My Research papers from 2013-2019

POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2019.14.1.19 Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 189–200 (2019) www.akademiai.com

COMFORT AND ENERGY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A HERITAGE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN SHANGHAI 1

3

Chu XIAOHUI, 2 Ganjali Bonjar Mohammad REZA Gantumur TSOVOODAVAA, 4 Rowell Ray Lim SHIH, 5 Balint BARANYAI* 1,2,3,4

Marcel Breuer Doctoral School, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pécs, Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, e-mail: 1525407983@qq.com 2 mohammadrezaa.ganjali@gmail.com, 3tsovoog@gmail.com, 4rowellshih@yahoo.com 3 Mongolian University of Science and Technology, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 4 University of San Carlos, School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design, Cebu, Philippines 5 Department of Energy Design, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pécs, Boszokány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary e-mail: balint.baranyai@mik.pte.hu

Received 2 January 2018; accepted 4 October 2018 Abstract: Along with its rapid growth in economy, the protection of heritage buildings has recently gained importance and awareness in China. This paper investigates the energy performance of a heritage building (Wang’s House) in Shanghai, as well as the thermal comfort of the users, using dynamic thermal simulations. The analysis showed that heating accounts as the highest energy demand, followed by cooling and lighting. The resulting study will help the authors to identify various sustainable strategies to improve users comfort as well as reduce the energy demand of heritage buildings in China.

Keywords: Heritage residual building, Dynamic energy and climate simulation, Thermal comfort performance

1. Introduction Building energy accounts for approximately 40% of the total energy consumption in the United States, European Union and other developed countries [1]. In China, the number was 19.1% in 2012 and increased approximately 8.3% annually from 2001 to 2012 [2]. In the last decade, there has been an increased interest to the enhancement of energy performance and comfort conditions of historic buildings [3], [4]. Energy consumption analysis on heritage buildings have been done in previous studies, in order to identify the energy demand and ensure cost savings in the future [3]. In literature, there have been studies done on comfort analysis on Chinese heritage houses using *

Corresponding Author HU ISSN 1788–1994 © 2019 The Author(s)

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numerical simulation. Fei et al. initiated a quantitative analysis on a heritage building in Zhejiang province [5]. Liu et al. investigated the thermal and energy analysis of a vernacular house in Yinchuan province in order to analyze the effects of passive cooling [6]. Therefore, the integration of energy efficiency solutions has huge potential for improving the sustainability of historic buildings. This historic building is highly protected by Songjiang district. Furthermore, this building is a typical traditional of Shanghai, which motivated us to choose it as a research sample for further restoration.

The significant of this research is the comprehensive energy analysis while taking into consideration the comfort parameters. Often misconception exists about heritage buildings, considering them to perform badly in terms of energy conservation.

However, a study in literature shows this is not always the case [7]. In this study, a building energy and comfort performance assessment was carried out about a heritage residential building in Shanghai. Beside energy simulations in hourly resolution about the existing house, also investigation on energy saving potentials was analyzed.

The objective of this study is to perform thermal and energy assessment analysis of Wang’s House, which is a historical architecture located in China. Wang’s House is located at the junction of Zhongshan West Road and Yushu Road in Songjiang District of Shanghai and was built during the late Qing Dynasty (1840-1912). Wang’s House is a good example of an early Chinese light industry family-style workshop and the government of Songjiang District of Shanghai has recently registered the house as a historical structure [8]. The house has three courtyard buildings: two located on the Southwest side (Courtyard A1 & A2) and one on the North side (Courtyard B) (Fig. 1a). The southwest side courtyard is well preserved (Fig. 1b) while the north side courtyard building was used as a dyeing workshop. The entire building compound covers an area of 2,108 square meters. In this paper, the Southwest side was selected as the case study, which has a total area of 180 square meters. The resulting investigation will therefore be used as energy saving measures that would also contribute to the preservation of the original architectural expression of the house. In this analysis, the dynamic simulation software IDA ICE 4.8 was used (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. a) B: The North side courtyard, A1 and A2: Southwest side courtyard; b) First floor plan of A1; c) Second floor plan of A1

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Fig. 2. a) Real photo of Author 1, a) A1 rendering picture c) IDA ICE simplified 3D simulation model

1.1. The local climate Shanghai is located in the plain water area of the Jiangnan region of China. It belongs to the subtropical monsoon climate, with hot and humid summers and cold and wet winters. The climate of Shanghai is moderate and humid all year round with maximum temperatures exceeding 36 ℃ [9]. In summer, from June to August, the average temperature is measured at 26.7 °C. The average temperature of hottest month (July) is 28 Celsius and the highest temperature recorded was 38 Celsius (Fig. 3). The average relative humidity is 80% and the prevailing wind is Southeast wind with an average wind speed of 2.6-4.0 m/s. In winter, from December to February, the average temperature is 5.7 °C. The average temperature of coldest month (January) is 4 °C and the lowest temperature recorded was -6 °C. The average relative humidity is 30% and the prevailing wind is Northwest wind with an average wind speed of 2.6-3 m/s. In autumn from September to November the average temperature is 18.1 °C while during spring from March to May the average temperature is 14.5 °C. The above analysis is based on Shanghai meteorological data from ASHRAE in IDA ICE [9].

Fig. 3. Shanghai, China weather data, a) Dry-bulb temperature; b) relative humidity

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1.2. Materials and their thermal properties In Wang’s House, the ceilings are made of wood and the perimeter walls are made of Chinese blue brick [10]. The brick is a traditional process in which clay is blended with water and calcined in a brick kiln. The brick is then water cooled in order to completely oxidize the iron in the clay to form a low-cost iron (FeO). The interior walls are wood; all exterior doors are wood; all existing windows are made by wood and glass, 1-pane glazing. In the second floor, the floor slab is Chinese fir wood and the roof is made up of blue clay tiles [10] with Chinese fir as the supporting rafters. There is no heating ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) building system in this house. The materials specifications as input the data for IDA ICE are depicted in Table I and Table II. Table I The existing building materials used in Wang’s House Location

Material

Wall

Blue brick [10]

First floor Second floor slab Roof

window door

Bluestone [10]

Size (mm) LxWxH Thickness of material 240x120x60 totally 240 thickness 300x300x20

Thermal conductivity λ W/(m·K)

Specific heat c J/(kg·K)

Density ρ (kg/m3)

0.65

860

2000

0.18

920

1100

Chinese fir wood

150 widths

0.14

2300

500

Rafter (Chinese fir) Wang Brick Huibei (Lime cream and fine clay) Waterproof membrane(sbc120) Tile Wood and Glass Wood

700x70x40 210x105x17 50 thickness

0.14 0.65 1.41

2300 860 1900

500 2000 1000

1 thickness

0.5

1700

1000

200x160x10

0.498

1121

837

40 widths

0.14

2300

500

Table II

T, Solar transmittanc e

Tvis, Visible transmittanc e

Glazing Uvalue W/(m2K)

Internal emissivity (0-1)

External emissivity (0-1)

Glass

g, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

Glass parameters

0.85

0.83

0.9

5.8

0.837

0.837

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2. Methodology In this study, the thermal 3D model was generated in IDA ICE 4.8 dynamic energy and climate simulation program [11]. The boundary conditions have been set precisely due to actual condition of the building, before generating the thermal model [12], [13].

The materials specifications for instance the thermal conductivity (W/(m·K), density (kg/m3) and specific heat J/(kg·K) were then assigned for the basement, external walls, internal walls and the roof. The orientation of the house and the climactic conditions of Shanghai was then used in IDA ICE weather data file (ASHRAE IWE). The thermal bridges for the external wall, window, floor slab and roof were set between poor and very poor considering the actual situation of the house (External Wall/Internal Slab: 0.5 W/K/ (m joint, External Wall/Internal Wall: 0.5 W/K/ (m joint), External Wall/External wall:0.272 W/K/ (m joint), External windows perimeter: 0.616 W/K/ (m perim), External Doors perimeter: 0.616 W/K/ (m perim), Roof/External Walls: 0.544 W/K/ (m joint), External Slab/External walls: 0.78 W/K/ (m joint), Balcony Floor/External walls: 0.928 W/K/ (m joint), External Slab/Internal walls: 0.272 W/K/(m joint), Roof/Internal walls: 0.256 W/K/ (m joint), External walls, Inner corner: 0.034 W/K/ (m joint), External Slab/External Walls/Inner corner: -0.0216 W/K/ (m joint), Roof/External Walls, Inner corner: -0.0272 W/K/ (m joint)). Pressure coefficients set to ‘semi exposed’ due to the location of the house. Additionally, ten zones were specified in this study and each of these zones differs in the number of occupants, equipment and lighting. In this analysis, one occupant was assumed in each zone while two occupants were assumed in the living room. The heating-cooling temperature setpoints were defined between 21-25 °C, relative humidity between 20-80% and CO2 at 700-1100 ppm. The objective of the paper is to have an assessment of energy demand of the building with respect to the required thermal comfort. Since in first step of the investigations focuses on architectural properties, the authors used simplified ideal heater and cooler in the models, without specific definition of different HVAC systems.

The schedule has been created base on the former experience in such a family houses. In this schedule, the whole year has been divided into to 3 main season which are heating & cooling season and transaction season. For example, from January 1st until 28th of February in workdays the windows are open twice, for each time 5 minutes, once is between 8:00-8:05 and afternoon 17:00- 17:05 and at weekend and holidays it is open 3 times and each time 5 minutes, 9:00-9:05, 12:00-12:05 and 15:00-15:05. Windows and frames are set to 1 pane glazing with solar heat gain coefficient of 0.85, the solar transmittance of 0.83 and light transmittance of 0.9, respectively. The frame u-value was set at 2.0 W/ (m2°C), glazing value at 5.8 W/ (m2 K), internal emissivity at 0.837 and external emissivity at 0.837, respectively. Finally, in this analysis, only the storage, kitchen storage and stair case are considered as the lower comfort conditions variables, because these are inhabitable spaces and therefore the usage of these areas are low.

Thus, the temperature settings for these zones were set between 18-27 °C.

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3. Results and discussions From the resulting analysis in Table III it can be perceived that 76% of the total annual energy demand was used on heating the building while 15% was used on cooling and 7.9% on lighting, respectively.

The general information and thermal behavior of the given zones with respect to the total energy demand (44885.2 kWh) are shown in Table IV. The energy balance information of Wang’s House is shown in Table V. The various heating and cooling energy loss are dependent on: the building envelope, walls, openings, number of occupants, equipment, lighting, local heating and cooling. The thermal loss of the envelope and thermal bridges is as high as 26178.9 kWh, the heat loss from window solar reaches 5660.6 kWh, and the total energy consumption for heating is 34132.8 kWh. Furthermore, the highest heat loss is due to the building envelope and the thermal bridges especially during the winter season.

Table III Annual delivered energy Meter Lighting, facility Electric cooling Electric heating Equipment, tenant Total

Total (kWh) 3567.5 6782.5 34133.9 401.3 44885.2

Per m2 (kWh/m2) 19.89 37.81 190.3 2.237 250.2

Peak demand (kW) 1.221 13.39 31.48 0.1978 46.29

Table IV General information of the zones (annual average)

Zone Bedroom 1 Bedroom 2 Bedroom 3 Bedroom 4 Bedroom 5 Kitchen Storage Stair Storage Living Room Kitchen

Min Temp (°C) 20.88 20.88 20.85 19.76 20.89 15.61 15.74 17.88 17.82 16.87

Max Temp (°C) 25.1 25.1 25.13 25.23 25.09 26.74 27.9 27.16 25.1 25.14

Max Heat supplied (W/m2) 105.3 102.6 125 145.5 96.32 426.5 173.4 180 113.2 109.8

Max Solar gain (W/m2) 97.32 97.78 107.5 109.1 91.52 282.2 44.73 104.6 48.99 219.7

Min Rel hum. (%) 11.25 11.93 11.81 11.71 11.75 12.41 13.71 13.66 11.27 11.53

Max Rel hum. (%) 100 100 100 100 100 90.31 97.9 93.13 94.9 90.29

In Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 the Parts Per Million (PPM) graphs demonstrate that the CO2 level of the chosen thermal zones, means two bedrooms, living room and kitchen. The data shows that the CO2 concentration rate in the month of June, July, August and September were relatively low due to the more frequent opening of the windows and higher air exchange rate which resulted in better air quality.

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Table V Energy balance of the Wang’s House

Envelope & Thermal Bridges (kWh) Internal Walls and Masses (kWh) Window & Solar (kWh) Infiltration & Openings (kWh) Occupants (kWh) Equipment (kWh) Lighting (kWh) Local heating units (kWh) Local cooling units (kWh)

Total

During heating

During cooling

Rest of time

-23752.1

-26178.9

4497.8

-2071

-26.5 -469.4

647.6 -5660.6

-793.3 4675.6

119.2 515.6

-2746.2 2398.7 401.3 3567.5 34133.8 -13456.4

-5981.4 1143.8 210 1670.7 34132.8 0

2523.4 962.9 143.3 1515.7 0 -13456.5

711.8 292 48 381.2 1 0.1

Fig. 4. CO2, ppm volume, a) Bedroom #2, b) Bedroom #4

Fig. 5. CO2, ppm volume, a) Living room, b) Kitchen

Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show that the living room has the best Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) rate compared to other thermal zones. This is due to the presence of more openings during the summer periods. Furthermore, the presence of the one external wall had an effect on the resulting PMV rate. The living room is in middle of the apartment and it is

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surrounded by the heated zones, it will prevent the zone against the thermal bridges since the living room is not connected to outside temperature directly. In Table VI, Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 the annual thermal comfort percentage rates of the zones are shown.

From this analysis, the best thermal comfort is in the months of January to March and November to December.

Fig. 6. PMV (Predicted mean vote), a) Bedroom #2, b) Bedroom #4

Fig. 7. PMV (Predicted mean vote), a) Living room, b) Kitchen Table VI Thermal comfort percentage rates selected zones Zones Bedroom 2 Bedroom 4 Living room Kitchen

Best [%] 63.3 48.3 57.2 43.3

Good [%] 20.0 37.6 23.7 32.0

Acceptable [%] 15.5 12.0 17.5 22.1

Unacceptable [%] 1.2 2.0 1.6 2.6

Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show that most time of the year relative humility is above 70% due to the local high relative humility of Shanghai climate, it is quite uncomfortable during summer time with high temperature.

Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 show that second floor rooms’ daylight is better than first floor rooms because of the barrier of the courtyard wall. The living room’s daylight performed worst due to the depth is deeper.

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Fig. 8. Operative temperature and comfort category, a) bedroom #2, b) bedroom #4

Fig. 9. Operative temperature and comfort category, a) Living room, b) Kitchen.

Fig. 10. RHUM (Relative humidity), a) Bedroom #2, b) Bedroom #4

For future studies, the proper size of thermal insulation, the new frame and glass type of windows and doors which belonging to material modifications, different radiative, convective or conductive heat transfer system, different plants and energy sources like geothermal earth probes, liquid chiller, gas etc. are determined by next research. (Table VII).

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Fig. 11. RHUM (Relative humidity), a) Living room, b) Kitchen

Fig. 12. Daylight, a) Bedroom #2, b) Bedroom #4

Fig. 13. Daylight, a) Living room, b) Kitchen

4. Conclusion and future studies The main goal of the Wang House project is to decide the most optimal solution based on the concept of the refurbishment, which is to preserve the historical building without destroying the cultural heritage of the building and having the best solution energy, comfort and aesthetics. The current situation of the building should be investigated to expose the failures, weakness and future potential improvements. Due to

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this reasons a yearly energy simulation assessment was performed on Wang‘s House using the dynamic thermal simulation software, IDA ICE. Based on the investigation, the amount of energy required for lighting, cooling and heating was also being identified. From the resulting information, 76% of the annual total energy being used was on heating the entire house. This is evident because of the absence of thermal insulation (walls and glazing) on the house. Furthermore, due to the poor thermal bridges and the building envelope, the cooling energy consumption is only about 1/3 of the heating energy consumption. At the same time it is lack of enough thermal mass.

