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FACULTY INTERVIEW WITH DR. KITCHEN: UNDERSTANDING GEOLOGY TO SAVE LIVES
Osmosis.
SCIENCE MAGAZINE
Tableof Contents
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and stereotypes: Should we trust them or not? Eve
Sarah
Sam
Kien
Bezawit Mulatu
Writers
Andrew Watts
Jack DuPuy
Paxton Mills
Bezawit Mulatu
Sam Chanenson
Zack Ruighaver
Eve Snyder
Tien NguyenChu
Kien Bui
Xander Shelton
Editors
Paxton Mills
Andrew Watts
Sam Chanenson
Zack Ruighaver
Alice Wu
Georgia Gansereit
Lily Byam
Designers
Yifei Qi
Bezawit Mulatu
Eve Snyder
Sadie Medlock
Xander Shelton
Eliz Ustun
PR Team
Isabel DiLandro
Eve Snyder
FALL 2024
MeetOurTeam
LetterFromtheEditor
Dear Reader,
Thank you for opening Osmosis Magazine. We are excited to bring you more accessible, intriguing stories in science and technology spanning the disciplines of biology, chemistry, psychology, and mathematics as well as faculty interviews.
Our goal as a magazine is to share the joy of science with the UR community in an accessible and entertaining fashion. We hope that you enjoy reading this Fall edition of Osmosis Magazine.
Finally, this is the last edition where I will serve as Editor in Chief. It has been a pleasure to work on this project with so many talented writers and artists. Science accessibility and communication is a deeply personal matter, and I am lucky to have had the opportunity to lead this magazine for so long. With that, enjoy this Fall 24 edition.
Happy reading,
Editor in Chief, Osmosis Science Magazine
Andrew Watts
ExecTeam
Andrew Watts
Editor in Chief
Class of 2025
Major(s): Chemistry, Mathematics
Hobbies: Soccer, Documentaries, Kayaking, Paddleboarding, Petting dogs
Isabel DiLandro Vice Editor, Head of PR
Class of 2025
Major(s): Cognitive Science, Psychology
Hobbies: Baking, Soccer (a group of us plays every Friday), Reading, Hiking/Camping
Yifei Qi Head of Design
Class of 2027
Major(s): Biology, Computer Science
Hobbies: Guitar, Piano, Reading, Snowboarding, Surfing, Free diving
Nyel
Bangash
Treasurer
Class of 2025
Major(s): Computer Science, Mathematical Economics
Hobbies: Lifting, Basketball, Coding, Poker
AScientist'sGuidetothe Laboratory
WRITTEN AND DESIGNED BY
EVE SNYDER
Dr. Cyanne Tisk, PhD poured the test tube with the magenta liquid onto the copper plate. “Jeepers!” she said excitedly as the plate dissolved into bits of Cu atoms. “I’ve done it! I’ve made a thermodynamic, plasmatic solution that separates particles into partial fractions! Finally, the cause of all life has been answered!” She spun around in her chemical-covered lab coat, and—despite her erratic movements—managed to keep the liquid perfectly still in the tube. Unfortunately, her carefulness didn’t matter as the other day she dropped a perfectly pyramidal block of biotemporal sodium bicarbonate aluminum (II) on the floor, creating a crater about three nanometers deep. Cyanne may have dodged it while dancing, but her colleague and potential rival, Dr. Gieyelle Ojisst, MD, had no idea about the dent and stepped right into it as she
opened the door to Cyanne’s lab. Gieyelle screamed as she fell into the pothole, startling Cyanne so bad that a single drop of magenta fell to the floor and was instantaneously attracted to the previously spilled hydrochloric ethanoic 1-nonenoic anhydride, creating a black hole on impact. Cyanne joined Gieyelle in her screaming, but unlike Gieyelle, she used her free legs to run for the fire blanket and threw it on the black hole, dousing it. Alas, not before a radioactive sandwich could emerge.
“DON’T EAT IT,” screeched Cyanne, while Gieyelle just looked at her fraudulent foe incredulously.
“Do you take me for a fool?” Gieyelle asked, grabbing a nearby table leg to hoist herself out of the crater. “I’m not going to eat an electrokinetic lunch food. Clearly, you think I’m an idiot, what with sabotaging my experiments
and thinking I wouldn’t know it was you. But it doesn’t matter because once the university learns of this hole and your terrible lab safety, they will expel you!” Finally, she fully emerged and lay on the floor for a moment, panting. That dent was far too deep for her upper body-strength to handle. She made a mental note to go to the gym this weekend, though Gieyelle hoped there would never be another moment where she had to crawl out of a literal hole in the ground. Feeling recovered, she stood up and dusted off her impeccably clean lab coat.
“Don’t be ridiculous! Obviously the sandwich is committing alpha decay, don’t you see the little quantum energy beams emitting from it? And here I thought you were a good rival candidate.” Cyanne rolled her eyes and turned back to her workspace to put the magenta serum in a rack. “Now what’s this about career sponging?”
“Sabotaging. And I know it was you, Dr. Tisk. I found my mud balls condensing in the mass spectrometer. You’re the only scientist on this floor with one! Regardless of your plans, I’m still on track to isolate virtual classical krypton from the mud cells and create the ideal organism.”
“Oh please, if I really wanted to condense your stupid moss balls, I would’ve dumped them in an air fryer.” Cyanne put on her lab goggles that she should have been wearing this entire time and set to work adding chemicals to a beaker. Only the Great Scientist in Space knew what she was doing because she wasn’t even reading the bottle labels before adding them into her concoction. Yet, off to the side her lab notebook was paradoxically filled with meticulous notes. “Honestly, your experiment d matter anyway. I’ve already finished my serum that atoms into mathematics. Not only will the tenure sp mine, but I’ve also guaranteed myself a Nobel Peace by solving the riddle to the meaning of life.”
“What are you talking about? Meaning of life? Makin atoms solve differential equations is only the set deciphering the complexities of the world. The scie race is still a very long way away from dissecting the point of the universe. Now, can we please talk about my p parasite? If it wasn’t you that froze my clay spher who?” Gieyelle gingerly walked around the lab scrut various brightly-colored chemicals. She had been we her lab goggles this entire time, so there was no n her to panic when she heard a faint explosion behin That didn't stop her though. Whipping around, she
saw Cyanne staring at her in horror (at least Gieyelle thought it was horror, Cyanne’s face was hard to read when covered in soot, and the hair standing towards the Great Scientist in Space was distracting to say the least).
“’You’reascientistforgoodnesssake! Whatdoyoumeanyoudon’twantto knowwhy?’”
“What do you mean you don’t think there’s a point to life? Don’t you want to know why? Why we came into existence? Why we are the way we are? Why I can mix yellow and blue to get slatherable red?” Cyanne gestured emphatically, still miraculously failing to spill a single quark of a twilight ombre solution.
“Look around us! Things work just because that is how they are. Our job is to figure out the how, not the why. Such as how in the vacuum of space my dirt solidified!” Gieyelle shook her head, exasperated.
“You’re a scientist for goodness sake! What do you mean you don’t want to know why? I could tell you the answer to any question you seek!”
“All I want to know from you is why you have so many colored solutions! What kinds of biogeographical chemicals are you using in your experiments? Maybe one can resurrect my soil ellipses.” Gieyelle threw her hands up in the air.
Cyanne pouted, then rolled her eyes and sighed. “Food dye,” she replied, turning back to her work.
“What?!?”
“Crystal field theory helps me categorize my trials. Then I redefine the dye using quantum field analysis to negate its viscous effects.”
