OSMOSIS Science Magazine
Thank you to our awesome Osmosis team members!
Editors: Nhyira Asamoah, Julia Brittain, Israa Draz, Claire Dustin, Kaitlin Edwardson, Rilyn McKallip, Joshua Pandian, Alex Robertson, Jayana Turner
OSMOSIS Science Magazine
Spring 2022 Edition
Design Team: Lily Dickson (chair), Yagmur Bingul, Israa Draz, Claire Dustin, Mikayla Quinn
Cover Design by Josie Scramlin
Advertising: Caterina Erdas (chair), Yagmur Bingul, Nhyira Asamoah, Israa Draz, Claire Dustin, Kaitlin Edwardson, Alex Robertson, Jayana Turner
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Caterina Erdas, ‘22
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Rachel Decker, ‘22
Letter from the Editor
Dear reader,
I am always surprised by how quickly the spring semester flies by. Thank you for curiously opening this issue of Osmosis during this crazy time. I hope our articles can delight and distract you. I will miss using this magazine to productively procrastinate as I did for three years. Being the Editor-in Chief-has been an honor, and I am thankful to everyone who contributed. Happy reading!
- Caterina Erdas, a lifelong Osmosis reader
Thanks to our Executive Team!
Lily Dickson, Associate Editor, ‘23
Ryan Cvelbar, Managerial Editor, ‘23
Alex Roberston, PR and Social Media, ‘24
The Wide, Wide World
5 - The footprints disrupting pre-historic American archaeology
Erdas*, designed by
- Being the Best you, in Space: Out of this World Self-Care
Yanar
Rachel Decker*, designed by Rachel Decker
- The Octopus: An Alien on Earth
by
10 - The Catalytic Life of Dr. Maud Menten
13 - Balancing Nutrients for the Seen and Unseen: A study of the nitrate levels at the University of Richmond
by
The Unhappy Triad
Breaking Myths: Do Artificial Sweeteners Help With Weight Loss?
Caterina
Pamira
Jack DuPuy, designed
Lily Dickson
Emily Lekas, designed by Emily Lekas
Courtney Simpson and Nathan Winiarski, designed
Lily Dickson
Isabel DiLandro, designed by Lily Dickson
Ruby Nguyen, designed by Israa Draz
Ryan Cvelbar, designed by Mikayla Quinn
The Unhappy Triad
By Isabel DiLandro
Growing up, sports are a central fixture in many people’s lives. A 2019 study showed that in America alone over half of youths aged 6-17 report participating in organized sports (Sports & Fitness Industry Association, 2020). Sports teach leadership, teamwork, dedication, and tenacity. But, with these valuable life lessons come injuries that have the potential to leave lasting impact. Knee injuries are particularly well known - and for good reason. These nasty impairments can leave a player recovering for, at the very least, the better half of a year. A particularly infamous group of sprains, known as the unhappy triad, occurs when the ACL, MCL, and meniscus are all torn simultaneously. Their interconnectedness is both the gateway to knee’s mobility and the reason for its vulnerability.
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and medial collateral ligament (MCL) are two ligaments housed in the knee that connect the femur and tibia. The ACL, located in the center of the knee, aids movement and rotation of the lower leg while the MCL, located on the inner knee, provides stability. Their makeup of connective tissue lends them their elasticity which makes the structure pliable and helps prevent easy breakage. When ligaments are damaged, or more commonly referred to as torn, it is medically dubbed a sprain. On the other hand, the meniscus is a c-shaped pad of cartilage that sits between the tibia and femur and helps cushion the lower leg from the impact of the body’s weight as it moves throughout the day. Each knee has two, a medial and a lateral menisci, located on the inner and outer knee joint. A sprained ligament and a torn meniscus follow an almost identical route to injury.
properly test for these tears, a series of tests are conducted that apply movement in the same direction the injury occurred to look for abnormalities. For the MCL, the upper leg is held steady while the lower leg is pulled away from the middle of the body. If there is excessive gapping, pain, or looseness, it is an indication of an MCL sprain. When testing for an ACL sprain, the knee is slightly bent while simultaneously pulling the shin forward to test joint movement. If the joint feels looser than normal, or there is no resistance that can be felt when testing how far the joint pulls, it’s a sign something may be wrong. For all three, a simple MRI will also reveal the damage done.
