Outstanding Academic Papers by Students

O A OUTSTANDING ACADEMIC PAPERS BY STUDENTS A collaborative, international program

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by academic research libraries to encourage, recognize, and preserve excellence in student scholarship

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2013 USC LIBRARIES | USC UNDERGRADUATE WRITERS CONFERENCE

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

OAPS O U T S TA NDING AC A D E M IC PA P E R S BY STUDENTS APRIL 2013

USC LIBRARIES USC UNDERGRADUATE WRITERS CONFERENCE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

USC LIBRARIES USC UNDERGRADUATE WRITERS CONFERENCE Published by Figueroa Press 840 Childs Way, 3rd Floor University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-2540

Š 2013 USC Libraries All rights reserved No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission from the publisher, except in the context of reviews.

ISBN-13: 978-0-18-215497-5 ISBN-10: 0-18-215497-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data USC Libraries USC Undergraduate Writers Conference OAPS: Outstanding Academic Papers by Students

Contents 4 FOREWORD Catherine Quinlan 6 INTRODUCTION Nathalie Joseph 10 GETTING RESPECT Manuel Crosby 20 THE ETHICS OF AUTONOMOUS WEAPON SYSTEMS

John Dacquisto 36 A “NOVEL” CONCEPT—COMIC BOOKS AS CURRICULUM

Rebeca B. Delgado 46 ADDING LIFE TO YEARS: QUALITY OF LIFE AMONG THE ELDERLY Sonia Hua 60 THE L.A. RIOTS OF 1992 AND THE RIGHT OF REVOLUTION

Daniel Jia 70 AMERICA NEEDS FOREIGN LANGUAGES Roza Petrosyan 82 POLITICAL CARTOONS: VISUAL FRAMING, EMOTIONAL RESPONSE, AND THEIR CORRELATION TO PERSUASIVENESS

Vanessa Villanueva 100 IS ANIMAL TESTING ETHICAL? Dan Weisel

Foreword CATHERINE QUINLAN

Dean of the USC Libraries

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When the University of Southern California Libraries became the first North American institution to join the Outstanding Academic Papers by Students (OAPS) program in 2010, we began with a focused pilot project in a single USC school. Thanks to the participation of our campus partners—the USC School of Social Work, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, and the Office of Undergraduate Programs—OAPS at USC now showcases the tremendous analytical skills, creativity, and innovative research of students from our entire community.

Working with the faculty and staff of the USC Office of Undergraduate Programs and the Undergraduate Writers Conference for the second year, we have selected exemplary works from among the most accomplished student writing at USC. This year’s papers pose intriguing queries—what does it mean for women skateboarders to earn respect in male-dominated skate culture?

How do we bring meaning to our extra years as science extends human life spans? What are the long-term curricular implications of learning with graphic novels and other visual storytelling media?

Our students answer those questions and many more through rigorous research and writing that effectively and persuasively communicates their discoveries. It is incredibly rewarding to publish this volume and honor their inventive scholarship, which will inspire their peers and all the students, faculty, and other researchers who will discover their work in our libraries at USC and those of our OAPS colleagues in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand.

I would like to thank Professor Steve Ching, university librarian of the City University of Hong Kong and chair of the OAPS Task Force, for inviting us to join this esteemed international group of libraries. I also would like to thank USC professors Norah Ashe-McNalley and Nathalie Joseph, as well as student editor Eric Weintraub and the staff of USC Scribe, who have helped us continue to build the OAPS presence at USC. I am grateful for their contributions, and I look forward to working with them as we approach our 5th anniversary of presenting the transformational talents of USC students to a global audience.