For a moment Gieyelle just stared at Cyanne. “You’re a genius! And you put it over a Bunsen burner to quantify the solution? Maybe my condensed mud balls just need to be heated and colorized…”
“No… But if I did then the ketones would float to the top, and the serum would tell me not only why existence is linear, but why it isn’t exponential! Quickly, grab the Bunsen burner!” Gieyelle fished one out of a drawer with gum wrappers and handed it to her new lab partner,
eyeing Cyanne as she did. “I’ve got no time for meals,” Cyanne said simply, turning the burner on, picking up an aqua yellow serum with crucible tongs, and holding it over the flame. Slowly it heated up, turning every color of the rainbow before settling on a nice royal blue.
The tube dissolved. Blue sprayed from the tongs. There was a ball of light floating between the two scientists. They gazed at it in amazement. They had done it. All the hows and whys of the universe lay before them. Suddenly, the door opened and two men walked into Dr. Cyanne Tisk’s laboratory.
“What are women doing in the lab?” Without hesitation, Dr. Gieyelle Ojisst grabbed one of the solutions and threw it on them. No one could interrupt them before they wrote this all down in their lab notebooks.
MBTIresultsandstereotypes:Shouldwetrust themornot?
WRITTEN BY SARAH SU | DESIGNED BY EVE SNYDER
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), is a popular personality test that’s been around for decades. With a huge test taking population, it is a personality test well known and generally accepted by the public (Delgado, 2023). It is almost everywhere, from day to day conversations to its presence in social media, to even workplaces, where managers are using it as a tool to simplify complex human interactions (Essig, 2014). This means a huge population is using it to determine
individual personalities and seeking connections within the society.
The wide range use and popularity of MBTI as well as the fact that people rely on them and trust them so much led to the importance of determining the validity of these tests. With that, this article seeks to answer the question of the validity and reliability of the MBTI test as well as whether it is appropriate to use it as a crucial determination for day to day interactions.
POPULARITY AND STEREOTYPES
Before looking at the validity of MBTI, it is important to understand what role they play in people’s everyday life, and the populations these indications are affecting.
As a popular test widely spread across the globe, there’s a wide range use of MBTI results, including determination of personalities, personal interests, as well as simplifying complex human interactions, giving a reason for relationships and interpersonal conflicts. Interestingly, the usage of MBTI tests could range from daily conversations (the occasion of when someone you ust met asks you about your MBTI result as to learn more about you), to social media (people forming communities based on different MBTI results), even to schools and workplaces (occasionally, managers use MBTI results to simplify human interactions).
Though it is true that MBTI tests and its results could provide some insights into personalities, lifestyles, and interests of a certain person, most of these perceptions could be stereotypical. By looking at a few personality types out of the 16 personality types in total, the stereotypic perceptions of certain personality types as well as certain people are evident.
For instance, the personality type of INFP, namely, ‘introverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving’. When INFP truly meant ‘Value-oriented individuals who prize integrity and authenticity’ — people who are guarded by inner emotions, and tend to use value based reasonings for decisions — stereotypes for them could be ‘emotional people who avoid logical thoughts’ (Storm, 2023).
The stereotype intensifies, especially for workplace institutions who value the MBTI test, when certain managers regard the personality of INFP with a low value.
Thefactthattherearestereotypic threatstowardscertainpersonality typesmakesitevenmoreimportant todeterminethevalidityofthese beliefsaswellasthetestitself.
Another example could be ENTP, another personality types that refers to ‘extroverted intuitive, thinking, and perceiving’. When the truth of this personality type is ‘innovative, logical thinkers who live to see their visions realized’, rumors and stereotypes are saying that the personality of ENTP are ‘directionless, hyperactive types who live to troll’ (Storm, 2023).
The fact that there are stereotypic threats towards certain personality types makes it even more important to determine the validity of these beliefs as well as the test itself.
Throughout the MBTI theory, there are three claims that provided for the basis of the functioning for MBTI test: the ‘True type’ claim and the causal claim (Stein et al, 2019).
The true type claim mainly talks about how MBTI tests are based on the theory that there are hidden ‘true types’ of personalities in people, and it is up to the MBTI tests to find them. However, there is no evidence that MBTI tests could truly determine the true types of personalities as the questions in the tests are forced choices, raising the question of the total numbers of personality types, is it really 16? Or is the number biased? This suggests that the MBTI tests, in terms of the boundaries between personality types, are unreliable.
The causal claim refers to the theory of personality causing differences in behavior, leading to a lack of validity because even though there are behaviors indicating a certain type of personality, there isn’t enough evidence to conclude that the person has that type of personality. In other words, the fact that the MBTI test assigned personalities to certain people simplifies the process of determining personalities. These two claims together provided proof that the validity and reliability of MBTI tests are ought to be questioned.
Major flaws in how MBTI tests work led to the validity and reliability of MBTI tests. Using validity and reliability aspects of item homogeneity and validity itself, conclusions on whether to trust MBTI tests could be made (Boyle, 1995).
For item homogeneity, after analysis through a phi estimate of homogeneity, it is found that the MBTI test has a moderately high level of item homogeneity, meaning that if the MBTI test is done a several times, the result of the personality is found to be the same. This is the reason why the general public views MBTI tests as an accurate representation of their real personalities, due to the consistency for each test.
For validity as a whole, MBTI tests are found to have a low validity based on statistical tests. This is found through factor analysis, where it is found that MBTI dimensions are actually dependent with each other, creating a sense of bias in the process of determining personality.
REFERENCES
Delgado, Carla. 2023. “What Is MBTI: Is the Myers-Briggs Test Still Valid?” Discover Magazine. Discover Magazine. October 11, 2023. https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-problem-with-themyers-briggs-personality-test
Essig, Todd. 2014. “The Mysterious Popularity of the Meaningless Myers-Briggs (MBTI).” Forbes. Forbes Magazine. September 29, 2014. https://www.forbes.com/sites/toddessig/2014/09/29/the-mysteriouspopularity-of-the-meaningless-myers-briggs-mbti
CONCLUSION
Should we trust our MBTI test results? Based on this article, there’s a critical answer to this question. With the increasing popularity of MBTI tests, it seems to be evident that MBTI tests are affecting more and more people. However, stereotypes and beliefs based on MBTI results are troubling, leading to the question of whether these test results are reliable or not.
Through analyzing different articles regarding this issue, two perspectives regarding the validity and reliability of MBTI test results could be found. The first perspective, through analyzing how the MBTI test works as well as its relations to the MBTI theory, major flaws of determining ‘personality’ from the MBTI test are found. The second perspective is through looking at reliability and validity through statistical methods, also proving a lack of validity and reliability for MBTI tests.
So next time when you’re relying on MBTI test results, think before you act.
Storm, Susan. 2023. “Stereotypes Each Myers-Briggs® Type Is Sick Of.” Psychology Junkie. September 28, 2023. https://www.psychologyjunkie.com/mbti-stereotypes/#h-infpstereotypes-vs-reality
Stein, Randy, and Alexander B. Swan. 2019. “Evaluating the Validity of Myers‐briggs Type Indicator Theory: A Teaching Tool and Window into Intuitive Psychology.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 13 (3). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12441
Boyle, Gregory J. 1995. “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some Psychometric Limitations.” Australian Psychologist 30 (1): 71–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-9544.1995.tb01750.x
WouldYouPushtheFat Man?WhatPsychology TellsUsAboutMorality
WRITTEN BY SAM CHANENSON | DESIGNED BY YIFEI QI
You’re on an out-of-control trolley hurtling towards five pedestrians trapped on the track ahead of you. While you can’t slow down, you notice just in time that if you flip a switch, you can jump to a parallel track. But oh no! On that track, another pedestrian is trapped. Quick! What do you do?