Said injuries occur when the foot is planted in a fixed position and the knee moves in the opposite direction of the body. This type of movement is particularly common in sports such as football or soccer which require quick, sharp movements that place strain on the knees. Outside-in, or valgus force, is the external motion that buckles the knee inwards, opens up the joint line, and forces an overstretching of the medial ligament. Similarly, meniscal tears require a planted foot where the twisting of the knee joint can catch the meniscus under one’s body weight and rip it. Symptoms of these tears vary, but the most common to look out for are bruising, swelling, stiffness, and popping or clicking sounds that occur during or after the time of injury. In order to
References
1. Mino, S., Jackson, K., & Knott, C. (2020). Valgus Stress Test. Physiopedia. Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.physio-pedia.com/Valgus_Stress_Test
2. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Injuries | Michi- gan Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.uofmhealth.org/ conditions-treatments/cmc/knee/acl#:~:text=The%20ACL%20cannot%20heal%20 on,that%20are%20required%20in%20sports
3. the Healthline Editorial Team. (2019, January 28). Unhappy Triad, blown knee: Symptoms, causes, treatment, recovery. Healthline. Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www. healthline.com/health/unhappy-triad#recovery
4. Jonathan Cluett, M. D. (2020, August 22). How can your healthcare provider detect an ACL tear on examination? Verywell Health. Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.very wellhealth.com/lachman-test-2549598
Treatment, unfortunately, varies. Depending on the severity of the injury, it can potentially heal on its own. For example, some MCL sprains are very minor and do not require surgery. But, more intense tears will, in most cases, need to be fixed by a procedure. On the other hand, the ACL must be repaired with surgery since there is no blood flow to that location of the knee, and it cannot heal on its own. And while the meniscus has the potential to repair itself under certain conditions, it is quite dependent on the location of the tear. The outer third of the meniscus has access to rich blood supply which can regenerate the cartilage tissue. If the tear lies closer to the middle with little access to blood flow, the meniscus cannot produce more tissue, leading to complications down the line such as arthritis if the meniscus must be removed by surgery. Certain home remedies can help reduce pain and swelling such as the RICE method: rest, ice, compression, elevation. But after surgery, especially for athletes looking to get back to the sport they love, it is a long and tough path full of leg braces, crutches, resting, and physical therapy for a grueling minimum of six months.
The fear of injuries such as these should never be a deterrent for anyone looking to participate and enjoy sports. Worrying too much over the potential of something that may never occur takes away from the experiences and connections waiting to happen. However, there is no harm in staying informed so that, in the case it ever does happen, the situation can be handled accordingly. So continue to indulge in a love for sports. After all, as famous hockey player Wayne Gretzky once said, you miss 100% of the shots you don’t take.
5. Ligament injuries to the knee. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/ligament-inju ries-to-the-knee
6. Sheehan, M. (2020, April 6). Meniscus tears: Why you should not let them go untreated. Penn Medicine. Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.pennmedicine.org/updates/ blogs/musculoskeletal-and-rheumatology/2018/september/meniscus-tears-whyyou-should-not-let-them-go-untreated#:~:text=If%20your%20tear%20is%20 on,it%20heal%20after%20surgical%20repair
7. Torn meniscus: Causes, symptoms, treatments, prevention & outlook. Cleveland Clinic. (2021, April 17). Retrieved April 3, 2022, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/ diseases/17219-torn-meniscus
8. Youth Sports Facts: Participation rates. The Aspen Institute Project Play. (n.d.). Retrieved April 4, 2022, from https://www.aspenprojectplay.org/youth-sports/facts/participa tion-rates
The footprints disrupting pre-historic American archeology by Caterina Erdas
Bold claims that 60 ancient footprints in White Sands National Park in New Mexico are over 21,000 years ago, published broadly in 450 news outlets, are unconvincing to key archeologists of prehistoric America.1
In mid-January, some of these concerns were added as a technical comment to the original journal article.2 That article, published by Science in September, was picked up broadly, including Smithsonian Magazine, Science News, Nature, The New York Times, and National Geographic. It ranked 33rd highest attention score of all 74,892 articles and other scholarly material Science has ever published, according to Altmetrics.3
Archeologists interviewed for this story said the assertion that the footprints may be 21,000 to 23,000 years old seemed too extraordinary to be true. Most archeologists have settled on evidence that places the first people in North America 13,000 years ago. They walked over from Asia to North America when glaciers from the last ice age started to melt and revealed the Bering Strait land bridge. DNA evidence suggests these so-called Clovis people are the ancestors of today’s Native Americans. The new study in Science is disrupting the current understanding of the peopling of the Americas, pushing the date for the first human settlers back 10,000 years.
Jim Chatters, the archeologist who carbon-dated the famous Kennewick Man, is among the skeptics. He said, “Extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence,” and he thinks that bar has yet to be reached.
Cornell University professor Thomas Urban helped plan the White Sands project. He used radar technology to find the hidden footprints that were located next to a driedup lakebed underneath the park’s famous white gypsum dunes. He said in an email that he and the authors expected intense scrutiny when they published their findings.
He and his team dug below Clovis-aged animal and human footprints to find evidence of older humans there. Twenty centimeters under the Clovis prints, they found what they believe are the prints along with seeds. It was the seeds they carbon-dated that led them to conclude the footprints were 21,000 to 23,000 years old. That would place the early humans coming to America thousands of years before the land bridge thawed from the glaciers.
The paper’s final sentence reads: “What we present here is evidence of a firm time and location when humans were present in North America.” Their explanation excluded how the people who made those footprints got there in the first place.1
Archeologist and Clovis expert Stuart Fiedel is unconvinced. It’s too large a leap to place humans there that long ago. He compared it to “finding a portrait of Elvis on Mars.”
Chatters, the most famous among the group of skeptics, said; “(Science) wants to make a splash. Like everyone else these days, they’re looking for clicks, to pay their bills.”
The four scientists who published the comment in Science on Jan. 14, David Madsen, Loren Davis, David Rhode and Charles Oviatt, criticized the original author’s carbon-dating analysis.2 Carbon-dating aquatic plants can be tricky because it can give misleading results. They cited a case in Utah where the same type of seeds that were found with the White Sands footprints falsely appeared 10,000 years too old. Among archeologists, this is called the reservoir effect because the seeds take and hold older carbon from their surroundings.