Thermal insulation as well as thermal mass (structures or PCM) should be added in order to increase thermal comfort and energy performance. Additionally, from the resulting investigation 15% of the annual total energy used was on cooling and 7.9% on lighting. The use of passive and active sustainable strategies can decrease energy use, especially during summer and winter time, also using proper type of HVAC system will influence the thermal comfort in a very effective way. By respect to this information the next step for the pre refurbishment phase has been illustrated and the critical points which need improvements are known. By applying these sustainable strategies as well as modifying the materials used in the house, detailed investigation will be carry on to decide the best refurbishment strategy.

Table VII The optimization strategies based on existing situation for next step

+

+

+

-Lighting demand

+

-Ventilation Demand

+ +

-Cooling Demand

+

-Heating Demand

+

-Infiltration

-Illumination Demand

+

Energy -Thermal bridges

-IAQ(R.H &CO2)

Passive Rearrangement of Strategies spaces (orientation) Thermal insulation Glazing, window, Lighting Thermal Mass Shading Operation strategies for passive ventilation Active Different heating – Strategies cooling transfer system HVAC system size Ventilation system Automation Operation strategies for heating, cooling and mechanical ventilation Photovoltaic

Comfort -Thermal Comfort

Problems and critical points

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+ + +

+

+ + +

+

+ + +

+

+

+

+

+

+ + + +

+ + + +

+

+

+ +

+ +

+ + + +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

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Acknowledgements This work has been undertaken by the students and professors as a part of a project founded by the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, We would also like to appreciate the assistance of Dr. Istvan Kistelegi of the Energy Design Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs.

Open Access statement This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited, a link to the CC License is provided, and changes - if any - are indicated. (SID_1)

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[4]

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International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2012, Paris Google Scholar, 2012.

Jiang, Y., Wu X. Annual report on China building energy efficiency, (in Chinese) China Architecture &Building Press, Beijing (2010) (2010).

Harrestrup M., Svendsen S. Full-scale test of an old heritage multi-storey building undergoing energy retrofitting with focus on internal insulation and moisture, Building and Environment, Vol. 85, 2015, pp. 123‒133.

Pisello A. L., Petrozzi A., Castaldo V. L., Cotana F. On an innovative integrated technique for energy refurbishment of historical buildings: Thermal-energy, economic and environmental analysis of a case study, Applied Energy, Vol. 162, 2016, pp. 1313‒1322.

Wang F., Ma X. B., Li Z. Y. Climate responsive strategy of a vernacular village in middle region of Zhejiang province, (in Chinese) Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica, Vol. 35, No. 8, 2014, pp. 1486‒1492.

Liu D. L., Yang J. P., Hu R. R. Ecological folk house and indoor thermal environment in Northwest China, (in Chinese) Industrial Construction, Vol. 2, 2012, pp. 19‒22.

Iyer-Raniga U., Wong J. P. C. Evaluation of whole life cycle assessment for heritage buildings in Australia, Building and Environment, Vol. 47, 2012, pp. 138‒149.

Chu X. H., Lyu A. M. Study on the passive cooling design strategies of traditional architecture in Jiangnan Region and application, (in Chinese) Environmental Architecture, Vol. 8, No. 5, 2014, pp. 57‒60.

Liedl P., Hausladen G., Saldanha M. Building to Suit the Climate: A Handbook, Walter de Gruyter, 2012.

Song Y. X., Sun E. Z., Sun S. Chinese technology in the seventeenth century, Courier Corporation, 1997.

Kővári G. Kistelegdi I. Building performance simulation modeling techniques, Pollack Periodica, Vol.11, No. 2, 2016, pp. 135‒146.

Póth B., Kistelegdi I. Energy and climate simulations and management system in the Szentágothai research center, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2014, pp. 61‒70.

Radha C. H., Kistelegdi I. Thermal performance analysis of Sabunkaran residential building typology, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2017, pp. 151‒162.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2018.13.3.3 Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 19–30 (2018) www.akademiai.com

A REVIEW AND SYSTEMIZATION OF THE TRADITIONAL MONGOLIAN YURT (GER) 1

3

Gantumur TSOVOODAVAA, 2 Rowell Ray Lim SHIH Mohammad Reza Ganjali BONJAR, 4 István KISTELEGDI

1,2,3

Breuer Marcel Doctoral School, Institute of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary e-mail: 1tsovoog@gmail.com, 2rowellshih@yahoo.com, 3mohammadrezaa.ganjali@gmail.com and 1 School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 2 Department of Architecture. School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design, University of San Carlos Technological Center, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines 4 Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, Boszorkány u. 2 H-7624 Pécs, Hungary 4kistelegdisoma@mik.pte.hu

Received 24 January 2018; accepted 28 May 2018 Abstract: Over the course of human history, vernacular architecture has developed according to the climate, culture, geographical conditions and lifestyle. One of the fascinating designs from around the world that have survived over the years is the yurt. Although it has developed over thousands of years, the basic round form of the yurt remains unchanged. Nomadic people have traditionally utilized the yurt because due to its portability, lightness and can be erected easily.

This unique architectural structure allowed the nomadic tribes to live and thrive in the harsh Central Asian climate. In this study, the history, design, and construction of the traditional yurt are reviewed and also proofed whether literature about the building physics performance of the yurt still exists.

Keywords: Vernacular architecture, Nomadic architecture, Yurt (Ger) structure, Natural ventilation

1. Introduction The yurt is one of the oldest man-made structures in the world. Yurts have been the home for the Mongolians for over 2500 years. The yurt shelter is a basic vernacular architectural style for nomadic cultural countries around the world [1], [2], [3], [4]. The basic round form of the yurt changed little over thousands of years and due to the lightweight and collapsible wooden frame, it can be erected in a few minutes. The yurt is spacious inside and due to the unique design, people can comfortably live inside the yurt in any climate. This is because of the passive ventilation system called the ‘dome chilling effect [5], [6] that the yurt is specially designed for. The size of the yurt usually HU ISSN 1788–1994 © 2018 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest

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follows the size of the crown, which usually four times bigger than the crown radius [1], [3]. The Mongolian yurt has a more precise module due to the dimension of the crown holes of the poles [1]. This shelter is constructed of several lattices forming a circular wall, which meets a post and lintel doorway. All materials used in the yurt are organic, which is made up of wood and skin of life stock animals. The traditional materials used in the construction of the Mongolian yurt are the sheep wool, skin of the cow, yak, camel, horse hair and tail. The collapsible wall is made of wood sticks and is fused by camel skin, which is easily applied and is very strong and durable [7], [8], [9], [1].

When fully packed, the yurt is easily transported by camel, yak or by a small car.

2. Review on the historical evolution of the yurt Yurts have been in use for more than five thousand years in the Mongolian steppe [1]. A recent archaeological expedition found yurts on rock paintings in the Bugat soum, Uvurkhangai province, and Tsagaan Salaa, Bayan-Ulgii province of Mongolia [1]. When humans began domesticating life stock animals they were already using yurtlike houses. In the first nomadic empire Hunnu (Xiongnu- BC 4th-1st century) located in the Mongolian area, the people were already living in yurts. The Chinese historical book called ‘Shi Ji’ wrote by Sy Machani stated that the people during this time ate meat and wear the skin of life stock animals and covering the yurt in animal’s wool and skin [10], [11], [1], [8]. Around the 1st century, the Mongolian area experienced a severe winter and a devastating summer drought. The nomads lost hundreds of animals, which resulted in a mass migration of several tribes to the South, the Indian region and parts of Europe. Although a small number of tribes remained in the Mongolian region, it was the start of the Mongolian yurts spreading around the world. After the fall of the Hunnu Empire, nomadic states of Xianbei, Tureg, and Uigar used the yurt for basic shelter [12], [1] [10]. It was in the 13th century that the Mongolian yurt had developed different types and varieties, each adapted to the unique local culture and location. It was also during this time that Chinggis Khan established the biggest Mongolian Empire. The armies of Chinggis Khan used different sizes of yurts. The yurts for the king and queen have carts that were powered by 33 oxen. Moreover, the generals and foot soldiers have yurts with carts powered by around 3 to 11 oxen. Some yurts were not collapsible and had a very strong inner structure that served as protection for the village during the night.

In the 13-17th century, Abtaisain khan’s (1554-1588) yurt was recorded to have used 8 to 15 huge wall yurts [1]. The yurt was built to house 300 people, which have stone and brick floorings with smoke pipes for heating [10]. Presently, original stone floors (45 m radius) still exist in the Erdene Zuu, Kharkhorin, Uvurkhangai province of Mongolia. The original felt door was changed to a wooden door and the light crown (Saraalj crown) (Fig. 1) was changed to a compounded crown because the people did not move far and stay in the cities [1], [4], [7].

3. Structure and materials The basic yurt structure has two main parts, which are the collapsible wooden frame and sheep wool felt covering.

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Fig. 1. a) Saraalj crown, b) Khorol crown, c) High and small Sarkhinag crown, d) Khorol crown with trussed wood, e) Separable crown (Sarkhinag)

3.1. Collapsible wooden frame Crown: The yurt has only one window located at the top and the form follows the round crown. The main function of the crown is to support the entire structure, light admittance, and ventilation. The crown is connected to the poles and supports the felt roof. Ancient Mongolians and some countries used pressed wood made by birch wood, brushwood or larch wood. In humid areas, larch wood is more suitable but can be very heavy [13], [7]. Presently, Mongolian, Inner Mongolian, and American yurts have harder crowns than old ones, which are glued and compounded crown. The crown has many types (Fig. 1) [1], [7].

Poles (Uni): The poles are usually made of wooden sticks and connect the crown and walls of the yurt [4].

Walls: The size and shape of the yurt depend on the number of the walls, wall parts, respectively. The wall transmits the compression weight on the soil, while the wooden lattice makes the walls collapsible. The binding is made of cattle hide, which strengthens the exterior of the yurt. The yurt can be large or small, depending on the number of walls (4, 5, 6, 8, 10 and 12) and connects to a door.

Door: During ancient times the people used doors made of felt shutters, lifting it up to open or close. This simple method operated as a door and in present times the nomads replaced these with wooden doors. The door is considered the heaviest among

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the parts of the yurt and in term construction the door is made with single or double boards.

Column: Columns are the main vertical supporters of the yurt. The yurts with 4, 5, 6 wall parts have two columns and those with 8, 10, 12 wall parts have four columns.

Columns support the crown from the bottom and safely secure all components of the yurt.

3.2. Felt covering The roof, walls, and urkh (cover for the hole on the top) are made of felting. The covering materials are handmade which is composed of wool and the hair of life stock animals. In early times, they used the white color of the bone or limestone for painting the felt. For waterproofing, they used goat fat and in present times standard waterproofing materials are used for protecting the felt. Finally, felt covers are attached by lines as three belts on the wall parts.

4. Types of yurts There are different varieties of yurt found around the world. Today’s yurts vary according to use: commercial, tourism and residential. Fig. 2 demonstrates 31 countries using yurts and out of which 13 countries apply the traditional yurt. The basic form of the yurt evolved over the years, while the location and climate had a huge impact on its design and shape [14]. The locally originated (Mongolian) yurt was developed by the traditional means. Foreign yurts adapted the original Mongolian yurt in some countries, whereby from region to region alternatives of different designs appear. Presently, most countries use the yurts for business and tourism purposes (Fig. 2.) [1], [2].

Fig. 2. The location map of traditional and adapted yurt in use today

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Mongolian Yurt: The Mongolian modern yurt was used from 1900 by the Kalmyk (people are one nation of Mongolia, live in Russia) and Buryatia (people are one nation of Mongolia, live in the south side of Russia) tribes, which were part of Russia. During this time, they added details of Buddhist symbols on the yurt. They also changed the crown to ‘Khorol’ crown (Fig. 1) and added some pattern details on the wood. It was also this time, while the yurt was treated more of the artistic expression of the user. The yurt was becoming more and more beautiful, in terms of artistic qualities. The Mongolian yurt (Fig. 3) is considered to be the most developed ger because it is the largest, most solid as well as most decorated one that was used first in the steppe of Mongolia [15], [1], [7].

Fig. 3. The Classic form of a Mongolian Yurt

Hunnu Yurt: The Hunnu yurt was the first full dome-shaped yurt. The poles are curved like an arc and the crown was composed of two connected arches of the same size (Fig. 4). Currently, many countries have adopted this type of crown (Fig. 1), which is called the ‘Saraalj’ crown [1], [7].

Mongolian Empire Yurt: The main difference of this yurt is the recognizable double crown, which acts like a chimney that draws smoke out of the yurt (Fig. 4). This design also helps to stabilize the oxen carts. It was also during this period that the Mongolian nomads used it with oxen cart, which resulted in different varieties and functions of the yurt [1], [7].

Inner Mongolian Yurt: As it is shown in Fig. 5, the Inner Mongolian yurt has significantly bigger crown than the Mongolian yurt. In Inner Mongolia the yurt is still very popular, and Inner Mongolians keep the traditional and cultural way. This type of yurt consists of wooden trusses, instead of pole holes (Fig. 1) and the trusses are connected directly to the poles. Finally, the poles are lightly cantilevered from the sides of the wall [7], [9], [15].

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Hungarian Yurt: The only country that possesses the traditional yurt in Europe, is Hungary. During ancient times, Hungarian people lived in typical roundhouse yurts.

(Fig. 5) [16], this type of Hungarian yurt is closely related to the Hunnu yurt.

Fig. 4. Drawing of Hunnu and Mongolian Empire yurt

Fig. 5. Drawing of Inner Mongolian and Hungarian yurt

Middle East Yurt: In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan some people live the yurt, which is a bit similar than the Mongolian yurt (Fig. 6). Crown is similar to the Hunnu yurt’s crown, which is the so-called ‘Saraalj’ crown (Fig. 1). The ends of the poles are curved and the Kazakh yurt has higher roof geometry due to the longer poles. In ancient times they used felt shutter but today, wooden doors are applied

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(Fig. 6). Some yurts in Uzbekistan also have double sided walls, which are significantly taller than other yurts (Fig. 7) and the wall cover is made of woven cloth [17].

Afghanistan Yurt: This yurt type is decisively smaller than the other yurts and the form is taller. Similarly, the crown is also smaller, compared to the other yurts’ crowns (Fig. 7) [7]. The old version of the Afghan mobile yurt is made of latticework wooden frame, which is covered with woven reed matting bands in several different colors.

Several long poles are fastened with special knots, supporting the poles to the wooden frame (crown) on the top. There is usually intricately designed felt which is fixed on the top of the roof, while decoration usually appearing inside of the yurt [17].

Fig. 6. Drawing of the Kyrgyz and Kazakh yurt

Fig. 7. Drawing Uzbek and Afghanistan yurt Pollack Periodica 13, 2018, 3

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Iran Yurt: ‘Chador’ or ‘Kapar’ are the terms, which mean yurt in Iran. Due to hot and humid weather conditions, this type of yurt is without a crown on top. The walls are usually made by folding lattices, combined with straps. The wall around the yurt is made of multiple vertically standing lattices. To create the roof, they usually use poles or slats, fixed from above into a wooden hoop. In a dome shape, the cylindrical framework of the vertical round wall is attached at the side to the forks of the poles. The wooden hoop is 3-5 m in diameter, which serves also as a small chimney. The diameter of this kind of yurt is 9-15 m. The rounded wall is covered with several pieces of felt, while the vault covering is managed separately and carpet or felt covers the floor. The door is covered with a curtain or a light wood structure [18], [19].

