Evolution In Islamic Architecture [tradition-modernity-development]

Evolution in Islamic architecture Tradition-Modernity-development A dissertation

Submitted by KABEER NIJAMUDEEN.H In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the award of the degree Of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE Under FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE In

MOHAMED SATHAK A.J. ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTURE (Approved by Council of Architecture & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai) 34, Old Mahabalipuram Road, IT Highway, Egattur-603103 Affiliated To ANNA UNIVERSITY Chennai 600025 April2015

Evolution In Islamic Architecture: Tradition, modernity & development

PREFACE

My architecture education in Mohamed Sathak A.J. Academy of architecture has led me to think about the evolution in Islamic Architecture from ancient period till moderns days. My interest in this subject was how the elements & forms were evolved and also how the traditional architecture elements were using in today’s Islamic Architecture. When I began to make the comparison between Traditional Islamic architecture and contemporary Islamic architecture how the tradition were interrupted in modernity.

In this text I intend to put two parts, first part is to find the evolution in Islamic architecture, where the other one is to give the developemnt in evolution for the future Islamic architecture.

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ACKNOWELDGEMENT

Mohamed sathak A.J. academy of architecture, The Dean prof.

Mohamed harris, The principal prof. Mohamed idris, Head of department prof. Sathish kumar, Ar. Subramanian, the faculty member and supervisor Ar. Prabhu for giving me permission to take up this dissertation and making it a success. My guides Ar. Madhanraj santhanam and Ar. Saranya kannappan who have been very helpful, supportive, enlightening and maneuvering me all the way through my dissertation.

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DECLARATION

I declared that this Dissertation entitled “EVOLUTION IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE-Tradition Modernity, Development� is a result of my work and prepared by me under the supervision of Ar. Madhanraj santhanam and that it is not formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associate ship or fellowship of any other university or institution previously. Due acknowledgement have been made wherever anything has been borrowed from other sources.

Date:

Signature of candidate : Name and Roll No

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CONTENTS PREFACE…………………………………………………………………………………….…….1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………………………….2 DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………..…….…..3 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..….………5 EARLY HISTORY…………………………………………………………………………………5 EFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE……………………….………..8 ELEMENTS IN TRADITIONAL ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE……………….…………..28 EVOLUTION IN ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES……………………………..…………..40 EVOLUTION IN ISLAMIC GEOMETRICAL PATTERN (IGPS)…………………………52 USING OF MATERIALS FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN CONTEXT………………………………………………………………..…………63 COMTEMPORARY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE…………………………………………..69 ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN MODERNITY AND TRADITION…………………………………………………………………………..…………..72 TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS IN CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE…………………………………………………………………………………78 DERINKUYU MASJID…………………………………………………………..………………84 INFERNECE AND CONCLUSION……………………………………………….……………89

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INTRODUCTION: Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by ancient structures that already existed in Roman, Byzantine and Persian lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also influenced

by Chinese and Indian Architecture as Islam spread to Southeast asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for buildings of less importance such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.

EARLY HISTORY Islamic architecture is in part comprised of those buildings and built environments intended for use in Islamic worship, commemoration, and instruction. Among the architecture of this group are mosques, madrasas or schools, mausoleums, and shrines. Islamic architecture may also be considered as the creation of patrons and builders who profess Islam or those that live in a region ruled by Muslims. These buildings can generally be described as secular, and include suqs (marketplaces), hammams (public baths), khans (inns), caravanseries or roadside inns, palaces, and houses.

Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures within the sphere of Islamic culture.

The principle architectural types of Islamic architecture are; the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabularly of Islamic architecture is derived and used for buildings of lesser importance such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.[1] In 630C.E. Muhammad's army reconquered the city of Mecca from the Banu Quraish tribe. The holy sanctuary of Ka'ba was rebuilt and re-dedicated to Islam, the reconstruction being carried out before Muhammad's death in DISSERTATION

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632C.E. by a shipwrecked Abyssinian carpenter in his native style. This sanctuary was amongst the first major works of Islamic architecture. The walls were decorated with paintings of Jesus, Mary, Abraham, prophets, angels and trees. Later doctrines of Islam dating from the eighth century and originating from the Hadith, forbade the use of such icons in architecture, specifically those of humans and animals.[1] In the 7th century, Muslim by time the religion of Islam spread throughout the region. The Muslim's first need was for somewhere to worship - a mosque. The simple layout provided elements that were to be incorporated into all mosques and the early Muslims put up simple buildings based on the model of the Prophet's house or adapted existing buildings, such as churches for their own use.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND PERSIAN: Like this of other nations that became part of the Islamic realm, Persian Architecture is not to be confused with Islamic Architecture and refers broadly to architectural styles across the Islamic world. Islamic architecture, therefore, does not directly include reference to Persian styles prior to the rise of Islam. Persian architecture, like other nations', predates Islamic architecture and can be correctly understood as an important influence on overall Islamic architecture as well as a branch of Islamic architecture since the introduction of Islam in Persia. Islamic architecture can be classified according to chronology, geography, and building typology.

One of the first civilizations that Islam came into contact with during and after its birth was that of Persia. The eastern banks of the Tigris and Euphrates was where the capital of the Persian empire lay during the 7th century. Hence the proximity often led early Islamic architects to not just borrow, but adopt the traditions and ways of the fallen Persian empire.

Islamic architecture borrows heavily from Persian architecture and in many ways can be called an extension and further evolution of Persian architecture. Many cities such as Baghdad, for example, were based on

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precedents such as Firouzabad in Persia. In fact, it is now known that the two designers who were hired by al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht , a former Persian Zoroastrian, and Mashallah , a former Jew from Khorasan, Iran. Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs.

DEFINING: Although Islamic architecture is infinitely varied in plan, elevation, building material, and decorative programs, there are several recurring forms found in all types of buildings, be they religious, secular, public, or private.

These basic components are the dome, the arch, and the vault (Fig. 1 a-c).

Before describing the different aspects of Islamic architecture it is important to pause and ask if such a categorization is viable.

This question stems from three considerations. First is the fact that the forms and decorative practices of these buildings are largely adaptations of pre-Islamic models. Thus it is not improper to ask if Islamic architecture should in fact be labeled Classical, Sassanian, or Hindu. If all that was being considered were forms emptied of meaning and function then the answer to this question would be a resounding yes. The second consideration derives from the fact that many of the architectural forms considered as Islamic architecture were built for secular purposes. How, then, can a religious category designate houses, inns, baths, or even cities? Are there essential qualities of these secular spaces that give them meaning as Islamic architecture? Finally, there is a question of fit. If Christians, Jews, and Hindus living within an Islamic region build similar forms then would not the designation be too narrow? And, conversely is the designation too broad? For how can a Malaysian congregational mosque built in the twenty-first century be placed under the same analytic category as an Umayyad congregational mosque of the eighth century, when they are not built of the same materials and do not display common decorative practices or forms?

While such considerations are beyond the scope of this article, it is important to realize that contemporary historians of Islamic architectural DISSERTATION

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history weigh these questions critically. Some have responded by introducing more specified categories of Islamic architecture, such as those based on regional, dynastic, and chronological designations. Others have introduced new analytic models, for example, by studying the development of certain architectural forms, such as the minaret, or a practice, such as the use of public inscriptions. Taken together, recent scholarship of Islamic architecture presents a more historically contingent and culturally varied approach to the study of Islamic architecture.

Many of the problems associated with the category of Islamic architecture arise from what is taken as the meaning of architecture. If Islamic architecture is simply a material entity, composed of classical forms, then the notion of Islamic architecture as being distinct from Byzantine or Sassanian becomes questionable. However, if by architecture we mean a dynamic space that produces relationships between people and helps individuals understand and articulate their identity through their engagement (or disengagement) with that space then the meaningfulness of Islamic architecture can be seen as a distinct construction.

2. EFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE: Proportionality: This principle concerns the size of different elements of a historical building both on the. plan and facade. It relates to the width and length of rooms, yard, pools and the width and height of entrance, corridors, columns, windows, doors, the height of the major and minor spaces and so on.

Scale: This principle concerns the comparison of the size of monuments and the surrounding residential buildings. In general, different scales have different meanings. The feeling of a big or small entrance is really different. In Islamic architecture, the public buildings and especially total holy places and mosques with their high minarets are the landmarks of the biggest height on a

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city skyline, which stand out high from the cityscape. On the other hand, the scale of residential buildings is in accordance with the human dimensions and needs.

Repetition/Frequency: This was used on the facade and the monuments. The repetition of the columns, gently applied in Islamic architecture. This more than twice.

Symmetry: You can see the manifestation of this Vinen you stand Mekka. In of most of the historical arches should be first others the architectural forms should help to tranquillize you The symmetry helps you to add this feeling to the prayer. You can also see the symmetry on the facade of all the Islamic constructions (both on the facades facing the street and the courtyard if any).

Fig 2.1. section and facade, repetition on the facade, symmetry both on the facade and plan, equilibrium of sections and order on the ornaments and faรงade.

Equilibrium: This principle concerns the visual balance of an architectural form. In this case, it is not necessary to have a symmetrical form but it is necessary to have the balance between the right and left sides. Symmetry will always involve equilibrium, but equilibrium will not always involve symmetry. See the two Evans of Jami Mosque Centrality: The meaning of this principle is very clear. The best example of it is the 'House of Prayer' in Mekka. All the mosques were designed to face this

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house because the prayers should face this house when they are praying.

When you want to emphasize something, you will put it in the centre. In most of the mosque yards you will see a pool in the centre.

Harmony This principle concerns harmony of architectural elements. On a facade, perhaps you may use different proportions and different forms but they should be in harmony. Just like each musician in a symphony orchestra plays a different instrument but they all play in harmony. To take an architectural example, the capital of big and small columns should not necessarily have the same shape, but they should be in harmony. Harmony with nature which expresses another meaning of this word has been produced in Islamic architecture, too. In Islamic architecture, water has a symbolic meaning of cleanliness, and before you start praying you must make Vozou (washing the face and the hands). Therefore, the pool in the centre of yard should be designed in a way to emphasize the symbolic meaning of water (cleanliness) and its function the harmony in public building and residential building is not only unnecessary but many cases, it is a conflicting requirement.

Similarity: This principle has the same meaning as harmony with the difference that in the case of similarity, we cannot compare different elements.

For instance, similarity can be detected between all circles but you can never find any similarity in the composition of a circle and a rectangle because they are dissimilar. To take an architectural example, in case you have a small and a big arch, according to this principle they should be similar in the technique of drawing. In Islamic architecture, sometimes you can experience the principle of harmony and sometimes the principle of similarity. In my opinion, deciding on this one or that one dominates in modern Islamic architecture, will depend on the designer's taste

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.

Fig 2.2 The 'Tall Berenjy' minaret in Isfahan, repetition in the lower part of tile minaret, a very strong contrast with city panorarna and highest point

Contrast: The nature of human will not like uniformity in general. The military colour may be nice in the army, but surely it is not in the civilian life! It could hardly be imagined that in a city every citizen should wear a uniform of the same colour and cut. The human nature likes and needs contrast and variety.

In Islamic architecture a series of rhythmic elements will always be followed by a higher or bigger element in size (contrast) which provides a nicer form in construction.

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Fig 2.3 'Imam' mosque in Isfahan, plan, section and facade, proportion between dimensions of architectural elements on the plan, section and facade, repetition of domes and arches on the plan, symmetry on the plan and facade, centrality in the centre of all courtyards, good order, movement and tranquillity between the entrance and the main courtyard on the plan, culmination by pools on the plan, highest points of the top of the dome and minaret on the facade

Variety: The meaning of this principle is the same as that of contrast with the difference that the modification in the principle of contrast will result in achieving the principle of variety. Both will bring you out of monotony, but contrast will bring about a sudden shock, while variety will exert its influence step by step.

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Order : The human nature has always liked the order. In the nature when you encounter .any kind of order, surely you can trace back to the activity of a human. In general, the mind of a human will create some kind of order in the things. In Islamic architecture, this principle comes out clearly on the plan, facade, ornament and structure. On plan, modules are used to obtain a general order in the whole design, on the facade this principle is used for dividing it into small parts and finding the best proportion for entrance, windows, doors and so on. On ornament, it will be applied to the tile-work, painting the walls and domes and so on. In structure it will be revealed in the better and easier implementation.

As another good example of it the Islamic gardens (parks) can be mentioned, where you can see the realization of this principle with a strong geometry in it. In modern parks, you can usually observe another order, which can be called order in disorder.

Order in Disorder: If you examine the road network of a historical district of an Islamic city, at the first glance, there is no order in it, it's just like a plate of spaghetti. But if you stroll through a quarter of a town, you will see that the mosque is situated in the most proper place of the settlement, so have the shops, public baths, residential houses and so on. When you are walking through a city you can experience that different functions are settled in a good arrangement, but if you have a bird's-eye view of it, perhaps you can find no order in it. It is due to the ancient town-planning method, because town planning took place on the spot, but nowadays in modern town-planning, the design of a city takes place in the design bureau on the map (bird's-eye view planning!). Anyway, in historical cities you usually will observe order in orderliness in road network but in modern cities (after 60 s) you can usually observe the order straightforward in the road network. In my opinion, that's why you can observe a strong order in an Islamic garden but a stress order in orderliness in a modern garden. why is it so? The reason for it is that the human needs contrast and variety in his/her life. when he is ti.red of work during the he 'wants relaxation i.n an environment of another which is different from the city order.

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Fig 2.4 'Imam' square in Isfahan, repet.ition 011 the arches, variet,y Oll the square, order 011 the facade, and highest point

Movement & Traquility (Approach & Arrival) This principle is useful when you want to arrive at an important space for instant at a courtyard, before entering into the space you usually arrive at a narrow dark corridor, where there is nothing interesting but you have motivate to stay on that space. Suddenly you arrive at a interesting wide space that is very beautiful to see it the first architectural space(corridor) gives you the feeling of movement. The second architectural space (courtyard) which you give the feeling of tranquillity .

Culmination: This principle concerns the attractive point at the façade or plan. The pool which is located at the centre of the courtyard is the culmination of the courtyard. In the façade any attractive point located not at the top of the façade is known as culmination point.

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nothing untouched by the sacred. This, by extension, means that there is no differentiation between the sacred and the profane in the life of every Muslim.

There is simply a hierarchy of being which has its roots in Divine Unity and which manifests itself at every level of existence. This sense of unity is most evident in the arts of the Islamic world.

Islamic art is synonymous with sacred art. It is an art which transmits a Divine message and transcends time and place. It draws its roots from the Spirit and manifests itself in our physical world.

If one has to define the essence of Islamic art it will be the religion of Islam itself which derives its identity from the concept of unity (tawhid).

Although the religion of Islam does not set out a mode of artistic expression, every aspect of it contains within itself the possibility of visual and symbolic representation. The main influence on this artistic expression is the Koran, in fact the Koran through inscriptions, recitation and prayer sets the rhythm for the life of every Muslim.

However, there is an important paradox which should not be overlooked in that the Koran does not set a specific model for the form of Islamic art.

Islamic art does not, as in the case of Christian art, depict episodes from the lives of the prophets, or as in Hinduism have a formal canon to interpret a particular cosmology through its architecture. There is no principle of composition to be found in the Koran which can form the framework of an artistic expression. Furthermore, Islamic art cannot draw its inspiration from the Divine law (shariah), which simply regulates the daily life of the Muslim community by setting limits and guidelines, it cannot be the source of artistic creativity.

Furthermore, one cannot simply attribute this expression of unity to ‘religious feeling’, since however intense an emotion may be it is not enough to inspire the overwhelming range and depth of this art. The root of this unity transcends the realm of emotion which is ‘necessarily vague and always fluctuating’. It is a much deeper ‘intellectual vision’ that is the basis of Islamic art. The term Intellect must be used in its original sense; the Intellect is the faculty in man that gives intuitive knowledge of the Absolute and timeless realities – it is thus on a much higher plane than reason. Intellect, or ‘al-’aql’ in Arabic, is the capacity to perceive the concept of Divine unity. The Islamic tradition teaches that man’s fundamental quality is being endowed with an DISSERTATION

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Intellect capable of metaphysical knowledge and hence the expression of an Absolute Reality. This faculty of the Intellect is not only expressed through the gift of speech but also through artistic creation. It is this vertical axis which gives the process of work in craftsmanship a sacred dimension and a direct link with the higher levels of reality and the creative rhythms in nature. It is from this wisdom that Islamic art derives its sense of beauty.