The authors of the original paper defended their work on Jan. 15.4 They said the Utah scenario was different because those seeds showed a lot of variability in their dating, but the White Sands seed dated constantly over 21,000 years old.
Archeologists rarely find and analyze old footprints, said archeologist and Mississippi State University Professor Shane Miller. He said environmental conditions to preserve a footprint are rare. The only time he has ever seen them was at White Sands National Park. Other locations include the dunes of Namibia.
Miller says he wants to see more evidence from the White Sands team. He thinks part of the problem is that Science’s archeology section lacks the peer-review rigor one would expect at a top scientific journal. He thinks archeology is susceptible to lazy reviewing because, unlike a COVID-19 study where lives are at stake, if an archeology paper is wrong, “no one’s going to die.”
Founder of the Central Mississippi Valley Archaeological Society, Julie Morrow, said the footprints were hard to believe because some of them had four toes and others had six. She called White Sands National Park currently “the most important site in the United States,” even if its findings are disproven later.
Jessi Halligan, an archeology professor at Florida State University, said if these people existed, we would know it. “There should be thousands of archeological sites associated with them living there.” She said at least some artifacts would be preserved to the present.
Not all archeologists are as skeptical. Ruth Gruhn at the University of Alberta told Carl Zimmer in the New York Times that “this is a bombshell.” She finds the evidence hard to disprove.5
Urban’s co-authors have already returned to White Sands to publish more footprints and other evidence. He said thousands of footprints are there, but he and his team have yet to find material artifacts like stone tools that date to the same time. Urban said “many questions still remain. We still don’t know when people first arrived in the area, or how long they persisted.”
1. M. R. Bennett, D. Bustos, J. S. Pigati, K. B. Springer, T. M. Urban, V. T. Holliday, S. C. Reynolds, M. Budka, J. S. Honke, A. M. Hudson, B. Fenerty, C. Connelly, P. J. Martinez, V. L. Santucci, D. Odess. 2021. Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum. Science 373, 1528–1531.
2. Science Altrimtric for Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum. Access at https://science.altmetric.com/ details/113935093.
3. D. B. Madsen, L. G. Davis, D. Rhode, C. G. Oviatt. 2022. Comment on “Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum”. Science. 375: 6577.
4. J. S. Pigati, K. B. Springer, M. R. Bennett, D. Bustos, T. M. Urban, V. T. Holliday, S. C. Reynolds, D. Odess. 2022. Response to Comment on “Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum”. Science. 375: 6577.
5. Ancient Footprints Push Back Date of Human Arrival in the Americas. Sept. 23, 2021. Carl Zimmer. New York Times.
Being the Best you, in Space Out of this World Self-Care
By Rachel Decker
The world we live in is a dangerous place, full of uncertainties that fill us with anxiety and stress. Beyond our world, space is also full of dangers: UV radiation, microgravity, and, potentially the worst of all, being stuck in a small space doing the same thing with the same handful of people for months. Astronauts undergo years of mental and physical training for the chance to go beyond the world as we know it. How do astronauts take care of themselves amidst all these dangers?
In space, astronauts get exposed to harmful radiation which increases their risk of getting cancer and other diseases.1 Cosmic rays are high-energy protons that move through space and could be deflected from a spaceship using strong magnetic fields to repel the protons. However when cosmic rays collide with solar particles, high-energy particles from the sun composed of various ions, called gamma rays, are formed. Gamma rays are the highest energy waves and are not easily deflected. Only the densest material, like cement, can begin to block gamma rays but they are too heavy for a spacecraft. The best method is currently to prevent gamma rays from ever being formed by establishing a strong magnetic field around the spacecraft.
The radiation that does make it through can mutate the DNA of astronauts and cause cancer (1). The Earth’s ozone layer normally absorbs the radiation and protects humans. When astronauts return from their missions, they need to get more frequent cancer screenings than most.
Space also has a lower gravity field than Earth which damages an astronaut’s body in many ways. Humans have evolved to withstand Earth’s gravity field. It compresses the minerals in our bones making them dense and strong enough to uphold our body and prevent fractures. In space, astronauts experience only a third of Earth’s gravity which results in loss of bone density and muscle mass, leading to an increased risk of fractures (2).
Our arteries, veins and heart that pump body to the body and bodily fluids and circulation system are calibrated to function under Earth’s gravity too. When gravity lessens in space, blood is drawn upwards and no longer pools in the lower extremities, exerting more pressure in the head. This results in vision problems, motion sickness, fainting and neurodeficncies.
To combat these issues, astronauts eat diets rich with vitamin D, K and C to promote calcium absorption in bone and exercise for at least two hours every day to promote blood flow, prevent muscle death, and proprovide extra nutrients for vision. However, astronauts will still deal with bone density and muscle mass loss but any neurological problems usually resolve themselves within a few weeks of being back in Earth’s gravity field (2).
