct amounts of the raw materials are automatically drawn from store and effortlessly organised for blending, pasteurising and homogenising into the 70 plus recipes.

So the fourteen ingredients are drawn from store and fed, through a double-check system to ensure the amounts are absolutely accurate, into a blending tank. Once one tank is full the supply is automatically Pasteurising (the killing of germs and microbes by high temperature) is accomplished by heating the mixture to 175째F.

The next time it is a nice, hot sunny day and you think: "I'd love an ice cream" just stop for a moment and reflect on how ice creams came into being and how they manage to produce all those different shapes, flavours, textures and varieties.

It all started over 3,000 years ago when the Chinese used snow to make refreshing sweets flavoured with the juice of oranges, lemons or pomegranates. But it was 1,700 years before the recipe found its way to Europe, when it was brought to Venice by Marco Polo. A further 250 years passed before it reached France and, ultimately, England. By ttJe end of the 18th century ice cream had become an established dish at the English dinner table and standard recipes included cream or butter.

It was during the reign of Queen Victoria that many of the now famous Italian ice cream manufacturers came to England and set up their businesses in some of the larger

30

cities. But it was not until 1899 that the first regulations governing the making of ice cream were introduced by the London County Council. They were safety regulations concerning the quality of goods used and the conditions under which the ice cream was made.

Today the safety regulations are even more stringent. The ingredients are carefully tested at all stages by teams of food technologists, chemists and bacteriologists to ensure that everything used is absolutely pure. Hygiene standards in the factories are equally strict: everything is kept spotlessly clean, all personnel wear overalls and hats, and the strictest care is taken to

ensure that the ingredients are not touched by even the cleanest of human hands. Hygiene control is absolutely paramount.

One of the largest ice cream manufacturers in this country is T. Wall & Sons (Ice Cream) Ltd., whose factory at Gloucester produces over 70 varieties of ice cream. The main ingredients they use come from all over the world: sugar from the West Indies and Mauritius; milk from the Un,ited Kingdom and New Zealand; butter from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Denmark and Canada, and vegetable fats from West Africa, India and Sri Lanka. The flavourings, too, come from every corner of the globe.

The ingredients and mixture are tested repeatedly during production.

Samples are drawn off and sent to the laboratories for testing.

The production system is almost completely automated. This is the

Central Electronic Control System at Wall's factory at Gloucester.

switched to another tank. The tankful is then blended by at least a minute and a half's high speed agitation and then passed to the pasteurisers where the mixture is completely purified and the large fat globules dispersed to give it that rich, creamy texture.

Before the mixture is pumped into the freezers, air is whipped into it to give it that 'light' taste. When it is partially frozen it is pumped on again, this time to be shaped and cut to the right size, and it then goes through a hardening tunnel and drops onto the packing belt for automatic wrapping.

Ice cream destined for tubs and cones etc., takes a slightly different journey after the air has been whipped in.

Walls maintain depots all over the country so that distribution to the shops, hospitals, restaurants and cinemas is quicker and easier. They take great care to produce the ice creams that you want and to make sure that they are available to you when you suddenly get the idea: "I'd love an ice cream."

A simplified diagram showing the production process.

"' _ _ "'1:111

31

~ake'\loaR I

IOWO(JPOLlJ~~ John Deft

It won't be Wedgwood, of course. It won't even be as good as your Mum's second-best kitchen plates - but it'll be a lot more fun I You can make your own pottery at home or even in camp, and while the results may not be very elegant they should be q'Jite serviceable.

The one thing that we cannot do without is clay Real enthusiasts sometimes dig their own. but there are problems. Just any lump of earth is not good enough - you have to know exactly what to look for - and unless you are determined to expert ment it is much safer to buy some clay from a local pottery supplier There are many kinds available. including vanous brands of self hardening clay: rather expensive. but needing no firing at all. On the other hand. ,f you are not too fussy about the end result. any ordinary coarse clay should give a reasonable chance of success. Keep it well wrapped up In polythene until you are ready to use It If you buy your clay It will need very little preparation. but If you have decided to dig your own then you must go through it very carefully. taking out even he smallest stones to prevent explosions while finng Then knead the clay thoroughly, squeezing out any air as you go. until It IS soft and easy to work The tools you assemble will depend on the type of pot you want to make. We assume you do not have a wheel nor any moulds.

One of the easiest to make is the coil pot, for which you need a flat surface on which to work. Take a small lump of clay and roll it out into a long thin 'sausage'. which can then be rolled in spiral fashion to build up the pot. The base can be made this way too. or can be a rolled-out slab.

When the spirals reach the right height. smooth out the inside of the pot with a blunt knife. taking care to fill any gaps.

The next type of pot is made by the slab method. For this you will need to borrow an old rolling pin Roll out the clay until it is a uniform thickness - a bit thicker than pastry, but not too much. Two strips of wood. one either side. will help you to get this uniformity. The pot can then be made by cutting and folding with overlaps. or alternatively by cutting out separate pieces and then either pinching them together or sticking them with liquid clay. called 'slip'.

Once shaped, and with any pattern you want scratched on. the pot should be left to dry for several days, away from direct sunlight but obviously away from damp as well.

Don't try to hurry it by putting it in the oven! With a self-hardening clay this will be enough, but other clays will need firing, and you will need to make a kiln.

This is not so frightening as It may sound - an old metal dustbin or oildrum will do the job. Punch three or four holes around the bottom. and the same at the top, and stand it on four bricks. Put several inches of sawdust in the bottom. then a layer of pots, then more sawdust, and so on until the bin is full. Press the sawdust down gently but firmly. On top. light a small fire of paper and wood - no paraffin! - and put the lid on the bin. The fire wJII burn slowly down through the sawdust. and will probably take twenty-four hours or so to go right through. Make sure it is quite cold before trying to take out the pots.

Without glaze your pots will still be porous. but who cares? The fun is in making your own pottery. isn't it?

Starting a coil pot working on a slab base.

A coil pot with a coil base.

The pot almost finished It only remains to smooth over the inside and. if desired, the outside,

A pot made by folding and overlapping a single piece of rolled clay.

Note: The finished pot would have the inside smoothed out.

A pot made from seven separate circles of clay, pinched together at the edges and then smoothed.

The pot almost finished It only remains to smooth over the inside and, if desired, the outside.

'-~.",

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~..-- ..ON'T WANT TO THROW AWAY MY CHEWING GUM ..