American Yurt: The American yurt is considered to be the most modern yurt in the world. These yurts are produced using the most advanced materials available. The yurts are mostly being used for tourist in the USA and Canada. These yurts have windows and crowns, which can easily be opened for ventilation. The poles are connected to each other and supported by steel cables. The interior consists of several rooms, which are elevated off the ground. The shape is similar to the Mongolian yurt but the walls and doors are higher (Fig. 8) [20], [21], [2].

Fig. 8. Drawing of the Iranian and American yurt

In Table I all available yurt types are systemized according to place, historical time of usage, functionality, structure and - in addition - temperature values of the climate zones [22].

Dymaxion ‘Wichita’ House: In 1940 Buckminster Fuller designed the Dymaxion House, which was considered to be the answer to many housing shortages following the 2nd World War. The shape and form were very similar to the yurt, using recycled metals, including steel, aluminum, and Plexiglas. A single-family unit can weigh as much as 2700 kg.

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Table I

Start period of usage

Function

Materials

Mongolia

4th BC

residential

Mongolian empire yurt

Mongolia

13th century

residential

Mongolian Yurt

Mongolia Buriad Khalimik

1900

residential tourism symbol

wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower, cotton cover, water protection

Inner Mongolian Yurt

Inner Mongolia

1900

residential tourism

wooden frame, felt cower

Hungarian yurt

Hungary

7th century

residential tourism

Kyrgyz yurt

Kyrgyzstan

13th century

Kazakh yurt

13th century

13th century

residential tourism

Afghan yurt

Mongolia, Kazakhstan Turkmenista n Uzbekistan Tajikistan Mongolia Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Afghanistan

residential tourism symbol residential tourism

wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower

13th century

residential tourism

Iran yurt

Iran

13th century

residential tourism

American yurt

USA, Canada

1967

residential tourism

Double wall yurt

Climate /max-min temperatures in ºC/

Country

Hunnu yurt

Crown

Types of the yurt

Systemized general information of different yurts with additional climate data

Saraalj

30.6(-22.5)

Double Saraalj

30.6(-22.5)

Khorol, Saraalj, Sarkhinag Khorol with trussed wood Khorol with trussed wood Saraalj

30.6(-22.5)

Saraalj

37.1(-11.0)

Saraalj

37.1(-11.0)

wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower wooden frame, felt cower

Saraalj

37.1(-11.0)

Saraalj

37.1(-11.0)

-

43.94.9

wooden frame, felt cower, midbrain water protection

American yurt crown

44.9(-11.0)

36.4(-14.3)

34.6(-12.2)

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Both the yurts and Dymaxion House are provided with the system of natural ventilation: the dome of the Dymaxion House induces a ‘dome chilling effect’ [5], [6]. At the center of the interior, there is a hole that functions both as heating (chimney) and for natural lighting (skylight). The ‘Wichita house’ has some windows on the wall and had a rotating vent at the top, fitted with the rudder. The final design of the house used a central vertical stainless steel strut on a single foundation. The structures look similar to that of an umbrella.

Fuller studied the effects of wind drag on the house. In his wind tunnel analysis, the house was exposed to wind speed from 12-miles an hour (19.3 km/h) to 70-miles an hour (112.6 km/h), from which point the flat planking began to fly off in parallel with the wind direction [5], [23] (Fig. 9). Rudders that rotated with the wind was the new design innovation implemented by Fuller. The induced vertical-driven vortex sucks cooler air downward if properly ventilated [5], [6]. A tornado once passed 270 meters from the ‘Wichita house’ in 1964, and was not able to cause considerable damage to the structure. The Dymaxion House house never went into mass-production but Fuller’s experiment with the wind was a remarkable success [6].

Fig. 9. Dymaxion Deployment unit (Wichita house) [7]

5. Conclusion The yurt is one of the most typical nomadic traditional vernacular architecture solutions. Some countries are losing the nomadic culture and yurt house because the lifestyle is changing to the urban form of life. In Mongolia, people use the yurt in the city called ‘Ger area’, - a settlement zone that does not connect to any water supply and wastewater treatment system or heating supply system. On the basis of comprehensive literature and scientific paper research, a review is provided about architectural, structural, and material systematization of the yurt, creating a complete yurt-typology.

Regarding the professional and scientific publications, it is apparent that practically no research is existing about the building physics performance of the yurt. Since

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researchers usually write about Mongolian, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz yurt’s architectural and structural characteristics, without considering any climate and/or energy issues, in following research steps we see the necessity of analysis of the physical performance of buildings, with special regard to efficiency and environmentally conscious and comfortable design. Calculation results can help to develop contemporary sustainable, light weight-transportable housing solutions.

Reference [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

[6] [7] [8] [9]

[10] [11]

[12]

[13]

[14] [15]

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Daajav B. Yurt as the origin of Mongolian architecture, (in Mongolian) Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, Translated, 2006.

King P. The complete Yurt handbook. Eco-logic books, 2001.

Kemery B. Yurt: Living in the round, Gibbs Smith, Publisher, Utah, USA, 2006.

Bayarsaikhan B. Put up a Ger, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 2006.

Mrkonjic K. Autonomous lightweight houses: Learning from yurts, The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6-8 September 2006, p. 4.

Gorman M. J. Buckminster fuller: Designing for mobility, Italy, 2005.

Bat-Ulzii B., Dagmid O. Encyclopedia of the ger, the dwelling house of Mongols, (in Mongolian) 2nd ed, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, Translated, 2016.

Gao X., Zeing H. K., Jin G. Green design property of Mongolian yurt, (in Chinese) Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, China, Translated, 2009 Guan X. W., Di L. An investigation on the techniques and skills of making Mongolia yurts in the Zhenglan-qi Mongolia yurts factory, (in Chinese) Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Natural Science Edition), China, Vol. 4, Translated, 2006, pp. 49‒52.

Altangerel M., Dashdendev N. B., Bikales E. G., Sabloff L. W. Modern Mongolia, Reclaiming Genghis Khan, USA, 2001.

Salvalai G., Imperadori M., Lumina F., Mutti E., Polese I. Architecture for refugees, resilience shelter project: A case study using recycled skis, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 180, 2017, pp. 1110‒1120.

Chong, G. C.. A study on spatial composition and elements of Ger architecture in Mongolia, Journal of the Korean Institute of Rural Architecture, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2014, pp. 111‒117.

Nikiforov B. S., Baldorzhieva V. B., Nikiforov S. O., Markhadaev B. E. The design of Mongolian yurts (Ger): Genesis, typology, frame and modular technologies and their transformation, Sciences of Europe, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017, pp. 56‒69.

Liu H. Y., Li Z. M., Ko F. K. A fractional model for heat transfer in Mongolian yurt, Thermal Science, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2017, pp. 1861‒1866.

Zhang X. H., Bai Y. T. Study on Mongolian yurt features and its environmentally friendly design, Joint International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering Application and International Conference on Mechanics, Civil Engineering and Building Materials, Nanjing, China, 21-23 April 2017, p. 6.

Nemcsics Á. Contribution to a round church reconstructed from its foundation wall, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2011, pp. 87‒98.

Dupree L. Afghanistan, Princeton University Press, 1980.

Kuzmina E. E. The origin of the Indo-Iranians, Leiden, Boston, USA, 2007.

Javad E., Namdar S. A. Sustainable systems in Iranian traditional architecture, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 21, 2011, pp. 553–559.

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[20] Apak K. Modernization of the ‘Yurt’ tensile structure, International Conference on Adaptable Building Structures, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 3-5 July 2006, Paper 10-295.

[21] U.S. Patent No. 15/295,654, Housing system, Barry R. M. 2015.

[22] Liedl P., Hausladen G., Saldanha M. Building to suit the climate: A Handbook, Walter de Gruyter, 2012.

[23] Haber I., Farkas I. Analysis of air-flow at photovoltaic modules for cooling

purposes, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2012, pp. 113‒121.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2018.13.2.20 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 207–218 (2018) www.akademiai.com

COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE: THE USE OF PARTICIPATORY DESIGN IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMUNITY HOUSING PROJECT IN THE PHILIPPINES 1

1,2

Danilo V. RAVINA, 2 Rowell Ray Lim SHIH, 3 Gabriella MEDVEGY

Breuer Marcel Doctoral School, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pecs, Boszorkany u. 2, Pecs, Hungary and Department of Architecture. School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design University of San Carlos Technological Center, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines e-mail: 1dravina@yahoo.com, 2rowellshih@yahoo.com 3 Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, e-mail: medvegygabriella@mik.pte.hu

Received 9 October 2017; accepted 2 March 2018 Abstract: This study exhibits the use of participatory design in the development of a community housing project for the twelve family members of the Donnaville Homeowners Association in Barangay 177, Caloocan City, Philippines. All families have been living as informal settlers of which portions of it were considered unsafe due to recurrent flooding during heavy rains. The housing project study was part of a workshop initiated by members of the Community Architecture Network. In order to achieve this methodology, the community architects arranged workshops between members of the families. The members were divided into teams that worked separately and then collectively identify strategies in improving the design and layout of the housing unit according to the needs of each family. The teams identified various interventions in order to effectively reduce the cost of each new unit. Finally, through comprehensive discussions and exchanges between the members, the resulting layout and schematic design of the housing unit were achieved that was desirable to the families. By using participatory design in the development of a project, in this case, a community housing unit, user acceptance is therefore increased and rejection is reduced by the stakeholders.

Keywords: Community architecture, Participatory design, Philippines housing project

1. Introduction Studies have shown how government initiated housing projects fail because of the absence of community participation [1]. The construction of high-rise apartment buildings in the US and UK during the early part of the 1930’s, after demolishing poor existing neighbourhoods, was a good example of government initiated projects without the involvement of communities [2]. Most of these projects failed in improving the HU ISSN 1788–1994 © 2018 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest

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living conditions of their inhabitants and were demolished after a few years [2], [3].

Currently, conventional architecture and planning rooted in the authoritarian management by professionals have clearly been unsuccessful [4], whereas studies have shown that the need to forge a partnership between a local community and support organizations is crucial for effective community restoration [5], [6], [7]. As a result, involving stakeholders in various design development projects has become increasingly common for different societal contexts [8], as in urban [2] and community planning [9].

By allowing people to be involved in shaping their environment is what community architecture movement has been exploring over the past few years [10]. As an umbrella under community architecture, participatory design involves the stakeholders at all stages of the design process [11]. While participatory design originated in Scandinavia with its workplace democracy labour movement of the 70’s for engaging people [12], [13], the aim was not only to gain users’ expectations about new skills but also to enable their democratic right to participate in design decisions affecting them [14]. The origins of participatory design is therefore said to lie in the principles of participatory democracy, in which decision-making is shared and decentralized. Thus, the central idea in the methodology of participative design is that those who are affected by what is designed should actively participate in the design process and should be able to secure already-existing skills and resources [15], [16], [13]. In this paper, a participatory design workshop was carried out in the community of the Donnaville Homeowners Association (DHA) in Barangay 177 of Caloocan City, Philippines. This paper presents a comprehensive case study to demonstrate the use of collaborative action plans and workshops in order to plan and design a housing community for the members of the homeowners. Although the government initiated Foundation for the Development of the Urban Poor (FDUP) provided their own schematic site and housing plans to the members of the association, the resulting cost of the houses was deemed to be unaffordable by family members. Because of this, the family members began to initialize ways in order to produce other solutions in order to make the new houses more affordable. The family members then approached the Community Architects Network (CAN) for assistance. The CAN is a program under the Asian Coalition for Housing Rights (ACHR) and is composed of architects, engineers and planners from the Philippines, Indonesia and Canada. In order to address the needs of the homeowners, it is necessary to develop collaborative action plans in considering the conditions of the community. The community architects would propose an alternative schematic design output for the family members of Donnaville Homeowners Association in order to produce a housing unit, which is affordable and responsive to the unique requirements of the family members.

1.1. Profile of Donnaville Homeowners Association The Donnaville Homeowners Association was established in 2011 and is solely registered with the Philippines Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB) in May 2012. However, after the devastating onslaught of typhoon Ketsana in 2009, the location of the DHA was identified as a high-risk area by the Local Housing Office (LHO). During the typhoon mapping, six families are revealed to be living within the prohibited three meter easement of a creek while the other six families are illegally Pollack Periodica 13, 2018, 2

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occupying areas designated as roads. All of the families have been living in the district for 25 years as informal settlers in areas considered dangerous and, therefore, the families have to be immediately relocated. During the initial interview, the average family size of the members of homeowners is five, of which two families owned their houses, two are renting and eight families are living with their relatives. Since many of the Donnaville community members are living along the prohibited creek, the community members decided to look for a piece of land within their own village to relocate. They found a private land to purchase, which has an area of 350 square meters.

The proposed lot was irregular in shape, with very slightly rolling terrain and located inside the subdivision where the members are currently living. In order to purchase the lot, the families plan to acquire a loan from a government housing finance program called the Community Mortgage Program (CMP) and be able to pay the property owner collectively over a 25 year period. As stated earlier, the government initiated Foundation for the Development of the Urban Poor was assisting them with the various requirements, which include schematic plans in order to get their loan approved. As part of this, the families have been assisted technically to come up with some schemes for site layout (Fig. 1a) and house designs (Fig. 1b and Fig. 1c).

a)

b)

c) Fig. 1. a) The proposed schematic lot plan; b) proposed floor plan; and c) exterior perspective given by the foundation

The foundation was not able to conduct any consultation with the homeowners regarding the design of the housing unit, thus the resulting cost for each unit was not

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within the financial capabilities of the family members. Furthermore, the foundation failed to consider solutions to problems like flooding and accessibility. The governments and professionals prescribed solutions for the well-being of the poor based on what they deemed proper, without involving the concerned individuals. This topdown type approach is common among government initiated projects [9].

2. Research methodology The methodology used in this study is the Participatory Action Design Research (PADR). In order for this to be effective, researchers must work closely with communities to investigate their concerns, develop proposals for transformative change, and identify new questions to investigate [17]. Embedded in the principles of justice and democracy, the methodology is a collaborative approach to research defined both by participation and a determination to produce knowledge in the interest of social change [18]. The members of community architects decided to initiate the program through a series of workshops. The process of the workshop comprised of six phases: a) b) c) d) e)

Problem identification; Evaluation of the existing houses; Site visualization and inspection; Visualization of house plans; and Finalizing the schematic designs.

The objective of the workshop was to allow each member to contribute as well as collaborate with the architects and planners. Each family member had a voice in the final decision and outcome of the final plans. Studies have shown that the experiences in the participation process show that the main source of user satisfaction is not the degree to which a person’s needs have been met, but the feeling of having influenced the decisions [18].

2.1. Problem identification The workshop began with the problem identification. Problem identification of the present situation is significant in order to recognize its strengths and weaknesses in order to make an action plan. During this workshop, it was identified that most houses of the community members were living near the creek which was declared as a danger zone by the local government authorities. The rest of the houses were built on the roadside, which is not permitted by the local government. During a discussion with Arlene Balansag, the president of the association (Fig. 2), some of the members are renting these houses because they could no longer afford the high cost of living near the city.