Source: Sahoo (2020)
I am willing to bet you would flip the switch and kill the one person instead of the five. I am also willing to bet that you would give a utilitarian reason for your choice, citing that the moral thing to do is to save five lives at the cost of one. If this is you, congratulations, you are not alone. Research shows that, on average, 85% of people choose to flip the switch (Hauser et al., 2007). People tend to see this kind of moral conundrum as logical. Simple arithmetic, albeit morose. However, FMRI research has shown that our judgments do not come from logical reasoning but are automatic and emotional (Greene et al., 2001). The more a particular situation elicits an emotional reaction, the less power rational thought has over our judgments. Instead, our reasoning–like that for the trolley problem above– comes to us post hoc to rationalize whatever decision we just made (Haidt, 2001). This is not
to say that logic cannot influence our judgments, or that we do not think before we act, but that we might not have the control over our actions that we think we do. Specifically, moral psychology points to three main factors that influence our decisions: the action, contact, and intention principles (Cushman et al. 2006).
The action principle, also known as the omission principle in psychology, dictates that harm generated through direct action is morally worse than equivalent harm from inaction or omission (Cushman et al., 2006). Using the trolley problem, if someone feels that flipping the lever is wrong, they are likely being influenced by the action principle. As they would see it, the action of flipping the lever makes you directly responsible for killing the person on the alternate track. However, this is highly dependent on how an individual perceives the situation. If one were to see not flipping the switch as an action in and of itself, then it would be morally worse to do nothing.
The intention principle, also known as the doctrine of double effect, is strongly connected to the action principle. It maintains that harm intended as a means to an end is morally worse than harm generated as a byproduct (Cushman et al., 2006). In the trolley problem, while no option is harm-free, the intention principle would advocate for flipping the switch provided that the flipper is doing so to save the lives of the five in front of them. While killing one person is still terrible, since it is not the intention but an unfortunate byproduct of a more altruistic goal, it is permissible.
Source: Sahoo (2020)
The contact principle suggests that harm caused by direct physical action is morally worse than equivalent harm without physical contact (Cushman et al., 2006). This principle is evident in the fat man variation of the trolley problem. Instead of being on the runaway trolley, the scenario gives you an option as a bystander to push another bystander, who happens to be a large man, in front of the trolley to slow it down. This hypothetical assumes that if pushed, the man will slow down the trolley enough to save the five trapped people, but he will die. While the outcome is numerically the same as the original trolley problem, It probably made you feel much more squeamish. You probably wouldn’t push the fat man at all, despite the ability to save five lives. A study by Hauser et al. (2007) confirms this, showing that only 12% of people would push the fat man, compared to the 85% who would pull a lever. Are our moral choices just about the mechanism? Before you have a moral crisis, know that this is not your fault or indicative that you are not a true utilitarian. The contact principle explains the difference in the scenarios since pushing the fat man requires physical connection, which increases one’s
feeling of culpability, especially as the man was not in danger beforehand. This exemplifies how moral judgments are automatic and emotional, not based on the logic of the outcome; otherwise, we would expect to see no difference in perceived morality between the trolley problem and the fat man derivative (Fienberg et al. 2012). Psychology tells us that our judgments are strongly influenced by the emotions an action generates rather than its outcome (Fienberg et al. 2012; Molho et al. 2017). As much as philosophy can tell us how one should act, it seems to miss what makes us act. That being said, would you still push the fat man?
REFERENCES
Cushman, F., Young, L., & Hauser, M. (2006). The Role of Conscious Reasoning and Intuition in Moral Judgment: Testing Three Principles of Harm. Psychological Science, 17(12), 1082–1089. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01834.x
Feinberg, M., Willer, R., Antonenko, O., & John, O. P. (2012). Liberating Reason from the Passions: Overriding Intuitionist Moral Judgments Through Emotion Reappraisal. Psychological Science, 23(7), 788–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611434747
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An fmri investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293(5537), 2105–2108. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1062872
Haidt, J. (2001). The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834.
Hauser, M., Cushman, F., Young, L., Jin, K., Mikhail, J. (2007). A Dissociation Between Moral Judgments and Justifications. Mind & Language, 22(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2006.00297.x
Molho, C., Tybur, J. M., Güler, E., Balliet, D., & Hofmann, W. (2017). Disgust and Anger Relate to Different Aggressive Responses to Moral Violations. Psychological Science, 28(5), 609–619. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617692000
Sahoo, B. (2020, April 26). The moral side of murder. Medium. https://medium.com/@sahoobiswajit9776/the-moral-side-ofmurder-3e317932e42b
ExerciseasaDrug:ThePharmacological BenefitsofMuscularEndurance TrainingforTypeIIDiabetes
WRITTEN BY ZACK RUIGHAVER | DESIGNED BY SARAH SU
Introduction
In the United States, between 34 and 36 million people suffer from type II diabetes. That’s a little more than 1 in 10 Americans. Although type II diabetes typically develops in people 45 or older, cases are appearing more frequently in younger populations. But what if I told you that there was a drug that could help reverse this trend? No, I’m not talking about metformin or Ozempic. I’m talking about exercise – more specifically, muscular endurance training. Now, this isn’t a particularly revolutionary statement. In fact, you may be thinking, “Sure, exercise is good for me.
You’re not telling me anything I don’t already know.” But do you understand why it’s good for you?
It is well-established that resistance training programs can help reduce the risk of type II diabetes, as well as control existing conditions. In this article, however, I will explain why these programs work through the lenses of pharmacology and molecular biology. Exercise is a powerful drug that can aid in the prevention and management of type II diabetes by inducing two vital processes that occur in muscle cells: (1) mitochondrial biogenesis, and (2) the translocation of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4).
TypeIIDiabetesandMuscular EnduranceTraining MitochondrialBiogenesis
Before we dig too deep, let’s talk some more about type II diabetes, a condition that can arise from a variety of factors, including genetic predisposition, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle.
Essentially, type II diabetes is a chronic problem that affects the way your body regulates the cellular uptake of glucose in your blood.8 There are two main explanations for this. The first possibility is that your pancreas might not produce enough insulin to trigger the mobilization of sugar into your cells; and the second is that insulin production is normal, but your cells might not be responsive to it. As a result, blood glucose levels skyrocket, a condition known as hyperglycemia. Glucose is your body’s main source of energy, so when your cells cannot receive and metabolize this energy, it can increase your risk for a host of cardiovascular, neurological, and immune complications.
One of the most potent ways to curb these effects is by developing muscular endurance, the ability of muscles to perform repeated contractions against resistance over a prolonged period of time until fatigue. To improve muscular endurance, the typical approach is three-fold: (1) exercise the target muscle group at 70% or less of your one rep max (the maximum weight you can lift for a single repetition of a given exercise), (2) perform three or more sets of 10–25 reps, and (3) rest for 30 seconds or less between sets.
Now, it’s important to note that this strategy differs considerably from strength training. To illustrate this, let’s look at a popular exercise as an example –the barbell bench press. Let’s also assume that your one rep max on this exercise is 145 lbs. (65.8 kg). If you’re training to increase your strength, you might choose to do three sets of 6 reps at 120 lbs. (54.4 kg) with 2–5 minutes of rest between sets. But if you want to build endurance, you might instead do four sets of 12 reps at 100 lbs. (45.3 kg) with 30second rest periods.
Figure 1. Summary diagram of mitochondrial biogenesis signaling pathway.