If one understands the essence of Islamic art through this faculty of the Intellect then the creative principle of the Koran becomes evident. Titus Burkhardt explains that the relationship between the Koran and Islamic art; ‘must not be sought on the level of formal expression’ (Mirror of the Intellect, pp 229). He stresses that Islam does not derive its inspiration from the literal meaning or form of the Koran but from its ’formless essence’; primarily from the concept of unity (tawhid). The essence of at- tawhid is beyond words; it reveals itself in the Koran by sudden and discontinuous flashes. Striking the plane of the visual imagination, these flashes congeal into crystalline forms, and it is these forms in their turn that constitute the essence of Islamic art.’

The universal message of Islamic art draws its inspiration from both a physical and a metaphysical order both of which have their origin in the Truth of the Absolute.

On the level of the physical Islamic art seeks its fundamental principles from the laws of the natural world. These are the laws of the natural order of being which man has experienced on a daily basis since the beginning of time.

Man, in Islam, is not the measure of all things. The Muslim artist acknowledges by his Islam – his submission to the Divine will – that God is the Supreme Artist. Thus the relationship between the Muslim and his surrounding space is one that is based on reverence and not arrogance. If he has to leave an imprint on this physical space then it must be done with humility and with no sense of defiance to the natural order of being.

On the level of metaphysics, Islamic art aspires to the highest principles.

It acts as a bridge or vehicle to transmit the realm of heaven into our physical world. This metaphysical inspiration, however, cannot be fully explained in rational terms. Traditional art is a reminder of a higher state of being; it is a support for contemplation. All traditional art forms are representations of higher models. They are symbols on earth of the essence of the archetype DISSERTATION

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which is in heaven. It is this contemplative nature of traditional Islamic art which removes it from the constraints of time and place. It is through the understanding of this fact that the contemporary artist can draw not only physical but also spiritual inspiration to form a basis for his art. These timeless values will truly provide the freedom from social constraints and psychological pre-occupation which every artist searches for in his work.

The language of Islamic art should not be perceived as solely transmitting an aesthetic message. It is a fact, however, that our contemporary perception of this art has been somewhat distorted. The qualitative nature of Islamic art has been relegated to the periphery and its quantitative character has become the sole means of understanding this art. The rational approach reduces all spiritual values to the human plane, explaining only the historical context of Islamic art with no reference to its most important aspect; its spiritual content.

Such a perception would limit our understanding to a purely outward appreciation limited to the sensory world. In fact the message of Islamic art is synonymous with every aspect of man’s life which has a physical reality but also a metaphysical principle which underlies this reality. This is reflected in Islamic spirituality by the Divine names Al-Zahir and Al-Batin. It is these two Divine characteristics / principles which maintain the equilibrium of the hidden and revealed character of Islamic art which by extension has an impact on our physical and spiritual levels of being. The language of Islamic art is a contemplative one and by nature contemplation is a spiritual activity.

The spiritual life has to begin with submission. The Islamic tradition teaches that without submission there can be no true understanding and without discipline there can be no flowering of the spirit which leads to true and essential knowledge. This is most evident in the relationship between the fundamental aspects of Islamic art which are geometry, biomorphic form or arabesque and calligraphy. Geometry is an objective manifestation of the principles of creation and forms the underlying framework for the visual expression of the path which leads from unity to multiplicity; arabesque or biomorphic forms, which symbolise virgin nature, and which interlace with and balance the geometric patterns would be meaningless and formless without the structure of the underlying geometry. Furthermore, both these art forms are the setting for the word of God and the calligraphy of the Koran.

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Art and architecture have always held a central role in the civilisation of Islam a role which encompasses the wide range of values which make up this civilisation. Although the art of calligraphy is always considered to be the highest form of Visual art in Islam, since it expresses the Divine word which is the essence of the Koran it is the art of architecture which encompasses the full range of disciplines and crafts which are identified with the Muslim world such as masonry, carpentry, mosaic work, stained glass, gypsum carving and also calligraphy. Architecture is the setting for the different disciplines of the arts and crafts of Islam it is the evidence that these arts and crafts do not exist for their own sake, but to embellish our everyday lives and environment.

The art and architecture of Islam is more than just an aesthetic or spatial experience; it represents a symbolic vision of a higher reality. Architecture, for instance, is the art of ordering space. When an architecture has its roots in a sacred tradition it extends this sense of order from physical space to an expression of a metaphysical order.

The decoration of Islamic architecture with calligraphy, geometric patterns and arabesque forms must not be perceived simply as surface decoration or the superficial application of patterns. This decoration must be seen as a fundamental element in the overall composition of the architecture.

It is a manifestation of a higher order of being – it is cosmetic in the true sense of the word: "to make cosmic-like". The architect consciously reflects the forms, patterns and rhythms he sees around him in nature, thus confirming that his work does not stand separately but as part of God’s creation on earth.

Traditional Islamic architecture fully reflects this consciousness of the architect. There was never any attitude of conflict, defiance or conquest over the surrounding environment. This in Islamic architecture is seen in the curve of the dome, the fluid forms of vaults, the crenulations of the skyline and the recesses and protrusions of the walls which allow the building to interact gracefully with the surrounding space. Even the internal space of the building, the courtyard (metaphorically the heart of the building), was open to the sky symbolising the aspiration of the heart towards heaven.

The traditional architect’s aspiration towards heaven is reflected in his work through the lightening of the physical mass. This physical mass is embellished by techniques of decoration which make it invisible and draws attention to a plane of colour, geometric design and biomorphic form. This DISSERTATION

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decoration must be seen as a manifestation of a higher order of being and not merely a superficial application of patterns.

However, the decoration of architecture is not the only means of reflecting Divine Unity, the form of construction also contains a language symbolic of this Unity. This is most evident in the architecture of mosques.

For example, the single dome mosque which focuses on the geometry and symbolism of the dome to express the meeting of Heaven and Earth, while the hypostyle mosque concentrates on the harmonious repetition of the column and the arch to set the rhythm of contemplation for the worshippers.

The visual expression of this order of being is best represented through the discipline of geometry. This discipline is usually confused as an artistic style which it is not – it is the crystalline analysis of the working order of nature. Geometry is both quantitative and qualitative. Its quantitative dimension regulates the form and construction of architecture. Its qualitative nature sets the proportions of architectural form and represents an expression of the order of the universe which regulates the cycle of manifestation. The proportions of sacred geometry derive from the division of a circle (which is a symbol of the unity of being) by inscribed regular figures and therefore the proportions of sacred architecture have their root in the symbolic source which contains all the possibilities of existence. Not only are the forms of geometry related to heaven and earth respectively, but the instruments that are used to draw them, that is the compass and the square, have the same significance. The craftsman, by using his traditional tools, participates in a ritual which is symbolic of heaven and earth coming together.

The language of sacred geometry and symbolism are only truly relevant within the context of a sacred tradition since then they are set within a spiritual context. There is a general impression amongst contemporary Muslim artists that the ‘abstraction’ of their modern art is related to and even inspired by the symbolic nature of traditional Islamic art. To clarify this point one has to indicate that modern abstraction is merely an artistic mannerism or a technique of expression in which the technique overrides the real meaning of the art. Islamic art is truly abstract because on the one hand it conveys DISSERTATION

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concepts which cannot be expressed through mere physical form, and on the other it understands and fulfills the meaning of the symbolism of form. Form which exists on the physical level has limits which are constricted by time and space. However, physical form also has an aspect of conveying the metaphysical and it is this aspect which imbues certain forms with a timeless quality. This ‘abstract’ interpretation of form, as seen in Islamic art, raises the perception of reality from the physical realm. It encourages a contemplative state of mind and a perception, through the language of symbolism, of ‘unity in multiplicity and multiplicity in unity ‘. The language of symbolism is the threshold between the physical and the metaphysical. An understanding of the symbolism of form overwhelms the individuality of the artist without suppressing his creative instinct; it stretches his mode of expression to the realm of metaphysics.

Although the content of Islamic art aspires to express the highest principles, the actual means of representation are quite defined. One of the most commonly discussed features of Islamic art has always been the prohibition of the portrayal of human figures. This needs to be explained further.In western art, through the influence of the Greek and Christian civilisations, iconography or the portrayal of the image of man occupies a central position ( Jesus is the word made flesh ; icons are central to christian art). Islamic art takes quite a different view: ‘let us not forget that the image of man is always the image that man conceives of himself. The image bears back on its author, who thus never quite frees himself from the spell it casts upon him. The whole course of European art, with its increasingly accelerated phases of action and reaction, is mainly a dialogue between man and his image. Islam banished all this ambiguous play of psychological mirrors at an early stage, thus preserving the primordial dignity of man himself.

However, this must not be interpreted as a total ban on the depiction of the human figure. Firstly, Islam forbids the visual representation of God since the nature of God goes beyond any visual or liturgical interpretation.

Secondly, Islam does tolerate the depiction of human form as long as it is not an attempt to create the illusion of living beings. These two principles are seen in the art of Islamic miniature painting which reached peaks of beauty and refinement, but which always remained on the periphery of the world of Islamic art and away from the liturgical domain which was dominated by the

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arts of architecture and calligraphy.

There might be a suggestion that the prohibition of images in Islamic art has created a void which had to be filled, and thus lead to the development of a more abstract aspect of this art, in particular geometrical patterns and arabesque forms. However, a true understanding of Islamic art would make it obvious that these art forms are not a compensation for the lack of images, but a positive contribution towards a perception of a higher reality than material form.

‘By transforming a surface into a tissue of colours or into a vibration of light and shadows, the ornament prevents the mind from fixing itself on any form that says ‘I’, as an image says ‘I’. The centre of an arabesque is everywhere and nowhere, each ‘affirmation’ being followed by its ‘negation’, and vice versa.’

The understanding that the craftsmen had of the higher reality of these arts and the constant reference to the world of heavenly archetypes for inspiration, instils in their work a sense of timeless beauty. The tiles of The Alhambra or the decorative patterns of the Taj Mahal still speak to us today in such a direct and striking manner – they penetrate our being to the depth of our soul and transport us to a higher realm. (One has to say that the same is true in the case of any truly traditional building whether it is a Hindu temple or Gothic cathedral) The experience of this art clearly educates us that beauty based on the sacred is universal and is the symbolic language of the soul.

However, one has to clarify the meaning of this universal beauty. It is always said that the perception of beauty is subjective and often personal.

That might be true on a certain level; but in the traditional arts the form is only important in the sense that it is a reflection or interpretation of the Absolute Truth. What we see or understand as beauty is only universal because it reflects the principle of beauty in the realm of the archetypes. In Islam earthly beauty is only understood to be the reflection and in a sense the extension of the Divine quality of Al Jamil. And yet the interpretation of this quality of beauty cannot be arbitrary or left to personal taste. Every traditional or sacred art form is based on certain principles and canons which relate to the spiritual message of the tradition.

These can be summarised in three main guidelines which are not based on the personal expression of the artist, but on the individual’s interpretation DISSERTATION

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of a universal principle.

Firstly, the nobility of content. Sacred art has to have its roots in a spiritual condition, apart from which it cannot be considered as sacred. The content of the art has to directly relate to a spiritual context which must be represented according to a clear canonical model.

Secondly, a purity of form which in traditional art is not simply related to material shape but is deeply related to the essence or soul of the physical form. The true meaning of form relates to the inspiration which is in the artist's mind/intellect which he transmits through his art. This is expressed through the harmony of composition and the clarity of line and colour which make up a language and technique that follow a clear hierarchy of expression.

Thirdly, a correct symbolism, which must transmit and express certain messages that are inherent in the spiritual nature of the image that is represented.

The Islamic tradition is based on a Divine revelation and therefore in its origin and principle transcends physical time. Furthermore, the application of this revelation is not restrained by physical location since it is a principle which provides guidelines that are always contemporary to the time and relevant to the place. This is most obvious in the realm of the arts of Islam which thrived for centuries over a vast area and were always of their time and answered the physical, social and cultural identity of the location.

The civilisation of Islam spread rapidly throughout an unknown world to the early Muslims. On a cultural level, this interaction was a positive catalyst for the flowering of various artistic expressions which were different depending on regional variations but still remained Islamic. The Muslim artists and craftsmen found no problem with accepting elements of these cultures and using them for artistic inspiration. It is only with time and the confidence gained from the establishment of their creative identity that these elements became Islamic in appearance. The case of the Hagia Sophia is one of the best examples we can draw on. The Muslims, on entering Constantinople, did not only instinctively realise that this was a sacred space in which they could pray but it was also a universal symbolic form which they could use in their mosques. The story of Ottoman architecture was thus of the constant fascination of their engineers with the Hagia Sophia and the gradual DISSERTATION

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islamisation of this form culminating in the work of Sinan.

To really understand this acceptance and understanding of universal forms we have to get into what one might call the “traditional mind” – a mind which is based on the concept of the intellect mentioned earlier. This perception thus transcends worldly cultures, dynastic periods and regional variations to see the Universal Truth beyond physical form.

The dome, for instance, is one of the most symbolic elements in the architecture of Islam. The Prophet Muhammad related that as part of his ascent to heaven he saw a dome made of white mother- of - pearl and resting on the four corners of a square on which was inscribed the four parts of the Basmalah : "In the name of God, the most Merciful, the most Compassionate".

The Prophet further described four rivers which flowed from the four sides of the square: a river of water, a river of milk, a river of honey and a river of wine. This vision not only represents the heavenly archetype of every domed building , but also indicates the universal relevance of the symbolism of architectural form as an expression of the order of the universe.

In terms of construction every dome requires a square base. This basis of structural solidity also contains a certain symbolism in that the geometric form of the square represents the stability and solidity of the Earth. Between the square base and the hemisphere of the dome itself there is a range of geometric forms, all based on developments of the octagon, which act as transitional shapes. These represent the planes of being that exist between the material and spiritual realms. The hemisphere of the dome itself represents undefined space, the cosmos – the realm of the Spirit.

The arts of Islam are undoubtedly one of the most recognised artistic forms in the world; and yet the principles on which these arts are based seem to be the most misunderstood. The root of this misunderstanding, or to be precise the lack of a full understanding of these principles, lies in two main areas. On the one hand we have an academic body which is fascinated by the subject but which denies the full scope of the art. While on the other hand, the Muslims themselves no longer understand or even appreciate the value of

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their art.

To fully understand what is meant by the term Islamic art we have to differentiate between two main perceptions of this art. The first being the one held by contemporary western academics and the second being how the Muslims of today view their art.

The modern orientalist or academic usually places the arts of Islam in the realm of archaeology or history – beautiful but ultimately inaccessible to us today. Any attempt at finding a contemporary means of expression is sceptically labeled as derivative and unoriginal.

However, if one understands this art from within then one realises that the label “derivative” should not be seen as negative since the main principle of every traditional art form is the return to the source and the re-tracing of the creative rhythms of manifestation. Islamic art is original only in the sense that it returns to the origin to seek its inspiration. This reaffirmation of the origin enables the artists to locate themselves at any point of time or place, since their reference point is always the source of all inspiration. . This orientation to the origin as a source of inspiration enables the artist to constantly trace the path between Truth and Beauty. Yet each path is absolutely unique and individual in its nature – as individual as the artist himself and as different as every endeavour he embarks upon.

The art critics’ lack of understanding or appreciation of the generating principle of Islamic art lies in the fact that their judgement of art is clouded by a preoccupation with its degree of originality, as well as being primarily interested in the individuality of the artist. This particular focus of attention is very distracting and somewhat misleading, since the concern with the individual artist and the psychological state of his times has very little to do with the spirit of Islamic art which fundamentally transcends the human experience.

‘The Muslim artist, by his very Islam, his ‘surrender’ to the Divine law, is always aware of the fact that it is not he who produces or invents beauty, but that a work of art is beautiful to the degree that it obeys the cosmic order and therefore reflects universal beauty’ (Mirror of the Intellect pp211) It must be made clear that Islam considers the beauty of an art to be

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independent of the psychological state of the artist. The beauty of Islamic art does not rely on a subjective individualistic expression but remains objective and impersonal like that of nature.

The contemporary Muslim perception of Islamic art is also fundamentally flawed and incomplete, since it is based on a series of initiatives which go against the essential principles of this art. The fascination of the world of Islam with the modern world as represented by the West extended into the realm of the arts. Muslim artists and critics increasingly orientated their focus on modern western art in an attempt to break through the boundaries of cultural constraints and achieve a more universal means of expression. The intention was that a revolutionary art was needed to find a new means of artistic expression for the Muslim world. The flaw was that instead of looking at universal principles to achieve this wider expression they limited themselves to manifestos of the modernist art schools of Europe of the early 20th century. What resulted was second-rate copies of European paintings and a descent into a state of meaningless chaos in a very short period of time. Furthermore, the greatest irony was that instead of achieving this timeless mode of artistic expression. Arab art in particular seems to have got stuck in the 1970s.