Living in space takes a mental toll as well. Astronauts can expect to be away from home from six months to a year, experiencing social isolation, pressure to complete their mission, and other factors that contribute directly to mental health like sleep disruptions. There have been past instances in where astronauts have gone clinically insane from the remoteness of their work and living under the scrutiny of the public (3). However, such behavioral events have not occurred in a few decades since astronauts have been required to check in with a psychologist every two weeks and space crafts are equipped with antipsychotics, antidepressants, and anxiety medication. There are also sleep aids on board as humans have evolved to rise with the light from the sun and sleep when the sun disappears but in space, the sun never sets (2).
Being healthy in space looks a little bit different than being healthy on Earth but the sentiments are generally the sameexercise, eat well, be aware of your mental health, and try your best to avoid copious amounts of radiation. On Earth, these things are recommended to live healthy lives but for astronauts, this lifestyle can be the only thing that prevents an untimely death in space. For the dedication alone to this commitment, astronauts are ridiculously brave for this undertaking and at the very least, deserve some space-approved face masks.
References
1. Boyd, A. A. Radiation shielding to protect a mission to Mars. Horizon: The EU Research & Innovation Magazine. 21 July 2014.
2. Abadie, L. J., Cranford, N., Lloyd, C. W., Shelhamer, M. J., Turner, J. L.The Human Body in Space. NASA. 2 February 2021.
3. Morris, N. P. Mental Health in Outer Space. Mental Health in Outer Space. 14 March 2017.
Breaking Myths: Do Artificial Sweeteners Help With Weight Loss?
By: Ruby Nguyen
Countless foods and beverages draw the average consumer in by sticking the label “sugar-free” on their packaging, knowing that many people want a healthier diet and lifestyle. However, science says that sugar substitutes don’t seem to help with weight loss. Diet culture makes eating fewer calories synonymous with eating healthy. The 20g protein, 10g fiber, and 0g sugar granola bar is good but reaching for that sugary chocolate chip cookie is naughty. Putting the milkshake back on the shelf and grabbing the kombucha is a sign of willpower. Unfortunately, we can’t have our cake and eat it too. Granted, many health websites like Mayo Clinic and WebMD recommend sugar replacements, or nonnutritive sweeteners abbreviated to NNS, such as saccharin, acesulfame, aspartame, neotame, and sucralose, for people with diabetes since they generally do not raise blood levels. Zero-calories artificial sweeteners seem like a cheat sheet; they fix that sugar craving without the excess calories. But a number of studies challenge that widely-accepted notion.
Dr. David Ludwig, a specialist in obesity and weight loss at Boston’s Children Hospital, said that people often let themselves indulge in highcalorie foods as a reward for consuming NNS, thereby “offsetting weight loss or health benefits.”1 Moreover, a prolonged NNS-heavy diet might dampen our tastebuds’ ability to detect other flavors. Artificial sweeteners overstimulate the sugar receptors on the tongue, so Dr. Ludwig and others suspect the tastebuds get used to the intense signal. As a result, fruits and vegetables with less sugar seem less appealing compared to artificially sweetened foods. This creates an NNS cycle that consumers are unable to break free from.
Another study by a team of researchers from Australia published in Cell Metabolism suggests that drinking one NNS called saccharin increases overall food intake in fruit flies.2 The project used two groups of fruit flies: one was fed a standard diet composed of only table sugar and yeast, while the other was fed that same diet plus NNS at various times. The flies who ate NNS ate more food than the control group after the sucrose was taken away. Dr. Gregory Neely, primary researcher and professor at the University of
1 Strawbridge, H. (2012, July 16). Artificial sweeteners: Sugar-free, but at what cost? Harvard Health.
2 Q.P. Wang, Y.Q. Lin, L. Zhang, et al. Sucralose promotes food intake through NPY and a neuronal fasting response. Cell Metab, 24 (2016), pp.76-82
3 Azad MB, Sharma AK, de Souza RJ, et al. Association Between Artificially Sweetened Beverage Consumption During Pregnancy and
Sydney, theorizes that the brain’s reward centers are stimulated when the flies consumed sucrose. This cerebral satisfaction is not triggered when they eat NNS, however, and over time, the brain will compensate for this loss by increasing cravings for calories. In short, our brains do not feel satisfied by NNSs which in turn leads to additional cravings. Since we end up eating more, the likelihood of weight gain rises.
Few studies have been done on humans to examine the link between artificial sweeteners and obesity, though one from Dr. Azad for the Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba in 2016 showed that consuming artificiallysweetened beverages during pregnancy led to a higher risk of obesity in their infants.3 Three thousand mother-infant pairs participated in the study and 29.5 percent of the mothers consumed NNS-sweetened beverages during their pregnancy. The researchers measured the Body Mass Index score, an indicator of obesity, in their babies one year after they were born. Although the BMI scale does face some criticism for not being the most precise tool, a higher BMI generally indicates “high body fatness” and thus a higher risk for certain diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart disease, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.4 Infants born from mothers who consumed NNS- sweetened beverages had higher BMI scores on average and double the risk of being overweight at one year of age.
Researchers are just starting to understand the effect of low-calorie or zero-calorie artificial sweeteners on the human body. These sweeteners are not likely to cause health problems when consumed in moderation, according to Registered Dietician Abbey Sharp.5 However, I believe it is worthwhile to consider the myths, truths, and studies surrounding NNSs and question how effective they are at helping individuals lose weight. In my opinion, weight loss is a long game and it is a much bigger picture than simply restricting a few calories. Sustainable weight loss that does not compromise our body’s wellbeing is achieved through a combination of exercise and a balanced diet and yes, there is room for sugar too.