During the interview, the families agreed that the schematic designs and the estimated cost of the future houses provided by the foundation were unaffordable for them. The families would like to have an alternative low-cost house design as well as personal inputs on the final design. The families decided that one way to bring the total cost down was to re-use some of the materials in their old houses and incorporate it into

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their new residences. Additionally, the families also would like to have a site that has good drainage and ease of accessibility.

Fig. 2. Arlene Balansag, President of homeowners, presenting their community profile

2.2. Evaluation of existing houses In this phase, the members of the community architects conducted surveys of the houses of the community members (Table I) and performed interviews. This was completed in order to identify the spatial housing needs of the members in space usage and materials that they can still re-use into their new house.

Table I Profile of the members of the Donnaville Homeowners Association Name 1. A. Balansag 2. M. Bagube 3. A. Decasa 4. C. Abesia 5. E. Dublin 6. N. Neuda 7. Y. Bactasolo 8. Y. Yrinco 9. E. Gabut 10. E. Opena 11. M. Avila 12. Fuentes

House Type Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof All concrete with GI Roof All concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof All concrete with GI Roof Partly wooden and concrete with GI Roof

Present Location Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side Road Side Road Side Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side Creek Side

The members of the community architects proceeded to document the materials that can, therefore, be re-used into their new houses. By recycling these materials, the cost of the new house will, therefore, be significantly lesser and thus made affordable by the families. Only the roof and interior fittings (doors, window frames, and cabinets) were being re-used as suggested by the engineers and agreed by the members of the families.

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2.3. Site visualization and inspection The first part of this workshop is the site visualization and inspection. The families, together with the community architects, visited the relocation site and performed two activities. First, a lot staking out activity was performed in order to easily visualize the site to the members of the families. Lot staking out was done to easily visualize the corners and boundaries of the proposed relocation site in order easily assess the general location and situation of the lot. The schematic site (Fig. 3) development plan, which was earlier provided to the community, was used as a reference.

Fig. 3. A member doing the plot staking out of the proposed site

This activity helped the participants visualize the given housing plot layouts, common alleys and possible open space. All 12 members decided that each would be provided with an individual lot, subdivided from the 350 square meters lot area.

However, the irregular shape of the property caused the uneven plotting of the individual lots. The community architects, therefore, re-examined the existing schematic site development plan given to them by the foundation. The community architects then produced an alternative plot layout by analyzing the needs and requirements of each of the families. During the discussion, the community architects noted that one of the most important desires is to have ease of access to their new homes. Because of this, the families have agreed to have an investigation of the common alleyway. A two meter wide common alleyway was tested as to its practicability in line with the everyday activities of the homeowners. For instance, walking (Fig. 4) along the alleyway (with or without umbrellas) and alighting from a tricycle, the most common mode of public transportation in the area. In order to easily visualize this space to the family members, the community architects placed markers on the ground in order to better understand the different distance across the alleyway. This assessment resulted in the decision of the homeowners to widen the common alley to three meters because they felt that this is more sensible and comfortable.

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Fig. 4. An Analysis of the two meter wide alleyway

The second part of the workshop involves site planning and space analysis of the new site. For this activity, the community architects separated the homeowners into two working groups and were given a scaled drawing of the Lot Plan. The groups were given large sheets of drawing paper to cut out the twelve individual plot sizes according to scale and arrange the new possible layout of lots. During this stage, it is important that the architects and designers facilitate, enable and empower the members of the group in their site planning output. Finally, the two working groups then presented their output (Fig. 5a) for further discussions among the community members. It was interesting to note that both groups tried to position the individual lots around the perimeter, leaving the central area open (Fig. 5b). The planned central space was clearly absent in the schematic lot plan provided by the foundation.

a)

b)

Fig. 5. a) Site plan discussions among the two groups; b) site with a central open area

The resulting analysis and study of the two groups was a revised site plan that includes a main common alley with a three meter width, a two meter wide access alley

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to the inner lots and a one meter service alley that connects to the creek for purposes of drainage outfall (Fig. 6). The final site layout had an open communal space in the middle, which can serve as a multi-functional space. The desire to connect with other family members of the community is one of the cultural traits of the Filipino people [19].

Fig. 6. The revised schematic lot plan

2.4. Visualization of house plans Before introducing the process of visualizing the house plans, the community architects gave a short discourse on Batas Pambansa 220, otherwise known as the Socialized and Economic Housing Act of the Philippines. This is a national housing act law that discusses the government standards on lot sizes as well as proper house standards, which must be strictly observed. This lecture is significant since one of the objectives of participatory design is to also impart knowledge to the community [18], especially regarding government regulations on house standards. The visualization of the house plans started by introducing the family members on how to visualize the spaces (Fig. 7) in the house based on their daily activities on a 1x1 meter (1 square meter) large format paper. By using the paper as tangible materials, the individual families were able to find it easier to visualize the use functional spaces.

Next, the community architects gathered the community members into three working groups. Each group was instructed to design their house layout based on an allocated lot of dissimilar configurations (Fig. 8). In order to easily visualize the measurements, the community architects prepared several cutout squares representing one square meter at a scale corresponding to the illustrated lot. They were further instructed to lay out the squares based on their specific needs of the space while the architects provided guidance. These squares that were set on the site plot later formed into a rough floor plan. The three groups then presented and explained their house layout to the community architects. This activity gave the groups the opportunity to modify their designs as suggested by the community architects.

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Fig. 7. Visualizing the one square meter block

Fig. 8. House visualization and layout exercises

In this exercise, it was observed that all three groups desire for a second floor in the future for extended families. Therefore, the group members left an empty space on the ground floor so that a future stairway can be constructed. In Filipino culture, families form a strong bond and it is common to have an extended family. All of these suggestions were documented and analyzed by the community architects as a guide for the final floor plan of the new houses. The recommendations are as follows: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

No interior walls (open space concept); Front and rear spaces for services (laundry); Simple one story construction; Allocate stairway for future expansion at the second floor; Place the entrance of the toilet inside; Place the kitchen outside with roof; Allocate toilet size of 1x1.5 meters; and Toilet door must not align the main door.

Based on these feedbacks and suggestions from the family members, the community architects proceeded with the finalization of the schematic designs.

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2.5. Finalizing the schematic designs In this workshop, the technical drawings, bill of materials and cost estimates were being finalized by community architects with the recommendations of the family members. The workshop also allowed the families to gain knowledge and understanding of building materials, cost estimation and the process of building construction. The families agreed to use conventional materials of reinforced concrete and galvanized iron roofing sheets while the structure of the house was also considered to allow a secondfloor future expansion. By using concrete and galvanized iron roofing, the families achieve a sense of security, physical and mental comfort as well as an elevation of social class. Further cost reduction strategies were suggested by the architects, for instance, a communal septic tank was decided by the family members to reduce sanitary drainage cost and a lean-to roof design was incorporated to encourage rainwater harvesting. Furthermore, the lean-to roof design can be easily hoisted when the families can eventually afford for a second-floor expansion in the future. After the analysis, the cost estimate of the house was US$ 2,947 (labor and materials). The resulting cost was in favourable with the families because the monthly amortization was reasonably priced and within the means of the family members. The community architects finalized the twelve floor plans and drainage plan (Fig. 9a) by integrating them into the final site development plan (Fig. 9b).

a)

b) Fig. 9. a) Location of storm water drainage and communal septic tank; b) Perspective of the final site development plan

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Finally, the final schematic designs, site layout, construction documents and estimates were presented to the homeowners (Fig. 10) in order for them to apply for a financial loan through the foundation.

Fig. 10. The final floor plan and perspective of the future homes of the families

3. Conclusion This study shows how the use of participatory design was effective in identifying numerously feasible and cost-effective strategies in the development of an affordable housing for the families of Donnaville Homeowners Association. By using Participative Design Workshops, the community members were actively involved in addressing their concerns as to come up with alternative designs of their houses in addition to the knowledge in building materials, cost estimation and construction. These Participative Design Workshops can be complex and requires the contribution of several actors within the different developmental phases. Each participant is important in contributing to the overall development of the project and the project cannot be realized without the involvement of all the actors. The workshop resulted in a housing unit which was affordable and beneficial to the members of the association. Although the workshop proved to be very challenging due to different personalities and technical issues, the use of participatory design still validates the effectiveness in community planning. Finally, the use of participatory design as a methodology for community improvement should be assimilated in the future design curriculum for planning courses of the universities.

Acknowledgements This work was made possible by the Community Architects Network. The members are: Ar. Ariel Shepherd, Ar. Christopher Ebreo, Ar. Cesar Aris, Ar. Liza Utami Marzaman, Ar. Sriana Delfiati, Ar. Jemielin Legaspi, Chawanad Luansang, Maria Lourdes Domingo-Price, Engr. Noel Zeta and Engr. Carlo Bongac. Finally, the members of the Peoples Action for Community-led Shelter initiatives and the Institute of Planning and Design, SAFAD (University of San Carlos-Technological Center).

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References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

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Somsook B., Kerr T. How urban poor community leaders define and measure poverty, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2015, pp. 637‒656.

Teaford, J. C. Urban renewal and its aftermath, Housing Policy Debate, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2000, pp. 443‒465.

Couch C. Urban renewal: theory and practice, Macmillan, 1990.

Wates N., Knevitt C. Community architecture, How people are creating their own environment, Routledge Revivals, 2013.

Ferreira R. Community-based coping: an HIV/AIDS case study, Community Psychology: Analysis, Context and Action, 2007, pp. 380‒391.

Portschy Sz. Design partnerships between community-engaged architecture and academic education programs, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2015, pp. 173‒180.

Portschy Sz. Community participation in sustainable urban growth, case study of Almere, the Netherlands, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016, pp. 145‒155.

McCarthy J., Wright P. Taking apart: the politics and aesthetics of participation in experience-centered design, Cambridge, MA, The MIT Press, 2015.

Toker Z. Recent trends in community design: the eminence of participation. Design Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2007, pp. 309‒323.

Wates N., Brook J. The community planning handbook: How people can shape their cities, towns and villages in any part of the world, Routledge, 2014.

Muller M. J., Kuhn S. Participatory design, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 36, No. 6, 1993, pp. 24‒29.

Gennari R., Melonio A., Raccanello D., Brondino M., Dodero G., Pasini M., Torello S. Children’s emotions and quality of products in participatory game design, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Vol. 101, 2017, pp. 45‒61.

Bjögvinsson E., Ehn P., Hillgren, P. A. Design things and design thinking: Contemporary participatory design challenges, Design Issues, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012, pp. 101‒116.

Bjerknes G., Ehn P., Kyng M., Nygaard K. Computers and democracy: A Scandinavian challenge, Gower Pub Co, 1987.

Ravina D., Shih R. R. A shelter for the victims of the Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines: The design and methodology of construction, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2017, pp. 129‒139.

Robertson T., Simonsen J. Challenges and opportunities in contemporary participatory design, Design Issues, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012, pp. 3‒9.

Torre M. E., Cahill C., Fox M. Participatory action research in social research international encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences, (2nd ed, pp. 540-544), Oxford, Elsevier, 2015.

Sanoff H. Multiple views of participatory design, International Journal of Architectural Research, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2008, pp. 57‒69.

Lorenzo A. C. M. Filipino culture of Filling up space in a gated community, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 216, 2016, pp. 545–551.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2018.13.3.1 Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 3–9 (2019) www.akademiai.com

ISTAMBALAY: A MOBILE VENDING CART, PORTABLE SHELTER FOR THE HOMELESS 1

Danilo RAVINA, 2 Rowell Ray SHIH, 3 Gabriella MEDVEGY

1,2 Marcel Breuer Doctoral School, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pecs and Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design, University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines e-mail: 1dravina@yahoo.com, 2rowellshih@yahoo.com 3 Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary, e-mail: gabriellamedvegy@gmail.com

Received 1 June 2018; accepted 9 October 2018

Abstract: This study helps alleviate the homelessness problem through the union of design and social entrepreneurship projects. The proposed design exploratory project combines a vending cart and a portable home for the homeless for the Philippines. Additionally, by using local materials and manpower, the resulting project becomes both portable and affordable for the beneficiaries. This exploratory design project is a social entrepreneurship project in collaboration with the School of Architecture and Fine Arts and the School of Business and Economics of the University of San Carlos (Cebu, Philippines).

Keywords: Portable shelter, Vending Carts, Social entrepreneurship project, Homelessness

1. Introduction It is estimated that around 44% of the urban population lives in slums [1], [2].

Studies have shown that there are around 3.1 million homeless people in Manila, more than any city in the world [3], [4]. This resulted in a quarter of the population in Manila living below the national poverty line [5], [6]. Research now suggests that the extreme situation of homelessness may be more due to the result of the convergence of many factors that drive this phenomenon, including the local housing market dynamics, poor government housing policy, local economic restructuring, the labor market, and personal disabilities [7]. Furthermore, the reasons for homelessness are: the constant migration from rural to urban life, lacking skills to support themselves and their families, psychological illness, substance abuse, incompetent governments support and

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the failing global economy [7]. It is, therefore, a moral duty for human beings to implement programs to resolve the present problem of homelessness.

1.1. Homelessness: A national problem While a majority of homeless people occur in the developing countries, homelessness remains a problem throughout the entire world. Almost everywhere there are people in constant search of shelter, food and water. Homelessness was initially believed to be a cultural problem but it has now being shown as a global phenomenon.

Although this problem exists everywhere, it is more severe in the developing countries like the Philippines [8]. Combined with the overall lack of donations coming to shelters, this has made it harder for shelters to operate and stay open. Over the past few years, many shelters have been forced to close due to poor support from the government.

Regrettably, many people in the Philippines do not understand how large this problem has grown into. Initially, research in this area of knowledge is very much lacking. In the Philippines, the problem of homelessness is more apparent in urban areas because of the large percentage of visible homeless people [8]. In contrast, Philippine rural communities have a few public locations for the homeless to reside. The Philippine Government policies designed to improve homelessness have been insufficient to stop the forces that produce this severe poverty, and this trend is likely to continue for many decades unless as architects and designers we can try to provide a way to solve this.

1.2. Street vending in Asia Informal street vending (Fig. 1) has been on the rise since the Asian financial crisis of 1998 [8]. Many who lost their jobs in the formal sector resort to street vending as an option to make a living. Street vending, in spite of having no legal status to conduct their activity, are constantly harassed by authorities [9]. Street vending is considered an illegal activity and street vendors are treated as criminals [10], however, they are ignored by the Local Government Units (LGU’s) [11]. Yet they are popular because they provide the urban population with much-needed services that neither the government nor the larger retailing outlets can provide [9].

Fig. 1. Informal Street vendors in the Philippines

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1.3. Design project and collaboration In this design study, the School of Architecture, Fine Arts, and Design (SAFAD) collaborated with the School of Business and Economics of the University of San Carlos-Philippines help alleviate the problem of homelessness in the city of Cebu. The authors sense that it is the moral duty for designers to implement design and technology to resolve the rising homelessness in the city [12]. The main objective of this paper is to, therefore, design an affordable vending cart with a mobile home for the vagrants and homeless of the city. The project hopes to contribute to the improvement of social entrepreneurship by empowering the homeless through design. With the assistance of the School of Business and Economics, the beneficiaries of the project will also receive training on Social Entrepreneurship. The training will help the homeless on how to establish a sustainable business model on the type of merchandise that they are interested in. Studies have shown that Social Entrepreneurship is now becoming increasingly popular among researchers because of its contribution and prominence in society [13], [14]. Social Entrepreneurship projects have been successfully completed in countries like Hungary to help alleviate homelessness [15]. Many entrepreneurs seek to create ventures that not only yield a profit but also add value to society. Therefore, this project will help alleviate the number of homeless in the Philippines and encourage entrepreneurship.

