Language variation, change, andsocial variables

Sociolinguistics

Language variation, change, and social variables

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Intro  speech communities are not homogeneous --> linguistic variation  the basic unit of language variation is the ideolect (linguistic features of an individual)  depending on the communicative situation, each member of a speech community chooses between forms of language  sociolinguistics studies the effects social factors have on language use and language structures, studies correlations between language used and social structures  sociolinguistics is interested in group identities: what does language contribute to making community possible 2

Language and identity  language as a window on social reality  language can be used deliberately (in acts of identity) to signal that speakers want or do not want to belong to a certain group (Le Page & Tabouret-Keller 1985)  “individuals create their linguistic systems so as to resemble those of the group or groups they wish from time to time to be identified with, or so as to distinguish themselves from those they wish to distance themselves from” (Robert B. Le Page)  --> language accommodation or adaptation 3

Sociolinguistics and sociology of language ďƒź sociolinguistics: studies variation in language (varieties) and the social factors which may be correlated with it --> focus on language ďƒź sociology of language: understanding social structures by studying language --> focus on society ďƒź both are strictly empirical approaches --> quantitative vs. qualitative sociolinguistics 4

Types of varieties        

variation is possible on all structural levels: from phonology to discourse variation becomes manifest in preferences and, as a consequence, in frequency of use dialects sociolects ethnolects genderlects (all of which is variation according to users) register style (variation according to use) --> circumstances, purpose, relationship between interlocutors/tenor, discourse topic/field; attention paid to speech, audience design

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Social variables and linguistic variables        

region, place socio-economic status level of education profession age ethnicity sex/gender (r), (ing), (or) 6

The Standard  no variety is inherently superior  standard varieties enjoy a higher prestige: perceived and accepted as such       

written language, literature network language administration, court language of instruction at school and university teaching target in ELF contexts used by the educated middle and upper classes codified

 common core = standard?  difficult to define in positive terms 7

Dialect and accent  accent refers to the pronunciation only  dialect includes lexical and grammatical properties as well  Received Pronunciation is the standard accent, not a dialect, let alone the standard variety  General American is an ambiguous term and best avoided (see Lampert 2006) 8

Regional varieties  dialectology focused on observable variation in the phonological systems, the morphology, and in the lexicon of predominantly elderly male speakers in rural areas (NORMS = non-mobile old rural male speakers)  methods: questionnaire and interviews  isoglosses, dialect layers and dialect continua  dialect areas --> mapping the differences  linguistic atlases and dialect dictionaries (DARE) 9

Dialect levelling and dialect strengthening  disappearance of dialects due to mobility, increasing urbanization, and media influence  emergence of new regional dialects in Britain on phonological grounds  Estuary English  divergence of old regional dialect areas in the USA also on phonological grounds (see Atlas of North American English)  Angloversals in non-standard varieties (cf. 266-267)

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Social varieties ďƒź effects which the actual or envisaged group identity of a speaker has on variation in language use ďƒź choice between structural alternatives is not random but correlates with the social group membership or with the situation the individual is in --> rule-governed heterogeneity, social stratification ďƒź horizontal and vertical stratification often correlate 11

Labovian sociolinguistics     

William Labov (*1927) founder of quantitative sociolinguistics main interest is language change correlational sociolinguistics department stores investigation (published in 1966)  English in New York City  AAVE 12

Network theory  James and Lesley Milroy  not concerned with correlations between language use and macro-sociological variables such as socio-economic status, age, gender  investigates the correlations between language use and the self-perception, the values, and attitudes of a special group on the micro-sociological level (family, friends, acquaintances) 13

Structure of networks  network density (quantity and number of relationships)  multiplexity of the network (quality or type of the relationships)  sociometrics (center vs. periphery)  level of network integration determines amount of possible communicative events inside the network --> dialect usage  peer pressure to follow the norms of the network increases as network density intensifies  accommodation theory 14

Language and gender  gender as a socio-cultural construct  performing, doing gender in male-dominated societies by means of language  language determines thought? (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)  Man-made language (Dale Spender) reflects, constructs and perpetuates male dominance  gender manifests itself in prototypical or stereotypical gender-roles --> lady doctor, male nurse 15

Language used to discriminate women  controlled language change as awareness therapy and making women visible  humankind, chairperson, firefighter, police officer  generic he: ask anyone and they’ll tell you...  man-words, Ms.,master, mistress  language-specific therapies: neutralization vs. gendering  Zu Risiken und Nebenwirkungen fragen Sie Ihren Arzt oder Apotheker.

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Gender-specific language use         

how does variation interact with gender? genderlect same-sex and across-sex conversation conflict-, status-, competition-oriented men consensus-oriented, cooperative women perpetuating stereotypes (p. 281) intercultural communication, two-cultures view women target the standard – why? language as symbolic capital 17

The use of the present to explain the past  language contact research  creole studies  language variation between preservation and renewal, between retention of features and innovation  real-time and apparent-time studies  age-grading  internal and external factors of language change  change starts out as variation --> blurring the distinction between synchrony and diachrony  actuation problem, diffusion and spread 18