Infant Body Mass Index. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170(7):662–670. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.0301
4 CDC. (2021, June 7). Defining Adult Overweight and Obesity. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
5 Sharp, A. (2016, October 26). Aspartame & Artificial Sweeteners vs Sugar -What’s Worse? Abbey’s Kitchen.
The Octopus: An Alien on Earth
By Jack DuPuy
Imagine scientists discover a new creature that can change colors at will and blend into any background. It can also shapeshift to imitate other species of animals. It even has arms that can smell and taste! Thankfully, this intelligent, alien creature cannot wreak havoc on earth’s soil, but it is not a figment of our wildest imagination. This creature lives in our oceans…
Six hundred million years ago, a worm-like creature no more than three inches long crawled along the ocean floor. It had light sensitive eyes and an extremely limited nervous system. This animal, known as the amphioxus, represents the last common ancestor of vertebrates and invertebrates. From that moment on, evolution among invertebrates (animals without a spine, such as octopi) occurred separately from evolution among vertebrates (animals with a spine, such as humans). Intelligence is a trait commonly associated with vertebrate species. In addition to humans, vertebrate animals such as dolphins, crows, and primates have demonstrated indicators of intelligence including complex emotions and tool use. Because the vertebrate brain mostly developed before these intelligent animals evolutionarily split from one another, the brains of most vertebrate animals exhibit similar structures and functions. Nonetheless, it took humans a long time to realize that other vertebrates are also intelligent because of an intelligence-induced superiority complex we hold over the rest of the animal kingdom, and it took even longer for us to realize that invertebrates also had the potential to be intelligent.
As we worked to overcome our ignorance, we humans realized that octopi demonstrate intelligent characteristics including tool use, problem-solving, and planning. However, because they evolved separately from vertebrates, everything from their neurological systems to their sensory organs to even the basic structure of their neurons are entirely different from ours. For starters, the total number of neurons in an octopus is around 500 million, roughly the same number that dogs possess. While neurons in vertebrates are entirely centralized in the brain, only about twofifths of octopi neurons are found in the brain, with the remaining three-fifths residing in the arms. Thus, every single arm of an octopus has its own sensors and controls that allow it to move independently, have a sense of touch, and even sense chemicals: the octopus equivalent to smelling and tasting. This individual control is demonstrated further by the fact that a surgically removed arm can still perform basic functions such as reaching and grasping. Thus, the octopus controls its extremities through a combination of localized and centralized control, with the brain guiding the arms and the arms having individual freedom and senses as well.
References
Just like their neurological systems, octopus eyes evolved separately from vertebrate eyes but with similar purposes due to their usefulness for survival. This phenomenon is called convergent evolution. Octopus eyes are so advanced, in fact, that they can tell the difference between individual humans, even when those humans are wearing the same uniform! For example, researchers at the Seattle Aquarium conducted an experiment during which a “nice” octopus keeper gave the octopus treats and a “mean” keeper poked the octopus with a stick. After two weeks, the octopi would get excited when the nice keeper walked in and would spray the mean keeper with water, illustrating the intelligence and sensory capabilities of the octopi.
Octopi also demonstrate their intelligence through their ability to camouflage, which they are able to do with extreme success and complexity. In fact, an octopus can change the color, pattern, and 3D structure of its skin about five times per second! This requires the octopus to constantly analyze its surroundings and send signals to the millions of tiny skin organs that make up the complex camouflage system. One species known as the mimic octopus even goes so far as to imitate the colors and movements of other ocean creatures such as lionfish and manta-rays to avoid being eaten, illustrating the octopus’s ability to observe the world around them and use that knowledge to their advantage.
Furthermore, studies on octopi suggest that they even exhibit a playful side. Anecdotes from all over the world suggest that a favorite game of captive octopi is to shoot water at the light switches of their enclosures, ultimately short-circuiting the power supply and causing significant financial damages. This game became so expensive at an aquarium in New Zealand that the octopuses had to be released back into the wild. Octopuses have also been known to play with objects like shells and bounce them around like a ball. While play may seem natural to us, it is actually indicative of the high level of intelligence because it illustrates that an animal seeks to stimulate its brain and learn more about its surroundings when it is bored.
Unfortunately, these animals, which may be the closest thing to intelligent aliens that we will ever see in our lifetimes, are caught and eaten, sometimes even while they are still alive. With touching, feeling neurons spread throughout their bodies, I believe that these poor animals are suffering from a horrible case of animal cruelty. Octopus brains are as advanced as some of our smartest vertebrate animals, and we should treat them as such. No animal should have to endure the pain of being torn apart limb by limb. It’s truly inhumane.
1. Godfrey-Smith, Peter. “The Mind of an Octopus.” Scientific American, 1 Jan. 2017, https://doi. org/10.1038/scientificamericanmind0117-62.
2 . Hanlon, Roger. “Nature’s Best and Fastest Camouflage.” Divers Alert Network, 1 Nov. 2017, https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/natures-best-and-fastest-camouflage/.
3. “Why the Mimic Octopus Is the Ultimate Master of Disguise.” Ocean Conservancy, 1 Apr. 2016, https://oceanconservancy.org/blog/2016/04/01/why-the-mimic-octopus-is-the-ulti mate-master-of-disguise/.