.... IT.S NOT THAT I OON'T WANT TO KISS YOU .... IT'S JUST THAT 10

33

Key to Illustration on Pages 20 and 21.

1 The leaves, flowers and acorns of the Sessile Oek.

2 The leaves, flowers and acorns of the Turkey Oek, which can be found in many parks and in some woodlands.

3 The leaves, flowers and acorns of the Holm Oek, which is an evergreen tree and which has very hard wood.

4 The leaves, flowers and acorns of the RtHI 0Bk, which is a dacorative tree that is often found in parks and gardens.

6 The leaves, flowers and acorns of the Common, Pedunculata or English OBk. 8 The Little Owl which was introduced into England during the lata 19th Century.

It often nests in holes in oak trees.

7 The Tllwny Owl which often nests in oak trees.

8 The Mistle Thrush often nests in the topmost branches of an oak tree early in February.

9 Tha GfNt SpotttHI Woodpllcke, feeds on insects that live in the tree.

10 The Green Woodpllcke, often visits oak trees. It gives a loud, laughing call and can be very destructive.

11 The JllY takes acorns from the oak and 'plants' them singly. They eat them as they sprout but many grow to become mature trees. This is just one way in which the oak spreads.

12 The Nuthatch nests in hollows and uses mud to make the entrance to the nest smaller.

13 The Treecf88fJllf feeds on insects that it finds among cracks in the berk.

14 The Fox finds shalter among the roots of the oak.

1& The WOOdmouSB eats acorns and is often attacked and eaten by owls and other predators.

16 The RtHI Squi"B1 has now become very rare, but it feeds on acorns and tries to avoid owls and other predators.

17 The Grtly Squirrel builds its nest (or drey) in the crown of the oak. It eats acorns during the autumn and winter and raids birds' nests in the spring and summer.

18 The Common Shrtlw lives among decaying litter, eats insects and is often eaten by owls, foxes and other enemies.

19 Lichen (encrusting). Lichens are often seen on the small stunted oaks in the SouthWest.

20 Lichen (hair-likel. It thrives where the air is very clean.

21 Algae forms a grHn film on bark. It is thickest on the north side of the tree.

22 Moss is a small plant that lives on wood and in masses on the ground and in

bogs.

23 Fungus (Blllck Bulgll,J grows in the lutumn.

24 Fungus (MortllJ is often found around oak trees during Spring.

2& Fungus (BfllcketJ gradually destroys the tree's heartwood.

Note: Always ...uma thIIt fungus is

poisonous unl... the pillnt Is well known not to be.

28 Ivy grows readily on tha oak, and insects live in the leaves and so attract birds.. %1 The BluebBII is a very well known Spring flower.

28 Rllmsons flourish in the shade of the oak.

29 Mistletoe seeds are spread by birds which wipe their beaks on the bark. The pllnt takes nourishment from the tree and the Ancient Druids thought that an oak tree was sacred if mistletoe was growing on it.

30 Tha Acom WHvil. The female lays only one egg in an acorn and the grub then eats its 'nest' when it hatches.

31 Spllngle GIIII

32 Artichoke GIIII

33 Ma,ble GIIII

When a parasitic organism attacks a plant from within and causes an abnormal swelling or growth to appear, such a growth is called a 'gall'.

Oak trees may have several kinds of galls, for example the oak apple gall which is caused by the gall wasp.

Other insects such as gall flies, some beetles and caterpillars, as well es some fungi, eel worms and mites are responsible for galls.

34 Oak Apple GIIII 3& The Vapoure, Moth can be found in its caterpillar stage on the oak and other trees between April and June. The moths appear between July and September.

38 The Pu,pIe HairstfNk butterfly can be seen in English and Welsh oak woods, but they tend to fly mainly among the treetops. :n The Brown HeirstfNk is a late summer butterfly which can be seen in August or September, but only in Southern England.

38 The Long Ellrtld Blit is quite widely spread across Britain, and their distinctive diving flight can often be seen around lowland woods.

39 The Stllg BHtle (Male). At 2% inches or more these are the longest beetles in Britain and are found mostly in the South East. They possess fierce looking antJerlike jaws but they. cannot bite as their muscles are too weak.

40 The StlIg BHtIe (Female). Even rotting wood has its uses in tha forest and the female stag beetle burrows into it to lay her eggs. After hatching, the white grubs take up to three years to mature.

-----

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Luis Freg was born, IS was lo ,: dubious honou, of being gmed mo'e times than any othe, bull. fighte,. He got the point fiftyseven tirnes and was g,ven the Last Rites five tirnes. but always came back for more, Eventually h . 9 _ and he 'eti'ed from t e "n drowned two years later. .. ~~~ ...

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President Polk's term of office Ode .., 0,1/es- °Ot ~/"C •."'.' /0.... ' " • • Zhadh expi,ed .•ill; ~ Ye.Qrs t • "ad T Ibut his successor, Mt Its 0 b." t."e e.'t e_ ifI? III ac aoy ay or, ,efused to be ~ ~ 9Bc! cOns of 'IN ~ of ~ ~ • sworn on• on a Sun day. A 5 P,es,·. .~S (, mt,.c,·'d aod e.I] 0 ••. ro 4b IOn had ery StOI] our dent of the Senate, Mr Atchison ...,:o.th b,. beeo ~rag e '" Wi" •••••.'S T 0" • ~.automatically h . . became President ••••••'aJi.........,\,'i ~~.~••••• 'le hor.

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When Scouts are pioneering, particularly when making bridges between trees, a simple ladder would make life so much easier.

Otherwise you can spend half the day scrambling up (and slithering down) the trees.

Here are three easily made ladders, requiring little equipment.

The knotted single rope ladder requires a length of rope that is coiled in a series of half-hitches; the end of the rppe is passed through the centre, as in the illustration (except that the coils are held close together as for a coiled rope when it is to be thrown).

The coil of half-hitches with the end passed through the centre is turned inside out and the succeeding coils are pulled over each other. The coil is not thrown and, as it pays out, a series of overhand knots are made at fairly equal intervals.

TO COIL. 1rlE:: !\OPE AS ABove 1WIST E'ACH COIL

AWA'Y FROM You IN A sERIES OF ){Al-F HI"CH~ AS If you W~RE

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A single rope ladder with chocks of hardwood of about 15cm diameter and 5cm deep is fun to climb! The chocks need to be bored to take the diameter of the rope you are using.