Training your muscles can not only lead to an increase in muscular strength and endurance, but also bolster your metabolic efficiency. At the cellular level, the epicenters of metabolic activity are known as mitochondria. These beanshaped, membrane-bound organelles are responsible for generating energy molecules called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using the oxygen that you breathe. Endurance exercise is especially effective in bringing about mitochondrial biogenesis, the process by which cells increase their number of mitochondria. As more mitochondria form, your muscles become more capable of using aerobic respiration (an oxygen-driven pathway) to produce ATP, as opposed to anaerobic respiration (a pathway without oxygen that yields lactic acid as a byproduct). This is why you often feel sore after a workout, especially if your body is unaccustomed to exercise.
So how, exactly, does mitochondrial biogenesis counteract type II diabetes? When you exercise, your muscles use ATP to power their contractions. However, as your muscles continue to work hard, your body’s consumption of ATP inevitably outpaces its production. Eventually, your muscles begin to fatigue, but this is a good thing! In fact, it’s the beginning of the incredible pathway that ultimately induces mitochondrial biogenesis (Figure 1). When your muscle cells sense that ATP levels are low, they respond to this signal by activating a complex called AMPactivated protein kinase (AMPK).11 These AMPK complexes then activate a critical transcription factor called peroxisome proliferator-gamma coactivator 1 (PGC-1α), the primary complex responsible for triggering mitochondrial biogenesis.
Once PGC-1α is activated, it amplifies its own expression and that of other transcription factors, incFrom there, TFAM is transported into the mitochondria, where it binds to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to induce transcription and replication of the mitochondrial genome, thereby leading to the multiplication of mitochondria in the cell. Ultimately, the goal of this pathway is to increase aerobic metabolism.10 That is, more mitochondria means a more efficient uptake of glucose by cells and less glucose in the blood. Consequently, exercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis helps regulate hyperglycemia, and thus, type II diabetes.
GLUT4 Translocation
We’ve established that more mitochondria means more sugar can be used for cellular fuel, but this isn’t very helpful if sugar can’t enter cells in the first place. Regulated in tandem with mitochondrial biogenesis is the expression of GLUT4,11 an insulin-controlled glucose transmembrane protein that mediates the movement of glucose from the bloodstream and into muscle cells.13 GLUT4 is initially found in storage vesicles within the cell, which can fuse with the plasma membrane during exercise. The signaling pathways of GLUT4 expression on the cell surface due to muscular contraction are not fully understood. However, it is currently believed that AMPK and calcium (Ca2+) are the most important factors controlling exercise-induced expression of GLUT4. Contractions are known to increase Ca2+ concentration inside muscle cells. When this happens, these cells experience metabolic stress, as the body produces lactic acid as a byproduct in an attempt to regenerate ATP anaerobically (without oxygen). Similar to before, the reduction in ATP levels spurs the activation of AMPK, initiating the translocation of the GLUT4 vesicle to the plasma membrane.
Once it has reached the surface, GLUT4 can facilitate the diffusion of glucose into the cell, lowering blood sugar and allowing the mitochondria to process the sugar as fuel.
Conclusion:IsExerciseaDrug?
In the beginning of this article, I called exercise a drug, and perhaps you might be wondering why I use this specific terminology. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration defines a drug as “a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.”15 Clearly, exercise is not a substance. However, given its demonstrated potency in the prevention and mitigation of type II diabetes at the cellular and molecular levels, it is evident that exercise possesses properties comparable to those of a substantive drug. Several reports back this argument. For instance, a study done on 64 adults with type II diabetes found that more than half the subjects were able to stop taking medication to reduce their blood sugar within one year of starting a regular exercise program.16 Additionally, exercise was found to be just as effective as pharmaceutical drugs in reducing the risk of death from heart disease and diabetes.17 So there you have it! When it comes to curtailing the effects of type II diabetes, exercise is one of the best drugs on the market. And with more dedication to personal fitness and increased awareness of the benefits of active living, it is my hope that we can slowly but surely combat the type II diabetes epidemic, one rep at a time.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of GLUT4 translocation.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Type 2 Diabetes. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/about/about-type2-diabetes.html
Bweir, S., Al-Jarrah, M., Almalty, A.-M., Maayah, M., Smirnova, I. V., Novikova, L., & Stehno-Bittel, L. (2009). Resistance exercise training lowers HbA1c more than aerobic training in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetology and Metabolic Syndrome, 1(1), 27–27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-5996-127
Eves, N. D., & Plotnikoff, R. C. (2006). Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes: Considerations for implementation at the population level. Diabetes Care, 29(8), 1933–1941. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc05-1981
Hulver, M. W., Flack, K. D., Davy, B. M., Frisard, M. I., Winett, R. A., & Davy, K. P. (2011). Aging, Resistance Training, and Diabetes Prevention. Journal of Aging Research, 2011(2011), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/127315
Phillips, S. M., & Winett, R. A. (2010). Uncomplicated resistance training and health-related outcomes: Evidence for a public health mandate. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(4), 208–213. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0b013e3181e7da73
Strasser, B., Siebert, U., & Schobersberger, W. (2010). Resistance Training in the Treatment of the Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Resistance Training on Metabolic Clustering in Patients with Abnormal Glucose Metabolism. Sports Medicine (Auckland), 40(5), 397–415. https://doi.org/10.2165/11531380-000000000-00000
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2017). Type 2 Diabetes. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/healthinformation/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/type-2diabetes
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2023). Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2diabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193
Sissons, B. (2021). The best way to train to improve muscular endurance. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/muscularendurance
Vina, J., Sanchis‐Gomar, F., Martinez‐Bello, V., & Gomez‐Cabrera, M. (2012). Exercise acts as a drug; the pharmacological benefits of exercise. British Journal of Pharmacology, 167(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14765381.2012.01970.x
Holloszy, J. O. (2011). Regulation of Mitochondrial Biogenesis and GLUT4 Expression by Exercise. In Comprehensive Physiology (pp. 921–940). https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c100052
Picca, A., Lezza, A., Leeuwenburgh, C., Pesce, V., Calvani, R., Landi, F., Bernabei, R., & Marzetti, E. (2017). Fueling InflammAging through Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Mechanisms and Molecular Targets. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(5), 933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18050933
Richter, E. A., & Hargreaves, M. (2013). Exercise, GLUT4, and Skeletal Muscle Glucose Uptake. Physiological Reviews, 93(3), 993–1017. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00038.2012
Malone, J. J., Hulton, A. T., & MacLaren, D. P. M. (2021). Exogenous carbohydrate and regulation of muscle carbohydrate utilisation during exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(5), 1255–1269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04609-4
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2017). Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvalsand-databases/drugsfda-glossary-terms#D
Johansen, M. Y., MacDonald, C. S., Hansen, K. B., Karstoft, K., Christensen, R., Pedersen, M., Hansen, L. S., Zacho, M., WedellNeergaard, A.-S., Nielsen, S. T., Iepsen, U. W., Langberg, H., Vaag, A. A., Pedersen, B. K., & Ried-Larsen, M. (2017). Effect of an Intensive Lifestyle Intervention on Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA, 318(7), 637. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.10169
Naci, H., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2013). Comparative effectiveness of exercise and drug interventions on mortality outcomes: Metaepidemiological study. BMJ, 347, f5577–f5577. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f5577
WHEN SENSES
STARTTOFADE
UNDERSTANDING SCHIZOPHRENIA IN THE BLIND AND DEAF-BLIND COMMUNITIES
Can Congenital Blindness Protect Against Schizophrenia While Gradual Loss of Sight and Hearing Heightens Vulnerability?