2. Design description Various studies have investigated with portable homeless shelters for many decades.

Research into deployable and retractable structures [16] has the potential to be adaptive as well as a sustainable portable shelter for the homeless. However, these structures can be complicated and expensive to maintain. The proposed design combines a portable home as well as a vending cart and therefore encourages social entrepreneurship.

2.1. Exploratory design concepts Before the start of the conceptual design, the authors organized field surveys and interviews with various groups, especially with the homeless and small personal businesses that are already established along the sidewalks of Cebu City. From the field analysis, the authors have gathered important data that helped shape the design. First, the product should be lightweight and portable for easy transportation and storage.

Second, the design should be modular and can easily be grouped together. Third, having a sleeping compartment with protection from the insects is very essential as well as various storage and locking compartments. The first design concept is shown in here in Fig. 2.

2.2. Schematic diagrams For easy recognition among the locals, the authors decided to name the design Istambalay, a local dialect combining the words Istambay (homeless) and Balay (House). The module includes storage and locking doors that can be opened and closed

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(Fig. 3a). The top deck can further be opened to reveal additional spaces for products and merchandises (Fig. 3e). The addition of casters on the bottom of the module makes the module for easy transportation. Thus, the module is specially configured to save space and easy transportation. A compartment from the bottom can be opened to reveal the sleeping area (Fig. 3g,h,i) with mosquito netting and can also be used as storage for the day. It is well known that most parts of the city are contaminated with various harmful insects, especially at night time.

Fig. 2. Rendered image of the first concept of the vending cart + mobile home

Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams of the vending card and mobile home: a) Top view; b) Top view with the top deck opened; c) Top view with the opened sleeping pod with mosquito netting; d) Side view; e) Side view with opened deck; f) Side view with the opened sleeping pod; g) Isometric view; h) Isometric with opened deck and i) Isometric with the opened sleeping pod

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2.3. Materials and estimate The proposed Istambalay must be flexible enough on the use of construction materials and allow easy replacements. The materials must be easily available locally instead of taken from the outside. The designers believe that the materials must be readily available for easy production and must draw on local resources and industries [17]. In the Philippines, the use of Marine plywood and Lumber is easily accessible and cheap, therefore it is the basic building material used in the project. The use of the mosquito net is very common in the Philippines; therefore it was being used in this project as a shelter from the insects and other elements. Other basic materials, like nails, insulation, Velcro, casters and barrel bolt are easily purchased from the local hardware store in the country. In addition to using available local materials, the designers of the project also attempted to keep the cost down, between ₱6,000 to ₱7,000 (€100-€110).

The summary of the materials and cost of construction is shown in Table I. Table I Summary of materials and cost Materials

Description

Quantity

Unit

Price per unit (€)

Marine plywood Lumber Lumber Lumber Insulation Wire nail Wire Nail Wooden dowel Mosquito net Velcro Casters Barrel Bolt

3/4"X4'X8' 2"X2"X8' 1"X2"X8' 1"X6"X8' 5mm Foam 4" 2" 1/2" DIAX 2' Fine mesh 1" 3" @ 150 kg capacity 3"

2 8 2 2 6 3 2 1 6 24 4 4

Sheets Length Length Length Meters Kilo Kilo Length Meters Meters Sets Sets

Total (€)

17.57 35.13 1.92 15.33 0.96 1.92 3.83 7.67 0.29 1.72 1.36 4.07 1.20 2.40 0.48 0.48 0.40 2.40 0.19 4.60 5.59 22.36 1.20 4.79 Total cost € 102.87

3. Product outcome Following the designs and plans are shown in Fig. 2, the designers were able to create the vending cart with the use of local materials. The final product is shown in Fig. 4 and will soon be presented to the public for apparent review following the specifications and accompanying drawings.

Presently, the next phase of the product is to get suggestions and recommendations from the beneficiaries in order to maximize the use of the vending cart. With the available data, the product might go into further renovation until the final product will be met satisfactorily by the beneficiaries. The researchers believe that by including the community in the design process, it will avoid rejection by the beneficiaries and thus create a successful product that is accepted by the community [17]. The School of

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Business and Economics will then provide free training in starting a small business for the beneficiaries. With the product and the skills on hand, the authors are optimistic that the beneficiaries will improve their social status and allow help themselves improve their current economic condition.

Fig. 4. The final product output of the Istambalay vending cart + mobile home project

3. Conclusion Problems of homelessness, especially in rapidly developing Asian countries are well documented. In the Philippines, a large homeless population is concentrated near the main city centers, which are generally vacated by working people at night. The needs of the homeless are desperate at night when they need to sleep, the weather is cold and safety is an issue. Once an individual has been homeless for any period of time it is difficult to get off the streets and back into the regular job to earn sufficient income for housing, especially where rents are high in most parts of the major cities. The Istambalay collaboration project will hopefully alleviate the problems of homelessness in the Philippines. Furthermore, the personalized modular shelter units proposed in this study can be a desirable and economical emergency shelter when natural disasters occur.

Acknowledgments This work has been undertaken as part of a project funded by the University of San Carlos School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design in collaboration with the School of Business and Economics with the assistance of Dr. Gabriella Medvegy of the University of Pécs, Hungary.

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Un-Habitat, State of the Worlds Cities 2008/9: Harmonious Cities’, Routledge, 2012.

Montgomery M. R. The urban transformation of the developing world, Science, Vol. 319, No. 5864, 2008, pp. 761‒764.

Abbarno G. J. M. Homelessness, Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics, 2014, pp. 1‒10.

Sumner A. Where do the world’s poor live? A new update, Institute of Development Studies, Working Paper 393, 2012, pp. 1‒27.

Chen S., Ravallion M. An update to the World Bank’s estimates of consumption poverty in the developing world, Washington DC, World Bank, 2012.

World development indicators 2012, World Bank, 2012.

Milburn N. G., Rotheram-Borus M. J., Rice, E., Mallet, S., Rosenthal, D. Cross national variations in behavioral profiles among homeless youth, American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 37, No. 1-2, 2006, pp. 21‒27.

Bhowmik S. K. Street vendors in Asia: a review, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 22/23, 2005, pp. 2256‒2264.

Bhowmik S. Street vendors in the global urban economy, Taylor & Francis, 2012.

Bromley R. Street vending and public policy: a global review, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, Vol. 20, No. ½, 2000, pp. 1‒28.

Kennett P., Mizuuchi T. Homelessness, housing insecurity and social exclusion in China, Hong Kong, and Japan, City, Culture and Society, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2010, pp. 111‒118.

Abbarno G. J. M. Homelessness, in Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics (2014): 1-10, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05544-2_225-1.

Rey-Martí A., Ribeiro-Soriano D., Sánchez-García J. L. Giving back to society: Job creation through social entrepreneurship, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 69, No. 6, 2016, pp. 2067‒2072.

Brown T. Why social innovators need design thinking, Stanford Social Innovation Review, 2011.

Büki P., Vecsei M., Kohányi K. Host village’ program: Societal reintegration of homeless families in rural environments (Initial Experience in the Village of Tarnabod, 2004–2006), European Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 1, No. 1-2, 2006, pp. 125‒150.

Friedman N., Farkas G., Ibrahimbegovic A. Deployable/retractable structures towards sustainable development, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2011, pp. 85‒97.

Ravina D., Shih R. R. A shelter for the victims of the Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines: The design and methodology of construction, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2017, pp. 129‒139.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2018.13.2.19 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 195–206 (2018) www.akademiai.com

BAKWITANAN: DESIGN OF A BLACKBOARD CONVERTIBLE TO AN EVACUATION CENTER PARTITION BY PARTICIPATIVE DESIGN METHOD 1

Danilo V. RAVINA, 2 Marc Christian Y. RUZ, 3 Rowell Ray Lim SHIH 4 István KISTELEGDI

1,2,3

Breuer Marcel Doctoral School, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology University of Pecs, Boszorkany u. 2, H-7624 Pecs, Hungary and Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design University of San Carlos Technological Center, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines e-mail: 1dravina@yahoo.com, 2ruz.architecture@gmail.com, 3rowellshih@yahoo.com 4 Department of Building Structures and Energy Design, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, Boszorkany u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary e-mail: kistelegdisoma@mik.pte.hu

Received 8 September 2017; accepted 23 December 2017 Abstract: Evacuation centers play a vital role for natural disaster-prone countries like the Philippines. In the Philippines, a public school building serves as temporary evacuation centers for the displaced families. This study presents the design and methodology of blackboard modular furniture that can be converted to an emergency partition and storage for emergency provisions.

These modular partitions provide a sense of privacy for each of the affected families, which are needed in any evacuation centers, particularly on the sick, aged, menstruating women and lactating mothers, among others. By using the participative design method, the design will therefore ensure user acceptability by the stakeholders. The resulting design allows for adaptability and portability, which therefore reduce material waste and cost. The final design was the product of the both participatory design approach while following the guidelines of the Department of Education of the Philippines.

Keywords: Disaster risk reduction, Emergency school furniture, Evacuation center partition, Multi-purpose, Modular

1. Introduction Natural disasters like typhoons and earthquakes usually result in an enormous number of evacuees staying in evacuation centers for a significant amount of time [1].

These conditions also pose major public health challenges and people living in an evacuation area are more prone to diseases since they are overcrowded [2]. Elderly men and women, especially the ones with multiple chronic conditions, are particularly at risk in an evacuation center [3], [4], [5]. Individuals of low socio-economic status, mental illness or disabilities are the other vulnerable populations, which experience high HU ISSN 1788–1994 © 2018 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest

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mortality during disasters [6]. Furthermore, disaster evacuation centers require stocks of essential supplies and emergency equipment [1], which can be in short supply especially in disaster-prone countries in Southeast Asia. On 8 November 2013 typhoon Haiyan, considered to be the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded, devastated parts of Bantayan Island in Cebu. After the onslaught of the typhoon, the government of the Philippines sought international assistance and one of these organizations was Caritas Switzerland. Caritas Switzerland focused their resources on rehabilitating schools, which were heavily devastated by the typhoon. The independent aid agency has been active in seven locations in Madridejos including the Kinatarkan Islands. The agency has so far rebuilt schools in the town of Pili, Malbago, Talangnan, Mancilang, Kaonkid, Bunakan and Hagdan. Since public schools in the Philippines are being used as temporary evacuation centers (Fig. 1), the main objective of Caritas Switzerland is to therefore build typhoon resilient schools. Caritas also intended to provide necessary interior furniture that can also be converted into evacuation center furniture. Marcel Reymond, country director of the Humanitarian Aid Department of Caritas Switzerland, approached the office of the Institute of Planning and Design (IPD) of the School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design (SAFAD) of the University of San Carlos-Cebu for possible partnership.

Fig. 1. An elementary school classroom in the Philippines being used as an evacuation center

There are two objectives of this study: First is the concept, design and prototype development of multi-purpose blackboard modular furniture that can be used inside the classrooms for an elementary school. During regular classes, the blackboard functions as a classroom media for learning. However, when the school is used as an evacuation

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center during disasters, this furniture functions as a partition inside the classroom to provide privacy that is greatly needed in any evacuation centers. Second is to permit participation of the stakeholders in the design of the furniture in order to ensure acceptability and acceptance. From the literature, it shows that in post-disaster situations there is a disconnection between the international humanitarian community and the people receiving assistance [7], [8]. Therefore, there must be a need for a more localized approach to the needs of the community. The facilitators then propose to encourage the involvement of the community to share ideas, knowledge and solve problems in a collaborative situation.

2. Research methodology Two methodologies were used in the design and construction of the proposed blackboard furniture. First, the authors use the descriptive method of research. This involves the collection of data that provide information of the condition or actual situation through literary research and document analysis from various sources. The size of the blackboard must follow the guidelines of the Philippines Department of Education (PDE) manual. The revised edition of the 2007 Handbook on Educational Facilities Integrating Risk Reduction in School Construction was followed as guide for the designers of the Bakwitanan, a vernacular word, which means to ‘evacuate to a safe place’. Second, the Participatory Design methodology was used in order to determine the user acceptance of the Bakwitanan. Participatory Design has been defined as ‘a strong commitment to understanding practice, guided by the recognition that designing the technologies people use in their everyday activities shapes, in crucial ways, how those activities might be done’ [9]. The central idea in the methodology of Participatory Design is that those who are affected by what is designed should actively participate in the design process [10], [11]. Community participation allows an increasing use of the product and creates a sense of community between the users. It is therefore significant that the users should take an active role in the design of the final product for their own use [12]. In order to achieve this methodology, the authors organized and conducted a participatory workshop discussion in order to encourage the involvement of the stakeholders. By including the actual users in the design process, there is more user acceptance of the final prototype while reducing actual cost [13], [14]. In this study, a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was organized between the stakeholders (parents, teachers and students) and the facilitators. Participants of the FGD were encouraged to provide design and implement ideas based on their personal experience and use. The authors explained the design and purpose of the emergency furniture to the stakeholders while feedbacks and comments were collected from them. The data was synthesized by the authors in order to serve as a guide in improving and refining the design of the Bakwitanan. With the financial assistance of Caritas Switzerland, an actual prototype was manufactured while the authors documented how the furniture was being used by the users for a period of six months. This process shows the complete research conceptual framework for the proposed Bakwitanan emergency furniture (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. The research conceptual framework

2.1. Conceptual design development stage In the conceptual design stage of the Bakwitanan, the authors considered six design parameters (Table I) that served as frameworks for the authors on the outcome of the proposed project. First, the furniture must be adaptable in order to increase its cost-tobenefit ration as an evacuation center partition. Second, the furniture must be modular in order to avoid waste due to the limits of the basic material available in the Philippines, which is plywood. Third, the simplicity of the proposed furniture is important as only local manpower, simple tools and locally sourced materials are needed in the construction. Fourth, the furniture must be stable without any complicated moving parts. This will allow less expensive hardware and reduces future maintenance cost. Fifth, the blackboard furniture must be portable. In the event when after the classroom is used as an evacuation center, the furniture can be easily be arranged in different configurations or be transferred outside the classroom and used as emergency partitions or storage bin. Sixth, the standard height and length of the blackboard furniture must follow the standard Philippines Department of Education Facilities Manual (PDFM). This will avoid problems while ensuring that the Bakwitanan will fit into a standard Philippine public classroom. Finally, in order to increase user acceptability, the authors presented the schematic design to the community and formed a FGD in order to improve the design of the Bakwitanan. The final design allows increased satisfaction and thus minimizes rejection.

Table I The proposed design parameters of the Bakwitanan Adaptability Modularity Simplicity Stability Portability Standard height and length

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2.2. Evacuation site analysis Site observations and studies from previous evacuation sites were being analyzed and the Philippines Department of Education Facilities manual was being used as technical guidelines. The manual states that school buildings can be used as an evacuation site as a last resort during calamities and be used no more than 15 days.

Despite this limited regulation, local government authorities, especially in far provinces, agree that only schools are large enough to handle these types of emergency situations.

Furthermore, the manual states that the elevation height for elementary and secondary classroom blackboards should be 650 mm and 750 mm from the ground respectively.

While there is almost zero privacy for the families who are living in an evacuation area, the authors have also observed how the evacuees have to use the classroom desk and chairs as temporary beds. In this regard, the ones who are most affected by this situation are the sick, aged, menstruating women, children and lactating mothers.