The Catalytic Life of Dr. Maud Menten
Emily Lekas ‘25
Although she is most famous for her work on enzyme kinetics, Dr. Maud Menten achieved the impossible in multiple areas of her life. She pursued and earned a scientific education in a time when no one wanted women to find passion in anything other than the home. Her discoveries have greatly impacted the scientific community and will continue to do so as long as there are those who are compelled to understand the natural world as she did. In addition to her accomplishments as a scientist, Menten also excelled in the humanities. Her life story provides us with many lessons and inspirations.
Maud Menten was born on March 20, 1879 in Port Lambton, Ontario, and later attended University of Toronto where she studied cellular chloride compounds in nerves, earning her master’s degree in 1907. After her fellowship with the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York, Dr. Menten reached a milestone for women in medicine when she earned her medical degree from University of Toronto in 1911. In the following years, Menten investigated enzyme kinetics with Dr. Leonor Michaelis in Germany, and the two created the Michaelis-Menten equation. This equation relates substrate concentration and enzymatic activity, expanding the knowledge and applications of biochemistry.
Despite her critical advancements in enzyme kinetics, Dr. Menten still faced discrimination as Canadian institutions refused to grant her research professorships. In 1923, she secured employment at the University of Pittsburgh, as well as a position as a cancer pathologist at a nearby children’s hospital. In 1944, Dr. Menten again made an important advancement in biochemistry when she became the first scientist to effectively perform electrophoresis. This method is the base for any DNA and RNA research performed today.
At the age of 73, Dr. Menten retired from her professorship and worked with the British Columbia Medical Research Institute where she continued to study cancer. She also performed research in histology and created a dye reaction for pathological experiments that is still used today when analyzing kidney and liver abnormalities. Furthermore, Dr. Menten made vital discoveries on salmonella and the bacterial strain that causes scarlet fever. Dr. Menten pursued passions other than science as well. She
painted landscapes and still lifes with oils and also loved astronomy. Her appreciation for natural beauty likely stemmed from her tendency to enjoy the great outdoors through mountain climbing and camping. She studied French, German, Halkomelem, Italian, and Russian, and played the clarinet. Despite her busy life, she found time to bake scones and Scottish shortbread for afternoon tea.
Only after her death in 1960 at age 81 did she receive proper recognition for her life’s work, when she was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame in 1998, 86 years after creating her groundbreaking enzyme equation. Dr. Menten's unrelenting passion for medicine and enzymatic processes, visible in her 18 hour workdays and 100+ publications, is an inspiration to all scientists, especially young women who are carving their own paths in science. Excited to learn more about science and enzymes and determined to advance the medical field, Dr. Maud Menten overcame every obstacle in her path. She is an excellent role model of a scientist who never gave up, no matter how many times she was told “no” just because she was a woman. Her love for her work and perseverance will continue to inspire future generations, as doctors and scientists use her equation and methods to save lives every day.
References:
“Maud L Menten, MD ” Canadian Medical Hall of Fame. www.cdnmedhall.ca/laureates/maudmenten
“Maud Menten ” Defining Moments Canada www definingmomentscanada ca/stories/maud-menten/ Packham, Marian Dictionary of Canadian Biography. www.biographi.ca/en/bio/menten maud leonora 18E.html
“Pediatric Pathology - About Maud L Menten, MD, PhD ” University of Pittsburge Department of Pathology www path upmc edu/divisions /chp/-Menten.htm
Skloot, Rebecca. “Some Called Her Miss Menten.” University of Pittsburg Archives www pittmed health pitt edu/oct 2000/miss menten pdf
The Visionaries of Today are the Leaders of Tomorrow
by Ryan Cvelbar
Facebook has undergone big changes recently, most notably its name change to Meta. But perhaps the most rousing is its work in developing the Metaverse. Mark Zuckerberg’s Metaverse promises a future where people can immerse themselves in any virtual world of their choosing through virtual reality (VR) headsets like Oculus. Although being able to travel anywhere in the world, real or makebelieve, from the comfort of your home may sound like a dream, the current state of the Metaverse is rudimentary and more like that of a video game interface rather than an augmented reality experience.
VR headsets are clunky and do not allow for the seamless transition from the real world into the virtual world that many are hoping for. Sarah Needleman and Salvador Rodriguez of The Wall Street Journal highlight this issue in their article, “VR to the ER: Metaverse Early Adopters Prove Accident-Prone.” From broken TV’s to broken bones, Needleman and Rodriguez assert that VR has taken a toll on its users. As if we are not disconnected enough from reality today by our allconsuming smartphones and other tech gadgets, Metaverse is in desperate need of an improved interface if it wishes to become a future place where people are willing to spend their time and money
InWith Corporation, a start-up headquartered in Irvine, California, has its sights on addressing just that. InWith, founded by CEO Michael Hayes, specializes in ophthalmic and microelectronic mechanical systems (MEMS), essentially small tech for your eyes. The company revealed its augmented reality (AR) contact lenses at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES), the world’s largest trade show, in Las Vegas earlier this year and is currently seeking FDA approval. InWith has stated that it is the only company in the world to integrate stretchable display circuitry into soft hydrogel contact lens, unlike the host of competitors attempting to achieve this in harder and less comfortable scleral lenses. Markets Insider states that InWith is currently working with Bausch and Lomb among other
top Fortune 50 companies to develop and market its contact lenses with the backing of several hundred patents. Forbes even cites some of the patents developed with the help of coinventor Dr. David Markus, PhD. These patents include: “(1) Energy harvesting from the blinking human eye to power a contact lens; (2) Defining space inside hydrogel devices such as contacts, for computer circuitry to be embedded during manufacturing; and (3) Smart case for charging smart contact lenses in liquid medium, while not in use” (Forbes).