However, the main negative impact that emerged from this blind adherence to a foreign ideology was the promotion of the European Renaissance concept of ‘the fine arts’. This was not limited to the application of certain styles and themes which were totally alien to the Islamic culture, but extended to the negative separation that occurred between the arts and the crafts of the Islamic world.

The integration of the arts and the crafts and the principles of beauty and function have always been fundamental principles in the culture of Islam.

It is a fact that has always existed in the architecture, city planning and communal life of the Muslim world. The Muslim builders never distinguished between art, technology and the crafts - and the Arabic terms fan and sina’ah were used to combine these three disciplines.

Craftsmanship should be understood as a process and not a product. It is a process which includes social, economic, cultural and technical dimensions which inherently bind different aspects of the community together. Thus the destruction of craftsmanship does not only have a negative DISSERTATION

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impact on the arts of a civilisation but also on its general well being. The work of the craftsman cannot be separated from the remaining aspects of his existence in the life of his community.

The proper understanding of the arts and architecture should be structured on the belief that the traditional Islamic arts are the product of a fulfilled human being. This can only be achieved by finding the right harmony between the hand, the heart and the mind. It is because of this understanding that we stress that an intellectual appreciation of the arts, or the individual expression of the artist is not enough. The true identity of the artist can only be realised when he fulfils his role as a craftsman, and his means of expression can only be truly valid when it derives from the principle of unity which underlies every aspect of the Muslim’s life.

Due to the essence of man’s nature any activity he undertakes will have to contain an aspect which conveys the realm of the Spirit. The term ritual can express secular activities which we perform every day. But there is also a sense of ritual containing a sacred dimension which links man’s activities to heaven. Traditional Islam always saw the world as a reflection of heaven.

Everything that exists in this world, even in the realm of ideas and imagination, is a reflection of a divine archetype. In this sense the ritual of craftsmanship signifies the re-enactment on earth of a divine prototype.

The result of this separation of the arts and the crafts of a society has meant that the Muslim world relegated its traditional arts to the realm of folklore for the tourist trade, or to museum exhibitions where we end up knowing the precise size, date, colour and origin of these exquisite pieces of work but nothing of their essential / full meaning.

Our examples of traditional Islamic art today are mainly drawn from ancient works that are exhibited in museums. These works are not in their original context nor do they perform their true function. Islamic art was never made simply for exhibition, but to fulfil a certain function and convey a certain message within a particular context. There was never any distinction between the fine and applied arts in Islam. To a greater or lesser degree all the arts of the Islamic world conveyed the highest principles and values; at the same time they remained central elements in the everyday life of the Muslim.

However, one must not relegate traditional Islamic art forms to the DISSERTATION

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museum; it remains a living art which is still practised, in spite of overwhelming obstacles, by craftsmen throughout the Islamic world. The work of contemporary craftsmen, which can be seen as a continuation in the same spirit of the ancient works exhibited in museums, represents more than just an education for our eyes, hands and mind; it has an impact on our soul.

It not only inspires us by acting as a model for contemporary works of art, but also gives an insight into the perennial principles which the artist applied to make this art, values which still form a basis for a valid contemporary artistic expression. This kind of education requires a totally different appreciation from that of viewing so-called modern art, one that is not centred on the art as the work of an individual artist, but on the artist’s particular expression of a universal principle.

The aim of this paper is not only to present to a wide audience the universal nature of Islamic art, but to try to remind the Muslims in particular of the value of their artistic forms.

The Islamic world today is finally starting to recognise the true value of the rich heritage it has inherited. The issues of conservation and preservation have become the leading concerns of the day. Yet one has to ask the question; by what means do we preserve this inheritance and to what extent do we allow it to interact with our so called ‘modern lifestyles’? Is it enough to have a long distance and comfortable relationship with our past heritage which is a source of communal pride and identity, or do we listen to the uncomfortable questions it keeps asking us today? Is this form of preservation to be in the form of craft workshops and museums; which means a fundamental shift in our heritage from a central position in our everyday lives to the realm of ‘folklore’, ‘culture’ and ‘education’. The Muslims of today have to realise what their ancestors fully understood, that Islamic art is not concerned with individual self expression or models of representation but with an objective mode of contemplation of Divine unity.

Finally, what has to be reaffirmed is that the universal language of Islamic art simply echoes the message of Islam itself. This language is based on the consciousness of the Universal order of creation and submission to the Absolute Reality from which this order is created and to which it returns. Yet the real value of this universal language of Islamic art is not simply the fact DISSERTATION

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that it is understood by all humanity, but that in principle it allows everyone a direct access to the Truth.

3. ELEMENTS IN TRADITIONAL ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque built by Muhammad in Medina, as well as from other pre-Islamic features adapted from churches, temples and synagogues. Byzantine architecture had a great influence on early Islamic architecture with its characteristic round arches, vaults and domes.

Islamic Domes The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built in 691, was the first major Islamic structure.

A frequently recurring feature in Islamic architecture is the dome -- a circular, vaulted ceiling that caps a square-shaped building. Typically on an Islamic structure, a dome's exterior has a plain, tile finish, while the interior vault is lavishly decorated with brightly colored mosaics, prominent ribbing or three-dimensional, stalactite-like ornamentation called muqarnas. While religious structures such as mosques, tombs and madrassahs commonly feature domes, they also appear on non-religious structures such as the Nasrid palace at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain.

Fig 3.1 Dome The Minaret The Mosque of Selim in Edirne, Turkey, features four tall, needlelike DISSERTATION

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minarets.

The minaret stands just outside a mosque's grounds or stretches upwards from its outer wall. This tall, spire-like tower features a projecting gallery from which the caller, or muezzin, sends out the call for prayer. While the style, shape and number of minarets vary from region to region, they are a ubiquitous feature along the skyline of most Islamic cities. The Arabic term for these structures is "manÄ ra," which means "place for fire or light."

Fig 3.2 minaret Islamic Arches The curve of the arch symbolized the spherical shape of the universe to early Muslims. While the arch featured prominently in the buildings of the Greeks and Romans, Muslims embellished upon earlier forms and incorporated a variety of modified arches into their architectural design.

These include the horseshoe arch, the transverse arch, the pointed arch and the cusped or multi-foil arch. The inclusion of the arch as an Islamic architectural motif was both functional and decorative.

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Fig 3.3 arches Islamic Design The color blue symbolizes protection in Islamic culture and is often prominently featured in mosques.

The use of images of humans or gods on Islamic religious or public structures is not permitted. Instead, Islamic architecture institutes a design of colorful, intricate, geometric patterns called arabesque. To Muslims, these patterns represent the infinite and expansive nature of creation and express an Islamic spirituality without the depiction of the human form. Additionally, various styles of Islamic calligraphy frequently adorn the walls, ceilings and columns of structures in the Muslim world.

Fig 3.4 pattern Architectural features in Mosque:

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Fig 3.5

The Mihrab: A semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque, that indicates the qibla (direction of Mecca), and into which the imam prays.

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Fig 3.6

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Elements and Architectural Forms of Islamic style During the Golden Age of Islam that is when the architecture was the best developed. The muslim had basically introduced the complex architecture.

Hypostyle Hall A hypostyle hall is a space covered with a flat ceiling, which necessitates the use of numerous columns and supports. As a type, hypostyle mosque was applied especially in the first years of Islam, especially under Umayyad Period. Its emergence is closely related with the available materials in the desert as well as with the possibility it carries in terms of enlarging the available praying space due to the geometrically increasing number of Muslim population. Most of these mosques are square or rectangular in plan and most has an enclosed courtyards and a covered prayer hall. This courtyard also serves as a praying space during crowded Friday prayers, in the warm climate of the Middle East In the beginning, believers used palm trunks as columns and palm branches as ceiling, which are the only available materials in the desert. As time passed, this has become the most preferred mosque type in Arabia and the usage of palm trunks left its place to stone or marble columns. Mosques from this tradition can be seen in a variety of lands, other than Arabia, like Spain, Anatolia an even in Iran. Cordoba Great Mosque, Great Mosque of Samarra and Alaaddin Mosque in Konya are some of the typical examples of this kind.

Iwan An iwan is defined as a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open. Iwans generally open into a central courtyard and have been used in both public and residential architecture. In Islamic architecture, iwan is a vaulted space used as an entrance, or, if closed at one end, it is a hall facing a court, usually in a madrasa or mosque. From 11th Century onwards, using four iwans disposed on axes on each side of a court became usual in mosques, madrasas and caravanserais. The vaults could be plain, half-elliptical barrels, or more ornately decorated with muqarnas Iwans were used during Sassanian Period, before Islam. Islamic world has adopted this element, and used it widely, mostly in Iran.

This has reached to a peak in Seljuk period during 10th Century, mostly with the effect of Iranian architecture and became one of the basic units of Islamic architecture. Many iwan mosques are converted Zoroastrian fire temples where the courtyard was used to house the sacred fire Maqsurah Dome A maqsura is an enclosure near the mihrab in early mosques that is DISSERTATION

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intended to protect the ruler against assassination.

Dome is a dome located in front of mihrab, which creates a special area, serving as a space for caliph or the imam during the first years of Islam. In following centuries, this has turned in to Sultan’s lodge in Ottoman Architecture.

The early use of a dome over the mihrab points its significance as the place assigned to the leader of the religious community. With this importance given to it, the maqsura dome became a standard feature of the mosque design. The use of the dome over the maqsura that became so characteristic as a feature of later Islamic mosque architecture, was borrowed from the Syrian wooden dome tradition. Symbolically, it was connected with the caliph’s spiritual as well as political power.

Courtyard Being an indispensable element in mosque architecture, courtyard is the preparatory space of the mosque, which functions as the gathering place of the mosque’s community. It can also serve as the prayer space when the mosque is full or closed to the public. Physically, courtyards are mostly simple, rectangular spaces, surrounded by arcades. However, as will be explained in the following sections, the understanding of courtyard concept may be actualized with different and sometimes unique interpretations of design of outdoor spaces.

Open Courtyard Tradition of open courtyard dates to the House of Prophet. Following Prophet’s House, most of the hypostyle mosques built in Arabia had open courtyards. Basically, an open courtyard is an open space, which is surrounded by a wall, or mostly a colonnaded arcade, roofed with domes It is also called as the porticoed courtyard. Nearly all open courtyards are in the shape of rectangle or square.

Courtyards acted as open-air gathering spaces for Muslim people where they can enjoy the shade especially in hot climates. Also, during the Friday prayer times, this space serves as an accommodation space for large number of worshippers, who are too crowded for the enclosed space of the mosque.

Later, ablution facilities and iwans are included in this space.

Courtyard with Four Iwans Courtyard with four Iwans is a type of open courtyard, which has four DISSERTATION

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iwans on the four sides. They are usually placed right opposite of each other, to create two perpendicular axes. One of these axes is in the direction of Kiblah. Iwans are roofed with a dome, semi-dome or a vault. They also functioned as classrooms for religious students as well as extra praying space.

The courtyard of four iwan style mosque was introduced and finalized by Seljuks in Iran, however courtyards of this design were known from Parthian Palaces built in Persia in the third century. The 52 reason for adapting the idea for use in mosque is unclear. It has been proposed that the four iwan courtyard became popular with aesthetic reasons.

Within the courtyard, a boldly scaled arched opening provides the builders with an opportunity to exercise their skills in geometric ornament and interrupts the regular rhythm of the colonnades.88 Friday mosque of Isfahan has one of the most outstanding examples of this courtyard.

Enclosed Court “Enclosed Court” is a mosque type, which has a courtyard enclosed with walls, as well as the mosque itself. Sivas Great Mosque is an example for this kind of mosque.

Inner Court In this type of mosque, building has a courtyard, which is enclosed by the building itself. In other words, the courtyard looks as if it is carved from the bulk massive structure of the building. There are functional spaces of the mosque behind walls of the courtyard. Mosque generally has an iwan attached to this courtyard. Malatya great mosque is a good example for this kind of mosque.

Ablution Fountain Ablution fountains are the source of fresh water that is used for Muslims to clean themselves in an ablution process before the prayer. As a ritual of purification, ablution is the crucial part of the believer’s prayer exercise.

Ablution fountains or other amenities for washing are generally located in the entryways or courtyards of the mosques. In traditional mosques, ablution fountains are generally seen as freestanding buildings, which are called sadirvans, in the middle of the courtyard. There can also be supplementary ablution units, which are mostly located on the sides of the mosque. However, smaller mosques generally do not have ablution fountains; instead they have restrooms to enable the ablution process. In contemporary mosques, this element either not exists or exists in varied forms, rather than the traditional forms as the free standing ablution fountains.

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Main Prayer Hall Main prayer hall is the primary space, where the actual praying activity takes place. It is generally a single, unified space where the believers are gathered in an ordered way, directed to Qibla to perform the prayer. It is generally a covered space with or without a dome above, however, in some climatic regions the covering can be varied, it can be seen as an open space covered with tents or even as a fully open space that is not covered at all.

Nevertheless, the understanding of the single, unified space understanding of the main prayer hall does not change from the traditional mosques to the contemporary age.

In traditional mosques, the main prayer hall is generally covered with carpets and the people are not allowed to step in to the hall with their shoes.

This requirement is closely related with the strict codes of cleanness and purification ideals declared in Islam.

Mihrab, minber, respondent’s platform Mihrab is the directional niche in the wall of the mosque that indicates the qibla. It points towards the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca to be faced during prayer. The wall in which the mihrab appears is therefore defined as the qibla wall. The imam may position himself in front of it to lead the congregation in prayer. Because of the fundamental role it carries, mihrab is the chief feature within the mosque. According to Micell it is the liturgical axis made visible in the mosque. As it is shaped to bounce the sound back and amplify it, it is also an acoustic device or a resonator for the voice.

The mihrab may appear in the shape of an arched niche and canbe framed by one or more pairs of colonnettes. It may vary in size but is often elaborately decorated and designed to give the feeling of an arched doorway or a passage to Mecca. As a word, mihrab initially had a non-religious meaning and plainly indicated a special room that has the most honorable location in a house such as the throne room in a palace. According to Kuban, the term was used by the Prophet to denote his own private prayer room from which he could enter the adjacent mosque. In Qur'an, mihrab is used to denote a sanctuary or the place of worship.

As Michell indicates the mihrab is a later innovation in Islamic architecture. The earliest mosques do not have mihrab within them and in the Prophet’s mosque at Medina a block of stone on the floor was used for the purpose of indicating the direction of Kaaba.

According to Michell et. al. the mihrab with its concave form came into Islamic Architecture in 707-9 when the caliph to be, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, DISSERTATION

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brought Coptic masons to Medina for the purpose of rebuilding the Prophet’s Mosque. These masons created a niche in the qibla wall similar to those in the Coptic churches they worked on. However there are also different ideas concerning its appearance. According to Grabar the first appearance of mihrab was in the al- Walid reconstruction of Umayyad Mosque in Medina, as a result of the employment of the Jewish masters. Grabar thinks that the use of mihrab was to honor the place where the Prophet, as the first Imam, used to stand in his original house to lead the prayer.94 As Ernst Diez expains during the reign of the Uthman Ibn Affan (644- 656), the Caliph gave the order to put up a sign on the wall of the mosque at Medina to enable pilgrims to effortlessly recognize the direction of Kaaba to direct their prayers. However it was just a sign on the flat wall. Later, during the renovation of the mosque of the Prophet, Masjid al Nabawi in the reign of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik niche in the qibla wall to show the direction and Uthman's sign was placed within this niche. In time, the niche became identified with the qibla wall across the world and implemented as an essential element in all the other mosques. The mihrab can also have different implementations. If the mosque has a royal lodge or iwans on the transversal axis, in that case these supplementary areas are also supplied with mihrabs. In extraordinary cases, the mihrab might not follow the qibla direction. The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain is an example within which the mihrab indicates South rather than Southeast. The suggested explanation to that is the position of the ancient Roman cardo street besides the old temple that the Mosque was built upon.96 Since mihrab is the visual focal point of the interior space, its design is usually made with utmost care and detail. This understanding does not continue in contemporary examples, especially in the ones, which has accepted a simple interior decoration. But, this does not mean that it is not the focal point of the mosque. It is still given the biggest importance, but it is emphasized in different ways in the contemporary age.