2.3. Development of schematic design The modular shelving system proposed by the authors contains shelves in one face and a blackboard on the other face. During regular days the furniture is attached along the perimeter walls of the classroom and is used as furniture for learning purposes.

However, when in used during disasters, the furniture can be removed from the walls and arranged to become partitions for evacuees (Fig. 3). By examining the dimensions of a standard Philippine classroom (7000 mm x 9000 mm), eight modular furnitures can be attached to three perimeter walls.

Fig. 3. Initial sketch of a schematic design of the Bakwitanan

The fourth wall, where the windows are located, can be left unused for natural day lighting and natural ventilation. The side where the blackboard is located will face the classroom, while the side where the shelves are located shall contain the curtains, sleeping mats and survival kits. When the classroom is used as a temporary evacuation center, the modular shelving furniture can be arranged for medium density occupancy specifically for delicate groups like the young orphans, sick and the aged. Additionally,

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the arrangement may also apply as treatment partitions for medical and dental missions during disasters (Fig. 4). A common area is provided as a communal space that encourages interaction between the groups. During natural disasters, social interactions between groups are essential as this will encourage a sense of belonging [15].

Fig. 4. The proposed layout of the Bakwitanan with a communal space

2.4. Presentation to beneficiaries during the focus group discussion The schematic design of the proposed Bakwitanan was presented to the beneficiaries and stakeholders (15 students, 5 teachers and 10 parents) during the Focus Group Discussion in the Town of Pili Elementary School (Fig. 5). After the presentation, stakeholders convene and gave their assessment of the schematic designs of the proposed Bakwitanan. Additionally, the authors also presented a photograph of the prototype in order to get a sense of scale of the actual furniture when it is constructed (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. The presentation of the proposed schematic designs of the Bakwitanan to the stakeholders of the Pili Elementary School

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Fig. 6. The actual prototype of the Bakwitanan shown to the stakeholders

2.5. Synthesizing the results of the focus group discussion Data was collected and the authors synthesized (Fig. 7a) all the recommendations and suggestions of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The feedbacks from the FGD recommended a number of design improvements, among them are: (1) Curving the ends of the blackboard to improve visibility for the students; (2) The addition of guidelines on the blackboard to improve writing accuracy for the teachers; (3) The addition of storage space for chalk and erasers; (4) The use simple materials like plywood which can be sourced locally; and (5) The addition of sliders in order to easily move the blackboard into different desired configurations.

The authors then accumulate all the FGD comments and with the assistance of Caritas Switzerland (Fig. 7b) redesigned the proposed schematic diagrams in line with the recommendations of the stakeholders.

a)

b)

Fig. 7. a) The recommendations and suggestion lists of the stakeholders; and b) the designers and authors accumulate and analyzed the given data

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2.6. Finalizing the schematic design of the Bakwitanan A scale model (Fig. 8) was generated by the authors in order to easily visualize the final project. Following the recommendations given during the FGD, the architects and members of Caritas Switzerland agreed that the design of the Bakwitanan will be composed of three modules: Module A (Fig. 9) comprises the left component with a curved surface; Module B (Fig. 10) comprises the central portion which has a flat surface; and finally Module C (Fig. 11) comprises the right component with a curved surface.

Fig. 8. Scale model of the three modules of the Bakwitanan

Fig. 9. Technical details for Module A (Left side) of the Bakwitanan

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Fig. 10. Technical details for Module B (Center portion) of the Bakwitanan

Fig. 11. Technical details for Module C (Right side) of the Bakwitanan

The three modules can be easily assembled, with the addition of sliders, to form a curvilinear blackboard. By separating the entire furniture into three modules, these can easily be adapted and configured into different layouts according to the needs of the affected families. The Bakwitanan used the standard 19 mm thick marine plywood, which can be sourced locally, thus cutting transportation cost during construction. The Bakwitanan also conforms to the DE standard dimensions of 4880 mm long x 1800 mm high and locks into place forming stable furniture. The final design is therefore in conformity with the proposed design parameters framework specified in Table I.

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2.7. Production of the Bakwitanan A team of three carpenters was able to produce two sets of Bakwitanan in three days. The Bakwitanan was used as a blackboard during class hours with the additional three cabinets on the side of the blackboard (Fig. 12a), thus making use of the cavity of the curved surface. In Fig. 12b and Fig. 13a, is shown how the Bakwitanan used as partitions when the classroom is used as temporary evacuation center. The front view of the finished Bakwitanan (Fig. 13b) with the added guidelines on the board as recommended during the FGD discussion. The completed classroom equipped with the Bakwitanan in Malbago Elementary School was formally turned over to the Local Government Unit (LGU’s) officials. The total cost (as of March 2016) in the production of the Bakwitanan was US $ 340, which comprises labor and materials. The resulting technical details and plans were presented to the Philippine Department of Education so that they can produce more emergency partitions in the future. Currently, the authors plan to bring the cost down by exploring other alternative materials and pursue financial assistance through different local and international donations.

a)

b)

Fig. 12. a) The Bakwitanan used as a blackboard during normal situations. Note the cabinets on the side of the blackboard; b) The Bakwitanan used as partitions inside the classroom

a)

b)

Fig. 13. a) View from the inside of the Bakwitanan. Note the recommended lines on the blackboard; and b) the front view of the Bakwitanan

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3. Conclusion This study demonstrated the concept, design and prototype of blackboard furniture that can be converted into an evacuation center partition for the victims of natural and man-made disasters in the Philippines. This study also showed how the Participative Design methodology through Focus Group Discussions from the users (teachers, students and parents) proved to be very useful to arrive in the final design of the furniture. Useful recommendations like putting lines on the blackboard, installing plastic sliders at the base of the furniture for easy transportation, and blackboards should be curved on the sides so that the students can have a better view promote community participation and design acceptance. Participatory Design proved to be useful in investigating design challenges while engaging the designers and the stakeholders.

While this method itself is not new, its application in architecture, especially community restoration after a disaster, opens up other promising possibilities. Allowing community participation in planning and design creates an impact of increasing use of the product. Participatory Design is therefore significant to ensure user acceptability and satisfaction of any design. Finally, further investigation can be made in future studies to determine the level of performance of the Bakwitanan to various conditions experienced in other evacuation centers.

Acknowledgements This work has been undertaken as a part of a project founded by the University Of San Carlos School Of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design (SAFAD), the Institute of Planning and Design (IPD) with the assistance of Caritas Switzerland.

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Bierman A. S., Clancy C. M. Health disparities among older women: identifying opportunities to improve quality of care and functional health outcomes, J. Am. Med. Womens Assoc. Vol. 56, No. 4, 2001, pp. 155‒159, p. 188.

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Epidemiol, Vol. 54, No. 7, 2001, pp. 680–686.

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Mensah G. A., Mokdad A. H., Posner S. F., Reed E., Simoes E. J., Engelgau M. M. When chronic conditions become acute: prevention and control of chronic diseases and adverse health outcomes during natural disasters, Preventing Chronic Disease. Spec. No. 2, 2005, Paper No. PMC1459465.

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Ravina D., Shih R.l R.. A shelter for the victims of the Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines: The design and methodology of construction, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2017, pp. 129‒139.

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Bjögvinsson E., Pelle E., Per-Anders H. Design things and design thinking: Contemporary participatory design challenges, Design Issues, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012, pp. 101‒116.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2017.12.2.11 Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 129–139 (2017) www.akademiai.com

A SHELTER FOR THE VICTIMS OF THE TYPHOON HAIYAN IN THE PHILIPPINES: THE DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTION 1

Danilo RAVINA, 2Rowell Ray SHIH

Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines e-mail: 1dravina@yahoo.com, 2rowellshih@yahoo.com

Received 10 December 2016; accepted 8 April 2017

Abstract: In 2013 Typhoon Haiyan, the largest typhoon ever recorded in the Philippines, devastated several portions of the country. This resulted in more than 7,000 deaths and thousands of people were misplaced or were made homeless. The aim of this study is to design and produce a transitional shelter prototype, for the victims of typhoon Haiyan. The shelter is affordable, easy to construct using basic tools and that can provide maximum space for a family of five while being able to withstand an onslaught on another incoming typhoon. Furthermore, this paper presents a design concept for a transitional shelter incorporating the Bent Method of construction while only using locally sourced coco lumber and actual validation on a full scale prototype. In order to achieve this objective, site analysis as well as consultations and interviews with the victims were being done and the results evaluated. Second, the conceptual designs as well as the method are presented to the local government and the beneficiaries of the shelter to obtain feedback. Third, the construction of a prototype was then employed to evaluate the construction conditions as well as the spatial considerations for the users. The proposed shelter used only locally sourced materials, manpower and simple tools for a family of five members. Finally, a post evaluation analysis was conducted in order to obtain feedback on the performance of the shelter and provide future knowledge in improving the design and its use. This study shows how due to the design of the shelter, the families were able to develop their own spaces as well as make subtle design alterations according to their expanding needs. Results from these studies reveal that by understanding the needs of the users, the design and methodology of the ‘I-Siguro Da-an’ transitional shelter was effective and practical in providing temporary housing for the victims of the typhoon.

Keywords: Transitional shelter, Bent construction method, Participative design outcomes

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1. Introduction On November 2013 the Philippines was devastated by super typhoon Haiyan. With an average wind speed of 300 km/h, it devastated the islands of Leyte, Samar, Bohol and northern Cebu [1]. The typhoon caused extreme economic damages, left thousands of people homeless while killing at least 7,000 people. Since then, there has been a conscious effort in the construction of more resilient housing for the underprivileged victims of the community. While there are numerous factors to be considered when designing these types of shelters, knowing the needs and wants of the affected families is sometimes ignored [2]. International donors too often ignore the complexity of the local conditions and disregard the local manpower and existing materials of the affected community. Most often the design of these housing units can be too complex or requires highly skilled workers [3].

During these disasters, the United Nations acknowledged that one of the many ‘mistakes’ that had been made was the lack of consultation between the victims [4].

Without proper consultation, the victims became mere spectators of the work that was carried out rather than participants [5]. The performances of these shelters are sometimes hindered by insensitivity to the local culture, climate and social issues which can result in further delays [6]. This results in producing expensive and extraneous looking shelters, which eventually results in the abandonment by the affected families.

By recognizing the needs of the affected families and reviewing the local conditions, the recommended shelters will consequently bring social, economic, cultural and environmental benefits for the affected community. Community participation is therefore important because the affected families will have a sense of pride and ownership once the shelter is turned over to them. This study adopted the community participative design approach method in the design of the transitional shelter. By using this approach and the knowledge of the local people, who over the years have developed their own technical solutions and adapted their own context will the shelters be accepted as part of their own community. This study therefore introduces new design concepts for climate resilient transitional shelter, which was developed as part of a community extension program organized by the University of San Carlos School of Architecture and Fine Arts, in cooperation with the Institute of Planning and Design. The beneficiaries of the proposed shelter are the communities in Daanbantayan, at the northern part of Cebu (Philippines), which was highly affected by the onslaught of typhoon Haiyan. The first author, who was the main architect, decided to name these shelter ‘I-Siguro Da-an’, which is a Cebuano vernacular term that means ‘To Secure First’. This was the title borne out of the idea of creating a transitional shelter for typhoon Haiyan victims.

1.1. Transitional shelters After the onslaught of natural disasters, the typical response by humanitarian organizations and the local government is to allocate basic shelter materials like tents and plastic sheeting with some basic tools. This has many advantages, which include ease of transportation, cheap and speed, however this is not intended to offer long term shelter for the affected communities. However, if shelters are transitional - meaning Pollack Periodica 12, 2017, 2

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capable of being disassembled, upgraded, reused, relocated and recycled in different configurations for alternative functions - they offer the opportunity to link relief and future development perspectives towards a sustainable solution. From the emergency to rehabilitation and reconstruction, transitional shelters can provide shelters for the affected community while providing social and economic recovery throughout the development process [7]. This transformational capacity and the reuse potential of individual components make transitional shelters more sustainable over their life-cycle than conventional solutions which become obsolete, are often removed, disposed of, or abandoned when a transition is made from one relief phase to the next. Thus, transitional shelters have been embraced by numerous humanitarian agencies and have sheltered many affected communities worldwide [8]. Additionally, transitional shelters should serve the affected community for many months or even years, if possible [9].

2. Methodology Data collection occurred over two separate site visits to the disaster affected areas of Daanbantayan between November 2013 and December 2013. These data were collected using discussions with the affected families as well as the local government, community leaders and current residents. The research team also conducted direct site interpretations and analysis. In addition, the key features of the shelter should be: (i) Can be easily relocated; (ii) Can be easily upgraded, and (iii) Constructed of local and re-usable materials.

In order to design a housing unit, which is easily acknowledged by the community, the community participation approach was being used. Beneficiaries and the affected families were being consulted and their needs and wants were being taken into consideration. Empowering beneficiaries in these types of housing projects play an important role because the community members become part of the political process and thus have a voice in the decisions of the community [10]. By including the community in the process, the cost can be reduced, allowing restricted resources to be spread among more of the affected families [11]. Design influences can define the performance of the shelters and it is through consultation with the communities involved which can prevent economic, environmental and socio-cultural problems which may arise in the future [2]. After the survey, it was being decided that the housing unit will be provided for a family of five. Furthermore, 80% of the families affected include the father, mother, grandparent and two children. The ‘reverse-engineering’ methodology was being used in order to offer a design solution for the shelter, this means starting with the structural aspect of the shelter and applying the architectural principles later (Fig. 1). The advantage of using this methodology is that the structural components are clearly being focused early in the design and therefore structural failures can be clearly identified early during the design process.

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Fig. 1. The design process of the proposed transitional shelter

3. Materials The shelter design must be flexible enough on the use of construction materials and allow replacement with alternatives. A large scale transitional shelter construction project requires large volumes of materials that may negatively impact on the local environment. Large timber requirement may adversely affect the forest environment and the total components should be limited to allow for easy transportation [12]. Alternate steel material may offset this imbalance. It is therefore suggested that the shelters be made of materials that can easily be reused and upgraded instead of being easily disposed [13]. In the Visayas region coco lumber is readily available and is the staple construction material being used by the local community because it is abundant and cheap to acquire. However, 4”x4” for the post is difficult to come by, so the basic dimension to be used shall be 2”x4” and 2”x6” with lengths at 8’ and 10’. These types of wooden houses must be rapidly available and must draw on local resources and industries [8]. This lesson was learned after the Kalamata earthquake in Greece in which the prefabricated temporary houses for the affected families were donated by the international community; however, delays in the delivery meant that temporary housing was not readily available.

3.1 Technical description The amount of covered living space that a transitional shelter must provide is a critical determinant of the design, logistic requirements and cost. A minimum of 12 square meters of covered living space is assumed based on a family of 5 with 2.40 square meters per person occupant density. This can be expanded into 18 square meters by an addition of a 6 square meter module. Fig. 2 illustrates the geometry of the shelter.