You may be wondering how exactly these smart lenses work. That was the big question that I had when I first read about these lenses. How does a company like InWith take a display like a giant flatscreen TV and put it on your eye? The simplicity of the answer to this question may surprise you, but it all boils down to microelectronic circuitry and our eye’s anatomy.
Functionally speaking, the lens contains an embedded circuit of many components that makes augmenting reality possible. The circuit is centered around a micro-display that measures 0.48 millimeters across. That is smaller than a grain of sand! The display boasts on the level of tens of thousands of pixels per inch, which is 300 times as many pixels-per-inch greater than the best smartphones. This micro-display is what allows users to view InWith’s augmented and virtual reality. This is no different than viewing your smartphone in your hand or watching TV from your couch. InWith simply minimizes the display and imbeds it in their hydrogel lenses to be placed on your eye and viewed by your retina as if you were still sitting in front of a TV or scrolling through your phone. The path of light is still the same in either case. Your eye is able to view what is in its field of vision because light travels through your pupil and to the retina in the back of your eye. The image is received by a mass of photoreceptors that relay this information through the optic nerve and to your brain’s visual cortex where it is processed and the image is perceived.
Other components of the circuit include a component analogous to Bluetooth that allows the lens to display information from the user’s phone on the micro-display. The circuit
will also include an image sensor that enables recognition of what the user is looking at so helpful contextual information can be pulled up by the software on the micro-display. Eyetracking sensors that allow the display to follow your gaze will be included in the circuit as well. As for the lenses’ source of power, InWith seems to have that figured out. Its patent claims to have found a way to harvest energy from the movement of your eyelids and charge the lenses in a liquid when not in use. Other developers have used their creativity to propose micro solar panels and film-like batteries on the lenses themselves.
References
Brown, Peter. “CES 2022: Unlocking the Metaverse with Contact Lenses.” Electronics360, https://electronics360.globalspec.com/article/17590/ces2022-unlocking-the-metaverse-with-contact-lenses.
Fink, Charlie. “Inwith Puts Smart Tech in Bausch and Lomb Lenses.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 9 Mar. 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ charliefink/2020/03/09/inwith-puts-smart-tech-in-bausch-and-lomblenses/.
“Inwith Corp.. Shows off the Ultimate Metaverse Wearable at CES 2022.” Business Insider, Business Insider, https://markets.businessinsider.com/ news/stocks/inwith-corp-shows-off-the-ultimate-metaverse-wearable-atces-2022-1031074114.
According to InWith, the first applications of its lens will be tunable vision via a mobile device and augmented vision coupled with mobile device control. Being able to create a stretchable circuit and imbed it in flexible hydrogel contact lenses is what has made this breakthrough possible. InWith believes that this technology could allow developers to place augmented vision display chip applications into any soft hydrogel contact lenses with hundreds of iterations depending on the use. Without it, viewing AR and VR worlds through a soft contact lens would be out of the question and companies would need to resort to developing smart glasses instead.
Among other things, InWith sees its lenses playing an integral part in its users’ health. Specifically, it sees its lenses eventually having the capability to check blood sugar levels and send notifications to the user regarding their health. Hayes believes that, “This opens the door to hundreds of new devices: blood chemistry for cancer and virus detection, drug delivery, artificial organ parts with electronics for movement,” and contends that “This is the next big wave; the merger of the mobile device into the human body for full monitoring of your health. It will lead to less disease and longer lives.” Hayes says that these magic contacts won’t cost much more than the current soft contact lenses that 150 million people use everyday, so keep your eyes peeled!
Needleman, Sarah E., and Salvador Rodriguez. “VR to the ER: Metaverse Early Adopters Prove Accident-Prone.” The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Company, 1 Feb. 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/metaverse-virtualreality-vr-accident-prone-meta-11643730489.
Sprigg, Sam. “Inwith Premiers Its Smart Contact Lenses for Augmented Reality Development at CES 2021.” Auganix.org, 12 Jan. 2021, https:// www.auganix.org/inwith-premiers-its-smart-contact-lenses-foraugmented-reality-development-at-ces-2021/.
These AR Contact Lenses Could Help Us Enter the Metaverse.” Big Think, 29 Oct. 2021, https://bigthink.com/the-future/augmented-realitymetaverse/.
Tiny Microled Display from Mojo Vision Features Highest-Yet Pixel Densitybut for What Applications? - News.” All About Circuits, https:// www.allaboutcircuits.com/news/tiny-displays-mojo-vision-microleddisplay-highest-pixel-density/.