WRITTEN
&
DESIGNED BY BEZAWIT MULATU
Within the evolving conversation on mental health, schizophrenia stands as one of the most enigmatic and complex disorders. Characterized by delusions,hallucinations,andafracturedrelationshipwithreality,itisa condition that has puzzled scientists and clinicians alike for decades. Yet, within this puzzle lies an astonishing paradox: those born blind appear to be curiously resistant to schizophrenia, a condition so deeply rooted in misperceptions of the world. This discovery raises profound questions: How can the absence of sight shield the mind from psychosis? What implications does this have for individuals with Usher syndrome, who experience both gradual loss of sight and hearing? Could sensory deprivation, often seen as a vulnerability, also serve as a form of protection? By mentioning Usher syndrome, you provide a clearer connection to the broader implications of sensory loss on mental health, enriching the discussion and inviting readers to consider the complexities associated with both blindnessanddeafblindnessinrelationtoschizophrenia.
Graefe Usher syndrome MRI
Schizophrenia touches approximately 24 million people worldwide, disrupting their ability to distinguish between reality and hallucination. Yet, for individuals born blind, the mind appears to hold a more steadfast grip on reality. Dr. Philip Corlett, an associate professor of psychiatry at Yale University, offers a compelling hypothesis to explain this phenomenon: “The absence of visual input from birth leads to a more stable internal model of the world.” Without sight, the brain seems to craft a reality that is grounded, unwavering, and less susceptible to the "mistakes and false inferences" that characterize schizophrenia.
But what of the deafblind, whose dual sensory deprivation presents an even more intricate case? For individuals with Usher syndrome—a genetic condition leading to both congenital deafness and progressive vision loss—the rates of schizophrenia and psychosis are strikingly higher. This contrast between the protective effect of congenital blindness and the heightened vulnerability in Usher syndrome offers a tantalizing mystery.
Couldthegradual lossofone’s sensoryworld destabilizethe mind’sinternal models,
rendering itmoresusceptible
topsychosis?
One of the most fascinating aspects of schizophrenia in sensory-deprived individuals is the way hallucinations manifest. In individuals who have never heard a sound, auditory hallucinations—often the hallmark of schizophrenia—take on a different form. Dr. Joanna Atkinson, of University College London’s Deafness, Cognition & Language Centre, led pioneering research into this phenomen -on. Her study, published in Cognitive Neuro psychi -atry, explored how voice hallucinations in deaf individuals with schizophrenia align with their lived experience. “The perceptual characteristics of voice hallucinations,” Atkinson explains, “map closely onto an individual's real-life communication prefere -nces and experience of language and sound.” This finding is both scientifically fascinating and deeply evocative. In a mind that has never heard, the hallucinations are not auditory in the conventional sense but instead manifest in ways that reflect the person’s mode of communication—be it sign language or tactile communication.
These hallucinations are conjured from a world of silence and touch, and they force us to reconsider how the mind creates sensory experiences when it lacks the most basic building blocks of sound or sight.
Neuroscientists have long marveled at the brain’s ability to adapt to sensory loss, a phenomenon known as neuroplasticity. For those born blind, this adaptation can result in remarkable changes in brain function. A study published in the journal Brain found that congenitally blind individuals exhibit enhanced functional connectivity in the salience network—a neural system critical for attention and cognitive control. This network may serve as a stabilizing force, shielding blind individuals from the disordered thinking that underpins schizophrenia. Dr. Corlett theorizes that without the bombardment of visual input, the brain constructs a more stable internal reality, grounded in other sensory modalities such as touch and hearing. This stability may explain why blind individuals are less likely to experience the false perceptions that typify schizophrenia.
Gradually or is compounded, that stability falters, revealing the delicate balance the brain must maintain to perceive and navigate the world. As we continue to explore this complex interplay, we stand on the brink of a new understanding—not only of schizo -phrenia but of the very nature of perception itself. In the minds of the deafblind, where silence and darkness reign, we may discover new insights into how the brain constructs reality, how it falters, and how, even in its most fragile state, it strives to make sense of a world beyond its reach.
Couldthetactilecentricworldview ofdeafblind individuals influencethe brain's vulnerabilityto psychosis?
For deafblind individuals, the story is more complex. The reliance on tactile sign language, where communication is built through touch, may further shape how the brain processes sensory information. Could this tactile-centric worldview affect the brain’s vulnerability to psychosis? The unique interplay of touch and cognition in the deafblind presents a frontier in understanding how the brain, deprived of its primary senses, weaves together its version of reality.
Reddit user. (2021). Self Portrait on Schizophrenia
In the deaf-blind community, those with Usher syndrome represent an exception to the protective effect of blindness. The progressive nature of their vision loss seems to unravel the stability that congenital blindness provides, leaving the brain’s internal world more fragile and prone to psychosis.
The retinal appearance of a patient with USH2A mutationsthatisresponsibleforUshersyndrome.
As vision fades, the brain’s once-stable sensory model may begin to falter, leading to the delusions and hallucinations that define schizophrenia. Researchers have yet to fully understand why Usher syndrome results in higher rates of psychosis, but the gradual deprivation of sensory input offers a clue. When the brain must continually adapt to the loss of key sensory information, it may become more prone to the “mistakes” that lead to disordered thinking and perception. While research into sensory deprivation and schizophrenia opens up new avenues of understanding, it also highlights a critical gap: mental health services for the deafblind community are severely lacking.
Canexploringtheroleofsensoryintegrationdeficitsin
Usher
syndromerevealunderlyingmechanisms of psychosisandinspiretailoredtherapeuticapproaches?
Individuals with dual sensory loss encounter significant barriers to healthcare access, including communication difficulties and a lack of trained professionals familiar with their needs. Given the increased rates of schizophrenia and psychosis within the deafblind community, particularly among those with Usher syndrome, healthcare systems must adapt. Mental health services need to be accessible, prioritizing tactile communication and awareness of the specific challenges faced by these individuals. The relationship between sensory deprivation and mental health underscores the resilience and vulnerability of the mind. As sensory loss occurs gradually or is compounded, maintaining stability becomes increasingly difficult, illustrating the delicate balance the brain must achieve to navigate the world. And now, the question remains: will we leverage our understanding of neuroplasticity and the unique needs of these individuals to develop effective interventions, or will we allow systemic barriers to persist, leaving a vulnerable population without the support they require?
Reference
Atkinson, Joanna. "Voice Hallucinations in Deaf Individuals with Schizophrenia." Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. Corlett, Philip R. “Innovating in Schizophrenia Treatment and Prediction.” One Mind, 2024, https://onemind.org/research-updates/dr-philip-corlett-innovating-in-schizophrenia-treatment-and-prediction/.
Dammeyer, Jesper. "The Prevalence of Schizophrenia in Individuals with Usher Syndrome." Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 20, no. 3, 2015, pp. 317-325. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4458326/
Domanico, Daniela, Fragiotta, Serena, Trabucco, Paolo, Nebbioso, Marcella, and Vingolo, Enzo Maria. "Genetic Analysis for Two Italian Siblings with Usher Syndrome and Schizophrenia." PMC, 4 Oct. 2012, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3471407/
Hallgren, B. "Psychosis in Usher Syndrome." Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, vol. 35, no. 1, 1959, pp. 1-25.
Kamran, Akriti; Elwadhi, Deeksha1,; Bhoi, Rosali; Malhotra, Mahima. A Case Report of Usher's Syndrome with Psychosis: Challenges in Diagnosis and Management. Journal of Mental Health and Human Behaviour 22(2):p 129-131, Jul–Dec 2017. | DOI: 10.4103/jmhhb.jmhhb_31_17
"Usher Syndrome." Orphanet, 2024, https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=886
WhyCan’tWeKeep MakingAntibiotics?