Minbar is the raised platform from which an imam speaks to the congregation and gives his Khutbah. It is generally positioned at the right of the mihrab and is in the form of a staircase leading to a small platform from which the imam can lead the prayer and give his Khutbah. It is also stated that in actuality, the imam mostly leads the prayers a step below from the platform at the top of the minbar, as the platform itself is symbolically kept for the Prophet himself.

According to Frishman, the minbar was introduced in Mohammed’s house in Medina at a time when his followers were increased in numbers. In order to make his words more easily heard, the minbar was built to enable him to locate himself above the heads of his audience. The height DISSERTATION

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and size of the minbar may differ according to the size of the congregation. It may be monumental, may have only a few steps, or in very small mosques it may not exist at all. The minbar can have handrails going up the staircase to the platform. The small platform is usually enclosed with a striking shape, such as the ornated cupola style roof. The respondent's platform (muezzin mahfili) or dikkah on the other hand, is the most noticeable element inside the mosque. It is a platform like wooden piece lifted by columns at the center of the prayer hall, usually in line with the mihrab or at the opposite of it. From there a respondent may copy Imam’s words to transmit them to the congregation that is out of the audible range. It may also hold muezzins vocalizing in harmony the responses to the Imam’s prayers.

Minaret Minaret is the characteristic architectural feature of the mosque, which is principally used for the call to prayer (adhan). With its visually striking figure being either free standing or taller than any connected support structure, minaret provides a visual focal point to the community and acts as a landmark. In the old times, the prayer used to be called from the gallery encircling the shaft of the minaret by the muezzin, however today it is usually called from the prayer hall and transferred to a speaker system on the minaret. Although its style differs according to the region and the period it is built, its basic form is comprised of a base, shaft, and gallery. Within the shaft, the stairs circle upwards counter clockwise and offer the necessary structural support to the shaft. On the outside, the gallery, or galleries, exists encircling the shaft as a balcony. Minarets are generally covered by an ornate roof and decorated with brick or tile work, cornices, arches and inscriptions. The transition from the shaft to the gallery is characteristically made with muqarnas. The level of flamboyance of a minaret generally determines its origin and period.

In later periods minarets varied in shape and size according to the period and region they were built into. They were made conical, square, cylindrical, or polygonal. In post-Fatimid Egypt, minarets acquired a complex and characteristic form. Each tower is comprised of three separate sections: a square section at the bottom, an octagonal middle section and a dome on the top. The transition zone between each section is enveloped with a band of muqarnas decoration structures consisted plain brick shafts while others were elaborately ornamented with complex brick patterns. The appearance of various forms of cylindrical fluting came as an alternative of the standard from. The oldest known minaret in Iran is the congregational mosque at Siraf, DISSERTATION

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which was built in the ninth century.

It is accepted that the Seljuks built the earliest minarets in Anatolia. These minarets were generally pairs of towers with a brick shaft and a stone base.

Some of them however were built with single minarets such as the Alaeddin Mosque at Konya. Ottoman mosque architecture could be distinguished with its use of the tall pointed minarets and large lead covered domes. In a majority of small Ottoman mosques there was a single minaret attached to the corner of a mosque. However, in bigger mosques built in major cities there were two, four or even six minarets. It is indicated that only a reigning sultan could erect more than one minaret per mosque. A distinguishing characteristic of these minarets is the utilization of multiple balconies. This feature was first introduced in the Uc Serefeli Mosque in Edirne, built in 1447.

In Arabia, outside Mecca and Medina, minarets were quite scarce before the nineteenth century. The surviving few minarets are often with a faintly narrowing profile with either a square or a circular plan.

Qibla axis Basically, Qibla is the direction of Mecca that determines the direction of prayer. The Qiblah, for any point on the Earth, is the direction of the Kaaba.

The qibla is the prime factor in the orientation of mosques and is usually marked by a mihrab. It simply directs worshippers to Macca. Originally, the direction of the Qiblah was toward the Noble Sanctuary (Temple Mount) in Jerusalem (and it is therefore called the First of the Two Qiblahs) in early times of islam, instead of Mecca. In Great Mosque of Wasit, three different qibla orientations can be observed. It is likely that, the idea of qibla orientation comes from Jewish practice, which indicates the direction of Jerusalem in their temples. In 629, Mecca replaced Jerusalem as the focus of prayer, and it turned to the religious capital and a destination of pilgrimage. The notion of a directional axis operates on two levels: socially as a focal point in relation to which the entire community, umma, is balanced; and liturgically as the focus of prayer. In its simplest terms a mosque is a building erected around a single horizontal axis, the qibla. Therefore the mosque is in right angles to the qibla axis. The perimeter wall, on the qibla direction of a mosque is also called the Qibla wall. Qibla is generally indicated with a mihrab, which is basically a nish on this wall, as well as some few other attempts could be seen.

Porch The word "porch" originally derives from the latin word porticus, or the greek word portico, both of which signify the columned entry to a Classical temple.

As history unfolded and the Middle Ages arrived, the porch came to represent a cathedral's vestibule, "where worshippers could gather to socialize before and after the service�.

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A porch is a structure attached to a building, forming a covered entrance.

It is extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This element is widely used by Ottoman Mosques, as covered with a dome. In some examples, it is a part of the courtyard colonnade. It functions like the narthex of a church and serves as a transition space. This element cannot be observed in early Arabic or Iranian mosques.

Latecomers’ Portico Latecomer’s portico is a transitional space, located on the entrance of the mosque. Different than the porch, which is located in the outside of the mosque, latecomer’s portico is a closed space inside the mosque that is attached to the main prayer hall. Besides being a transitional space, it may also function as a praying space like a courtyard as well as containing the place for taking off and storing shoes.

Material Available building materials have dominated the preferences of the mosque builders most of the time. During the early years of Islam, palm tree trunks and palm tree branch and leafs were used, since it was easily accessible, and construction was fast and easy enough for rapidly increasing Muslim population. Mud brick was also available when needed. Prophets House was also built with this technique.

Cut-stone masonry is the material that was used mostly. Examples of mosques from this material can be seen in nearly all Islamic world, from Spain to Anatolia, to Iran and Central Asia. Except Iran and Central Asia, cut-stone masonry was the primary preference for state mosques, like great mosques, Friday mosques, or sultan mosques. Applications of domes, arches and vaults were the normal outcome of advancing this technique. In Iran and Central Asia, there was a deep tradition of terracotta clay brick. This has lead people of these regions to build with these bricks mostly. Stone masonry was also available, but not primarily preferred. Glazed mosaic tiles were widely used in most of the surfaces, for ornamentation.

In Anatolia, during the reigns of both Anatolian Seljuks and Ottomans, stone masonry was the primary building material. During Seljuk and Early Ottoman periods, minarets were continued to be built with brick. Timber structured mosques can also be seen in Anatolia.

Sivrihisar Great Mosque is the most important example for this kind. They have a hypostyle hall with tree trunks, and enclosure with stone masonry wall. We can also see the usage of materials from an ancient building. Pillars, or cut-stones from an older building are widely used by Seljuks and Ottomans.

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Vaults and Domes Domes became increasingly characteristic features of Islamic architecture after Seljuk times. 117 Dome of the Rock, for instance, being one of the most important buildings for Islam, has a very wide and shiny dome. Vaults and domes were always one of the most important structural elements of mosques. They were extremely useful for spanning distances with stone or brick. Combining a dome with a square base was not easy, and creative solutions were applied for this problem. Squinch and pendentive were the inventions.

4. EVOLUTION IN ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES As the place of worship for Muslims, the mosque is one of the most repeated building types in Muslim countries. Turkey is not an exception to this and every year many mosques are built all over the country.

Unfortunately however, most of the mosques lack the architectural design quality and become the examples of an environmental disfigure for the context they are in. This research focuses on outstanding cases, the ones that can be named as important representatives of contemporary mosque architecture in Turkey, which attempt to interpret and develop the mosque and minaret design in contemporary age.

This study examines the attempts of developing and interpreting the usage of minarets in contemporary mosque architecture in Turkey. It looks at a selection of significant contemporary mosque examples, which were designed in an innovative manner by attempting to go beyond the prevalent influential factors that shape the architectural formation of mosques in Turkey. These influential factors are mainly comprised of the „traditional mosque imageâ€&#x;, which is mainly formed by the Seljuk and Ottoman mosques, and the restrictions applied to architects by their clients, who want to see the already established architectural forms of traditional mosques accumulated in their collective memory.

Without an understanding of tradition and its role in modern design, the contribution of the architects to contemporary mosque design cannot be underlined. Therefore this study puts an emphasis on the way architects have

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dealt with tradition and on how they have used the traditional elements of mosque architecture. On this basis, the study specifically focuses on the attempts of interpreting minaret design, through the analysis of six mosques, which are seen as the important representatives of contemporary mosque architecture in Turkey, beginning from 1960‟s. The analysis is based on the general architectural features of the selected cases and the use of minarets in their design.

A Brief History of Minaret as a Traditional Element of Mosque Today, most of the scholars share the idea that the Prophet‟s Mosque constitutes the prototype of mosque architecture, starting from the early years of Islam, during the rule of Omar.

This building, which is also called as “Mescid-i Nebevi”, is said to form the foundation of Umayyad Mosque style, with additions made in later years in order to enlarge it.

As Jeremy Johns cites, the concept of the Mosque of Prophet is said to dominate the early Islamic religious architecture so much that it dictates the plan of almost every Jami mosque built. As Johns quotes, Omar was “portrayed as an almost obsessive mosque-builder”; he is believed to have decreed that all congregational mosques should be laid out according to a common standard and this standard had later become the standard for the religious architecture of Islam.

Minaret is the characteristic architectural feature of the mosque, which is principally used for the call to prayer (adhan). Originally designed for the call for prayer in the past, minaret is not functionally needed today due to the developed technology. Nevertheless, it became an indispensable architectural component of mosque design and is still regarded as a must for a mosque due to its symbolic meaning.

With its visually striking figure being either free standing or taller than any connected support structure, minaret provides a visual focal point to the community and acts as a landmark.

In the old times, the prayer used to be called from the gallery encircling the shaft of Urey, the minaret by the muezzin, however today it is usually called from the prayer hall and transferred to a speaker system on the minaret However, in spite of that, Johnson indicates that the first known DISSERTATION

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minarets appeared approximately eighty years after the Prophet's death .Yet, another theory about their appearance says that the first example of minaret was formed by the reutilization of the watchtowers of the Roman temenos.

In later periods minarets varied in shape and size according to the period and region they were built into. They were made conical, square, cylindrical, or polygonal. In post-Fatimid Egypt, minarets acquired a complex and characteristic form. Each tower is comprised of three separate sections: a square section at the bottom, an octagonal middle section and a dome on the top. The transition zone between each section is enveloped with a band of muqarnas decoration.

The traditional Syrian minaret included a square plan tower, which is made out of stone. It is thought that this form is obtained from the traditional Syrian church tower of the Byzantine period. The oldest minaret in Syria stands opposite the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Damascus, which dates from the early ninth century. It is believed that the square tower was abandoned for the octagonal or cylindrical minaret during the Ottoman period.

The square tower form of Syria is also shared by North Africa and Spain.

It is believed that this form is obtained from the identical source, which is the Syrian church towers and was adapted by Christians in Spain for use as church bell towers eventually. The earliest minaret in North Africa is the Great Mosque of Qayrawan, which was built in 836.

Originally created in Iran, the cylindrical minaret form proliferated over a vast area with the Seljuk conquests of Syria, Anatolia, Iraq, Afghanistan and India. The brick was the common material. Some structures consisted plain brick shafts while others were elaborately ornamented with complex brick patterns. The appearance of various forms of cylindrical fluting came as an alternative of the standard from. The oldest known minaret in Iran is the congregational mosque at Siraf, which was built in the ninth century.

It is accepted that the Seljuks built the earliest minarets in Anatolia.

These minarets were generally pairs of towers with a brick shaft and a stone base. Some of them however were built with single minarets such as the

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Alaeddin Mosque at Konya. Ottoman mosque architecture could be distinguished with its use of the tall pointed minarets and large lead covered domes. In a majority of small Ottoman mosques there was a single minaret attached to the corner of a mosque.

However, in bigger mosques built in major cities there were two, four or even six minarets. It is indicated that only a reigning sultan could erect more than one minaret per mosque. A distinguishing characteristic of these minarets is the utilization of multiple balconies. This feature was first introduced in the Uc Serefeli Mosque in Edirne, built in 1447.

Although this form had a tendency to change in to baroque forms in 18th Century Ottoman mosques, Classical Ottoman style became the dominant mosque architecture style in the Republican Era including minarets.

In Arabia, outside Mecca and Medina, minarets were quite scarce before the nineteenth century. The surviving few minarets are often with a faintly narrowing profile with either a square or a circular plan.

A Survey of Selected Cases Kınalı Island Mosque (İstanbul, 1964) Kınalı Island Mosque was designed by the architects Turhan Uyaroğlu and Başar Acarlı in 1964. Having a capacity of 100 people, the mosque is located on the eastern shore of the island, on the seaside. The mosque is visible from the sea, especially while approaching from Istanbul by boat with it outstanding minaret.

As Erzen and Balamir notes, the silhouette of the mosque puts itself forward by way of the prominent forms of the minaret and the roof that is covering the prayer hall.

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Fig 4.1 Minaret of this mosque is a very outstanding element in terms of its design. Looking very different from the traditional minarets, it has plastic values that make it look very avant-garde. It is basically formed by two elements. One of them is the main component of the minaret, which reaches the highest point of the mosque complex; while the other regulates the verticality of the minaret with the pyramidal form of the mosque building.

There are some textures applied on the longer element by using the potentials of concrete, but the secondary component is left blank, which creates a stronger differentiation between the components.

As generally seen in most of the contemporary mosques, the minaret is a self-standing structure, freed from the main building. Unlike the traditional examples and just like many of its contemporary relatives, there are no stairs in its inside and it is not possible to go up to the minaret. There is a small room in the ground floor of the minaret, where the muezzin enters and makes the call for prayer by the help of the loudspeakers. This design value shows architects respect to its historical function, since there is not a real need for this right in the International Journal of Science Culture and Sport minaret structure.

There is also a traditional alem located on top of the minaret, emphasizing the verticality. With these features, the minaret is treated as a symbolic element, which carries the function of being a landmark for the mosque.

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Fig 4.2 Some later additions to the minaret, which are completely alien both to the minaret and the mosque, are also observed in the overall look. One of these additions is the before mentioned loud speakers, which is a problem seen on most of the mosques, both on new and old ones. Being a very common problem that we face in most of the examples, very few architects have attempted to solve it and this mosque was not one of these rare examples. It is an interesting point that the architect knew about the need of loudspeakers, but did not take them into consideration in the design process, which finally made them look alien on the exterior. The other addition is the chimney of the imam‟s house, which is rising to the sky with the minaret, only being smaller from it for a few meters. Although this is a small effect, it bruises the overall look of the minaret harshly.

Turkish Institution of Electricity Mosque (Ankara, 1988) Tek Mosque is situated on top of a hill in TEK Campus, overlooking a huge part of its immediate environment. It was built in 1988 in Gölbaşı, a district of Ankara. The building, which is designed by Cumhur Keskinok, has a capacity of 400 people in 500 m2. It is located in a staff-housing complex of the governmental institution of TEK (Türkiye Elektrik Kurumu).

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Fig 4.3 Minaret, TEK Mosque (Photograph by Özgür Ürey) Like most of the contemporary mosques built in Turkey, the minarets of this mosque are selfstanding elements, away from the main building. They keep the same proportions with traditional Ottoman minarets, but are slightly abstracted with their sharp-hexagonal shapes. Although the minarets are somewhat freestanding, it is seen that the architect had attempted to connect them with the main structure, using a reinforced concrete slab connecting them structure

fig 4.4 By this way the architect also formed the ceiling of the “son cemaat yeri” (or the latecomers portico) and sheltered it on both sides. Like the plan of the main space, the minarets also have octagonal cross-sections. Loud speakers and light sources are seen on them, which appear absolutely undesigned and alien to the project. minarets have a completely new design understanding and over them the minaret ends with an alem, which is very similar to the ones used on the dome.

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Buttim Mosque (Bursa, 1996) Designed by Yücel Sertkaya, Buttim mosque was built in 1996 in Bursa

by Arı İnşaat. It is situated at the north side of Bursa, as a part of a big commercial complex, called Buttim. Mosque has 300 people capacity.