Splice an eye at the top end.

To secure the chocks, put two strands of seizing between the strands of the rope and then use a wall knot. As an alternative, insert small pegs between the rope strands and bind below the pegs.

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All over the Highlands of Scotland, wherever there are mountains and rivers, dams and power stations harness water power to produce electricity.

The North of Scotland HydroElectric Board works hard to squeeze every unit of electricity out of the water as it flows down through more than fifty main power stations in an area covering over a quarter of Britain.

This contribution to people's needs for electric light and power is vital, but the days when cheap, nonpolluting water power could meet everyone's requirements have gone.

Demand has grown enormously over the years since the Board was formed in 1943. The total power station capacity then was 313 megawatts.

The total capacity now stands at 1,051 megawatts for conventional hydro stations but this only

represents about 30% of the total requirements and the Board now has to import power from the South.

But water continues to play an important part in providing essential electric power for homes, farms and factories and that is a tribute to the energy and resourcefulness of the engineers who designed traditional hydro stations.

The hydro stations are divided into four main groups running nine schemes. Among the smallest stations and one of the first to be built by the Board, is the picturesque 750 kilowatt Morar on the western seaboard. Morar was brought into operation in 1948 with a benediction from a local crofter meaning: 'let light and power flow to al/ the glens'.

At the other end of the scale is the largest conventional hyrdo station in Britain, Sloy, with an installed capacity of 130 megawatts. Built beside Loch Lomond and commis-

sioned in 1948, it produces much needed power for industrial Clydeside.

By the early fifties the Board was really in gear, hiring thousands of workers and spending millions of pounds on the design and 'construction of dams that would store enough water to generate all the electricity that was required. Year after year, power stations of all sizes were coming off the drawing boards and being translated into stone. And everywhere the Board took great care to ensure that the constructions blended as harmoniously as possible with the surrounding countryside.

Design, siting and materials all played their part, and although this was long before the days of active conservation the Board knew that what it was doing could have an ilJ1pact on .the countryside. It wanted to build a heritage it could be proud of - and it has.

41

The Pitlochry dam with the fisn pass in the foreground.

Two of the 7.5 megawatt generators in the machine hall at Pitlochry Power Station.

The underground machine hall in the Cruachan 400 megawatt pumped storage Power Station.

The Control room in the underground Power Station at Cruachan.

The 66 megawatt Fasnakyle power station in Strathglass, the main station in the Affric scheme., is beautifully faced with golden yellow sandstone, and Luichart, built at the junction of the Rivers Meig and Conon, is made of local stone, while picturesque Kilmelfort is tucked away among trees.

Loch Gair, in a bay of Loch Fyne, w9n a Civic Trust Award for architectural merit, and stones from an uncompleted medieval church are built into the station wall.

There are many other examples and now the installations have taken on the role of major tourist attractions. Pitlochry, on the A9, is by far the most popular, drawing hundreds of thousands across its now famous dam each year.

Away over to the west, some 14 miles from Oban, is another tourist attraction, the underground pumped storage scheme at Cruachan on the banks of Loch Awe. An average of 60,000 people pour into the visitors' centre each year and are taken nearly a mile down a tunnel into the heart of the mountain to see the vast generating hall with its four one hundred megawatt reversible pump turbines.

The Board has now opened a second pumped storage scheme at Foyers on the banks of Loch Ness, with a capacity of 300 megawatts.

Because of the value of pumped storage schemes, the Board has searched the Highlands looking for possible sites for a third scheme.

Finally, after years of examining maps and walking over mountainous terrain all over the west and north

west, the Board selected a site at Craigroyston which would use Loch Lomond, the country's largest loch, as the lower reservoir. This site is easily the finest available-: It is close to industrial Clydeside where demand for power is greatest, and it has a potential of 3,000 megawatts, equal to well over twice the Board's existing conventional hydro capacity.

But this new site faces strong opposition from environmentalists who are concerned about the possible impact on this world famous beauty spot. The Board are hoping that their proposal for this new scheme will soon be accepted and many investigations are taking place to examine all the different aspects of the problem.

The Scottish electricity boards need a further pumped storage scheme in the next ten years to improve the flexibility of the system.

In the meantime, the Board constantly up-dates its appraisals of possible conventional hydro sites.

But the potential is limited to a few hundred megawatts and even with today's escalating energy costs, they would just not be economically viable.

Pumped storage, on the other hand, can in a world reeling under an energy crisis, use electricity generated from any source - coal, oil, nuclear, gas, wind, wayes or sun - and store it as potential energy. The principles are very straightforward.

High up in the mountains, tucked discreetly away so as not to affect the view, a small reservoir stores water which can be let down at a moment's notice during peak demand periods to operate the turbines in the underground station.

At night or at weekends, surplus cheap electricity produced by large base load stations pumps water back up from the large reservoir. And so an endless cycle is created that saves the country millions of pounds that would otherwise be used to build conventional stations. Pumped storage systems help to keep electricity prices down and their impact on the scenery is minimal, especially if you compare it with that of a large coal, oil or nuclear station. The new Craigroyston station would be in the fine tradition of Hydro Board schemes developed with the twin aims of benefitting the people of Scotland and taking care of the landscape - the heritage of everyone who ever spends an hour of a lifetime there.

Making Electricity fromWater

Rain falls In the Highlands and keeps the reservoirs full

Adorn holds the water back.

A tunnel takes the water from the reservoir and down to the Power / Station.

On top of the turbine, the generator makes electricity

I The water pushes the blades of the turbine round.

The rotor inside the generator is turned by a shaft from the turbine.

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The electricity from the generator goes out along wires which are carried on pylons across the hills.

~__ When the wires reach towns they go underground to bring lights and heat to houses and factories.

The GroUTth of Aviation R34

by P. J. Stuckey

1919 to 1980

On pages 46 and 47 is a feature describing the growth of aviation in words but the illustration below shows the pioneering flights of aviation's history, the first commercial routes that were operated and some of the aeroplanes that were involved.

BIl'riot XI 36 m.p.h.

1909

R34 Airship 30 m.p.h.

1919

DH16 121 m.p.h.

1919

LONDON - ANTWERP - MALMO 1931 LONDON BERLIN 1923

PAM AMERICAN 'China Clipper' 163 m.p.h.