Globally, the annual number of deaths due to antibiotic resistance infections is estimated to be 700,000, which can climb significantly with new viral diseases. The acquisition of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a process related to the use of antibiotics to cure bacterial diseases. As bacteria replicate, mutations occur randomly, and there is a certain probability that this mutation introduces an antibiotic resistant gene. Upon exposure to antibiotics, all bacteria are cleared out, except for the ones that are antibiotic resistant. In other words, antibiotics significantly increase the gene frequency of the antibiotic resistant gene, allowing these bacteria to grow and develop. The unnecessary use of antibiotics therefore accelerates the development and spread of antibiotic resistance. To act against this, antibiotic stewardship is encouraged across healthcare systems globally to reduce antibiotic consumption and deployment. Although this increased the antibiotics’ reliability in the long run, this led to a decrease in profits for antibiotics, discouraging companies to invest and research in this field. This results in a pressing demand for new antibiotics to replace those that are becoming ineffective. However, there are many challenges for drug makers.
Antibiotics were first discovered accidentally by Alexander Fleming, a professor in the United Kingdom in 1928, introducing penicillin. Consequently, modern research in antibiotics sparked and accelerated to the 1960s, which was driven by lack of effective treatments for bacteria.
During this period, antibiotic resistance was not emphasized, resulting in broad and unnecessary use of antibiotics, which offset the spread of antibiotic resistance. As time went on, investment and research in antibiotics declined within pharmaceutical companies. It got increasingly difficult to find a new effective antibiotic as all the easy targets on the bacteria already have antibiotic resistance. This is the scientific barrier for producing new antibiotics. However, the central problem is not scientific but economic. The lack of funding prevented new promising compounds from moving beyond early stages of preclinical development. According to the World Health Organization, only around 14% of antibiotics and biologicals in phase I trials are likely to win approval and move on to next stages. For an active drug to get approval, the costs can be up to US $1.4 billion, and millions more for marketing and surveillance. Despite this enormous cost, antibiotics have limited lifespan. The revenue of the antibiotic is greatly variable depending how long it takes for antibiotic resistance to occur. Selling antibiotics quickly in large amounts can be profitable and ignore this problem; however, the ethics problem prevents this as it would drive the development of antibiotic resistance. Allowing the antibiotics to be deployed slowly is a win for the antibiotic stewardship, but it was a loss for companies whose drugs would otherwise have been used. The companies that develop the antibiotics have no incentives for new development because of the delayed return on investment. In other words, investing resources into antibiotics research is extremely risky. Therefore, there is hardly a market for new antibiotics. There are certain solutions to address the current problems.
Firstly, the approach has to change, setting aside the idea of a market for new antibiotics, which means that a profit is not required. A new development model for antibiotics has to be designed to reassess antibiotics as public goods with sufficient funding and reimbursement to stimulate incentives for companies.
With this view, governments have implemented new strategies such as “push” and “pull”. “Push” encourages companies to design new antibiotics candidates with funding and approvals. In 2020, the AMR Action Fund was founded as a “push” collaboration between the pharmaceutical industry with the World Health Organization (WHO), The European Investment Bank (EIB), and the Wellcome Trust. On the other hand, “pull” helps with the next steps after marketing approval. This can be guaranteed rewards for companies that successfully introduce new drugs. Another approach is to support an open process of antibiotic research and development. These open projects acknowledge the process of others’ drug development, increasing the overall productivity. However, the clear risk of this approach is the ownership of the project, which is related to licenses or credits
Nevertheless, this is unlikely because open projects at large scales involve high quality scientists and companies that intend to develop antibiotics. The participants also enjoy the freedom that the project offers.
In conclusion, antibiotics and antibiotic resistance introduce a unique economic and scientific problem. There can be many new approaches to address this problem, but it requires collaborative efforts between governments, companies, and funding organizations to optimize development and deployment of antibiotics. The world is in need of antibiotics, and we can’t let the economic barrier prevent it.
References
1. McKenna, Maryn. "The antibiotic paradox: why companies can't afford to create life-saving drugs." Nature, vol. 584, no. 7821, 20 Aug. 2020, pp. 338+. Gale Academic OneFile, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02418-x
2. Diamantis S, Retur N, Bertrand B, Lieutier-Colas F, Carenco P, Mondain V, on behalf of PROMISE Professional Community Network on Antimicrobial Resistance. The Production of Antibiotics Must Be Reoriented: Repositioning Old Narrow-Spectrum Antibiotics, Developing New Microbiome-Sparing Antibiotics. Antibiotics. 2022; 11(7):924. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11070924
3. Klug DM, Idiris FIM, Blaskovich MAT et al. There is no market for new antibiotics: this allows an open approach to research and development [version 1; peer review: 3 approved]. Wellcome Open Res 2021, 6:146 (https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16847.1)
Understandingthe TheoryofRelativity: SimplifiedSpace-Time
WRITTEN BY XANDER SHELTON | DESIGNED BY ELIZ USTUN
We’ve all heard of Albert Einstein and I’m sure most of us have heard of his theory of relativity. It’s a very popular concept that’s often talked about and mentioned, but what really is the theory of relativity? Well to understand it, first we have to get the backbone of the idea set up. The theory is composed of mainly twoparts: Special Relativity and General Relativity. These two concepts are ideas that shaped scientific understanding of space, time, and gravity and fundamentally changed thinking in areas like atomic and nuclear physics in the 20th Century.
Let’s expand more on these two ideas, starting with Special Relativity. This theory can be simplified into three components itself which is that the speed of light is constant, time dilation, and length contraction. These are basically exactly what they sound like. The speed of light, no matter location or observer’s motion, is always the same (299, 792 km/s). Time dilation is basically the idea that the faster you go (closer to the speed of light you are at) the slower time goes relative to you. For example, let’s say we have 2 identical twins, one takes a spaceship and goes as close to the speed of light as she can go while the other twin stays on Earth.
When the twin in space returns, she will have barely aged while her sister is likely to be an elderly woman. This is time dilation. Lastly in Special Relativity we have length contraction. This is much like time dilation however it deals with the length of an object. As an object gains speed, it tends to contract and appear shorter relative to an outside observer. Basically Special Relativity revolves around how the speed of light interacts and is interacted with.
Now that we’ve talked about light and spacetime, we can talk about gravity; General Relativity. General Relativity is divided mainly into gravity as a curvature and the influence of massive objects. As many of us have learned, gravity is a force that tends to pull things down. While this idea isn’t necessarily incorrect, general relativity describes gravitation as a kind of warping in space-time given by mass. To understand this easier let’s assume we have a trampoline. When we place an object on the trampoline, the fabric dips and warps around the object based on how big it is. The heavier the object, the bigger the dip. This is gravity curvature in a nutshell. Our planet is like a bowling ball on a trampoline with the moon rolling towards and around us like a golf ball (Fun Fact: A neutron Star is so incredibly dense for its size that the trampoline would be penetrating the floor and into the ground beneath. A black hole even more so, it’s theorized that a black hole has infinite gravity and creates a literal hole in our space-time trampoline, not even letting light escape its grasp.) . The second part of general relativity we will go over is the influence of massive objects. This is just our golf ball to the bowling ball.
Basically, in the presence of massive objects (a star or planet), paths of moving objects are affected around the mass. This is what causes us to orbit the sun and what makes light bend around larger things, like galaxies.
That was a lot so let’s go over it a little shorter to recap. Special Relativity is the constant speed of light and how time dilutes and objects grt shooter the faster they approach the speed of light. General Relativity is the idea that super heavy things bend and dip the trampoline of space-time based on how heavy the mass is.
Now that we understand what makes up the theory of relativity, what makes it so important?