Balancing Nutrients for the Seen and Unseen: A study of the nitrate levels at the University of Richmond
By Courtney Simpson and Nathan Winiarski
The Westhampton Lake is one of the University of Richmond’s most beautiful features. Though, when studied, the lake is a more complex ecosystem than it appears. While students can easily identify birds, reptiles, and fish, we often fail to recognize the importance of microscopic organisms and their role in nutrient reduction.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the most common nutrients found in bodies of water; however, too many nutrients in the water can have dire effects on the natural balance of the water system. Eutrophication is the process by which an excessive amount of nutrients enables algae populations to rise dramatically beyond what is sustainable (Elliott, 2002). By consuming increased levels of oxygen, algae deplete oxygen levels, which suffocates fish populations. The combination of these two effects can dramatically alter the stability of the aquatic ecosystem by killing off large portions of native species.
To study this association, we conducted a study to determine the prevalence of nutrients as they flow throughout the university’s watershed.
Over the course of a week, we performed five tests at five locations across campus. The first two sample locations (A and B in Figure 1) were located along the Little Westham Creek in the Gamble Mill Eco Corridor. The third and four sites (C and D in Figure 1) were located on the eastern shore of the Westhampton Lake near Richmond Way. The final sample location (site E in Figure 1) was located on the Little Westham Creek upstream of the lake near the College Road bridge. We took samples from these locations to find out how the flow of nitrates changed as water flows downstream.
To measure the nitrate samples we took, we used a LabQuest stream device with the Nitrate Ion-Selective Electrode. Using the corresponding LabQuest stream digital application, we tracked the nitrate levels as we progressed through the study area.
The overall trend in our data found that the nitrate levels decreased as water moved downstream from Location E to Location A. The average nitrate levels for Locations B, C, D, and E across all days presented a linear pattern (Figure 3). However, the individual means for each day at each site did not show the same patterns. While daily mean nitrate levels varied significantly, they generally fluctuated by similar amounts at each location, suggesting that environmental factors affected the entire watershed, rather than one sample location. For Locations B, C, D, and E, there is a clear pattern to the data, which suggests natural processes reduce nitrate levels as they progress through the university’s watershed.
However, there was an outlier in our data; the nitrate levels at site A experienced greater fluctuations and less consistency than at other locations.
One explanation for the large shifts in our data was the continued restoration of the Eco-Corridor by the ecological restoration company Resource Environmental Solutions (RES). During our week-long data collection period, RES was refurbishing the outdoor classroom, which is positioned next to Location A. On the fourth day of our observation period, RES employed heavy machinery to work around the creek. The machines disturbed many wild grasses that served as a protective riparian buffer. Additionally, much of the area was covered with hay, which we later observed in the stream. In a Canadian water-quality study,
Figure 1: A map of the study area with labels that display the overall mean value of each data recording site across all seven days.
Figure 2: Line graph that displays the change in nitrate levels over time for each sampling location during the seven-day recording period.
Figure 3: A bar graph that displays the mean nitrate level at each location for all data points at all locations across all days.
researchers identified a positive correlation between hay and in creased nitrate levels (Benson et al., 2006). The presence of hay at Location A likely increased the nitrate levels and altered our data. Referencing the Figure 2, nitrate levels on Day Four were lowest; however, on Day Five, they spiked. A study that researched nitrate poisoning in farm animals also supported this observation (Undersander et al., n.d.). The authors discussed how nitrates are mostly found near areas of waste accumulation, such as the bottom of the lake (Undersander et al., n.d.). This location also represented the deepest portion of the creek we studied, measuring a meter or deeper in depth. With the location being the deepest and with the addition of hay, we reasoned that the circumstances of Location A caused it to be such an outlier.
Another explanation for this unusual data found at Location A is its proximity to the Country Club of Virginia. To ensure their golf course remains lush and green, the country club sprays large quantities of fertilizer and chemical products to support plant growth. During large rain events, the excessive nutrients not absorbed by the plants make their way into the water system. While our study could not identify to what extent the golf course affected our data, it is inevitable that the golf course affects the nitrate levels in the Little Westham Creek.
Disregarding the potential effects of hay or nutrients from the golf course, the rest of our data supports the theory that natural processes reduce nitrate levels. As water moves through the stream and the lake, nitrate levels decrease. However, our study only reflects a small sample size of the nutrients on campus. To truly understand how nitrates affect our campus, the university will need to record and study nutrients on campus to identify the best management practices for the varying levels of nitrates in the different bodies of water across campus.
References
1. Benson, V. S., VanLeeuwen, J. A., Sanchez, J., Dohoo, I. R., & Somers, G. H. (2006). Spatial analysis of land use impact on ground water nitrate concen trations. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35(2), 421–432. https://doi. org/10.2134/jeq2005.0115.
2. Elliott, M., Orive, E., & de Jonge, V. N. (2002). Causes, historical development, effects and future challenges of a common environmental problem: Eu trophication. In Nutrients and Eutrophication in Estuaries and Coastal Waters (Vol. 164, pp. 1–19). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-017-2464-7_1.
3. Undersander, D., Combs, D., Shaver, R., Schaefer, D., & Thomas, D. (n.d.). Nitrate poisoning in cattle sheep and goats. University of Wisconsin_Ex tension, 1–7. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from https://fyi.extension. wisc.edu/forage/files/2016/09/NITRATE-revised.pdf.
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