1935

/ ,/

,/ ,/

Pacific Ocean

South Atlantic

\~

PIONEERING FLIGHTS -

FIRST COMMERCIAL ROUTES

~~~

cJ1

NEW ZEALAND

Curtiss NC-4 91 m.p.h.

1919 BACI Aerospatiale Concorde 1,350 路m.p.h.

1976

Fokker F.Vllb-3m 111 m.p.h.

1928

44

Douglas DC-2 170 m.p.h.

1934

45

Some typical passenger aircraft of the 1930s and the 1980 s

The Growth of Aviation 1919 to 1980 Illustrated and written by Peter J. Stuckey

The origins of aviation do not disappear back into the mists of time. They are, on the contrary, quite clear and distinct. 'For although men had been experimenting with balloons for some time, the history of aviation really only dates back to roughly the turn of the century.

The first aircraft capable of sustained and controlled flight over relatively long distances were the dirigibles - lighterthan-air navigable airships. Much of the early pioneering work on dirigibles was done by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, after whom the famous German dirigibles 'Zeppelins' were named (these cruised regularly over the Nortn Sea to bomb England during the First World War, causing much damage). Airships were, however, very slow and vulnerable in bad weather and there was always the risk of fire from the hydrogen gas with which they were filled.

Nevertheless, it was a British dirigible, the R34, which made the first double crossing of the Atlantic, from East Fortune in Scotland to New York and back in July 1919.

Heavier-than-air machines had, by this time, been around for a number of years - Bleriot had flown across the English Channel in 1909 - and were just beginning to start the rapid progress that was to continue for the next sixty years. The dirigibles, however, managed to stay around for almost another twenty years before giving way to the inevitable onrush of the faster aeroplanes. In 1929, for instance, the 'Graf Zeppelin' was the first aircraft to fly right round the world and the German airship 'Hindenburg' maintained a regular passenger service between Germany and New York during the 1930s. However, the destruction of the 'Hindenburg'

46

by fire in 1937, coupled with the rapid advances in the faster winged aircraft brought to an end the era of the long distance dirigible.

The first commercial heavierthan-air machines were converted war-time bombers, such as the Vickers 'Vi my' , the Handley Page 0/400 and the De Havilland DH4s and DH9s. All aeroplanes at this time left the pilot exposed to the weather in an open cockpit but when the closed cockpit began to make an appearance many pilots resisted its introduction, claiming that they would lose the 'feel' of the plane, and to a point they were probably correct. Rapid advances in the sophistication and reliability of instruments soon won them over and piloting an aeroplane became a little more comfortable.

1919 was a big year for the trail blazers of the world's air routes, as can be seen from the illustration on the previous pages.

The world's first scheduled international' airline service was inaugurated by Britain's Aircraft Transport and Travel Ltd. between London and Paris in August 1919.

Throughout the 1920s development of aircraft and aero-engines proceeded rapidly and by the end of that decade passengers were flying in comparative luxury over long distances to reliable schedules. Many of the airliners such as the they flew in famous Handley Page HP42, the German JU52m and the Douglas DC3 have gone down as classics of their type.

The 19305 saw the great era of the long distance flying boat.

This was developed for use in the Middle and Far East where there were harbours and large rivers but very little in the way of prepared airfields. Travel in the big flying boats was leisurely, luxurious and adequate - until war came to demand larger,

faster land planes with greater range and larger payloads.

The Second World War brought about vast leaps in the evolution of the aircraft. Of necessity they became very much faster and exceptionally manoeuvrable. Mass-production replaced hand building and was still hard pushed to keep up with the demand. It is reckoned that Germany alone lost 1,733 aircraft during one 15-week period.

Perhaps the best remembered British wartime planes are the Spitfires and Hurricanes, with the Wellington bomber coming a close third. On the German side there were Fokkers, Heinkels and Messerschmidts.

The jet engine proved to be another major step. Invented in 1941, it revolutionised air travel.

Speeds became considerably faster and nowadays comparatively few piston engined aeroplanes remain in commercial use. The first pure jet transatlantic airliner was the De Havilland 'Comet': this heralded the age of the long distance passenger jet.

Instrumentation and controls have kept pace with the aeroplane's progress: automatic pilots, inboard computers, extremely complicated hydraulic systems, radio signals, radar, direction beacons and the like have all combined to improve the safety and comfort of both aviators and passengers. The world's airliners now operate medium and long-haul routes at speeds and with payloads unheard of thirty years ago.

Thus in the space of sixty years passenger air transport has developed from a frail bi-plane, carrying four passengers at 100 mph to the mighty Boeing 747 'Jumbo', carrying 300 people at over 500 mph. While the 'Concorde' can transport 100 people over 3,000 miles in two and a half hours!

SHORT 'SCION' Short-haul and feeder aircraft 1938 Five passengers at 102 m.p.h.

H.S.125 Short-haul and executive jet aircraft 1980 8 - 10 passengers at 500 m.p.h.

H.S.748 Medium-haul aircraft 1980 50 passengers at 300 m.p.h.

JUNKERS JU 52/3m Medium-haul aircraft 1932 15 - 17 passengers at 152 m.p.h.

SHORT 'C' Class flying-boat Long-haul aircraft 1937 24 passengers at 164 m.p.h.

BOEING 747 Long-haul aircraft 1980 300 passengers at 500 m.p.h.

47

by Peter Brooks The day was a hot one, as it usually was during August beside the Bay of Naples in the Mediterranean. People were going about their normal business with no thought for the sleeping volcano, just a mile behind the town, which had shown no signs of life during the town's six hundred year existence. Life was pleasant.

The year, so far, had been a good one - in fact, everything was normal.

Suddenly, around noon, the peace of that morning, August 24th in the year 79 A.D., was rudely shattered.

Mount Vesuvius had decided it was time to erupt!

A vast dense black column of fumes and ash shot into the air and spread outwards into a huge cloud. It quickly covered the mile between the mountain and the town and hot cinders and ash began raining down on the prosperous Roman town of Pompeii.

This rain pf debris was to continue for three days without pause and by the time it had finished Pompeii was buried under a blanket of volcanic ash and cinders that was about sixteen feet thick. (That's about five feet per day or two and a half inches per hour!) The coastline, too, had altered greatly and the sea was now a mile and a half from the town's waterfronts and quays.

Most of the population escaped, but many who tried to leave by boat found that their boats quickly filled with ash and cinders and sank beneath them.

About 2,000 of the population of 20,000 are thought to have perished.

VOLCANIC HISTORY Volcanoes are not a recent 'invention', the earth's history of

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volcanic activity is a very long one. Evidence has been found which has been dated, through very accurate scientific processes, to many thousands of millions of years. It has not, too, been limited to specific areas for, as the earth's crust plates move around (see 'The Pacific Ocean is getting smaller! in last year's Scout Annual) and the shape of the continents changes, so different areas come to be sited above a 'hot spot' and go through a volcanic period before the relentless movement shifts them away to a quieter place.