Introduction NATHALIE JOSEPH

Associate Professor, USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences

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So many acts of undergraduate writing begin with a prompt assigned by a professor. Though many, if not all of the articles included in this year’s publication began as responses to a prompt, even a quick glance through them evidences the many ways in which these essays go above and beyond the work required to complete a university course. These articles often take on ambitious projects that explore new issues within established fields of academic inquiry. As such, these student writers are legitimately contributing to academic knowledge and expanding the methods we can use to understand topical issues. In addition, the combination of articles also showcases the ability of our students to do high quality argumentation on a variety of subjects. They successfully showcase the strength of their skills on disparate subjects, thereby legitimately contributing to the advancement of a wide breadth of fields.

This year, we further honed the processes used in producing the OAPS publication. Instead of utilizing faculty readers to find noteworthy student writing, we mobilized the experienced staff of the online publication, Scribe (scribe.usc.edu). Over the years, many Scribe editors have expressed the need for an outlet for outstanding student writing that is impressive in its own right but doesn’t quite meet the needs of Scribe. OAPS allows us just such an outlet; it offers an excellent venue for showcasing impressive student work that excels in the arena of academic writing and argumentation. With this in mind, we carefully set aside some of the many, many entries we read through for consideration for OAPS. Then, a seasoned editor from both the OAPS and Scribe contexts, Eric Weintraub, single-handedly read through the lengthy stack prepared by the other editors. I also read through the same entries to narrow down the articles to a set that displayed the high quality of work produced by USC’s students as well as

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showed the breadth of subject matter that our students are capable of tackling.

Eric and I then conferred to choose the final set of articles and Eric began the arduous task of editing the articles to make them not simply clear of error, but also uniform in terms of quality.

Both Eric and I read through these articles at multiple stages in the production process. Over time, I became very familiar with the students’ arguments; yet, I continued to be surprised by their ability to maintain my attention. Above all, this particular quality attests to the enduring quality of our students’ writing; upon each reading, the articles reward the reader with a more nuanced understanding of the arguments.

Having said that, this publication is not simply the work of a handful of impressive writers, one student editor, and one lone faculty member. Many others have contributed to this project with a spirit of true generosity, as their contributions were not made with any expectation of reward. Norah Ashe-McNalley continues to serve as a valuable sounding board for this and many other projects, offering her useful thoughts and insight at critical times, and her support at all times. My thanks to the current Scribe staff: Dy Phi, Tyler Tyburski, Maria Peltekova, Makiah Green, Ashley Huggins, Megan Rilkoff, and Rachelle Bautista-Meeks for their willingness to participate in this additional task.

Above all, a warm thanks is owed to the student writers here at USC. May you continue to impress us as we guide your education, and teach your teachers in unexpected ways. It is experiences like this that renew my dedication to my field, my students, and academia.

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Getting Respect MANUEL CROSBY School of Cinematic Arts, Department of Film and Television Production Ryan Shoemaker, Faculty Advisor

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The sound of skateboard wheels tearing across pavement steadily increases as a skater hurtles toward a tall ledge extending over a steep flight of stairs. The skater crouches upon approaching the stair set and sharply snaps the tail of the scratched wooden board to the cement and then gracefully lifts it into the air. Mid-flight, the skater forces the silver metal trucks of the skateboard onto a ledge. The trucks screech as they grind against the concrete. Arms extended for balance, the skater focuses on the end of the ledge, mentally preparing for a clean landing. Suddenly, the grind sticks. The skater lurches forward, arms and legs flailing, but the board stays behind. A long drop awaits, and a solid concrete step at the base of the stairs greets the skater’s chin with a gruesome crack. A few passersby stare in amazement, almost feeling the searing pain that the skater just experienced. “Wow, that guy slammed so hard…” one person mutters, but only as the skater begins to rise from the ground and spits out a mouthful of warm, red blood do the observers realize that the skater is a woman.

Many people would feel surprise upon beholding a female skater like this due to preconceived prejudices, and because women are not fully welcomed into skate culture. Because of this, members of the female skateboarding subculture must revolt against the male skateboarding community and society as a whole in order to change the stereotypically sexist views of women as fragile, timid creatures.

