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Psychological Consequences of Discrimination
The case of Roma people in Greece
by Eirini Georgiakaki
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one other in a spirit of brotherhood”. In line with the Universal Declaration, Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights and Article 21 of the EU charter of Fundamental Rights prohibit any discrimination on the grounds of sex, religion, race, nationality, color, language, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or social status. However, despite the enshrinement of these fundamental rights, the lives of Roma people across Europe, and notably in Greece, are marked by deep-rooted discrimination, which unquestionably has serious psychological consequences.
What is considered as Discrimination?
Although there is no universally accepted definition of discrimination that applies across all contexts, the simplest way of defining it includes the elements of unfair and/or biased treatment of people because of their characteristics such as race, religion, nationality, etc. In addition to the day-to-day discrimination that many people face from individuals, institutional discrimination, which refers to generalized policies and practices that many societies apply to groups of people, can also have harmful consequences for the recipients. Fear, misunderstandings and stereotypes are the driving forces of discrimination, with the most common stereotype about Roma people being the perception that they are involved in criminal activities such as stealing, drug trafficking, etc. The words of Miguel de Cervantes, a Spanish writer of the 17th century, who described the Roma as those who “have been sent into this world for the sole purpose of thieving” depict and explain how the Roma identity has been criminalized in many European societies over the years (Brisbin, Grigore, Zawacki, 2022).
What kind of Discrimination do Roma people experience in Greece?
In Greece, Roma people are constantly facing the negative aspects of discrimination. From school to everyday activities, they are targets of suspicious glares and in fear of false and unfair accusations. Urania Rapti, a field community worker and psychologist who works with the Roma community of Thessaloniki in the neighborhood of Dendropotamos, shared with us some stories of Roma students, who were most often falsely accused of stealing from their classmates just because they are Roma. As she also mentioned, it is not unusual for Roma students to be mistreated by their teachers or even expelled from school for unjustified reasons. In most cases, it is not only the teachers who react and discriminate against Roma children, but also the parents of other children, who claim as an excuse that Roma children do not want to be educated and only bring troubles to the classroom. However, this never-ending cycle of discrimination does not end there, as most Roma adolescents and adults face different treatment in hospitals, employment and public services.
Which are the psychological consequences of discrimination?
It goes without saying that years and years of exposure to biased and discriminatory treatment can have serious consequences on people’s mental and physical health. Social trauma, which refers to “stressful experiences with prejudice and discrimination on an individual level, as well as cultural and structural inequities based on factors such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religion and disabilities” (Lee & LeeWoon, 2011), can affect individuals or even entire groups or communities, thus causing great consequences. Among the most common symptoms of this form of trauma are: intrusive thoughts, avoidance behaviors, arousal symptoms and mood fluctuations.
There are various social-psychological models that explain and depict how discrimination and bias can affect physical and mental health. As one of them describes, different levels of exposure to discrimination either at an individual or structural level can lead to psychological distress and/or changes in allostatic load. Psychological distress includes symptoms of increased level of anxiety, depression, feelings of hopelessness, anger, aggression and decreased self-efficacy. At the same time, chronic stress changes the allostatic load as immune function decreases and cortisol levels, blood pressure and heart rate increase. The outcomes of this unvirtuous cycle of discrimina - tion are detrimental to people, as they are at increased risk of developing risky behaviors such as drug use and/or sexual risk-taking, and experience high risks of chronic illness such as cardiovascular disease and increased aggression and violent behaviors. Nevertheless, it should be noted that stress and trauma do not necessarily lead to physical and mental illness, but rather increase the risk of experiencing them.
Research on the health of Roma compared to the majority population in various European countries
Various studies on the health of Roma people in several European countries reveal the serious consequences of discrimination on both mental and psychological health. According to the findings, Roma people are facing lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality rates, higher rates of non-communicable and chronic disease, lower vaccination rates, higher rates of disability and lower levels of psychological wellbeing and health-related quality of life (Brisbin, Grigore, Zawacki, 2022). In particular, in a study conducted in Hungary on multiple suicide attempts, Roma people’s responses showed that their perceptions about marginalization and discrimination were disproportionately affected by the factor of prolonged unemployment. As it was also discovered, this situation played a key role in affecting and influencing their decisions to attempt suicide. The findings of another study that was carried out in Romania and Bulgaria, which focused on the mental health of Roma children, showed that they experience higher rates of phobias, anxiety disorders, hyperactivity and major depressive disorder. Nevertheless, the fear of stigmatization resulting from mental health diagnoses and the potential reinforcement of stigma surrounding the Roma identity prevents many Roma people from seeking the necessary psychological help (Brisbin, Grigore, Zawacki, 2022).
Coping mechanisms for dealing with the psychological consequences of discrimination
While stressing and studying the psychological consequences of discrimination in the Roma community can be a first step in identifying the social pathogenesis that fuel this cycle of marginalization and discrimination, it is also important to recognize and promote the current developments in the field of social trauma, which encourage the emergence of coping mechanisms. The resilience approach is one of those coping mechanisms and is a turning point in the perception of trauma as a negative experience. Many authors have attempted to define resilience with one of them being Rutter, who emphasized on the fact that some people may have a “good psychological outcome” after being exposed to risky situations. Nevertheless, others argue that resilience is about the personal development and growth that people experience while they face adversities. Therefore, resilience can be identified as “the ability to have a positive outcome after a negative situation, the ability to function competently under stressful situations and the ability to get back on your feet after traumatic experiences” (Cabanyes Truffino, 2010).
How can society bring about change?
A fter discussing the potential impact of discrimination on the mental and physical health of Roma people, it is important to address how we, as a society, can effect change and break this cycle of discrimination. Although breaking down well-established social structures that generate and perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices against individuals and groups of people is a long-term process, there is a need for immediate action, both individually and collectively, through coordinated policies by the state and international organizations. One of the most effective ways to combat discrimination is by raising awareness through the institution of school. Denmark, which has integrated empathy classes into the school curriculum in order to foster better relationships among children and combat bullying, serves as an excellent example of how schools can be instrumental in driving societal change. At the end of the day, each of us, when acting collectively, can bring about change, or at least make an attempt.