Indeed, Scotland has been through several such phases and about 325 million years ago (and that is comparatively recent!) a volcano was active on the site where Edinburgh now stands ... and this was just one of the hUl')dreds of volcanoes that existed in Scotland at that time.

:.,'

..

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.....

INTO VOLCANOES FALL THREE CATEGORIES: They are said to be extinct when they have shown no sign of activity within historical time this varies around the world for although the Mediterranean region, for instance, has a history of about 4,000 years, known history in the Antarctic only dates back to the turn of the last century. So the term 'historical time' is pretty flexible.

They are said to be dormant when there is no major volcanic activity, although the vent (which is what the actual opening is called) may give off fumes from time to time and they may become active at any time.

Or they are said to be active which, as it implies, means that they have a record of erupting within historical time.

A 'NEW' VOLCANO A volcano is 'born' when lava (hot liquid rock) breaks through the earth's surface at a new location. The lava has travelled from below the crust via what is known as the volcanic conduit.

This has forced its way through the layers of rock forming the earth's crust by breaking through the weakest points, so it will not necessarily have followed a straight line. Having broken through the crust the lava will flow out in all directions and cool.

More, still very hot, lava will force its way through this cooling lava and, in its turn, flow out and cool. This continues and first a small hill and then a small mountain will form as the layers of lava build up.

THE ERUPTION Some volcanoes have just one vent which they use whenever they choose to erupt. Most, however, have many vents and they tend to open a new vent for each new eruption, so the older the volcano the more vents it is likely to have. This is often caused by the last of the lava from one eruption 'solidifying in the vent as it cools. Then, when

50

it decides to erupt again, the fresh lava finds that it cannot get out as the vent is blocked by a plug of solid lava so it follows the line of least resistance (which is seldom through the lava above itl and pushes its way out through the sides of the cone - a new vent is born.

As the lava is making its way down the side of the cone, clouds of gas, vapour and steam

rise through the atmosphere, carrying with them ash and cinders. This dense black column has been known to rise thousands of feet into the air.

The gas, steam and vapour rise quickly and, through the pull of gravity, the heavier pieces of ash and cinder drop back to earth. As the temperature of the atmosphere cools the steam it condenses and starts to fall as

rain. While this has been happening the dust and ash have been settling around the cone, forming a thick carpet. When the rain hits this dust deposit it immediately turns to mud, which, when the weight of rain and dust has built up to the right level, will shoot off downhill at very high speed - speeds of up to 90kph have been recorded.

These mud-flows are highly

dangerous because of their speed. They are, in fact, far more dangerous and have caused far more destruction and death than lava has. It is a popular misconception that it is the lava which is dangerous - admittedly the lava is exceedingly hot but it moves so slowly that people and animals are able to get out of its way easily. The real menace is the mud-flow.

The lava, usually travelling very slowly, has been known to flow as far as fifty miles from the vent, and it is still so hot that it immediately incinerates, or boils, everything in its path. So it is only the immovable, like villages, that get caught by lava, people are relatively safe. The lava will retain its heat for many months, sometimes years, as it cools off only very, very slowly.

After a while you may find that you actually walk or climb a little faster or slower than this and can allow for that, but it is still a very useful way of estimating whether you are taking on too much or planning something that will be over in a few hours when you really want a whole day out!

Next, plan out the route in more detail (assuming that you have now found one that suits you), breaking it down into shorter 'stages' between the landmarks along your way such things as a fork in the path or where you cross a moorland

road or stream. Use Naismith's Rule again to tell you how long each stage should take and write it down in a list, together with the start and finish points for each stage (and their grid references).

You should make at least two copies of this list. Also note down on the list something of what you plan to do if an emergency or bad weather stops you doing the whole walk.

All this sounds a bit difficult at first but it needs to be done for any walk in 'wild' countryside, and it is really much easier than you may at first think. Also,

looking at the map while doing it will make the actual walking much easier since you will be more familiar with what to expect from the countryside around you, and you may even have found some interesting-looking spots which are worth a visit.

Duly kitted out, and with all the preparations made, it just leaves the actual setting out and where you are going and these subjects are covered in the fourth and final Part of this series. Part Four Setting Off and Where To Go? can be found on page 61.

NAISMITH'S RULE Use of this is really quite simple.

Here's how to do it: First, measure the distance to be walked.

In the two previous parts 0 this eries we have d al with the it you will nee and the essentials that mu n ver

be

continue,

forgotten.

then,

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th

If you read any books about explorers and mountaineers, one thing that you will notice is that they are nearly always prepared for most of the problems that they meet. Yes, they sometimes meet with something that stops them, but they have only got that far because they have made the necessary preparations to enst1re that they are not held up by the relatively small problems which always occur. It's not much good setting off on an expedition to the Himalayas if you begin by leaving the food behind!

None of us can prepare for absolutely everything that might happen, but at least we can be ready to deal with the more likely problems (and bad weather is certainly always likely). Part of the fun of walking is looking forward to it before you go and the planning and preparation are a portion of that.

Before you ever set foot off the

52

road you should have worked out carefully just where you are going that day, how long it should take you, and what you will do if bad weather, or any other problem, stops you being able to complete the whole walk. It isn't anything like as awful as it may sound.

Planning is part of the fun of walking and it should involve all who will be going on the walk (for safety, you should have at least four in the party, and not more than seven or eight or you will go too slowly). If everyone knows where they are going and what to expect you are all that much better prepared to meet any problems.

There are lots of skills in route planning, but the basics are very easy to learn and to use. First, choose your route from the map using footpaths and other 'rights of way' to be sure you will be able to go where you want. Then sit down and measure the following from your map: *How long your route is; *How much you will climb (count the contours crossed going up we are not interested in those crossed going down).