By turning the unjust criticism and judgment of male skaters into respect for female participation, as well as gaining visibility in videos and contests, female skaters hope to show that women are equally as capable of pursuing the activity as men.

Although many do not realize it, women have been a part of modern skate culture since its solidification. Despite the existence of scooter or skateboard-like

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devices from the beginning of the 1900’s onward, actual maneuverable skateboards did not come about until the surfing craze of the late 1950’s; this shift gave birth to an easygoing activity that simply acted as a substitute for surfing waves themselves (History). However, in the 1970’s, the legendary Dogtown skate team transformed the casual, clean-cut atmosphere of the 50’s sidewalk surfing into “the alternative, bad boy style of skating” that led to today’s skate culture (Roth).

Although these skate pioneers were known as the Z-Boys, a woman named Peggy Oki, served as a member of the original twelve-person team, and continues to represent female involvement since the beginning of the culture’s formation (Roth). Thanks to Peggy and the Z-Boys, the new style of skateboarding carried through into the present. The current skateboarding culture opposes the notions of competition inherent in the structure of modern society because it does not clearly define success and failure in the manner of many other social institutions.

Some skaters state that their enthusiasm stems from the fact that there are no “rules, referees, set plays, nor coaches” (Beal 209). Additionally, each skater has his or her own individual style or favorite tricks. Therefore, the choices that are made when skaters perform tricks are based on their own creative sensibilities, and this freedom gives each skater an opportunity to show their uniqueness, regardless of their skill level. However, though skating seems like an equal opportunity sport, it has been coded as masculine from the beginning. Therefore, the opposition of criticism only occurs amongst males, and not in their views of female participants.

Although being the best is not an integral part of the majority of skate culture, female skaters still find themselves in a defensive position against the harsh judgment of males. A video on Youtube of Elissa Steamer, a female pro skater

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known as the “godmother of women’s skateboarding,” showcases her talent on a board—talent proven by the fact that the skateboard deck company known as Baker included it in their team video (Salo). At the end of the clip, Elissa holds a broken board, proudly exclaiming that it is the first one she has broken while doing a trick in her life. However, other skaters comment that they have broken boards before, which shows their attempts to elevate themselves above her (Elissa Steamer – Baker Skateboards). These remarks display male resistance against admitting that females like Elissa can skate on their level. Elissa’s achievement of the deck-snapping milestone shows her achievement of a higher level of skating, for she attempted a trick off of an obstacle large enough to break her board upon impact. She did not care about beating any members of the male skateboarding community by doing this, but only feeling individually accomplished. In an interview, Elissa even stated that it didn’t matter how she did at a recent competition against men because she “had a good time” (Clarkie). These examples illustrate the female skaters’ hope to revise the subculture by eliminating the excessive criticism by men. For instance, video clips like Elissa’s that appear in male-dominated pro team videos show that females have had some success in this area, because unlike a skate competition setting, videos have no winners and simply showcase the talent and creativity of each participant. Therefore, females can receive appreciation alongside males instead of facing judgment and being ranked beneath them. After a long drought of full-length professional video parts for women, Marisa Dal Santo expanded on Elissa’s success through an appearance in Zero’s Strange World video. Her performance was extremely well received by the skateboarding community, and even received a standing ovation at the premiere (Sinclair). In addition, the comments on the Youtube version of this video clip reflect the increasingly positive view that male skaters are develop-

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ing towards their female counterparts. One viewer commented that Marisa was “right there with Baca and Lizard,” referencing two well-known male pro skaters (Marisa). Although females still have a lot of ground to gain in changing the mindset of the skateboarding community, instances like these show that they are making headway in their quest for equality.

Women’s resistance also helps to break through the largely subconscious sexism of male skaters in order to achieve a sense of equality in the sport. In her research on skateboarding, Becky Beal found that 90 percent of the skaters she documented were male, while only 10 percent were females. Furthermore, while interviewing male skaters, she began to see the prejudice against females that fit into their skate culture. Interviewees would say things like “Girls don’t want to do anything harsh or bruise their legs,” or that skating “takes too much coordination, it’s too aggressive” for women (213-214). In my own observations at a local skate spot in the USC neighborhood, I even witnessed skaters sharing their mutual belief that it would be “weird” to see a girl who was actually good at skating.