Fig 4.5 Buttim Mosque has a symbolic minaret that does not have access to the top. As a very common tendency in contemporary mosque architecture, it is a free, self-standing structure in square shape, which is made of four posts on each corner. The posts are connected to each other at three points, in order to brace the long, self-standing structure. Narrow pyramidal cap on top of it with a traditional alem. Alltogether, it has a very abstract form. The architect Yücel Sertkaya has shown sensitivity to the common problem of loud speakers and has designed suitable places for them on the minaret. They are placed on top of the minaret, in between the iron grids that continue to the top of the minaret from the bottom.

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Fig 4.6 Yeşilvadi Housings Mosque (İstanbul, 2004) Yeşilvadi Mosque is designed by the architect Adnan Kazmaoğlu from Kiptaş Architecture Office. It is situated in a mass housing project in İstanbul, Ümraniye, which is ordered by the Municipality of Istanbul. This mosque is planned for 150 – 200 people, with 120 m2 closed area.

Fig 4.7

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Like most of the contemporary mosques built in Turkey, the minaret of this mosque is separated from the main mass. It appears as a self-standing, vertical element, which has basically a symbolic function. As a similar feature among other contemporary examples, it is likely that the architect interpreted the design of the minaret with great care.

What is innovative in its design is the integration of illumination to the main design of the minaret. Galvanized metal pipes are shaping the minaret balcony and they are also hiding the light sources and the loud speakers. By this way, the architect prevents some common unplanned and undesired later additions, which are widespread in most of the mosques in Turkey.

As a very innovative function, the minaret is also serving as a sundial.

By its shadow falling onto the markings inscribed to the ground of the main piazza, it is planned to show the time. In this mosque, the usage and interpretation of minarets has reached to a high level and finally a consistent mosque design was acquired.

Fig 4.8

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Derinkuyu Mosque (Nevşehir, 1971) Derinkuyu Mosque, or the Park Mosque as some call it, is designed by Hakkı Atamulu who is not an architect, but a sculptor, situated at the southern side of the town of Derinkuyu, Nevşehir. Derinkuyu Mosque is situated in a large recreational area, called the Kültür Park. The mosque is designed as one single mass, which takes the form of the minaret in one end in a plastic way.

Fig 4.9 As the mosque is designed as one single mass, it takes the form of the minaret in one end in a plastic way. It exists as the tallest part of the mosque on the north with a traditional alem on top of it. With this plastic quality, the design of the minaret stands as a very innovative and unique interpretation of the traditional minaret form. As mostly seen in the contemporary examples, it exists again as a symbolic element and also as the part of the mosque that makes it a landmark. Again, it is not possible to get on top of it, but as usual it has audio speakers on top of it in order to call the community to prayer, in accordance with its traditional function. Those loud speakers are later additions, which were possibly installed without the permission of the designer. This is again a common design fault as in most of the contemporary mosques. But in this case, since the designer is not an architect, it is not a big surprise to see such a defect, especially when we think that even experienced architects make similar mistakes.

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The mosque is called masjid in Arabic, which means “place of prostration,” or the place where Muslims bow in prayer. “Mosque” is a word of French origin, initially used by non-Muslims to describe the Muslim place of worship.

This term is now often used by Muslims as well, but the word masjid(plural masajid) is generally preferred. Almost every masjid contains a prayer hall in which there is a mihrab, a niche marking the direction of prayer, and a minbar, or pulpit; outside the prayer hall is a place for ablutions. Many masajid are also adorned with a towering minaret, from which the call to prayer may be sounded. The masjid is the chief architectural expression of Islamic faith and practice, which takes a variety of forms in different historical and cultural contexts.

The prayer hall of an American masjid is most often a walled enclosure with an uncluttered floor, with separate areas for men and women. The mihrab, or prayer niche, is usually a small arched indentation in the wall of the prayer hall that indicates qiblah, the direction of Makkah. The congregation forms parallel lines facing the mihrab when performing the ritual prayer. In many masajid, a small staircase leading to a seat stands to the right of the mihrab. This is called the minbar, from which the imam delivers the Friday khutbah, or sermon. One of the most distinctive aspects of traditional masjid architecture is the minaret, a towering structure from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer. These are the fundamental elements of nearly every masjid, though the style of their composition and combination reflect the cultural and artistic diversity of the Muslim communities or individuals who build them.

In the United States, much of this diversity is vividly in evidence: some masajid take the form of simple storefront prayer rooms, others serve as multi-purpose Islamic centers, complete with schools, day-care centers, medical clinics, and offices. Many centers are nondescript, situated in residential or commercial space; others are monumental expressions, built to echo historical and cultural forms associated with traditional masjid architecture. Some stunning examples include the Islamic Center of Greater Toledo, which incorporates distinct Ottoman elements; New Mexico’s spectacular Dar al-Islam, which reflects a Nubian architectural style; and the Islamic Cultural Center of Tempe, Arizona, a small-scale replica of the Dome of the Rock Mosque of Jerusalem.

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5. EVOLUTION IN ISLAMIC GEOMETRICAL PATTERN – CALLIGRAPHY For centuries, Islamic geometrical patterns are used as decorative elements over walls, ceilings, grilles, doors and openings, dome, minarets, to name a few. However, having no guideline and code for these adorable ornaments, has often caused inappropriate use, in terms of time-scale accuracy, architectural style matching and even identity.

An example of misunderstanding of historical roots and origins of IGPs is the decorative pattern of Enghelab (Revolution) Square in Tehran, Iran.

The six-point geometrical pattern, which has been used in that square, is one of the earliest types of IGPs and can be found in Ibn-Tulun mosque in Cairo, which has existed since the late Ninth Century. However, lack of knowledge about the history of IGPs and their evolution among Iranians Media and authorities, made a confusion of using Zionist sign over one of the main squares of the capital, which is supposed to be a reminder of the Islamic revolution in Iran. This incident ended up by demolishing the square. Figure 1 shows the response of the municipal authorities to media criticism. In terms of timescale accuracy, architectural style and property, Great Mosque of Tehran is an interesting example. Its design is inspired by the distinctive Seljuk architecture (1037-1194 However, patterns designed for decorating exterior surfaces of its main courtyard is a type ten-point geometrical pattern, which were not common during Seljuks and was not in favor of Seljuk architects and artisans. The research aims to investigate IGPs historically and draw a time chart of evolution of IGPs to answer questions regarding the suitability and appropriate use of these patterns as buildings decorative elements in terms of both “time-scale accuracy” and “architectural-style properties and order”.

Period of Geometry Infiltration into Islamic Architecture By detailing the survey of surviving monuments, evolution of IGPs through history of Islamic architecture has been studied. Some minor dynasties, in terms of their impact, such as Buyid, Ayubids, Ilkhanid and Timurid have been neglected and would be studied in detail in other research.

Patterns are evoked and their tracks have been traced to find earliest surviving examples. Concluding time-chart sketches the evolution of Islamic geometrical patterns from early stages to late18th Century. In this context, for building inspired from a particular era, this study has the answer of suitable pattern in terms of relevant architectural-style and time-scale accuracy.

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Fig 5.1 evolution of Islamic geometry pattern through history Types of IGPs Definitions and classifications of IGPs are not in the scope of this research. However, it is required to provide sketchy description about the types of Islamic architectural patterns. Most of IGPs are based on constructive polygons such as hexagon and octagon. By connecting vertexes of these shapes, star-polygons will appear which are considered as fundamental element of Islamic geometrical patterns. It is from this fact, which the very first level of IGPs’ classification starts (El-Said, 1993; Broug, 2008). For instance, all patterns in which their main elements are from hexagon or hexagonstar come under 6-point geometrical patterns and the star is called as 6-point star . ccordingly, patterns are further called as 8, 10, 12, 14, 16…-point geometrical patterns.

As can be seen in Figure 2, in certain level, the sides of two adjacent rays of star become parallel which will form a deformed hexagon.

First level of IGPs classification These shapes represent rosette leaves; hence, the patterns containing such elements will come under “n-ford rosette”, such as eight or 10- fold rosette. In the following pages whenever a pattern is called “n-point geometrical pattern” it means that it falls under DISSERTATION

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relevant type of polygon, which it is constructed from. It is interesting to say that as a result of following study, we can observe that the evolution of Islamic geometrical patterns follow the difficulty-path of construction of the above mentioned polygons from the easiest (in other words hexagon) to more complicated types of polygons and stars.

Fig 5.2 Consistency and variety Islamic art has a recognisable aesthetic signature that somehow manages to express itself across an entire range of productions. The ‘language’ of this art, once established, was readily assimilated by each of the different nations and ethnicities that were brought within the Islamic sphere. Assimilated and built upon, because every region, at every period, produced its own versions of this super-national style.

This extraordinary consistency of styles and artistic preferences in the Islamic world clearly derive from a deeper, social consistency. All Muslims hold to the same basic system of belief, all are familiar with the customary religious observations, and all – despite national and ethnic differences and rivalries – felt themselves to be Muslim first and foremost. This strong sense of identity and continuity tended towards a high degree of social, and artistic, conservatism. As a result, many forms and artistic concepts remained unchanged over the centuries - on the other hand, Islamic art has constantly demonstrated its capacity for the creative reinterpretation of accepted forms.

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Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation. The aim, however, is never merely to ornament, but rather to transfigure. Essentially, this is a reflection of the Islamic preoccupation with the transitory nature of being.

Substantial structures and objects are made to appear less substantial, materials are de-materialised.

The vast edifices of mosques are transformed into lightness and pattern; the decorated pages of a Qur’an can become windows onto the infinite.

Perhaps most importantly, the Word, expressed in endless calligraphic variations, always conveys the impression that it is more enduring than the objects on which it is inscribed.

Symmetry and geometry Another familiar characteristic of this art, which must also express something fundamental to the Islamic spirit, is its predilection for orderly, symmetrical arrangements in general and for purely geometrical decorative forms in particular. The influence of both religious and philosophical ideas on this aspect of Islamic art were examined earlier ,but the abstract, ideational nature of symmetry and geometry clearly fit with the Islamic taste for idealistic otherworldliness.

From a purely doctrinal viewpoint, geometrical designs, being free of any symbolic meaning (which is the case in Islamic art), could convey a general aura of spirituality without offending religious sensibilities. In addition, the purity and orderliness of patterns and symmetries could evoke a sense of transcendent beauty which, at best, would free and stimulate the intellect (rather than trap it in the illusions of mere representation).

There is a certain disregard for scale in Islamic art that derives from this perception. Similar kinds of patterning, for instance, might be found on a huge tile panel or on a bijou ornament. This is because decorative effects, in an Islamic context, are never mere embellishments, but always refer to other, idealised states of being.

In this view, scale is almost irrelevant. For similar reasons Islamic ornemanistes usually opted for a-centric arrangements in patterning, avoiding obvious focal points – a preference that resonates with the Islamic perception of the Absolute as an influence that is not ‘centred’ in a divine manifestation (as in Christianity), but whose presence is an even and DISSERTATION

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pervasive force throughout the Creation. A further analogy can be drawn between the patiently created repeats of the ‘infinite’ pattern (in all its varieties), and the familiar and unvarying customs of Moslem religious observances. In an Islamic context repetition is not tedious; on the contrary, it connects to the world of the spirit.

Whether in a religious setting or not, the work of Muslim artist/craftsmen always manages to convey a certain integrity, even nobility.

In fact the distinction between art and craft-work is largely irrelevant in the Islamic world, but even when their works demonstrated surpassing skill and inspiration, the practitioners tended to remain anonymous. This is not surprising; in a culture whose ideal was submission to the will of Allah, it was quite natural to submit creative individuality to a perceived higher notion of beauty.

Earlier Islamic Art Façade of the Umayyad castle of al-Mushatta (detail of carved stonework). The rich variety of floral and animal forms derive from both classical and oriental sources. This window-grill from the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus shows a direct continuation of the Syro-Roman tradition.

Mosaic decoration from the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus. This also shows an unbroken continuation of late-classical, Byzantine tradition of sacred architectural decoration, but the subject-matter, of a paradise landscape, is decidedly Islamic.

Fig 5.3 Calligraphy gives a visible form to the revealed word of the Qur’an and is therefore considered the most noble of the arts. It manages to combine a geometric discipline with a dynamic rhythm. Interestingly, none of its many styles, created in different places at different periods, has ever completely fallen into disuse. In the Islamic world it takes the place of iconography, being widely used in the decorative schemes of buildings

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Geometric patterns have always had a particular appeal to Muslim designers and craftsmen. They convey a certain aura of spirituality, or at least otherworldliness, without relating to any specific doctrine. In an Islamic context they are also quite free of any symbolic meaning. Above all they provide craftsmen with the opportunity to demonstrate his skill and subtlety of workmanship, and often to dazzle and intrigue with its sheer complexity Vegetal ‘Arabesque’ compositions are as ubiquitous in Islamic decoration as geometric patterns. It is difficult, without other indications, to determine where or when a particular composition of this genre might have originated. Like geometrical designs, these too are found across the entire range of mediums from book illustration to plasterwork; in ceramics, woodwork, metalwork and ivory-carving, even in carpets and textiles The Craft Group As indicated earlier, there was no distinction between ‘art’ and ‘craft’ in the medieval Islamic world, just as there was no sharp division between notions of beauty and utility. The idea of the brilliant, lone individual artist was also absent. These are modern concepts. In fact, architectural and artistic productions generally tended to be the work of groups of anonymous craftsmen, whose occupations were usually hereditary and based within guilds or similar craft-groups. However, given that the subject area of ‘the decorative arts of Islam’ has such an extensive geographical and historical reach, and involved a great variety of craft skills, generalisations of any kind about this broad subject may be misleading. Among such a diverse range of artistic traditions there were bound to be huge variations in working practices, social status, and indeed of expressive intent, in so many and varied creative processes.

As I’ve indicated, by comparison with life in the modern world, medieval Islamic society was highly conservative. We can imagine that working practices, just like the designs and motifs that were used, often persisted for generations with little change. There was no formal training; skills were acquired in the workshops, and were often handed down from father to son. The apprentice/master relationship was usually regularised however, and there is evidence that craft-groups were formed into guilds (which had similarities with the trade-guilds of medieval Europe). It seems also to have been the case that some of these guilds (in some periods at least) were affiliated to religious groups. Details of this kind are naturally difficult to uncover, as they tended to be bound up with the mystique and protectiveness of what were essentially closed professions. It is of more than passing interest though, that these religious connections were usually associated with Sufi DISSERTATION

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fraternities, whose mystical outlook had been imbued with Neoplatonic concepts.

The production of specialised goods, and the particular skills involved, were often localised, but these skills often took artisans far away from their home. Occasionally these movements were less than voluntary. In the turmoil of war craft-skills were generally prized as a form of booty and artisans could be carted off to the victor’s base, sometimes en masse. Since the ruling power was usually the greatest patron of arts and architecture, it often happened that new artistic movements were initiated in this way. The dynasty founded by Timurlane was perhaps the most famous example of this effect. It occasionally happened that skilled craftsmen were welcomed as refugees after fleeing invasions and wars. The relative security of Fatimid Egypt attracted many mid-eastern artisans during the turbulent 11th/12th centuries, much to the cultural benefit of Cairo.

The transfer of skills and knowledge as a result of migrations and conquest is of course a time-honoured process. Huge numbers of skilled artisans from various traditions were brought into the Islamic fold as a result of the early conquests, and in the course of time these skills became part of the background of Islamic culture. But there was one craft technology in particular that was acquired in this way that had a profound effect on the course of Islamic civilisation on many levels (including the visual arts). This was the manufacture of paper.

The role of Paper in Islamic Art and Architecture Paper was a Chinese invention that had spread to Central Asia and Khurasan prior to the Islamic conquests of those regions. As soon as Islamic rule had been established in this eastern end of the Empire the usefulness of this product for bureaucratic and military purposes must have become obvious. The precise history of the uptake of this invention is somewhat hazy, but what is quite certain is that the relative cheapness and ease of production of paper ensured its rapid spread throughout the Islamic world during the 9thand 10thcenturies (3rd/4th AH) – and that it transformed societies wherever it appeared. Paper was soon pressed into service by the Baghdad Caliphate, where it greatly facilitated their centralised rule, and Baghdad itself became one of many important centres of paper-making.

As paper became available throughout the Islamic world it was gradually adopted by artists and craftsmen. This usage began, naturally enough, among visual artists of higher status, calligraphers and those involved in the ‘arts of the book’. The use of paper was slower among craftsmen at a lower social position (woodworkers, stonemasons, weavers DISSERTATION

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etc,), partly because of the conservatism of their working practices, but also for cost reasons. As it became cheaper and more widely available however, paper became a standard tool in most crafts, and in the process it effected a transformation of the visual arts of Islam.