You can then estimate how long you will need for the walk by using a 'rule of thumb' known as 'Naismith's Rule' which goes as follows: Allow one hour for every four kilometres (two and a half miles) walked and one hour for every five hundred metres (fifteen hundred feet) that you climb. Add one hour for lunch.

This will be approximately the total time needed for your walk.

This is quite simple to use. ..

Suppose that your route plan takes you over two hills, climbing four hundred metres up the first and another six hundred metres up the second. In addition, the measured distance is ten kilometres. Naismith's Rule then gives us:

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You can do this either with a ruler, or by marking the 'legs' on a piece of paper, along the edge, and then measuring that with a ruler.

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Then divide the total distance (each way) by your speed, to get the number of hours needed for walking level.

Second, add the total height climbed, by counting how many contours you cross going uphill.

For distance walked jQ = 2Y2 hours

4

For height climbed 400 + 600 500 = 2 hours Plus lunch time = 1 hour Total. . . . . .. = 5Y2 hours

Knowing the contour spacing gives the total height to climb. Allow an hour for every 500 metres.

Add the two times needed.

+

1 hour for lunch = total time

53

THE BRIDGET CROSS

ClRN IJ'llllS

1

John Deft

2

If you have ever studied the decorations in your parish church at Harvest Festival time, you may have seen various models made from intricately woven straw. These have various names depending on where you live, but mostly they are called corn dollies. Nowadays they are used simply as decorations, but at one time they were much more: a thanks-offering to the gods of the harvest, and a propitiation to ensure a good crop next year.

Some of the designs are very elaborate, taking hours even for an expert to make, but others are quite simple.

The best way to learn, of course, is to be taught by someone who knows the skill already, but if you cannot find such a person then our descriptions should help.

Obviously you will need to get some straw. If you know a friendly farmer, ask him to give you (or sell you) some stalks of wheat a couple of weeks before they are ready for harvesting. A few you will want with the ears intact, but most you will use only for weaving. 'Townies' will have to make do with ordinary drinking straws (the paper sort, not plastic) or art straws (good but expensive). You will also want some cotton, a pair of scissors, and maybe some ribbon for decoration. Paper straws can be used straight from the packet, but real straw must be worked damp - soak it for about half an hour and leave it wrapped in a damp towel until needed.

Probably the simplest dolly to make is the Bridget Cross, an Irish design. The diagrams here show you how this is woven - it

can obviously be made to any size you want. If you use paper straws, there will be no ears, of course: woollen tassels are a poor substitute, but better than nothing. When you get to the end of the weaver straw, it is simple enough to slide another inside - at least half an inch otherwise it will probably come out again and carry on weaving.

For the traditional 'Nek' dolly, and many of the other designs, a different plaiting technique is used. This is commonly done with five straws, but can be as few as four or as many as eight or nine - the method is exactly the same. Practise the basic plait before starting on anything more complicated.

Once you have learned, though, there is no limit to the possibilities. The Nek we have already mentioned it is basically a long cylinder of weaving, with ears at one end and a curved handle at the other.

The Drop dolly is similar, but is wider in the middle and hollow instead of solid. There are many traditional local designs too: the Norfolk lantern, the Suffolk

Begin with four strong straws, still with their ears, and lay them out to make a cross with four equal arms.

(A piece of cotton holding the centre together makes later work easier).

3

4 Bring the weaver diagonally across again, and bend it back behind the next arm.

horseshoe (with or without whips), the Pickering chalice, the Northamptonshire horn, the Cambridgeshire.bell, the Topsham Cross from Devon, the Essex terret, and the Durham chandelier. Other designs do not belong to any particular area: Mother Earth is common, and so is the cornucopia or 'horn of plenty'; you may also find crossed keys, sea horses, or simply abstract designs representing nothing in particular.

It will take you less than five minutes to learn to plait, and then you can have literally hours of fun. A packet of straws costs about 20p for a hundred, and will make a fair sized dolly. Have a go. Have fun.

Cornucopia of Fruit 54

Take a weaver straw, beginning at one end, and lay it diagonally across the cross; then bend it behind one of the arms.

Continue doing this until the weaving reaches the ends of the four arms.

The loose end can be tucked or stuck inconspicuously into the weave.

THE FIVE-STRAW PLAIT

1

2 Take five (or more) straws, tie them firmly with cotton about an inch from one end, and bend them out at right angles.

3 Take the second of these two and lay it in turn over two straws.

with photographs by Eric Hosking FRPS

Red Deer (Cervus elaphusl

Our largest wild animals in Britain are the deer, with their characteristic combination of hooves and antlers. It can be great fun looking for deer, on hikes or on days out from camp, and it is always worth making detailed notes of any sightings or experiences.

I first watched Red Deer, our largest land mammals, while camping at Great Tower in the Lake District. It was late spring or early summer, so the stags were silent and mostly on their own in small herds and in very well-defined territory. The hinds, who had also been in their own herds until May-June, had separated to calve in secluded spots in the high bracken. Most would have one calf but some would manage two.

So long as the wind did not carry any trace of Man's scent to them, the stags drowsed away in the warm sun, well hidden. Clouds of flies, always a problem around the Lakes in the summer, indicated where a stag

might be lying. Sometimes the smell of excreta was not very pleasant on the breeze. We didn't disturb the deer and made our way back to camp.

Up in the wilds of Scotland and in the Isles I have had the same sort of experience . . . stags lying unseen, with great clouds of flies and a rich smell on the air in the summer sun.

The October rut is a wonderful time for watching Red Deer. The stags, silent and moody during the annual growth of antlers, leave their

bachelor herds and start fighting among themselVes. They go off then and wallow about in the swampiest, muddy pools they can find and cover themselves in the smelly stuff. Best of all, if they can find them, are peaty bogs with less water but lots of mud that cakes off.

Great roaring starts, or belling as it is called, which happens as early as three years of age.

The stags round up their harems of hinds throughout October, and the stag' in charge of each group pads

57

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

round it unceasingly, roaring and bellowing great defiance at any other stag who dares to approach. A lot of skirmishing and antler-fighting goes on at this time. It is quite funny to watch a much younger stag with no hopes of a harem, nip in smartly when one of these contests is going on and mate with the nearest hind.

As soon as the great stag sees him he forgets his battle and chases the young rival over the horizon. Great stuff for wildlife watchers!