Clearly, the overall skateboarding world views women as weak and incapable of seriously pursuing the sport. Understandably, women who skate directly oppose these notions. People who share the mindset of the skaters quoted above may believe that females really do lack the toughness necessary to attempt difficult tricks and take hard slams. However, the videos of pros like Elissa Steamer often feature extremely painful falls. One of Elissa’s clips shows her slipping off of a tall ledge and hitting her chin on a stair step, an injury requiring twelve stitches and breaking several teeth. After seeing this, one viewer stated that Elissa was “f---ing tough,” and claimed that they had “seen all these videos of male teenage dudes bailing and they’re full off screaming for their mommy,” while “all

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elissa does is go ‘ahhh’” (Elissa Steamer Gets Broke). The availability of these clips shows that the females are strong enough to fight through the pain and injury they face in order to keep skating and land their tricks. Furthermore, the reactions of viewers to the videos show that females are starting to succeed in proving their physical durability to the rest of the skateboarding community. In a more recent clip from a professional event sponsored by Thrasher, a popular skateboarding magazine, Marisa Dal Santo and other female skaters attempt to ollie an infamous 18 foot long, 6 foot high set of blocks known as the Wallenberg gap. After Marisa comes extremely close to landing it, takes incredibly hard slams and even snaps her board, a male narrating the end of the video states that “that chick, Marisa dal Santo, tryin’ to ollie it… was f---in gnarly,” adding that “if she would have done the Ollie, she should have just won the whole contest” (Wallenberg). This narration proves that other male pro skaters are starting to change their opinions about female skaters in a positive manner. Furthermore, the fact that Thrasher magazine incorporated a day specifically for women in their high-profile event shows that they are respecting the female subculture’s talent and are beginning to showcase it properly.

As evidenced by this rise in visibility, the women representing skateboarding have made great strides in eliminating their perceived fragility both within the skateboarding world and in society as a whole. A slow but steady push for equality in both competition prizes and visibility between women and men encourages new female participants to come out strong and advance women’s skating. For example, because the X Games now features equal prize money for both genders, the women who compete work even harder, are noticed more and attract new viewers, fans, and support for female skating (Larsen). Events that are exclusive

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to women also create a communal identity for the female skate subculture and provide more opportunities for new participants. One soul skater named Patty Segovia established the “All Girl Skate Jam,� originally the first contest offering prize money for women that eventually grew into a female skate brand (about AGSJ) that has helped make skating a more accessible option for girls. In fact, this push to market skate brands to females has spread across the industry, and other skateboarding companies that originally targeted male consumers for their clothing and products have begun to cater to females as well. Skate fashion has become very popular among girls and young women, even those who do not skate. Therefore, manufacturers like Etnies have begun to include pages on their websites detailing teams of females who are sponsored by the company to skate (Etnies.com). Furthermore, skate shoes are being designed and sold with additional styles that are either more feminine or considered unisex. Female specific models of a popular skate shoe called the Chukka Low, manufactured by the respected Vans shoe company, are advertised on the company website (Vans. com). The availability of shoes that function well for skating and also are not completely masculine show that society has begun to view females as having the ability to be tough risk takers, while allowing them to retain their distinct identity as women. Female skaters have made much progress, and will surely continue to do so in the future.