In essence, the adoption of paper into craft-based work-practices introduced a certain separation of the design process from that of manufacture. This was bound to lead to a greater degree of organisation in design right across the board, from architecture through to the humbler crafts of pottery and weaving. Later this separation of design and making gave rise to a stylistic ‘centralisation’, such as that exercised by the many Royal studios and workshops that were maintained by the Royal courts. Many dynastic styles were established and maintained in this way.

These is some evidence that the sort of complex patterning and arabesques that are such a characteristic feature of Islamic art first appeared as decorative elements of books (as did calligraphy, of course). As the ‘arts of the book’ enjoyed the highest status among crafts it seems very likely that these designs would have gradually filtered down to other mediums. It is also clear that once pattern-books and albums of design motifs came into being their repertoire could be applied to a whole range of artefacts, in different settings and at different scales. Designs could be copied, improved upon and, most importantly, they could travel.

It would certainly appear that there was, for centuries, a broad awareness and appreciation of the aesthetic aspects of ornament and a lively interaction between different crafts. The stylistic homogeneity of Islamic art referred to at the beginning of this note may have its foundations in Islamic cultural homogeneity, but its primary medium of transmission was paper.

The three elements of the Islamic decorative canon began to appear as early as the Umayyad period, but they crystallised into their classic forms during the ‘Sunni Revival’

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Fig 5.4 The definitions and classifications of IGPs are beyond the scope of this article, but a brief description of IGP types is provided.

For centuries, the compass and straight edge were the only tools used to construct polygons and required angles. Therefore, all IGPs originate from the harmonious subdivisions of circles and are based on templates of circle grids.

Some researchers stated that the use of the circle is a way of expressing the Unity of Islam .According to this doctrine, the circle and its center is the point at which all Islamic patterns begin; the circle is a symbol of a religion that emphasizes One God and the role of Mecca, which is the center of Islam toward which all Moslems face in prayer.

Most IGPs are based on constructive polygons, such as the hexagon and octagon. Star polygons, which are fundamental elements of IGPs, are created by connecting the vertices of constructive polygons. From this category emerged the first level of IGP classification For instance, all patterns whose main elements are from a hexagon or a hexagram are classified as 6-point geometrical patterns; a star is called a 6-point star .Accordingly, patterns are labeled as 8-, 10-, 12-…point geometrical patterns. shows that at a certain level, the sides of the two adjacent rays of the 6-point star become parallel or divergent, thereby creating a deformed hexagon (i.e., rosette petals).

Interestingly, the evolution of IGPs follows a difficult path of construction, in which polygons are built from the most easily formed shape (i.e., hexagon) to more complicated polygons and stars.

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The embellishment of Arabic script and the weaving of letters took on increasingly abstract form as calligraphy was used in architectural decoration.

Stylized Qur’anic verses or pious sayings blended with traditional vegetal and geometric patterns in stucco and ceramic work, covering the facades of important buildings, ornamenting masajid, tombs, plates, and coins.

The religious art of Islam generally avoided concrete symbols and the physical representation of created things. Instead, Muslim artists developed elaborate Arabic script and ornamentation, emphasizing the importance of the Divine Word. In the newly built masajid in the United States, calligraphy appears in inscriptions and wall decorations: driving along Massachusetts Avenue in Washington, D.C., one can see a verse from Surat al-Nur emblazoned in blue above the arches of the Islamic Center; in Manhattan’s landmark masjid, kufic script adorns the mihrab. Modern Muslim artists in this country and around the world continue to experiment with the flowing shapes of the words, incorporating Qur’anic verses and sayings in abstract designs to ornament not only buildings but also posters, t-shirts, and diverse Muslim media projects. Technological advancements in desktop publishing and computer graphics allow for continuing expression and experimentation with the presentation of the Divine Word in Arabic script.

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Survey of hundred well-surviving and famous buildings, has been concluded in Table which shows evolution and origins of IGPs. Along the survey of patterns from buildings, great Muslim dynasties and patrons have also been studied, which reveals the design variations and impact of regionalism and period-styles. Concluding time-chart sketches the evolution of Islamic geometrical patterns from early stages to late 18th Century. In this context, for building inspired from a particular era, this study has the answer of suitable pattern in terms of relevant time and time-scale accuracy and architectural style matching.

Fig 5.7

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6. USING OF MATERIALS FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN CONTEXT

The decorative arts in Islam are marked by a remarkable degree of stylistic consistency which has been applied to a broad range of materials, each of which had a craft-base of its own, the history of which often traces back to pre-Islamic times. The stylistic coherence within the Islamic world and the many variations of its basic themes across time, influenced as they were by local artistic traditions, are all part of the fascination of this art. In Muslim architecture virtually any surface may be regarded as worthy of receiving elaborate decoration and this is particularly apparent in religious architecture, but this principle extends out to woodwork, ceramics, textiles, metalwork, books and many other art forms.

Stonework There is an East–West divide in basic Islamic architectural techniques that derives from earlier, pre-Islamic traditions. In the Persian/Iranian sphere of influence the principle building material tends to be brick, whereas in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, stone is far more common, at least for monumental building.

The earliest Islamic monuments, dating from the Umayyad period, clearly continue the Roman/Byzantine tradition in their typical structures and in their use of dressed and carved stone. These techniques continued under later dynasties in Egypt and Syria (the Fatimids, Zangids, Ayyubids and Mamelukes). This architecture is characterised by its monumental scale, its relative simplicity of form and a somewhat sombre tone. The deep carving, ordered in panelled schemes, with calligraphic bands and geometrical and arabesque motifs, make an impressive contrast against great expanses of undecorated surfaces.

In Asia Minor the Seljuks, and later the Ottomans, continued the traditions both of ashlar building and of stone carving. Under the Seljuks a more plastic style of stone-carving was introduced, based on the stucco work of their predecessors in Iran. This gave rise to a rich tradition of that used all the familiar elements of Islamic decoration in a dazzling profusion of DISSERTATION

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examples. The strength and vitality of this tradition of carved stonework continued up to the beginning of the 16th/10th century, gradually becoming less exuberant during the Ottoman period.

A separate tradition of architectural stonework developed on the Indian sub-continent, again derived from pre-Islamic sources. The early Turkish conquerors of India introduced entirely new, and in many ways quite opposite, architectural concepts to the sub-continent, but the synthesis that arose from the meeting of Hindu and Islamic traditions produced a great range of marvellous buildings, and countless examples of exquisite carved and inlaid stone decoration.

Brickwork As mentioned above, brickwork was the favoured building technique in the eastern Islamic provinces of Iraq and Iran, the tradition originating in the ancient civilisations of this area. Typically, however, in the hands of Muslim builders, brickwork was soon being used in quite novel and more decorative ways than in the past. In fact there is a well-defined progression in the use of brick in eastern Islam, from purely structural purposes towards ever greater decorative complexity.

The first stage (in the 11th/5thcentury) saw an increasing variety of brick bonds that created relief patterns of light and shade to great effect. The enthusiasm for this technique was such that some buildings featured dozens of different bond-patterns, veritable showcases of brick design.

Later, carved ornamental inserts were used to break up the tedium of plain bonding; these were soon moulded before being fired, in a whole variety of motifs. In the next stage these brick inserts were glazed, a technique that lead naturally on to entire walls and domes being invested with coloured glazed bricks, by which time the structural and decorative functions of brickwork had more or less separated out. Over time these glazed bricks were gradually reduced in thickness until they were virtually tiles – and the possibility of a whole new era of architectural ornament was created.

Ceramic Tiles and Ceramic Mosaic Coloured glaze was part of the repertoire of decoration in the architecture of the Ancient middle-east, in both Egypt and Mesopotamia – by the time Islam arrived on the scene however, these techniques had been long forgotten. The earliest Islamic monuments made extensive use of mosaic as both floor and wall decoration, but these were very much in the still-

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flourishing tradition of late-Antiquity. It was not really until the 12th/6thcentury that architectural ceramics began to be used extensively in an Islamic setting (by way of the progression described above). The gradual development of suitable ceramic glazes, in both pottery and tile-work, represented a whole series of technological advances, and as such was as much a scientific/technological achievement as an artistic one. The enthusiasm for the intense colours produced by these techniques meant that they were eventually transmitted right across the Islamic world, from the Atlantic to Central Asia.

Ceramic tiles are found in most Muslim countries, using an extensive range of techniques that include high moulded relief, polychrome, lustre-ware and sgraffito. In addition, sophisticated techniques were developed that used pieces of cut-tiles, bonded together with plaster, to form elaborate, multicoloured mosaic panels. The latter method was particularly favoured in the lands that came under Timurid influence (Iran and Transoxiana), and in the Islamic far-West (Spain and Morocco).

The broad area that fell under Iranian influence had a long, independent tradition of ceramic architectural revetment, known as kashi, which reached its first great achievement in the 14th/8thcentury and was sustained through the Timurid and Safavid periods. Each element of the traditional Islamic decorative canon, geometric and vegetal arabesque forms, together with calligraphy, is used but with great local variations of style.

The use of cut-tile mosaic seems to have come into favour in the Islamic West (the Maghreb) with the appearance of the Berber dynasties in the 12th13th centuries (6th-7th). Known as zellij, it is almost exclusively dedicated to geometrical arrangements in this part of the world. The Maghreb (Spain and Morocco) had long followed an independent cultural existence, developing its own characteristic architectural and decorative forms. The particular specialty here was always an intense geometric patterning, a tradition that has lasted right up to the modern period.

Stucco/Plasterwork Plaster was a well-established building material prior to the Islamic conquests both in Iran, where it had been used to cover rough, rubble walls for centuries, and to a lesser extent in the Classical, Mediterranean world. This was a readily available material in the Middle-east, and was used in Islamic architecture from the very earliest periods (in Syria and Iraq), from where it fairly rapidly spread to the rest of the Muslim world.

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Its earlier forms followed late-Classical and Sassanian models, but Islamic tastes were soon asserted, inclining towards a flattening of the decorated surface, the emphasis on symmetry, its division into distinct, evenly laid-out panels, and the use of abstract rather than naturalistic motifs.

Plaster, a singularly useful material that leant itself to moulding and carving in a variety of ways, became a staple of Islamic architecture. Perhaps because of its plasticity as a medium it was less frequently used for purely geometric designs, and was more often used in vegetal-arabesque arrangements. It could also, of course, be painted or gilded.

In essence, plaster (on its own or in conjunction with ceramics) was the perfect medium for transforming surfaces - which was always the primary concern in Islamic architecture. In Islamic art generally, the underlying intention is bound up with the notion of the dissolution of matter, of transcendence.

Woodwork Since wood is a comparatively scarce material in many parts of the Islamic world it perhaps not surprising that it enjoyed a higher status as a material than elsewhere and, at its best, displays the very highest levels of workmanship. Traditionally, it was used for doors and window shutters which are frequently inlaid, but the finest work is generally found on pulpits (minbar), the key piece of furniture in the mosque from which Friday sermons are preached. Many highly sophisticated techniques were developed to create intricate decoration; in the finer examples ebony and other precious woods are used as inlays, together with ivory and mother-of-pearl. The carving in these objects often has a concentrated, almost lapidary detail. In the Islamic world the skills of carpentry were traditionally associated with geometry. The 14th/8th century historian Ibn Khuldun (who was presumably expressing a generally held belief) asserted that all the leading Greek geometricians were masters of this craft. Some surviving examples of 12th/6th century woodwork indicate that the genre of complex, interlacing geometrical designs in the girih mode were relatively common by this time, and may have been expressed in this architectural medium before any other (after their probable invention as Qur’anic illumination in the 10th/4th century; see below).

Book Illumination As indicated above, the earliest appearances of the girih mode (the classical Islamic decorative style that includes both geometric and vegetal forms) are found in late 10th/4thcentury Qur’an manuscripts that are believed DISSERTATION

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to have originated in Baghdad. It is thought likely that this style spread out to other mediums from this source. Although the precise mechanisms by which this style was transmitted are obscure, obviously it would have been facilitated by the widespread availability of paper soon after this time.

The three components of the Islamic decorative canon (calligraphy, of course, geometrical and vegetal arabesque arrangements) which were established in this medium continued to be a feature of the Islamic arts of the book, with every period making its own contribution to the genre. As the most elevated of all objects the Qur’an naturally always received the most respectful and inspired treatment, but there are also many examples of geometrical patterning and arabesque in secular book illustration. Clearly, the art of decoration was taken seriously in Islamic culture; patterns had a currency. Their appearance in the portable arts i.e. of the book, in craft-albums and working drawings, meant that existing examples could be reworked and improved upon, and those who specialised in decorative patterns could inspire new directions in this way. There are countless examples of intricate pattern in each of the major traditions of miniature painting (Turkish, Persian and Mughal Indian, in fact sometimes they are positively teeming with them.

The exploration and playing with decorative ideas that is evident in so many of these works is probably indicative of a general interest in the subject in studios of various kinds. Sadly, apart from these examples and the few surviving folios and working drawings, the originators of the majority of these brilliant patterns and arabesques are likely to remain obscure.

Court Patronage and Cottage Industry The distinction between the artistic and luxury goods that were commissioned and made in centralised, Royal studios and workshops, and those that were essentially the products of small-scale cottage industry, has already been remarked upon. This division, however, between central and independent manufacture in traditional Islamic cultures, was often a rather more complex business than this simple apportioning might suggest. It was usually the case that Rulers and their court custodians were the chief arbiters of taste and fashion in all things, but in most periods there were thriving manufacturing centres of such goods as textiles, pottery, metalwork and glassware, with their own design traditions. Many fine articles were designed in Royal studios and manufactured in Royal workshops exclusively for use by the Court, and occasionally these productions were made available to other wealthy clients. In other cases designs were created in an official studio and the work then commissioned from independent artisans, many of whom worked in districts close to Royal palaces. Religious institutions were of course another major source of commissions.

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These differences of origination, together with differences in local tastes and traditions, account for the greater variation of design in the arts of ‘everyday objects’, by comparison with the consistencies of the formal decorative modes in architecture. Symmetry, as always in Islamic design, was still the keynote, but the traditional decorative canon (of geometrical patterns, arabesque arrangements and calligraphy), while an ever-present and general influence on design, exerted less of a hold beyond architecture.

The design studios retained by Islamic ruling houses tended to exercise stylistic control and consistency across a whole range of mediums, including architectural decoration. In many case this stylistic continuity is fairly evident - the designs on Nasrid silks, for instance, have clear similarities with contemporary stuccowork. Textiles, partly because of the important role they played in courtly life and ceremonial, were frequently a focus for court designers and textile workshops themselves were actively encouraged by the ruling establishment in many periods. There are abundant examples of this sort of stylistic conformity across the arts in the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal dynasties, and it is safe to assume that this was the case in earlier periods.

There is evidence from various Islamic periods of complex designs being prepared in design-studios and passed on to skilled artisans across a range of luxury items, including (at different times), metalwork, carpets, glasswork and ivory-carving. In fact a great many artistic products from the Islamic world, in all mediums, are characterised by highly organised arrangements with complex schemes of patterning that clearly indicate a prior design stage.

The essential role of paper in this process has already been touched on (in Background Notes 4). Although very few examples survive, it seems extremely likely that the use of working drawings (and the inevitable appearance of pattern books and design folios), led to the creation of a design ‘currency’ among skilled artisans which enabled the continuous refinement of patterns, and their exchanges between mediums.

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8. COMTEMPORARY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Mosque design spans time, crosses boundaries, and expresses cultures.

The Afro-Brazilian mosques in Western Africa illustrate this. They are known as such because of the slaves that were taken to Brazil and became the builders of churches there. In the late nineteenth century they became political troublemakers and were shipped back to Africa, where they produced buildings that one would not think are very mosque-like.

Still, the locals regard them as very much part of their tradition of Islamic building.

Perhaps what is recognized as a mosque, and what is not, depends on who one is and where one has been—that is to say that it is a cultural manifestation as much as one based on a regional building tradition or a certain interpretation of religion.

The need to express such physical signs of religion is not new.

Remember, for example, the insertion in the fifteenth century of a Catholic church into the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, expressing the domination of Christianity in a country which had been ruled peacefully for four centuries

by Muslims. Physical forms seem to transmit symbolic messages.

The most recognizable of such forms are the minaret and the dome. The Ottoman influence of the tall pencil-thin minaret has been widely adopted because it actually fits well into modern construction technology and it is a pure modern geometric form, as can be seen in the Islamic Centre in Zagreb, which is one of the largest in Europe. The minaret relates to the past (because that part of the world was Ottoman at one point) and there was a desire to associate oneself with Islam within what was then socialist Yugoslavia. The central dome has a modernist image and reflects the aspirations of the inhabitants portraying themselves as “modern Muslims.”