Antlers are solid bone. Stags cast them between February and April, new ones soon growing and being complete, according to the age of the stag, by September. During growth, when the stag is 'in velvet', the antlers are covered with路 a velvety skin which is cast in the rut. The stag rubs his antlers on trees and branches until the new antlers are shiny and very hard. The 'velvet' hangs down in long strips, dies and drops off. It is a fascinating aspect of animal behaviour and well worth studying in more detail.

exceeds four feet in length. The doe is smaller still, weighing about 46 pounds at maturity. The tail is very short but the ears are large with long hairs and white insides. The antlers are only eight or nine inches long, almost straight and usually threetined at most.

The Fallow Deer are well-known in Britain as parkland deer. No one really knows when they first came to us but many do escape from time to time and you are likely to come across them almost anywhere. A Fallow buck is about three feet at the shoulders, the hind is shorter. There are two kinds or forms. The spotted one loses its spots in winter and has a grey coat but the darker form is- very dark-brown in winter.

Like all deer, Fallows have a prominent amount of white on the rump, which serves as a recognition signal when alarmed, so that the herd dashes off closely. following the white patch in front.

Red Deer calves stand within minutes of birth, start running a few hours later and remain with their mothers for up to ten months, when they start browsing and grazing on their own.

A Red Deer stag is up to eight feet long in head and body and may be up to four-and-a-half feet high at the shoulder, the hind being appreciably smaller. In October, the main breeding season or 'rut', the mature stags are a magnificent sight with their manes and a 43-inch spread of antlers. The antlers start when the stag is between one and two years old and he is called a knobber. In his second year he grows a pair of spikes and becomes a pricket. Year by year he adds mor~ points or tines, as they are called, until he reaches maturity with no less than twelve great points.

This is called a royal, the whole business from knobbier to royal taking six years. Actually, a stag can often be active and mature at four years of age but the older stags keep them well in order.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

Only the Red Deer and Roe Deer are true natives of Britain. The Roe Deer is rarely seen in its native Scotland and the wilder north of England, but there are plenty about in many other secluded estates and parkland places, introduced by Man. Roe Deer are active by night and move swiftly and skilfully in dense cover. A Roe is small compared to the Red Deer. The mature roebuck is two-and-a-half feet at the shoulder, weighs about 70 pounds and rarely Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) - stag with newly growing antlers

The fawns, one or two, are usually born in late spring while the bucks are shedding their antlers - new ones will grow by the end of the summer. Fallow Deer antlers are palmate, the main part forming a plate like the palm of a hand, with the points, or snags as they are called, sticking out like fingers. Fallow Deer, including many ferals or escapees from parkland, are found all over Southern England. They. are rare in Wales and in the Highlands.

The rut goes on in October as with Red Deer, with much staking of territory claims by scent and snorting.

Fights may be quite savage but Fallow hinds never co-operate, and tend to wander about different territories, so mating is a bit of a muddle. In the end it all seems to work out well.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

John Deft Paper of the sort we know today was first made by the Chinese in about 100 AD, and for the first 1500 years was made entirely by hand. Although nowadays almost all paper is made mechanically, it is still possible to produce home-made paper with patience and a very small amount of equipment.

The one thing you will need to make is a mould. This is an oblong wooden frame, with a piece of wire mesh fastened to the top. A wooden 'deckle' another "loose frame fitting around it - will help give your paper reasonably clear edges. (If you want your paper to contain a watermark, then just fasten an extra piece of wire of the right shape on top of the wire mesh.l You will also need a vat - a square plastic washing-up bowl is ideal, so long as there is enough room in it for the mould to lie flat; several pieces of felt (or old blankets cut into squares); two wooden boards such as breadboards; a large old saucepan; a sieve, and one or two containers of various sizes.

Paper is made from vegetable fibres. Most modern paper is made from wood, but for home-made paper it is best to stick to leaves, grasses (especially coarse plants like cow parsley) and so on. Old cotton and linen rags make very good paper but need a lot of work. Of course, if you prefer you can 'cheat' by recycling used paper - a very useful thing to do in any case.

The process is the same in either case. Cut or tear th.e material into small pieces - if Mother will let you borrow the blender attachment on her kitchen mixer it will save time, but not for rags - and put it into a large saucepan. When the saucepan is more or less full, cover the raw material with water, and add a tablespoon of caustic soda for every two pints of water. (It is best to wear rubber gloves for this, as caustic soda burns the skin unless washed off immediately). Bring the pan to the boil and simmer until the mixture loses all shape - probably three or four hours, so make sure it does not boil dry.

Now strain the mixture through a sieve, and grind down any really large lumps that remain. Put the sieve and its contents carefully into a bowl of warm water, and stir the water around gently. For coloured paper, now is the time to add any colouring, otherwise it will keep its natural colour - usually a dirty grey! When you have treated all the pulp in this way, put it into a convenient container.

Fill the vat close to the top with

Put a piece of telt on the table,and turn the mould upside down on to this. Press it down this will transfer the pulp to the felt. Remove the mould, put another piece of felt on top, and repeat the whole thing, keeping the vat well stirred and adding extra pulp as necessary.

When the felt-and-pulp sandwich is as thick as you want, put wooden boards at the top and bottom and squeeze out as much wate'r as possible, either in a press or by standing on it and carefully treading up and down. Then very carefully remove the sheets of pulp and lay them out separately to dry. (Before they get quite dry, pile them up between the boards and press them under a weight overnight - this will keep them flat).

Rem able 'Deckl.'

In this, the final part, of this series Dave Budgen looks at actually setting off and where you might go to find the sort of country suitable for those first few walks.

The earlier parts, covering: The

Kit, Essentials and Preparation

---,---'Wire

Mesh

warm water and add several cupfuls of pulp. Dip in your mould (with decklel two or three inches below the surface, keeping it horizontal. Shake it gently from side to side, and from front to back, and then lift it out. Tip it gently to one corner to pour off any excess water, and take off the deckle.

This process will give you a rough paper rather like blotting paper in texture. The simplest way to get a nice finish is to get a spray can of the stuff that makes shirts feel like new, and to spray and iron the paper.

Experiment with different raw materials, different colours, and so on. Make your own writing paper, or print your Patrol Newsletter on paper that you have made yourselves. It's all good fun!

can be found on pages 8, 27 and 52, respectively.

Well, having talked about all the work to be done beforehand, what about the fun of walking itself? Having done all the planning, assembled all our kit and put on our boots - how about some walking then?