This configuration has a rectangular floor plan of 4.7 m x 2.4 m with a total height of 3.5 meters, measured up to the apex of the roof. The design of the shelter is based on the Bent Method of construction which essentially consists of a series of structural frames called ‘bents’ to which the flooring system, roofing system as well as the interior and exterior walls are fastened and tied down (Fig. 2a). Furthermore, the walls or skins are non-structural and act mainly as a means of giving rigidity to the bents and enclosing the house (Fig. 2b). The bents can be pre-fabricated or constructed in situ. Additional diagonal braces are added on all sides for protection whiles its slanted walls, it maximizes space inside for sleeping and household chores for the family. The roof of the shelter is not extended to prevent the roof from tearing during strong winds. The Pollack Periodica 12, 2017, 2

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simplicity of the design allows for the reduction of training period of the construction workers and resources which can lead to delays (Fig. 3). The shelter is made up of bamboo and coconut lumber, materials which are readily available in case of modifications by the family. There are currently two (2) types of shelters: (i) The Lipak version, of which consists of bamboo slits (Fig. 4a); and (ii) The Amakan version, of which consists of the native material called Amakan (Fig. 4b).

a)

b) Fig. 2. Detail of the Bent Structure

Fig. 3. The construction process

The form and plan (Fig. 5) of the shelter evokes a seemingly modern ‘nipa hut’, the traditional residential shelter in the Philippines, that somehow blends well with cultural appropriateness.

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a)

b)

Fig. 4. Two versions of the shelter: a) Bamboo Slit and b) Amakan

The simple roof plan has a 30° inclination to allow for rainwater to slide off and harvested while reducing the impact of strong winds. The design encourages passive cooling and allow for maximum ventilation for the users. Shelters which accentuate natural ventilation which is essential for hot-humid climates like the Philippines [14].

Prominent feature of the form are the slanted walls in the longer sides of the house.

These canted walls offer four advantages, which are: 1) They lessen wind resistance and deflect airflow, although this is still subject for wind analysis in further studies; 2) The slanted design of the walls allows it to shade itself from the sun during the overheating period from 9:00 in the morning to 15:00 in the afternoon. It also eliminated overhangs and thus prevents the ‘Monroe’ effect caused by wind updraft; 3) Creates a sense of wider interior spaces; 4) In the event of a further disaster, the wall will simply fall outward and thus minimize serious injury to the occupants.

The crawl space serves a multipurpose function for domesticated animals, storage space and as play space for the children. In the interiors, the volumetric space becomes bigger as the walls lean outward. This generates a practical and usable anthropometrics because movement and perception of a person becomes wider from the hips to the extended arms and the eyes (for visual expanse). The leaning walls also offer opportunity to attach shelves that do not encroach into the established floor footprint in the Living Module (Fig. 6a). At the Sleeping Module (Fig. 6b), bunk beds can be made at the sides allowing two persons to sleep above floor level and make 3 to 4 persons to sleep comfortably on the floor. Ventilation flow through is achieve via awning windows at the front, rear and side walls. Table I shows a summary of the design features and the participative process of the proposed shelter.

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Fig. 5. Floor plan

a)

b)

Fig. 6. The a) living module and b) sleeping module interior view

4. Project outcome With the help of different Non-Government Organizations (NGO’s) like Dr. Fritz Strolz and his wife Pearle Strolz of the Swiss Rotary of Switzerland (Fig. 7), Movement for a Livable Cebu (MLC), JPIC-IDC, OM Philippines and the Ramon Aboitiz

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Foundation (RAFI) close to 500 units have already been successfully constructed (Table II).

Table I The design and participative process of the ‘I-Siguro Da-an’ Shelter Design Features Foundations Reinforcements Roof type Shape Flood preventive measures Materials Portability No. of occupants Ventilation Community participation Evaluation Total Area

Reinforced concrete on all foundations Tied down from bottom-up. Additional wooden diagonal braces on all sides Simple Hip roof (30° inclination) for easy rain flow Simple rectangular shape for easy construction On stilts to avoid flooding and protection from other elements Locally available, re-usable materials Can be relocated and easily upgraded For a family of five (5), which is the average family size of the affected community Cross ventilation from all sides (side, bottom, top) Affected communities and local government units are involved with the design process Post occupancy evaluation and surveys with the beneficiaries for future design improvement 12 square meters

Fig. 7. The first beneficiaries of the transitional shelter through the efforts of Dr. Frtiz Strolz Rotary of Switzerland

These shelters are mostly in the northern parts of Cebu where much of the damage has been done by the typhoon, however there are also shelters being built on the neighboring Bohol Island. In a few months after the families received their new homes, the research team went back to assess the performance of the shelters. The main objective of this evaluation was to identify and evaluate critical aspects of the performance of the shelter. This will allow the research team to identify problem areas of the structure and thus to be able to build better design guidelines in the future.

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Studies were also being made on how the families utilize the space and a survey was done on the various performance of the shelter. It was observed that the families are finding various ways to expand the shelter.

Table II The benefactors and the ‘I-Siguro Da-an’ shelters built since January 2017 Mission Areas San Remigio Daan Bantayan Bantayan Island Bohol (Ubay Island) Medellin Cebu (Badjao Ritual House)

Benefactors Swiss Rotary Club & CICM MLC & Rotary Club Cebu Fuente Swiss Rotary Club & KCI JPIC-IDC & ILO OM Philippines RAFI Total

Built 202 6 20 42 220 6 496

The sloping roof allowed for extended extensions and thus families can get more space (Fig. 8a). Most of the families have also used the abundant space under the shelter for various farm animals (Fig. 8b).

a)

b)

Fig. 8. The inclined roof allowed for an extended overhang, a) for various family activities and the ample space below the shelter, b) became storage for various farm animals

In the consultation with the families, there was increased user satisfaction mainly due to the involvement that the community had in the final design of the shelter. This meant that the beneficiaries were not just passive victims receiving humanitarian aid but responsible for their own shelter project. Presently, the shelter units were still in used and lasted much longer than they were needed as a mere ‘transitional’ shelter. The length of time this transitional shelter is needed will highly depend upon the ability of the local government in trying to construct the permanent housing program for the affected families. Further experimental testing was still being done in the field to determine the effectiveness and durability of the proposed transitional shelter.

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5. Conclusion This study demonstrates two important findings. First, it was able to demonstrate the design and methodology of a transitional shelter using the bent construction method while incorporating locally sourced materials. By using this approach, the shelter can be swiftly constructed and immediately be turned over to the affected families. By using locally sourced construction materials, the local labor can be improved while promoting local manufacturers and suppliers. Second, by consulting and participating with the affected community in the design process, assessing the local conditions and studying the user’s needs and potentials, the designers were able to successfully produce a shelter that the affected community can call one of their own. This user-point of view process will avoid producing expensive and alien-looking shelters, which usually can result in abandonment and user dissatisfaction in the future. International donors, while their intentions are good, too often ignore the complexity of the local conditions and the user’s needs. The design and living standards must reflect the local living standards of the community rather than the standards of the donor country. Furthermore, from a design-oriented view, this study also presented that the design of the shelter helped improve the lives of the affected families. The design of the shelter allows for expandability according to the needs of the families. Since the shelter was elevated above the ground, the space underneath can be used as storage for various small farm animals. The sloping roof allows the family to extend the spaces for various activities.

The actual intention of the transitional shelter was to provide temporary housing for the affected communities, however since the government still has to finish constructing the permanent housing units, the families were still able to use the shelter beyond the allowable given time.

Acknowledgements This work has been undertaken as part of a community project by the University of San Carlos School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Design (Institute of Planning and Design). IPD is headed by Architect Danilo Ravina (first author) while additional data was also provided by Architect Bryan Auman.

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POLLACK PERIODICA An International Journal for Engineering and Information Sciences DOI: 10.1556/606.2017.12.3.10 Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 109–116 (2017) www.akademiai.com

INVESTIGATING THE NIGHTTIME URBAN HEAT ISLAND (CANOPY LAYER) USING MOBILE TRAVERSE METHOD: A CASE STUDY OF COLON STREET IN CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES 1

Rowell Ray Lim SHIH, 2István KISTELEGDI

1 University of San Carlos, Cebu, Philippines, e-mail: rowellshih@yahoo.com Department of Building Structures and Energy Design, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs, Boszorkány u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary e-mail: kistelegdisoma@mik.pte.hu 2

Received 8 August 2016; accepted 21 April 2017

Abstract: Rapid urbanization has resulted in temperature differences between the urban area and its surrounding areas. Academics have called this as the urban heat island phenomenon.

Among the places that have seen rapid urbanization is the City of Cebu. The Philippine’s oldest street, Colon, was chosen as the study area due to the near absence of vegetation and closely spaced buildings. Buildings that are spaced more closely as well as multiple absorptions and reflections produce higher and more viable street temperatures. This study tries to systematically understand the urban heat island effect between Colon and Lawaan, the rural area defined in this study. In order to quantify the urban heat island between two given locations, the mobile traverse method during the summer time, for a 10-day period in May 2016. A digital thermometer measuring platform was mounted on top of a vehicle to measure the different temperatures of Colon Street. Urban temperatures were also gathered in the Lawaan area using the same device.

Preliminary results showed the presence of the urban heat island phenomenon between the two areas (¨T =1.17 °C). The provision of green spaces and proper urban planning are essential in mitigating future urban heat stress due to anthropogenic changes of existing cities.

Keywords: Urban heat island, Colon Street, Urban temperatures, Mobile traverse, Urbanization

1. Introduction Majority of the world’s population is now living in urban environments. More than half of the world’s population now live in urban areas and this number is estimated to be around 67% in the year 2030 [1]. Worldwide urban land is now expanding at almost twice the population growth rate and this is expected to triple by year 2030 [2]. Due to

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the conversion of forested areas, the average temperature of these developed areas is now higher than the surrounding rural area. This is a phenomenon popularity known as the Urban Heat Island (UHI) [3]. UHI is defined by researchers as the temperature difference between urban and rural areas and was observed to be more evident in summer than during the day [4]-[8]. Ever since the first methodical urban heat island study conducted by Luke Howard in the city of London at the beginning of the 19th Century [9], it remains a topic of research in different cities and climates. The UHI has a typical daily cycle [10], [11] as it increases during the late afternoon and reaches its maximum during the night, decreasing after dawn and generally reaching a minimum value during the morning. The typical UHI measurements have taken two approaches: temperature observations at fixed stations located in urban and rural environments and temperature measurements along transect from the city center to the rural environment using a mobile platform. Both of these studies evaluate the UHI by comparing the urban (U) observations with rural (R) or background temperatures (ǻTU-R). Some factors like the increase of anthropogenic heat or modifications in vegetative cover during the year contribute to the urban heat island phenomenon [12]-[17]. Sharifi and Lehmann [18] further discussed how taller buildings tend to produce higher street temperatures due to multiple reflections and absorptions of radiation, a situation more compounded when the locations of urban buildings are closely spaced. Slingerland [19] shows the difference between an urban area and a small park can be as much as 3 °C by using temperature sensors. The study also showed the UHI intensity is largest during the night and can be up to 7 °C. Sarkar and De Ridder [20] reports how during the night, low wind speeds, limited cloud cover and precipitation favors the development of urban heat island. Numerous studies have also shown that the UHI is negatively correlated with wind speed and cloud cover [21], [10]. Voogt [22] has shown that there are three types of UHI: The Canopy Layer Urban Heat Island (CLUHI); Boundary Layer Urban Heat Island (BLUHI) and the Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI). The main focus of this study is the Canopy Layer, which is found within the atmosphere below the tops of buildings and trees [3]. The Canopy Layer UHI is a local scale phenomenon and given its accessibility and relevance to human activities, it is the most studied of all heat island types [12]. However, very few studies have focused in the urban climate of the City of Cebu. The main objective of this study is to investigate the UHI trends between urban-rural areas and determine the maximum and minimum temperature differences during the summer nights. While the climatological description of a city is based on a fixed meteorological station, which is usually fixed in the airport (rural area), it is not a representative of the whole city due to its location [23]. Temperature at the airport can have different reading in the middle of an urbanized area [24]. This study sets out to measure the intensity of the UHI using the mobile transect method. Using the mobile traverse as a method to measure the urban heat island appeared in many studies in literature [24]-[30].

1.1. Study area The study area of this research is the Philippines oldest street, Colon, which is located in the island of Cebu. Colon was chosen as the urban study area because the region has developed into an urban landscape, which is almost absent of natural Pollack Periodica 12, 2017, 3

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vegetation. Furthermore, Colon’s urban morphology of closely spaced buildings, the high volume of vehicles and a high number of human activity can result in an urban climate different from that of the surrounding landscapes [17]-[20]. Colon Street is around 1.15 kilometers long and is located in the heart of the City of Cebu. A monument obelisk marks the start Colon Street and then ends at the intersection of Panganiban Street. Over the years, Colon has developed as the main Commercial Business District (CBD), which is roughly 7.62 meters above sea level (Table I). The municipality of Lawaan was chosen as the outlying rural area for comparison because of an ominously lesser amount of human and vehicular traffic, a profuse amount of natural vegetation and the distance between Colon is around 25 minute (9 kilometers apart, Fig. 1). In doing a UHI traverse study, the distance between two temporal zones must be less than 45 oC before significant temperature changes between the two areas can be perceived [28], [29]. The altitude difference between Lawaan and Colon is around 14.58 meters, which is an important aspect to consider in studying UHI phenomenon.

Altitudinal differences between the urban and rural points should never surpass 30 meters as this would represent in a substantial temperature differences in the calculating the intensities of the heat island [31].

Table I Elevation and Distance between Colon (urban) and Lawaan (rural) area Location Colon Lawaan

Elevation (M) 7.62 22.2

Latitude 10°17'52.11"N 10°15'35.03"N

Longitude 123°54'7.22"E 123°54'7.22"E

Fig. 1. Map of Talisay City and Cebu City, Cebu, From: ‘Map of Central Visayas’, 10°16'32.08"N 123°52'14.91"E. Google Earth, Accessed January 10, 2017, Retrieved January 31, 2017, Mobile UHI transect from point 1 (Colon) to point 2 (Lawaan)

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2. Materials and methods The mobile traverse method was used in this study to investigate the UHI phenomenon of the City of Cebu, particularly the Commercial Business District (CBD) of Colon. The data on air temperature were collected on ten occasions using mobile traverse surveys during the summer month of May 12-23 2016 between 20:00-21:00 hours (no rain), which the differences between the urban and rural temperatures are at their highest [32]. The summer month was chosen since studies in literature showed that UHI is stronger during the summer months when the air is warmer and UHI is presumed to be higher during nighttime than during the day [33]. The month of May was also being considered because it is the warmest month in Cebu with an average temperature of 30.0 °C [34]. The route of this study was designed to sample across the urban to rural area. In this study, Colon was chosen to represent the urban are and Lawaan was chosen as the rural area. In order to determine the UHI quantitatively the surface or the air temperature differences of areas classified as urban against an area classified as rural were being measured. The air temperature and humidity was collected using an Extech Hygro-Thermometer SD500 data-logger, which has a temperature range of 0.0-50.0 °C, resolution of 0.1% and with an accuracy of ±0.8 °C, the relative humidity has a range of 10-90%, resolution of 0.1% and with an accuracy of ±4%. The instrument was mounted on top of a vehicle with a height of 1.55 m from the ground and 1.6 m away (Fig. 2) from the sources of heat (car engine).

Fig. 2. Location mount of the Data Logger

Wind speed data was also being collected using a portable digital anemometer at a height of 1.55 m from the ground. Mobile data measurements were collected along the defined route, thus the route began from the Colon obelisk marker (Pari-an) and towards the intersection of Panganiban (Fig. 3). The overall total length of this traverse was roughly 1.15 kilometers long. The mobile route was then retracted back to the obelisk marker so that the average temperature and humidity data could be made of the entire path. An average of 25 temperature and humidity reading was taken from a single travel path. The temperature recorder was set to log temperature and humidity along with the time stamp automatically at 30 seconds interval. The actual traverse time is dictated by traffic speed and traffic light stops. The vehicle was driven at an average speed of 20 km/h. For each scheduled measurement taken, meteorological conditions were also noted (wind velocity and cloud cover) as this will also have an impact on the air

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temperature data. Ideally, measurements should be carried out simultaneously, but since this is impossible using the mobile measurement techniques [35], the only option was to do the measurements from Colon and to Lawaan in one single traverse [23]. The average sampling difference between the urban (Colon) and the rural (Lawaan) was less than 25 minutes.