Women who skateboard have been fighting for years against unjust criticism and a derogatory stereotypical image due to the closed minds of the male skating community and society as a whole. Yet, despite the immense challenges that they have faced, these women continue to battle and move forward. Will the efforts of these driven females pay off in the future? Years from now, will just as

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many young girls as boys pick up skateboards and learn to ride without being looked down on or held back? Will youth of both genders watch amazing videos of female skaters shredding the streets and idolize them? The progress that has been made by females in gaining acceptance from the skateboarding community offers hope for this to occur, though significant change will likely come very slowly. The world does not yet show a complete willingness to accept the female pursuit of activities that require toughness and resistance to pain. However, the bruises, scars, grit, and determination of each female skater who picks herself up after every fall and gets back on her board are perfect proof that women have a place in any activity. These female skaters push themselves constantly, skating on the streets or in contests every day, striving for our acceptance. If we as a society can collectively show support for these women who dare to defy convention, then the recognition they receive will reward future generations with a new definition of femininity—one of strength, determination, and the courage to strive for any dream, even if the leap is taken on a small piece of wood with four tiny wheels down an enormous flight of stairs.

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REFERENCES “about AGSJ.” All Girl Skate Jam. what!design. 11 March 2011. <http://www.bio.ilstu.edu/lynch/how_to_cite_using_mla.htm>.

Beal, Becky. “Alternative masculinity and its effects on gender relations in the subculture

of skateboarding.” Journal of Sport Behavior 19.3 (1996): 204-220. Research

Library Core, ProQuest. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.

Clarkie. “Elissa Steamer.” Real Skate. 6 March 2011. <http://www.realskate.com/elissa.htm>.

Elissa Steamer - Baker Skateboards Baker 2G. Baker, 2000. Youtube. 8 March 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvugxKPtn0w>.

Elissa Steamer Gets Broke Off—ON Video Skateboarding Spring 2001. Youtube.

8 March 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7addbRs8wZ8&feature=related>.

Etnies.com. 8 March 2011. <http://etnies.com/team/girl/>.

“The History of Skateboarding in Less Than 1700 Words.” The Concrete Wave. Warwick.

12 March 2011. <http://pages.interlog.com/~mbrooke/history.htm>.

Larsen, Melissa. “Miss Understood.” ESPN.com. 20 July 2010. ESPN Internet Ventures.

8 March 2011. <http://espn.go.com/action/xgames/summer/2010/news/

story?page=x-games-16-women-skate-street-preview>.

Marisa Dal Santo – Zero Strange World HD. Zero, 2009. Youtube. 8 March 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p44TIA0Dlvk&feature=related>.

Roth, Elaine. “Dogtown and Z Boys.” Journal of American Folklore 117.464 (2004): 197.

ProQuest Research Library. Web. 9 March 2011.

Salo, Adam. “Ladies First”. ESPN.com. 20 July 2010. ESPN Internet Ventures. 8 March 2011. <http://espn.go.com/action/skateboarding/blog/_/post/5395317>.

Sinclair, Mike. “Face Time video with Marisa Dal Santo.” ESPN.com. 8 March 2011. ESPN

Internet Ventures. 8 March 2011. <http://espn.go.com/action/skateboarding/

blog/_/post/6193445/face-time-video-marisa-dal-santo>.

Vans.com. 13 March 2011. <http://www.vans.com/microsites/girls/product/footwear/skate- shoes/chukkalow/>.

Wallenberg Girls. Thrasher Magazine, 2009. Youtube. 8 March 2011. <http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=EPP45MdUe6g>.

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The Ethics of Autonomous Weapon Systems JOHN DACQUISTO Viterbi School of Engineering, Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering Martha Townsend, Faculty Advisor

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Autonomous weapon systems are a rapidly growing tool in the military. There are two different degrees of autonomy to consider. The first is a “fully-autonomous” system which operates on its own, requiring no human input to function properly. An example of a fully-autonomous weapon system is a (hypothetical) independently-acting armed robot, commonly represented in such movies as “The Terminator” and “Robocop.” The second is a “semi-autonomous” system that requires some form of high-level human oversight while automating the lower-level activities necessary for its operation. An example of a semiautonomous weapon system is a General Atomics MQ-1 Predator Drone, which is able to fly and engage targets with minimal human guidance. The development of these weapons has spawned a number of ethical issues that must be acknowledged in order to ensure the responsible design and utilization of these systems. To elaborate, the use of fully-autonomous weapon systems is not ethically permissible due to a fundamental deficiency in how computers make ethical decisions. I will also argue that semi-autonomous weapon systems have the potential to be ethically permissible, provided that they are designed in a way that encourages their users to make ethically sound decisions.