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Familiar forms This brings us back to the question of identity, and its pluralistic expressions. As noted, mosques are a reflection of who we are and how we represent ourselves, not only to ourselves but to society at large.

The Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) Center in Plainfield, Indiana, by the Canadian-Pakistani architect Gulzar Haider speaks of a contemporary Islamic architecture without obvious and explicit traditional elements.

Is it apparent as a mosque? For some it is not. Some fifteen years after its completion the architect met with the clients and users of the project who said that they wished the mosque had had a minaret and dome so that it could be “perceived” to be a mosque. Here is an architectural question: Can one recognize a building as a mosque without domes or without minarets? The easy use of the familiar— the domes and the minarets—is more usual, as it is in many mosques the world over, from Indonesia to North America. This notion also applies as to how one recognizes other religious buildings, be they churches, synagogues, or temples.

Indeed the dome of a mosque built in the year 2000 in Shanghai, China, is used as a sign of the presence of Islam. It has no relationship whatsoever to the buildings’ interior spaces or structure—it merely sits atop the flat roof. The community was conscious that it needed to proclaim the presence of Islam in a recently more tolerant atmosphere.

In Indonesia, ready-made tin domes sold along the sides of roads are now replacing the indigenous pyramidal roof. Because there is a normative aspect in Islam, that everyone belongs to the ummah, and that everyone is equal in the eyes of Allah, one attitude is that all Muslims should come back to some expression of unity. And it is the dome and the minaret, which in this case do not belong to the culture and which have little to do with the building traditions of the place or the climate, that have become the desirable symbols for the mosque.

Largely due to the current influence of the Arab Middle East, especially of Saudi Arabia and of Iran, such elements become the “legitimate” expression of an Islam that tries to be universal. It can also be interpreted that those whose architecture expressed their own regional identities and their beliefs are not quite sure as to their place in the new globalized world. In conclusion, I would stress that the importance of the architecture of the mosque lies not only in the forms or architectural language but also DISSERTATION

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in the collective meanings it transmits to us over time—from its humble beginnings as the house of the Prophet to the pluralistic manifestations we find the world over. It is its symbolism that conveys what the mosque is about, and it expresses who we are to ourselves and to the community at large.

Symbolic shapes Mosque design spans time, crosses boundaries, and expresses cultures.

The Afro-Brazilian mosques in Western Africa illustrate this. They are known as such because of the slaves that were taken to Brazil and became the builders of churches there. In the late nineteenth century they became political troublemakers and were shipped back to Africa, where they produced buildings that one would not think are very mosque-like.

Still, the locals regard them as very much part of their tradition of Islamic building. Perhaps what is recognized as a mosque, and what is not, depends on who one is and where one has been—that is to say that it is a cultural manifestation as much as one based on a regional building tradition or a certain interpretation of religion.

The need to express such physical signs of religion is not new.

Remember, for example, the insertion in the fifteenth century of a Catholic church into the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, expressing the domination of Christianity in a country which had been ruled peacefully for four centuries

by Muslims. Physical forms seem to transmit symbolic messages.

The most recognizable of such forms are the minaret and the dome. The Ottoman influence of the tall pencil-thin minaret has been widely adopted because it actually fits well into modern construction technology and it is a pure modern geometric form, as can be seen in the Islamic Centre in Zagreb, which is one of the largest in Europe. The minaret relates to the past (because that part of the world was Ottoman at one point) and there was a desire to associate oneself with Islam within what was then socialist Yugoslavia.

In much of the Islamic world, there was a break with the visual and symbolic past between the late 1940s and 1960s, when most countries in Asia and Africa gained independence. There appeared to be the need to establish a new state and a new look forward. Newly independent Muslim majority countries needed representative buildings that symbolized their states. For example parliament buildings expressed notions of democracy, and state mosques proclaimed the importance placed on religion, as in Islamabad, Pakistan, where the main mosque was conceived as the DISSERTATION

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national mosque. It is now named the Shah Faisal Masjid or King Faisal Mosque, in recognition of Saudi Arabian funding. The Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay designed it in 1970, so it is not surprising that it uses the Ottoman model with its grand open central space and the tall thin minarets.

The mosque breaks with the past in expressing a modernity and an identity that proclaims it to belong to the late twentieth century.

The mosque is Islam’s most emblematic building, as well as an expression of collective identity. By exploring the built form of mosques around the world and prevalent architectural trends in mosque building, this article considers what makes mosques identifiable to Muslims and nonMuslims, as well as the ways architecture represents the identity of a community and also shifts in accordance with changing social and cultural contexts.

8. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN MODERNITY AND TRADITION Thinking about the meaning of the above three concepts and discerning the relationship among them is one of the most pressing preoccupations of thinkers in our age, especially in non-Western countries. A superficial glance at the above terms may lead us to conclude prematurely that modernity is a Western phenomenon, built through the dismantling and breaking of tradition.

Then there is development, viewed as the upshot of modernity, which has become a paramount strategic goal of those outside the stem sphere of thought and values. From such assumptions we can reach the simplistic conclusion that to reach development, it is necessary to embark on modernization, and modernization can only come about through dismantling tradition.

But these arbitrary assumptions can only satisfy the feebleminded or those who feel no responsibility for human destiny. The problem is much too complex to be solved with simplistic solutions. Tradition cannot be transformed through mere prescriptions, nor does modernization come about easily, for, until people themselves change, no fateful transformation will happen in their lives, and the transformation of people is a highly complex affair for which individuals often lack the tools.

Terms such as tradition, modernization, and development are replete with ambiguity, and thus far there is no consensus on how to define them. Indeed, DISSERTATION

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consensus may never emerge. In order to minimize misunderstanding, all those engaged in this debate must specify clearly what they mean by these terms before they leap to offer their theories and prescriptions.

What do I understand modernization and tradition to mean?

When we talk about modernity, we are certainly talking about innovative and evolving phenomena and institutions. But are all new phenomena modern? Or does modernity mark a specific era in history? Human society, even its most primitive kinds in antiquity, has always been in flux.

The essential difference between the Old World and the modern era is not in the static nature of the old versus the dynamism of the modern, but in the slow pace of change in the Old World and the breathtaking pace of change in modernity.

Putting the intricate debate about the relationship between civilization and culture aside for the moment, it is fair to assume that each culture is attuned and adapted to a specific civilization. Modern civilization came about through the dismantling of the previous civilization and through overturning the culture corresponding to the old civilization. Then modern civilization ushered in a culture to fit and meet its demands.

Tradition, by definition, deals with the past, but we cannot think of all old things as denoting tradition. We talk about divine traditions or natural traditions, which are considered constant and immutable by their proponents.

The laws governing existence are divine or natural traditions. It is possible that humans commit errors in the discovery of these laws, and later come to recognize their errors, but what changes here is the understanding of the laws, not the laws themselves. We may accept the principle of change and instability in the essence of the world, just as Sadral Mote'allehin among the great Muslim philosophers-believes in 'dynamic essences', or just as Marxists see the world as being propelled by internal contradictions, and thus immersed in a constant state of transformation. Thus, the principle of change is permanent for everything.

In my view, tradition is a human affair pertaining to the mental and emotional predispositions of a people; in other words, tradition comprises the habituated thoughts, beliefs, and deeds of a people, that have been institutionalized in society on the basis of past practices.

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In this definition, tradition is similar to culture, and in many instances tradition is itself a symbol of culture, but we cannot think of all culture as being traditional. Tradition is the existing culture in a society that has once possessed a compatible civilization. But now, even though the old civilization has withered, aspects of the corresponding culture have remained deeply entrenched. By civilization I do not refer only to advanced and complex civilizations, but to a specific way of life broadly defined. Thus huntergatherers, too, had a civilization; indeed, for as long as human society has existed, there has been civilization.

The existence of a past culture in the present while the base civilization has withered is possible because culture has roots in the depths of human beings and may be more long lasting than the underlying civilization. Many cultural legacies may outlast civilizations by centuries.- In other words, tradition is the reflection of past culture in today's life if the civilization has changed.

When. a new civilization is created and the culture appropriate for it is entrenched, people who still carry around vestiges of the previous culture experience a contradiction when encountering a new civilization. On the one hand, the realities of life are affected by modern civilization, but much that contradicts modern civilization is still in place, too. People and nations like us are deeply affected by this contradiction. Most of the cultural uncertainties in our society, which has vast differences with the West, are attributable to this contradiction, which until solved at the root, will continue to spawn crisis.

Western society's embracing modern civilization came about through breaking with tradition. The beginning of modern civilization should be seen as the point when the thoughts and values of the Catholic Church and the social and economic traditions of feudalism were questioned and then rejected. The victor in this challenge was modern civilization and the leaders of this value system. The fundamentals of this system were exported to America from Europe and from these two places to distant comers of the world and became dominant, even affecting life in our country.

At the same time, our past culture continues to live within us; this culture has serious differences and disagreements with Western culture. In other words, our tradition is more suitable for another civilization. That civilization no longer exists and the present civilization's border has expanded and affected us fundamentally.

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As we all know, this civilization established itself by dismantling the civilization of the Middle Ages in the West. But we had a different civilization from the West in the Middle Ages. Thus, even though modern civilization was at odds with the Western civilization of the Middle Ages, does this mean that the same schism exists between modernity and our previous civilization? This may have something to do with the difference between Islamic and Christian civilizations and cultures.

The most important similarity of our thought today to what was dominant in the West in the Middle Ages is the central place accorded to God in the lives of humans. By contrast, in modern civilization secular humans are viewed as being the center. Even the chief architects of modern thinking-such as Descartes who emerged at the dawn of the modern era-who have defended God and the supernatural in principle, have a markedly different view than Christians and Muslims of the Middle Ages. The centrality of the role of humans constitutes the chief difference among them.

Of course, there has always been divine, mystical, and religious thinking in the West. But there is no doubt that as God and religion were central to the Middle Ages, nature and humans are central to the modern world. In the Middle Ages, otherworldly issues carried more weight and prestige, and here Muslims and Christians were similar. But in today's world, focus on the afterlife has been replaced by secular concerns.

In the modern world, even though the boundless optimism of eighteenthcentury Westerners has faded, science and its offspring technology are still the most important factors guiding human life. People-at least in social spheresdo not see any reason to rely on anything other than empirical science and human perceptions.

In the past, the view of humans from the perspectives of being and science was different from today's. The value of knowledge was not measured by its utility in the practical affairs of this world, but by the nobility and exalted place of its subject matter. Thus, inquiry into metaphysics, and especially theology, were viewed as being the most important branches of knowledge.

In social life, it was claimed that religious law, or the apparent meaning discerned from religious texts, should rule supreme. Besides divine 'revelation', humanity did not need another source for knowledge and DISSERTATION

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practice. It is worth mentioning that in the Muslim world, philosophy under the influence of Aristotelian and neo-Platonic views-which was essentially different from modern philosophy and rationality-was faced with statutory and canonical views of religion among the rulers and the population, and the effect of Sufism among much of the elite and some parts of society, and thus remained isolated and confined to the sidelines.

The beginning of the modern age can be seen as a time when the main measure of the significance of knowledge and science became their practical utility in this world, whereas before then, the dominant thinking had rested on the folly of the physical world. And even though Muslims of that time were ahead of their Christian contemporaries in recognizing the validity-and indeed the significance-of the natural and physical world, in both civilizations, focusing on the natural world was viewed as being a largely futile occupation.

The crux of my argument is that today's civilization dominates us nonWesterners as well, and that this civilization requires a culture that is attuned to it. Yet portions of our culture remain attuned to a bygone civilization.

Modern civilization was built through the dismantling of the previous civilization and the accompanying culture.

Thus we must concede that the incompatibility of modern civilization with our tradition-bound civilization is one of the most important causes of the crisis in our society. What is to be done? Should we insist on remaining immersed in our tradition, or should we melt fully into Western civilization?

Or is there another way of removing this contradiction, or at least taming and channeling it such that it does not lead to our destruction and the unraveling of our social fabric and historical identity?

Many traditionalists continue to defend their heritage against modernity, often thinking of this heritage as being divine, assuming that they can bring order to their lives by shutting the doors to Western values and civilization, and by relying on tradition.

But this ill-fated rigidity has not achieved their aims, a fact evident in Western civilization's success in exporting much of its values to unprepared tradition-bound societies that have lacked the capability to understand the West. Thus, traditionalists have been left with no choice but to retreat progressively, without providing society with the tools to appraise Western civilization properly.

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Then there are those who believe that this crisis can be solved by a complete and uncritical adopting of modern values. Modernity, to them, counts as the highest achievement of humankind to date, as they prescribe that all obstacles for its embrace be removed, tradition being viewed as the biggest obstacle in the process of modernization.

They advise that we prepare the way for the new civilization by stepping on our past heritage. But sadly, many who have been entranced by the admittedly awesome accomplishments of the West, those who have represented the essence of what became known in our society as intellectualism, have not only not solved the problem, but made it worse.

First, the shallowness of their view, the debate being merely glossed over, has postponed the emergence of a real debate about the relationship between modernity and tradition. Second, dispensing with deeply rooted traditions, they have proved incapable of achieving anything of significance.

They have never found a place in the hearts of a people who have become habituated to tradition; they have not spoken a language comprehensible to the people, and thus have died in isolation, their words never gaining common currency. Or even worse, in order to survive they wrapped themselves around autocratic rulers, often becoming the tools of Western colonialism in their own countries.

In real life, neither religious decrees and mere wishful thinking can prevent the advance of Western culture, nor can memoranda and doctrines uproot tradition. Human life is always changing, sometimes unconsciously and uncontrollably. The important thing is to see through which perspective we can maintain an instrumental presence in the process of change, so that instead of being at their mercy, we can confront circumstances with awareness and intelligence.

Alongside these two imagined solutions, there are reform-minded thinkers, in the developing world. While there is hope that this movement may be more successful, thus far it, too, has been beleaguered by the crisis that we face. This is because reformists rest on two fundamentals: one, a return to the self and reviving our historical-cultural identity, and two, a positive encounter with the achievements of human civilization, while being aware of the hegemonic and colonial legacy of the West.

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Not only is there no unity of vision about the 'self' that they want to return to, but also they cannot agree on precisely those aspects of the West that we must absorb and internalize. Thus reformists must be viewed as keen and aware pioneers who have tried to confront their society's woes courageously to rid it of degrading conditions.

Our past has been eventful, but our future remains uncertain. We are adrift in a world dominated by Western culture, politics, economics, and military might, and confront the idea of development which is a tested form of progress in the West. We must decide once and for all where we stand in relation to the West and how Western values are related to development, so that we can attain development without losing our national identity or becoming dissolved in the West.

Development, like many other contemporary concepts, has its roots in the West. Here is how I define it: to establish widespread welfare on the basis of the values and criteria of Western civilization. Do we not divide the world into the two camps of 'developed'-meaning built on Western values-and 'undeveloped'? Do we not think of those countries as 'developing' that are trying to modernize their way of life by emulating the West? It is here that the relationship between tradition and modernity comes into focus.

Development is a Western concept, based on Western civilization.

Without knowing it we cannot know development, let alone make decisions about it or reject it. So, I believe that debating about development is premature before focusing on its underpinnings.

There are those who claim that nations are doomed to remain backward, even to perish, unless they meet all of development's demands.

Modernization, they say, is necessary to achieve development.

The above judgment is true if we see the West as the ultimate human civilization that is impossible to supersede in the future, but there are those who see the West as the latest but not the ultimate human civilization, which like all other human artifacts, is tentative and susceptible to decay.

Of course, this does not mean denying development or surrendering to the views of regressive traditionalists; it means rejecting the prescriptions of those who prescribe complete and rapid Westernization. While the prescriptions of thinkers usually differ from those of the power elite, development will be achieved more fully if policy making is attuned, to the DISSERTATION

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prescriptions of rational thought, not itself a constraint on thinking.

Our role as thinkers is to realize that even if development means repeating the Western experience, we still have to fathom its basic tenets and their implications. This represents the most important calling for real intellectualism and thinking. The truth of the matter is that without rationality, real development will be impossible to attain.

First, development is not a mechanical process that can be achieved in the absence of rational human beings. And second, a society that is devoid of rational thinking will lose its balance as soon as it encounters problems, and it is amply clear that human difficulties cannot be solved through reliance on force, strict laws, and the decrees of politicians, even though difficulties might be submerged by these means for a while. The sad experience of the 'Westoxicated' and the tradition-bound is before us, and we must learn from their mistakes so we do not repeat them.