These theories that Einstein came up with have diverse implications as they help us understand GPS satellites which use general and special relativity to give accurate readings and help us learn about the way black holes interact with their surroundings. This theory challenges us to think beyond and help lead advancements in the scientific community, make breakthroughs, and develop new technology. While Einstein’s theory of relativity can seem rather large and daunting, it’s crucial to remember that the theory is really only 2 main ideas at its core, light and gravity. I hope you can gain a deeper appreciation for the universe’s complexity and next time you look at the night sky, try and think about that trampoline!
Towerof “Vietnam”:A Broader Versionof “Towerof Hanoi”
WRITTEN BY TIEN NGUYENCHU | DESIGNED BY SADIE MEDLOCK
Introduction
The traditional problem, “Tower of Hanoi”, might seem familiar to you. The “game” is believed to have been invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, although this fact is still disputed. In Vietnam (or sometimes India), there is a legend of a very tall temple with so many floors, and the floor’s diameter gets smaller as the temple gets higher. Priests would then lift each floor up, and move from one peg to another, using another peg as an auxiliary, such that no lower floor is smaller than the upper one. The legend said that once the priests have managed to rearrange (transfer) the temple, then the world would end.
Gameplay
Basically, in the game, there are three rods and three disks of different diameters. When the game begins, three of the rods are stacked on one rod in order of decreasing size, with the smallest on top and the largest placed at the bottom. The goal is to move all the disks to another rod, but following two of these rules:
1: One disk is moved from one rod to another at a time, and that disk must be on top of the stack.
2: No disk can be placed on top of a smaller disk.
The picture below illustrates the gameplay for three disks. In this illustration, we try to move all the three disks from rod A to rod C.
FIGURE 1: TOWER OF HANOI GAMEPLAY
This gameplay requires 7 moves to rearrange all the disks from 1 rod to another. In fact, 7 is also the smallest number of moves needed to complete the game! As time went by, the game started to develop. People not only played with the traditional 3disk game, but have expanded to 4-disk, 5-disk, or even more, and they started to come with the most optimal gameplay. By instinct, we know that the more the number of disks, the more the minimum number of moves needed to finish the game.
Gameplay Analysis
As you play along with different numbers of disks, you may realize the pattern in the smallest number of moves, as shown in Table 1.
We can see that there is a very nice formula with regards to the smallest number of movements. If we let an be the smallest number of moves to play with n disks, then:
Recursive formula:
Closed formula:
This sequence increases exponentially. Looking back at the legend in Vietnam, assuming that the temple has the same number of floors as the One World Trade Center in New York, which is 104. In addition, assume that the priests only required 1 second to move each floor. Hence, if we use the formula, we can see that they would need (seconds), which is approximately years! Now, it is safe to assume that the world would end once the priests are done with the transition.
TABLE 1: NUMBER OF MOVEMENTS FOR THE GAMEPLAY
A Broader Problem
We have increased the number of disks to see the pattern in the formula. However, if we want to increase the number of rods instead, how would the formula change? In fact, at first, let’s look at some small examples of the number of disks, and compare it if being played in a 3-rod and if being played in a 4-rod game.
TABLE 2: NUMBER OF MOVEMENTS FOR 3-ROD AND 4-ROD GAME
GRAPH 2: CHART COMPARING THE GAMEPLAY OF 3 RODS AND 4 RODS
Since playing the 4-rod game by hand is much more complex than the traditional 3-rod game, working out the formula is also harder to work out. However, immediately, we can see that for a same number of disks, the gameplay of 4-rod will use less movements than that of 3-rod. It is easy to understand, since you would have 1 more auxiliary rod to use. The game, however, can further expand, to 5-rod, 6-rod, or even more. We have not come up with a general formula for the n-rod m-disk gameplay yet, but we know that the larger the number of rods and disks gets, the more complex the algorithm to perform the gameplay would become.
Conclusion
Tower of Hanoi, introduced as an entertaining gameplay for people around the world, also brings up many interesting questions and concepts of modeling Mathematics. With the advancement in the speed of calculations and programming, the broader versions of the gameplay are being studied by researchers. Hopefully, one day we can find a perfect solution to move the temple for the priests.
References
1. Gautam, S. “Tower of Hanoi Puzzle.” https://www.enjoymathematics.com/blog/tower-of-hanoi-puzzle.
2. Bogomolny, A. "Towers of Hanoi." http://www.cut-theknot.org/recurrence/hanoi.shtml.
3. Hosch, W. “Tower of Hanoi.” https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tower-of-Hanoi.
COOLCOATINGS FORCOOL PEOPLE:WHAT SUSTAINABLE SURFACESCAN DOFORYOU
Written by Jack DuPuy | Designed by Bezawit Mulatu
Climate change is forcing cities around the world to rethink their landscapes. Urban spaces, packed with concrete, asphalt, and rooftops, absorb more heat than rural areas, creating a phenomenon known as the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. This temperature rise stresses energy grids, shortens the lifespan of infrastructure, and makes city life more uncomfortable, particularly during summer months. Fortunately, cool coatings innovative surface treatments designed to reflect sunlight and reduce heat absorption—are emerging as a solution to help cities beat the heat while saving energy and improving outdoor comfort (Berardi et al., 2020).
HOWCOOLCOATINGSWORK?
Cool coatings are specialized paints or materials that reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat than conventional surfaces. Some coatings are thermochromic, meaning that their reflectivity—or albedo—changes with temperature, becoming more reflective in hot conditions and less reflective in cooler conditions (Berardi et al., 2020).
This makes them particularly effective at reducing peak surface temperatures and cutting down the energy needed for air conditioning. In experiments with reflective and thermochromic paints, researchers found that properly coated surfaces can reduce temperatures by as much as 25°C, which translates to lower energy costs and longerlasting infrastructure.
Even beyond temperature reduction, cool coatings offer structural benefits. Lower surface temperatures reduce the
stress on urban materials, improving durability and extending the lifespan of pavements and rooftops.
One study found that cool pavements, by maintaining consistently lower temperatures, decreased vertical displacement by 11.3% compared to untreated surfaces (Liu et al., 2022).
This reduction means fewer cracks, less maintenance, and an overall improvement in infrastructure longevity. For cities, this is a double win: cooler surfaces and lower repair costs.
Creative Painting Solutions applies a reflective asphalt sealer on Anges Avenue in North Hollywood, part of the Cool LA program to lower street temperatures by over 10 degrees. (Photo by David Crane, Los Angeles Daily News/SCNG)
BRINGING COMFORTTO URBANSPACES
Cool coatings don’t just benefit buildings— they can improve public spaces as well. Pavements and outdoor surfaces treated with reflective coatings remain cooler to the touch, making streets, parks, and plazas more comfortable during the day (Cheela et al., 2021). Studies using urban climate models show that increasing the reflectivity of streets and roofs can have a measurable effect on reducing local temperatures. For example, a simulation of Sydney, Australia estimated that a small albedo increase could decrease city temperatures by up to 5.5°C during the hottest parts of the day (Liu & Morawska, 2020). While results will vary by region, this research underscores the importance of integrating these coatings into urban planning efforts.
Advances in coating technology mean that cool surfaces no longer have to be plain white. Nano-coatings allow for effective heat management in vibrant colors, giving designers more flexibility to create functional yet visually appealing spaces (Xie et al., 2019). This blend of form and function makes cool coatings an attractive option for architects and city planners who want to promote sustainability without compromising aesthetics.
SEASONALITY AND CLIMATE CONSIDERATIONS
While cool coatings are powerful tools, their effectiveness varies by climate and location. Research shows that reflective surfaces perform best in areas with high solar radiation, low wind, and minimal precipitation (Wang et al., 2020). In contrast, regions with heavy rainrainfall or frequent cloud cover may see limited benefits from reflective surfaces, making it crucial for cities to tailor their strategies to local climate patterns.