Fig. 3. Map of Colon Street, Cebu City, Cebu, From ‘Map of Colon’, 10°17'49.46" N, 123°53'54.71" E, Google Earth, Accessed March 3, 2016, Retrieved December 28, 2016, Mobile UHI transect of Colon Street from point 1 (Pari-an) to point 2 (Panganiban).

3. Results and discussions During the experiment, the weather conditions ranged from clear skies to cloudy with mean wind speed at night ranged from 0 to 3 m/s. These conditions suggest favorable UHI development [23]-[25]. In Table II, the UHI intensity (ǻTU-R) was obtained by subtracting the averaged rural and urban temperatures in clear sky conditions. The overall temperature mean value (based on averaged 30 samples) difference between Colon and Lawaan was ¨T=1.17 °C. The highest maximum UHI values between the two areas was recorded on May 13 at ǻT=2.20 °C (Table II) while the lowest was recorded on May 15 at ¨T=0.30 °C. The current results presented in this study show that urban warming in Colon during the summer nights is higher than that of Lawaan during the summer of May 2016. This indicates local characteristics of the built environment have an important influence. These results derived here are in accordance with those found in previous studies [8], [9], [16], [26].

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The data (Temperature, Humidity and Wind speed values) collected during the initial nocturnal UHI study based on an averaged 30 samples

Date (2016) May 12 May 13 May 14 May 15 May 16 May 18 May 19 May 20 May 21 May 22

Colon Mean Mean TempeHumidrature ity °C % 31.20 71.60% 31.50 62.40% 31.20 64.00% 30.00 75.00% 31.20 66.10% 32.40 59.40% 31.20 71.10% 32.00 64.90% 31.70 68.20% 30.10 75.40%

Mean Temperature °C 30.4 29.3 30.3 29.7 29.6 30.3 30.4 31 30.3 29.5

Lawaan Mean Humidity % 72.90% 69.80% 67.00% 74.70% 76.70% 67.00% 75.00% 68.00% 73.30% 73.90%

Mean Wind speed m/s 0.3 m/s 0.3 m/s 0 m/s 0.1 m/s 0.0 m/s 0.0 m/s 2.1 m/s 0.0 m/s 0.0 m/s 0.3 m/s

¨T (u-r) °C 0.80 2.20 0.90 0.30 1.60 2.10 0.80 1.00 1.40 0.60

4. Conclusions and recommendations The study showed the presence of nocturnal UHI phenomenon in the densely areas of Colon using the mobile transect method. This also showed initial evidence that the Colon area in Cebu City is slowly developing its own urban heat climate despite the presence of the coastal waters and its cooling effect on the area. The dense built up of buildings, traffic, human activities, urban morphology and meteorological conditions related to climate change can significantly contribute more heat differences. The current results suggest that urban planners and architects need to take into account the possible consequences of urban development and the importance of open green spaces to reduce the development of the urban warming. The health and comfort of the people must be considered in urban development studies in Cebu City. Finally, further study is also required to delve into additional parameters, which is not included in this study. City density, population density, energy consumption, transportation volume, street width may also influence urban warming. No doubt, as the city develops, so too will the effects of UHI. Various mitigations are effective in reducing the UHI but implementations must be careful because different solutions are unique in each city.

Acknowledgements This research work has been undertaken as a part of an urban design project with the assistance of the University of San Carlos-Technological Center, the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Pécs and Architect Rizzel Magalso, UAP.

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Pollack Periodica 12, 2017, 3

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) Phenomenon in Cebu City, Philippines: An Initial Study

Rowell Shih*1 and Danilo T. Dy2 University of San Carlos Cebu City, Philippines

*corresponding author email address: rowellshih@yahoo.com 1

Department of Architecture, College of Architecture and Fine Arts

2

Biology Department, College of Arts and Sciences

Running title: UHI phenomenon in Cebu City

Keywords: Economic development, developing economy, mobile transect technique, urban planning, urban heat stress

Abstract

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) Phenomenon was never considered an issue in urban planning for Cebu City, in spite of its rapidly increasing urbanization. This study tries to evaluate some factors that may contribute to the UHI Phenomenon in Cebu City using the mobile transect method during the summer period. A thermometer measuring platform was mounted on top of a vehicle to measure the different temperatures of a given area in Cebu City. Preliminary results showed the presence of UHI Phenomenon in Cebu City (∆T =0.6°C) and can still be considered moderate compared to other Asian cities. Among the many factors (i.e., temperature, humidity, elevation, distance to the shoreline and population), elevation was considered to be a significant predictor of the UHI Phenomenon in Cebu City. The provision of green spaces and urban planning are essential in mitigating future heat stress likely to be experienced by people living in Cebu City.

Introduction

Majority of the world’s population is now living in urban environments. Due to the conversion of forested areas, the average temperature of these built-up areas is now higher than the surrounding rural area; a phenomenon popularity known as the urban heat island (or UHI) (Oke 2006). The creation of new cities means the removal of the natural landscape and results in the eminent climatic conditions known as the urban climate. Urban climates are notable from those of the lesser built-up areas by the differences in the air temperature, humidity, precipitation and finally wind direction and speed. The differences result from modification of natural landscapes through the construction of buildings, roads and other highly reflective materials and lead to different climates within a city and its connecting rural areas.

The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon has never been an issue for the Philippines. As a tropical country, temperatures as high as 34 -35°C are quite normal. Even if there was a UHI phenomenon, the strong prevailing winds will simply cool our cities, which are mostly located along the coast.

However, rapid growth and expansion of our urban centers leads to the

construction of new buildings, roads, bridges, parking lots and other man-made structures replacing the natural ground cover.

There are three types of UHI: The Canopy Layer Heat Island (CLHI), Boundary Layer Heat Island (BLHI) and the Surface Heat Island (SHI). The CLHI and the BLHI refers to the warming of the urban atmosphere whereas the SHI refers to the warming of the urban surface. Several factors affect the UHI Phenomenon namely: Human activities, vehicles, air conditioning,

industrial activities, urban geometry, sky-view factor, air pollution, among others. Urban planners and designers should be aware and be responsive to the climate variation developments in urban areas when planning sustainable cities and, if possible, mitigate the adverse effects of the UHI Phenomenon. In Central Philippines, Cebu City has seen a large amount of urban development in the past twenty years. So far, no study was ever conducted on the nature of the UHI phenomenon and its effect. An initial study to evaluate the UHI intensity in a rapidly developing metropolis such as Cebu City should be a sound undertaking. In this context, we set out to measure the intensity of the Urban Heat Island (UHI) between several key locations in Cebu City. We measured several physical variables using the mobile transect method, collected some secondary data and analyzed which of the variables were significant predictors of UHI. We also provided some recommendations for mitigating the UHI phenomenon in Cebu City.

Materials and Methods

Study area. Cebu City has a land area of 292 square kilometers. About 56 square kilometers (or 19%) is classified as urban while 235 square kilometers (or 81%) is classified as rural. To the northeast lies the city of Mandaue; to the west is Toledo City; to the south is Talisay City. The population of Cebu City is 866,171 (National Statistical Coordination Board, 2010). Cebu City is subdivided into 80 barangays or barrios, grouped into two congressional districts with 46 barangays in the northern district and 34 barangays in the southern district. The study areas included both the city and one outlying rural area for comparison. Several mobile routes were initially considered to cover the southern and northern portions of Cebu City. The criteria of the routes chosen were as follow: [1] the urban growth pattern of Cebu City which covers the major highway of the Cebu South Road and towards the central part of the city; [2] the areas with the highest population and high human activity; [3] the amount of vehicular traffic that passes through the area; [4] safety during data collection. A route was selected to include most of the barangays with the most number of population and vehicular and human traffic. The final route chosen for the study started from Lawaan 3 (representing the rural area), Tabonoc, Bulacao, Pardo, Basak, Punta Princesa, Tisa, Labangon, Guadalupe, Capitol, Kamputhaw, Lahug, and IT Park (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Map of the study are and the traverse route from Lawaan 3 to IT Park in Cebu City. Map source: Google Earth.

UHI measurements. UHI was quantified by measuring the surface or the air temperature differences of areas classified as urban against an area classified as rural. The data on air temperature were collected on three occasions using mobile traverse surveys during March 25, April 2 and 4, 2013 between 2100-2300 hours in which the differences between the urban and rural temperatures are at their highest (Gómez et al. 1993, Tereshchenko and Filonov 2001). The air temperature and the humidity was collected using an Extech Hygro-thermometer SD500 datalogger. The instrument has a temperature range of 0.0-50.0°C, resolution of 0.1% and with an accuracy of ±0.8°C. The relative humidity has a range of 70-90%, resolution of 0.1% and with an accuracy of ±4% (of reading) + 1% RH. The instrument was mounted on top of a vehicle with a height of 1.4 m and 1.5 m away from the engine. Mobile data measurements were collected along the defined route. The temperature recorder was set to log temperature and humidity along with the time stamp automatically at 2 minute intervals. The vehicle was driven at an average speed of ±35 km/hr. For each scheduled measurement taken, meteorological conditions were also noted (wind velocity, cloud cover) as this will also have an impact on the air temperature data.

Ideally, measurements should be carried out simultaneously, but since this is impossible using the mobile measurement techniques (Conrads and Van der Hage 1971), the only option was to do the measurements as quick as possible. The sampling difference between the first (Lawaan 3, Talisay City) and the last point (IT Park, Lahug) was less than 45 minutes.

Data analysis. The mathematical difference of the in-situ temperature of a rural area (Lawaan 3) and the in-situ temperature of the urban sites during a mobile survey was considered a measure of UHI. Since there were five variables (i.e., relative humidity, in situ temperature, elevation,

distance to the shoreline, population) collected, a multiple linear regression (using stepwise selection and verified further using forward selection) was used to determine which among the variables or a combination of variables was considered a significant predictor of UHI. Significance level was set at 95%.

Results and Discussion

During the survey, the weather conditions ranged from clear skies to cloudy with winds equal to or less than 1 m/s. The less than 45 minutes travel from the rural site (i.e., Lawaan 3) to the various urban sites during the night was also appropriate. This was possible considering that Cebu City is not yet very highly urbanized compared to Metro Manila where traffic is very horrendous even during nighttime. Overall mean temperature difference between a rural site and urban areas was 0.6°C; a value considered as moderate as compared to existing Asian cities.

Surprisingly, elevation was the best predictor of the UHI phenomenon in Cebu City. The adjusted Coefficient of Determination (R2) was 0.15. The regression coefficient was -0.023 (P value=0.013, see Table 2) indicating that slightly elevated urban sites have lesser ∆T. Our results agreed with the study of Giannaros et al. (2012) who found that elevation was a major factor in determining the lowest temperature contrast between two different stations in the coastal city of Thessaloniki, Greece.

From our study, it appeared that population was not significantly

correlated with UHI. It is possible that the current population in the city’s barangays may not be as dense as compared to other Asian cities where land areas are already limited and real estate developers have to build very tall vertical structures (i.e., condominium units) to accommodate the growing city dwellers. In one study (Steeneveld et al., 2011) in Netherland, for example, UHI is better correlated with population density of the neighborhood, since higher population density requires higher building density leading to enhanced radiation trapping and high thermal inertia.

It is possible that as Cebu City reaches its peak of development 10-20 years from now, population will be a significant predictor of UHI. There are also temporal-related factors that may correlate well with the UHI phenomenon in urbanized cities. For example, Arnfield (2003)

showed that UHI is stronger during the summer months when the air is warmer and UHI tend to be higher during nighttime than during the day. These factors will be collected in future samplings as more stations will be identified and self-recording thermal instruments can be securely and strategically placed in different parts of the city.

Table 1. Mean, standard deviation and range (N=3) of variables collected during the initial study.

Barangays

Statistics

∆T °C 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.1 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.8 0.7 1.3 0.9 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.8 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.2 0.8 1.5 0.4 0.6 1.0 -0.1 0.6 1.2

In-situ Temperature, °C 28.7 0.5 1.0 28.8 0.4 0.7 29.0 0.3 0.6 28.8 0.3 0.5 28.9 0.3 0.6 29.0 0.3 0.6 29.0 0.3 0.6 28.5 0.4 0.7 28.6 0.5 0.9 28.2 0.2 0.3 28.4 0.5 0.8 27.9 0.3 0.6

%RH

Mean 66.3 Tabunoc SD 2.6 Range 4.9 Mean 65.9 Bulacao SD 2.2 Range 4.1 Mean 66.0 Pardo SD 2.3 Range 4.4 Mean 66.8 Basak SD 1.7 Range 3.4 Mean 67.9 Punta SD 2.3 Princessa Range 4.5 Mean 67.2 Tisa SD 2.1 Range 4.1 Mean 67.9 Labangon SD 2.1 Range 4.0 Mean 68.8 Guadalupe SD 1.9 Range 3.7 Mean 69.6 Capitol Site SD 2.6 Range 4.8 Mean 70.1 Kamputhaw SD 2.7 Range 4.9 Mean 44.1 Lahug SD 26.1 Range 45.3 Mean 71.4 IT Park SD 2.9 Range 5.3 1 Data from Google Earth 2 Data from National Statistical Coordination Board (2010)

Elevation1, m 21 0 0 23 0 0 21 0 0 14 0 0 19 0 0 20 0 0 23 0 0 34 0 0 36 0 0 45 0 0 49 0 0 38 0 0

Distance to shoreline, m 2,396 0 0 2,845 0 0 2,535 0 0 1,783 0 0 1,926 0 0 2,571 0 0 1,515 0 0 2,991 0 0 3,089 0 0 2,550 0 0 3,651 0 0 2,979 0 0

Population2 17,593 0 0 26,820 0 0 12,103 0 0 17,756 0 0 22,270 0 0 35,600 0 0 31,643 0 0 60,400 0 0 15,308 0 0 21,765 0 0 35,157 0 0 No data

Table 2. Statistical results showing the significant effect of elevation on ∆T.

Constant ELEVATION

Unstandardized Coeff.

B Std. Error 1.276 0.267 -0.023 0.009

Standardized Coeff.

Beta -0.412

t 4.77 -2.64

Sig. 0.000 0.013

Conclusion and Recommendations

In the recent past, the urban heat island (UHI) was almost a relatively unknown phenomenon in the field of urban planning. In this preliminary study, we provided initial evidence that some areas in Cebu City are slowly developing their own urban heat climate. Even though it is a coastal city, the cooling effect of coastal waters may, in the long run, only exert a limited influence in moderating urban microclimate. The dense built up of urban spaces, traffic, the lack of open or green spaces, construction activities, urban morphology and meteorological conditions related to climate change, among others, may significantly contribute more heat stress to rapidly developing urban centers such as Cebu City. Clearly, a more expanded UHI study to include other variables currently not included in this initial study is necessary. We also recommend urban planners and designers to take into account the anthropogenic factors and the importance of open green spaces to reduce the development of UHI. The health and comfort of the people must be considered as an objective in urban development studies in Cebu City. No doubt as the city grows, so too will the effects of UHI.

Acknowledgments.

We thanked Ma.Kristina Oquinena and Hyacinth Suarez for valuable discussions. We also acknowledged the valuable suggestions provided by Dr. Rico C. Ancog of the University of the Philippines at Los Baños. This is a research contribution of the University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines.

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