Modern civilization is the important reality of our age and has brought many monumental benefits to humanity. But its faults are many as well, and these faults are not limited to Westerners' political and economic atrocities outside their geographic borders. The West faces serious internal crises in its economy, society, and in its thinking. For those of us living outside the West, if we do not feel overwhelmed and taken in by the West, we will at least be better judges of the disasters brought about by Western colonialism for nonWesterners.

Western civilization is a human construct, and thus tentative and prone to decay, unless someone claims unrealistically that with the dawn of modern civilization, the fountain of human curiosity and creativity has dried up.

Civilization is an answer to the curiosity of humans who never stop questioning their world.

The ever-changing needs of humans compel them to fulfill these needs, and civilization is the answer to the questions one faces. Of course, there are important questions and needs history that spur the emergence of civilizations, and these questions are themselves affected by the time and place in which they arise. That is why civilizations change and there is no such thing as an ultimate and eternal civilization. For as long as there are humans, so will be their curiosity and needs. With each question that is answered and each need that is fulfilled, humans are confronted with new questions and needs.

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Each civilization remains standing until it can harness its inner power to offer answers to human questions and to fulfill human needs, but civilization, similar to all secular things, is limited. When it depletes its natural strength and cannot find answers to new questions, slowly the exuberance of followers of this civilization will vanish, and that is how civilizations decay and perish.

Western civilization has encountered great crises, and by relying on its natural strengths, it has been able to pass through them, beginning in the nineteenth century and culminating in the two world wars of the twentieth century. But the liberal and capitalist West managed to confront and outlive its socialist opponent through adjusting its institutions.

Precipitated by its own internal weaknesses, socialism's demise dazzled the world. It is nonetheless clear that the West is faced with other deep crises, crises that have arisen out of questioning the core values of the West, evident in a decrease in confidence in its capabilities and permanence. These questions are now more pressing and pertinent than ever. Thus, objections to the moral and philosophical bases of the West are more common today.

It is true that the inability of the culture of the Middle Ages to offer answers to human curiosity and needs, and resorting to physical and psychological force to suppress those questions and needs, led to an intellectual and social explosion which caused the rule of the Church and feudal overlords to crumble. But it would be naive to think of these conscious questions and needs as the sole cause of the emergence of modern civilization.

These questions and needs emerged amid motivations, which were outside the realm of logic and rationality.

First, the harsh restrictions imposed by the Church and feudalism were instrumental in bringing about a reaction in the opposite direction. The Church had given its practices a sacred facade such that its excesses led Westerners not only to overturn the extant social order, but to doubt the whole validity of religion and spirituality.

At the same time, hedonism and greed played a great role in the birth and rise of modern civilization, which has trampled on higher truths and spirituality.

Was the role of the bourgeoisie any less significant to the development of modernity than that of the intellectual founders of the movement? What DISSERTATION

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drove the bourgeois class was certainly not a restless search for truth and justice, and the rescue of these two ends from the excesses of the Church and feudalism, but the will to acquire wealth.

Liberty, brotherhood, and egalitarianism were the key promises of the French revolution, but these promises were themselves tools in the hands of the new bourgeois class as it competed with the aristocracy for power, driven by the boundless ambition that characterized the new-rich. It is even possible to claim that the scientists and intellectuals of modernity were actually providing rational and intellectual justification for the wants and ambitions of the new class.

As we praise the many achievements of Western civilization such as modern science, technology, freedom of thought, and democracy, we cannot overlook the colonialism, the use of deadly force against non-Westerners, the plunder of other peoples' material and cultural riches, polluting the earth's environment, perpetuating half-truths and lies, and the opportunism that also characterize the West.

Thus we cannot surrender to all that is Western. At the same time we cannot deal with tradition superficially; tradition is the essence of the sociohistorical achievements of a people, especially important to us since we have had a rich culture and history. As Aristotle says in his Politics, habit and tradition play an important role in keeping a good society together.

Breaking with tradition means destroying the cultural and historical heritage of a people, but if a people are to evolve, they must understand their past to see where they are in their process of historical evolution. Thus, dismantling aspects of tradition must be based on indigenous models, not imported and artificial.

Indeed, delving deeply into their tradition awakened Westerners at the dawn of modernity. Thinkers revisited the artistic tradition of the Greeks and the social traditions of Rome. Religious believers returned to what they considered to be the most authentic aspects of Christianity, and hence the Reformation. These returns to tradition and reappraisals ushered in the new epoch: In such a world, the bourgeoisie, aided by secular thinkers, achieved victory on the basis of the new thinking which rested on a return to previous ways of rational thinking. Thus, even in the itself a constraint on thinking.

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Thus, even in the effort to dismantle tradition, there is no escaping tradition.

We who have the will to evolve, and who want to take the reins of destiny into our hands to be able to transform it, must ensure that our seeking of Western models of development does not lead to destroying our heritage.

We can only critique tradition if we have a firm sense of our own identity; a tradition less people are invariably devoid of serious thought. Weak-willed and brittle, they are at the mercy of events.

This aside, there is the practical problem that tradition is too deeply rooted in human life to be dismantled by the mere decree of politicians or prescriptions of intellectuals. Even worse, forcing this process may actually exacerbate problems and rob society of identity. But this is not the same as surrendering to tradition unconditionally.

Tradition, much like civilization, is a human construct and susceptible to change. The continuous transformation of traditions at varying speeds all through history is ultimate proof that further change is inevitable. The important issue is to what extent the process of change is initiated consciously with maximum participation of the people themselves, instead of being handed down from above or being forced upon people by circumstance.

Traditions are bound to evolve. The question remains whether or not people should ever be forced to maintain traditions in spite of needs, desires, and requirements of the human way of life.

Tradition is dependent on the understanding and intuition of people, who are they prone to change. This change does not negate the existence of all absolutes, but merely necessitates the recognition that our interpretations of the absolute change over time. Has human understanding of the divine been constant over history?

The important point is that as interpretations get entrenched, as they sink into the historical memory of a people and a society, turning away from them becomes difficult, and this difficulty is exacerbated when traditions adopt the veneer of sanctity such that any criticism or objection directed at these habits and interpretations is viewed as sacrilege. Combating sacrilege is a divine duty, making this problem more acute in religious societies.

It is certain that our thinking and lifestyles need transformation. Much of the time, tradition is the greatest obstacle to development, unless we actively DISSERTATION

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participate in transforming and reconstructing it.

Our society needs to evolve and transform itself, but we must know that development in its Western sense is merely one form of transformation, not the only form. Development in the West is the upshot of reliance on tradition and deep historical understanding which paved the way for a new understanding of humans and being among Westerners.

Westerners have been through a long and difficult process. Only after passing through many vicissitudes have they achieved rational wisdom and will. The search for truth, as well as competition, vindictiveness, and ambition have all combined to make modernity and development appear.

We live in a time when the inner weaknesses of the West are becoming evident not only to those outside the West, but to Westerners themselves, who now doubt their noble manifest destiny. Awareness of this issue compels us to refrain from buying fully into Western notions of development. At the same time, we cannot view tradition as being immutable and divine either.

Therefore, we face two human challenges, one deeply rooted in our society, the other imported and in some instances dominant over us, namely modern civilization. The important thing is to not defy either of these, as some have done.

To understand today, we must know the demands of tomorrow, and to properly understand the future, we have no choice but to acquaint ourselves with our history. Tomorrow is a time when humanity transcends today's civilization, and those who get there sooner will be those who are familiar with the past and focus on the future, not the rigidly tradition-bound, nor the superficially-modern who understand only the facade of today's civilization.

Why not focus on the coming civilization, and adjust all transformations to fit that ideal. Such an ambitious plan requires that we critique both modernity and tradition.

Of course, entering the future does not imply dismantling today. Only those who reach a level of growth, awareness and courage to be able to incorporate all the achievements of human kind can be build a new epoch and become masters of tomorrow.

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cannot ignore its many great scientific, social, and political achievements. Can we not transcend the present day to establish a new relationship to existence and achieve a new vision, and in its shadow become the source of a new civilization, which, while resting on our historical identity, and benefiting from the accomplishments of modern civilization, could inaugurate a new chapter in human life?

This is especially promising for us Iranians and Muslims who have a record of creating civilizations that have played a central role in human history. Can we not be the originator of civilization again? Of course this does not mean that we should return to the past to stay there-which would be regressive-but that we must find a secure launching ground to move beyond the present and toward a future that is dependent on our present and our past.

General Characteristics of the Mosque Derinkuyu Mosque, or the Park Mosque as some call it, is situated at the southern side of the town of Derinkuyu. Being administratively within the Nevşehir province, Derinkuyu is located at the south of the city of Nevşehir as an attraction point for tourists because of its largest and deepest underground city in the Cappadocia region. Derinkuyu Mosque is situated in a large recreational area, called the Kültür Park. The mosque itself is a part of this recreational area, which hosts social and cultural activities and contains a children’s playground in its green area.

Fig 9.1 Derinkuyu Mosque is in the scale of a neighborhood mosque, as a part of a recreation park. There are no other buildings in the immediate neighbourhood DISSERTATION

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and it is open to the general public. Therefore, in terms of its place within the urban context, it could be argued that it has a dominant and active role in the life of the town it is in. The mosque is designed in 1971by Hakkı Atamulu, who was one of the former mayors of Derinkuyu. He designed not only the mosque, but also the whole park and the recreational area surrounding it. As Atamulu is a well-known sculptor, the park also contains some of his recent works.

The mosque has its own land in the park that is surrounded by a wall. Besides the mosque itself, there is also the house of imam, placed in the garden of the mosque. Since the mosque itself rises in the middle of a rectangular garden, which is enveloped by a stone masonry wall, it is not possible to observe a well-designed outdoor space around it. The imam’s house located in the garden is especially an obvious, un-designed and uncontrolled later addition, which is harmonious with the city, but looks pure alien when placed so close to this mosque. There are also some trees planted on the garden of the mosque, which will possibly close most of the view of the mosque in the future when they grow up. Designed by a sculptor instead of an architect, the mosque immediately attracts the observers’ attention with its extraordinary and unique plastic qualities. The possibilities of reinforced concrete are used in an artistic way by the designer and created one of the most unique forms examined in this thesis. The mosque is designed as one single mass, which takes the form of the minaret in one end in a plastic way. Its façade organization is very simple. Vertical windows are placed on the sidewalls in an order, whose heights gradually increase through the qibla wall.

Apart from being in visual harmony with the minaret, this window composition is very reasonable for the reinforced concrete structural system of the whole mosque while creating a naturally illuminated interior space.

Fig 9.2 Qibla wall outstands in this façade organization. Contrary to the others, this wall has a curvilinear shape, mostly a fragment of an arch in plan. On this DISSERTATION

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wall, there is no trace of mihrab – it is not exposed to outside. It is a clean wall, only disturbed with small square windows on the upper part of it. Covered with different coloured stones, it immediately displays its importance as the qibla wall. It is the only wall that is covered with stone from both sides. The whole structure is made of reinforced concrete with mortar applied on it, which can be called as today’s most typical building technique in Turkey.

Using the potentials of the reinforced concrete system, a large eave exists in the design, which is carried by the minaret and the circular mushroom column of the ablution fountain. This eave protects the entrance, ablution fountains and the space between them. The roof structure on the other hand, is carried by the exterior walls and two other columns.

The Way Tradition Interpreted In this mosque, we see nearly all of the traditional elements of mosques, except the courtyard. In fact, we see a space that acts as a courtyard, but it is not in its traditional formal configuration. The space that can be called as the courtyard is under the large eave, in the form of an extended canopy. It carries most of the functions of a courtyard seen in the traditional mosques and in this sense it is a unique interpretation of it. The position of the ablution fountain in this space, with benches around, especially emphasizes this characteristic by creating a well-defined gathering place for the community.

The ablution fountain is underneath this canopy, on the big column carrying the large eave. Although it is in a very different plastic form integrated with the structure, it still resembles the freestanding ablution fountains of the traditional mosques. In other words, if the space underneath the eave is accepted as the abstraction of the courtyard, then the ablution fountain is accepted as the abstraction of the traditional freestanding ablution fountains.

Even though Derinkuyu mosque contains most of the traditional functions of a mosque, the triangular plan of the mosque seems to be quite an unusual approach. Despite the impression of having only one space under the roof, there are two different spaces in the building in reality. First one is the entrance room, which serves for taking off and storing the shoes. In terms of its function and position, this room could also be called as the latecomer’s portico, even though it has a very different formal configuration than the traditional ones. It acts as the transition zone like the latecomers portico and also functions as a wind trap, which prevents the loss of the warm air inside in harsh winters when the outer door is opened.

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A door from this room leads to the main prayer hall. In this space, the concept of making a one, big and single space for the prayer can be observed immediately as in the traditional mosques. While the shape of the plan is revolutionarily new, main idea of the traditional praying hall is still preserved. The women’s section next to it, on the other hand, is definitely a later addition, and is damaging the design by undermining the uniqueness of its approach.

Fig 9.3 As the mosque is designed as one single mass, it takes the form of the minaret in one end in a plastic way. It exists as the tallest part of the mosque on the north with a traditional alem on top of it. With this plastic quality, the design of the minaret stands as a very innovative and unique interpretation of the traditional minaret form. As mostly seen in the contemporary examples, it exists again as a symbolic element and also as the part of the mosque that makes it a landmark. Again, it is not possible to get on top of it, but as usual it has audio speakers on top of it in order to call the community to prayer, in accordance with its traditional function. Those loud speakers are later additions, which were possibly installed without the permission of the designer. This is again a common design fault as in most of the contemporary mosques. But in this case, since the designer is not an architect, it is not a big surprise to see such a defect, especially when we think that even experienced architects make similar mistakes. The main natural light source of the mosque is the vertical windows in gradient height on east and west facades. Other then these windows, there are small, square shaped windows on the top of qibla wall. Although it is not very bright, these windows provide enough sunlight to the main prayer hall, even in cloudy wintertime. Inside, walls are painted a pale yellow. Only, the qibla wall is covered with pink stones. This cladding on the wall is composed in such a way that it gives a horizontal effect inside, with horizontal strips made from different colours of stone.

Reasons of this consciously produced horizontality can be debated, but it was DISSERTATION

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most likely made in order to decrease the feeling of monumentality.

Derinkuyu Mosque is, surely, not a monumental building, but it is possible to say that it is the primary mosque and a landmark in Derinkuyu.

The floor is covered with different carpet in various sizes and colours like the traditional way of covering the grounds of mosques in the old times. This is different than what is applied generally in most of the contemporary mosques, in which the ground is covered with one big carpet with a repetitive pattern that creates a very orderly look in the interior, while increasing the monumentality of the space. This is not observed in Derinkuyu mosque, where the organic look of the traditional way of covering the floor is preferred. To conclude, in Derinkuyu mosque, we see the same tendency as in Kinaliada mosque, where the interpretation and articulation attempts are made basically in the elements forming the main mass of the building. While we can observe a high-quality of interpretation there, it is not possible to observe this tendency in the minor elements inside, such as the mihrab or the minber.

Fig 9.4

Fig 9.5

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CONCLUSION In conclusion, this dissertation indicates the tradition Islamic architecture and its evolution in Islamic architecture which covers principles, elements, materials, forms. Etc till the modernity in Islamic architecture.

Which noted the evolution in different aspects and how the traditional style were interrupted in modern and how its indicates the design patterns asa well as the modern elements.

It is true that some of the users of mosques are conservative about mosque architecture, but, very surprisingly, in some cases, the demand for “newness” comes from groups that are known as truly conservative.

It is possible to observe similar tendencies and problems as well as different solutions for the same problems in the cases selected for this study.

These comparisons are explained through specific characteristics, such as the site planning, understanding of courtyard, mass and façade articulation, materials, latecomer’s portico and porch, plan layout, natural lighting and artificial illumination, mihrab, minber, respondent’s platform, color usage and ornamentation, and also through their reference to the traditional elements of mosque architecture.

Therefore, it can be observed at the end of these examinations that the common design approach in the selected cases was basically offering new shapes to old forms. In this framework, in terms of the transformations that took place in the traditional elements and the design decisions of the architects, the development seen in these cases could be called as a formal exploration in Islamic architecture.

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REFERENCES Contemporary Arab architecture- form space and functionDr.Waleed Al syed] Principles in Islamic architecture- M.faroozani Islamic architecture between modernity and tradition-Yasir M sakr Contemporary mosque architecture- Hassuddin khan Use of traditional elements in contemporary architecture- ozgur urey Islamic art and architecture Websites : www.islam.org Website: www.islamicarts.org Website: www.patterninislamicart.com Website:www.wikipedia.com

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