The seasonal performance of cool coatings is still an area of ongoing research. Studies have shown that coatings can reduce heat during the day, but their impact on nighttime temperatures and air cooling patterns isn’t fully understood (Synnefa et al., 2006). For long-term planning, cities will need to evaluate how these coatings perform across different seasons and adapt their strategies accordingly.
ACOOLER, PRETTIERFUTURE
While we do not yet have a complete understanding of the many benefits of cool coatings, green building standards and urban heat mitigation policies are increasingly incorporating these coatings into their frameworks. These solutions, which once focused primarily on rooftops, are now being applied to roads, sidewalks, and other public spaces—turning cities into cooler, greener, and more livable environments (Wang et al., 2021). As more research emerges, cities will continue refining their strategies to maximize the benefits of cool coatings year-round.
Cool coatings also reflect the idea that climate solutions can be beautiful. With today’s advancements, sustainable surfaces don’t have to be dull or purely functional—they can enhance the look of urban spaces, contributing to the identity and aesthetics of a neighborhood (Xie et al., 2019). For cities aiming to be both eco-friendly and people-friendly, cool coatings are a perfect fit.
CONCLUSION:
IT’STIMETOCOOL THINGSDOWN
The beauty of cool coatings is that their benefits ripple across entire communities. By integrating reflective pavements, energy saving rooftops, and heat-resistant facades into urban infrastructure, cities can reduce energy use and cost, extend the life of infrastructure, and improve comfort for residents (Karlessi et al., 2011; Tabatabaei & Fayaz, 2023).
Whether you’re walking across a shaded plaza, sitting in a park, or living under a reflective roof, these surfaces help us mitigate the UHI effect, promote sustain -able urban development, and make city life more enjoyable.
Ultimately, the future of sustainable cities will depend on adopting innovative solutions like cool coatings. Whether used on rooftops, pavements, or facades, these surfaces represent a shift toward smarter urban planning that prioritizes both environmental responsibility and human wellbeing. And the best part? Cool coatings aren’t just for the experts— they’re for all of us. See if you or your family can invest in a cool coating today to start saving money, feeling more comfortable, and working towards a cleaner environment. After all, sustainable cities are built by cool people, for cool people, and you have a chance to do something super cool.
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Karlessi, T., Santamouris, M., Synnefa, A., Assimakopoulos, D., Didaskalopoulos, P., & Apostolakis, K. (2011). Development and testing of PCM doped cool colored coatings to mitigate urban heat island and cool buildings. Building and Environment, 46(3), 570–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.09.003
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Synnefa, A., Santamouris, M., & Livada, I. (2006). A study of the thermal performance of reflective coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy, 80(8), 968–981.
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Tabatabaei, S. S., & Fayaz, R. (2023). The effect of facade materials and coatings on urban heat island mitigation and outdoor thermal comfort in hot semiarid climate. Building and Environment, 243, 110701.
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AnInterviewwithDr. Kitchen
WRITTEN
BY
PAXTON MILLS | DESIGNED BY SADIE MEDLOCK
“Understandinggeologycansavelives.”
Dr. David Kitchen, Associate Professor in Geology and Associate Dean in Professional Education & Special Programs at the University of Richmond, has been certain of his career path since he was a young kid, mesmerized by National Geographic maps of the sea floor. “It sucked me in, and I just wanted to learn more and more,” Dr. Kitchen says. Following his childhood passion, he went on to receive both his undergraduate degree and PhD in geology at Queen’s University Belfast in the United Kingdom.
Upon earning his PhD, Dr. Kitchen spent two years as a consultant in geology searching for oil and gas in the North Sea. He then returned to the classroom at the University of Ulster to spend a decade teaching and researching in the fields of petroleum geology, geophysics, and volcanology. Dr. Kitchen then became European Officer for the University, working in international research alongside the European Commission in Brussels. These projects allowed him to contribute directly to higher education and research programs between European nations.
With all of this experience spanning the international scene, what made Dr. Kitchen settle upon joining the University of Richmond faculty? It was the people who attracted him to Richmond — “people who care about something more than just themselves” — and those who have “a greater sense of social responsibility” across students, faculty, and staff alike.
UR also provided Dr. Kitchen the opportunity to immerse himself in program development, including academic summer school, as well as summer study abroad programs that make international higher education and intercultural learning more accessible to students. He is a valuable asset to a “creative, innovative, and dynamic team” collaborating on course development at UR, where he is bringing to life his vision for the field: the integration of the professional and the academic spheres.
If Dr. Kitchen could design any course at UR, it would focus on the subjects about which he is most passionate. “Students interested in environmental science need at least some understanding of the ground beneath their feet,” he explains. His geology classes reveal the often overlooked stories embedded in the rocks we casually walk on every day. At the start of their first geology class, most students view the specimens in front of them as just rocks — simple, unremarkable objects. But by the end of the course, they see these rocks through a completely different lens, with a deeper appreciation for the incredible forces that shaped them over millions of years. Students leave his class not just with knowledge, but with a genuine passion for the geological world they once took for granted. Dr. Kitchen also teaches a course focused on the life-saving importance of understanding natural disasters — like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and landslides — because, as he says, “understanding geology can save lives.”
Left: Dr. Kitchen’s students pose on top of a mountain Above: Dr. Kitchen smiles
In terms of advice Dr. Kitchen would offer to students searching for their discipline in STEM, it can be difficult if you have not yet found your passion, or the topic that truly lights a fire within you. However, he emphasizes that students here have the luxury of exploring without limiting themselves or funneling so quickly into a niche topic. “Stay more generalist for now and don’t feel the pressure to go straight into a Master’s program. Volunteer or find an internship in the field you are thinking of exploring, and you just might come out a little wiser,” Kitchen shared.
Dr. Kitchen poses after a cold hike
Dr. Kitchen and his students at Death Valley National Park
AlsoInterestedin Research?
School of Arts & Sciences Student Research: https://as.richmond.edu/student-research/
APPLY FOR SUMMER RESEARCH FELLOWSHIP
Don’t have summer plans? Apply to the Richmond Guarantee for paid on-campus research this summer!
NOT SURE WHERE YOUR INTERESTS LIE?
Stop by the A&S Student Symposium next semester on April 18th, 2025, to learn about current research projects on campus from fellow students across nearly 30 disciplines in the sciences, and social sciences, humanities, and more!
Didyouknow?
Fun Facts about the ‘Science’ of Christmas
1. Rudolph didn’t have a shiny nose
Well this might be painfully obvious (it’s fictional!), reindeers do have two layers of fur which cover their entire bodies to stay warm—including their noses. In fact, they are the only deer species with hairy noses.
This means Rudolph couldn’t have a shiny nose without some help (maybe he shaves).
2. “Jingle Bells” was the first song played from space
On Dec. 16, 1965, astronauts Walter Schirra Jr. and Thomas Stafford aboard the Gemini 6 radioed Mission Control about a supposed UFO sighting...as a prank!
Just as things got tense, they interrupted the broadcast with “Jingle Bells,” as Wally played a small harmonica and Tom rattled a handful of small sleigh bells.
3. Kissing under the…“dung-on-a-twig”?
Despite their romantic connotation, the word for mistletoe literally means "dung on a twig”. This is because mistle thrush birds eat the plant's berries, digest the seed and then help the plant germinate with their droppings...a phenomenon not unnoticed by the Anglo-Saxons.
4. Christmas trees spark more than joy
Neglected, dried-out Christmas trees spark about 260 fires in the US each year, causing an average of 12 deaths, 24 injuries, and $16.4 million in property damage. And an additional 150 fires are started because of decorative lighting. Watch your fire safety!
Wishing you the happiest holidays & a wonderful New Year!
-- Osmosis Team
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