So, here we are at the start of the track that will lead us up onto the moors. But wait, there's one last thing to be done. Remember that we needed at least two copies of the route plan? You should have at least one copy in the party, but another copy should be left behind with someone who also knows what time you set out. Then, if you fail to return within a reasonable time of your expected arrival time they can organise a party to come out and look for you - and because of that planning they will know where you should be, too.

So, of course, as soon as you get back down, the first thing

you must do is let this person know - especially if you have had to cut your walk short and have come out at a different place to the intended one. Unfortunately, every year some parties fail to do this and searches are made for people that may well be sleeping snugly in some barn or back in their own beds. Don't let your party be one of them, please!

Where To Go This depends on where you can get to, of course. There is open countryside around much of England and Wales, Scotland abounds with it, although much of Scotland is not for the

beginner. There is plenty of scope for adventure in the moorlands of Dartmoor and Exmoor, the Pennines and the North Yorkshire Moors. Mid-Wales has a lot of good walking, too.

Don't expect to climb every mountain that you see - and always ask advice from others when you can. Remember that preparation matters, and when things get tough don't hesitate to turn back or take an easier or shorter way down. There is no loss of face in turning back because of bad weather or other problems, however disappointed you may be. The hills and moors will still be there another day.

the end of the greenstick it will stay In place.

Turn the stick slowly to allow the twist to cook evenly.

When the twist is nice and crusty. serve it on a plate. Slit it open and eat with butter or Jam spread Inside.

Twists are delicious when piping hot!

Ron Jeffries

shows you how to...

Ma ea Charcoal Oustbinlid fire Charcoal is readily available from camping shops and is an ideal method of cooking on a hike, on Troop Night or in your back garden.

A metal dustbin-lid makes a good container for the fire - but do make sure you use a metal dustbin-lid and not a plastic one - for obvious reasons!

You will also need some bricks to raise the upturned dustbin-lid off the ground. This will balance the lid and stop it from rocking about. If the lid is placed directly on the ground the heat generated will scorch the surface underneath, and if this happens to be the lawn in your back

garden, you will not be very popular.

Raising the lid helps to bring it to a level where you can be comfortable when you are cooking and about a foot off the ground is usually the right height.

If you are cooking in the garden or on grass it is best tb be doubly sure by putting down a layer of sand or earth underneath the dustbin-lid.

To light your fire you Will need a supply of charcoal, a few firelighters and an air pump of some sort the air bed variety with a flexible tube works quite well.

Place a firelighter at the base of the dustbin-lid and surround this with small pieces of charcoal. Gradually add more (and larger) pieces of char coal and allow these to catch light, too.

After about five minutes you can help the charcoal to burn more quick Iy by lightly pumping air through it.

But take care; you are trying to spread the flames and not blow them out with a hurricane. Pump slowly and gently.

As you add more charcoal, the burning will spread, until the base uf the dustbin-lid IS filled with burning charcoal. It takes about an hour to produce sufficient coals for a Patrol of six Scouts to be able to start cooking around the same dustbin-lid.

While the fire is building up, you can start preparing the food you want to cook. Sausages on greensticks are good to experiment with.

Cut greensticks for each member of the Patrol - with permission.

Sticks cut from many garden shrubs are ideal, provided the owner of the garden is prepared to have hiS shrubs pruned in this way!

Peel the greenstick and hold it over the hot charcoal to bake it dry, twisting it round as you do so. This will dry out the sap. With the stick warm, this will help to cook anything you wrap around it.

When the charcoal turns white, spear a sausage onto the end of your greenstick and hold it over the charcoal until it is cooked. Keep turning the stick so lhat each part of the sausage is cooked evenly.

Now try some twists. Make a mixture of self-raising flour and water, with a pinch of salt to taste. Do not make your mixture too wet, nor too dry, for that matter. It should be pliable so that when you curl it round

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foil. When they are cooked, split them open and insert a knob of but ter, salt and pepper to taste.

Cook apples in the same way, but before you wrap each apple in foil core it and stuff the inside with currants. a little sugar and a pat of butter. They are great!

Now try some al4minium foil cooking. Do make sure that you have charcoal embers and not flame for foil cooking; flame makes the foil granulatf> and produces a hole in the foil which defeats the object of this method of cooking, which is based on the principle of the pressure cooker, as you will see.

Try cooking potatoes In their Ja<..kets. Wrap the potatoes individually in two layers of cooking

meal and lay It out flat. Place the sliced onion nngs as a 'bed' for the rest of the food. If anything is going to be burned, let it be the onion rings, which are there mainly to give flavour to the meal Place your sausage on top of the onion rings and then include the vegetables.

Bnng the two sides of foil over your meal and fold them together three times, making sure that there is an air space above the food. Twist the open ends of the cylinder you have formed so that it looks rather like a Christmas cracker. It is important to leave an air space above the food, for you have now made yourself a sort of primitive pressure cooker.

Place the foil container on the embers of charcoal and cook.

Next cook a complete meal In aluminium foil. Slice some onion rings and dice whatever vegetables you are able to use - potatoes. carrots and so on When dicing the vegetables remember that carrots take about three times as long to cook as potatoes so the carrot pieces should be one third the thickness of the potatoes. Prick sausages if you are going to use these, too.

Take a piece of foil that is large enough to parcel up your complete

Spit roasting over charcoal requires little equipment. Make your spit-roaster using two forked sticks as supports, with a greenstick laid across the top. Make sure the two forked sticks are firmly pushed into the ground and are steady.

Chicken legs can be speared onto the greenstick. Baste with warm fat and turn the stick every no\.'\( and then to ensure that the legs are cook ed evenly though. Take care when basting - if too much hot fat drips onto the charcoal this may flare up and burn the meat.

How about ...

"Holding a Patrol Barbecue, when you invite your Scout Leader and his wife to an evening meal? You will not need much space and could run this on a patch of ground near your

Scout Headquarters or in someone's back garden.

"Inviting the nearest Girl Guide Patrol to join your Patrol for an evening barbecue - on your local camp site, perhaps?

"Running an Inter-Patrol Barbecue Competition? Invite the Cub Scout Leader to bring the Sixers along to act as the 'judges'. They would enjoy taking part in an activity with your Troop. Go on - ask them!

Illustrations by Doug Mountford

ti1e c4

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ammUtl

annual 1981

SBN 723565856