Debating the ethics of fully-autonomous weapon systems is generally more an intellectual exercise. The technology needed to create intelligent, self-sufficient “killer robots” does not currently exist. However, fully-autonomous robotic systems do exist and have increasing applications in modern life, including industrial manufacturing and home maintenance. This high degree of autonomy is desired for many military tasks. University of Texas Security Studies Professor Armin Krishnan proposes: “Military robots will initially take over all of the ‘dangerous, dull and dirty’ tasks...but someday...robots will be able to operate

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autonomously and could largely replace human soldiers in the battlespace” [1, page 61]. This is plausible considering both the current growth in autonomous systems and a desire to reduce military casualties. While fully-autonomous weapons offer certain benefits, these systems have fundamental traits that make them inherently unethical to use.

A main benefit for using robotic weapons is that they can be programmed to operate by a certain set of hueristics. From this standpoint, well-designed robotic weapons following defined operational guidelines would be safer, more reliable and more trustworthy than weapons operated by humans. Robots do not kill out of spite, revenge, or anger. Robots will not commit war crimes, or cause concern that they might place self-preservation above following their orders. In some instances, it is possible that a well-programmed computer would make a better decision than a human. Marek Foss, graduate of the Oxford University Master’s Course in Computer Science expands on this idea: “Maybe an automated, algorithm-precise war, with machines doing cold calculations would be more humane than human wars...even though humans have various pacts, laws etc we still have (the) Holocaust, Vietnam and...Abu Ghraib in our history” [2, page 3].

A key idea to consider when determining if fully-autonomous weapons can use heuristics to act morally is the fundamental operation of the robotic weapons’ computer control systems. While better than humans at accomplishing some tasks, computers are ultimitely limited in their abilities. A persuasive argument regarding the intelligence of computers is a thought experiment designed by philosopher John Searle known as the “Chinese room” [3]. The idea is as follows: a Chinese speaking individual and an English speaking individual are sitting on

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opposite sides of a closed door. Their only form of communication is sliding a piece of paper with writing on it under the door. The Chinese individual initiates the conversation, writing hanzi characters on a piece of paper and sliding it under the door. If the English speaking individual has a detailed set of instructions that explain what symbols to draw based on the symbols he receives, he can write a return message in Chinese. He can then slide the message back under the door without actually understanding what he said or what was said to him. The Chinese individual will think he is communicating with another Chinese speaker, even though the English speaker doesn’t understand the conversation. From this standpoint, it is clear that despite being able to communicate, the English speaker does not “know” Chinese and does not “think” of what response to make; he merely follows instructions. By replacing the English speaking individual with a computer, these same conclusions hold. The computer does not “think” in order to processes an input and give an output; it merely follows an algorithm telling it what to do. Since computers are unable to “think” as humans do, they cannot effectively determine courses of action when exposed to situations outside of their programming.

This inability for computers to “think” like a human is related to a vital assumption in the idea that robotic weapons can operate in an ethically sound manner. This claim implies that there exists a clearly defined set of combat rules which, if used as a heuristic, will always result in ethical behavior. Great effort has been put into designing this set of combat rules, resulting in numerous methodologies including the Rules of Engagement, Law of Armed Conflict, Just War Theory and several others. Each of these theories is unique and contains different ideas about what constitutes moral behavior in combat. New School

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University Professor Peter Asaro elaborates: “While often referred to as if they were a straightforward collection of rules...[they] are really a menagerie of international laws and agreements...treaties...and domestic laws...by the very nature of law, these rules open to challenges and interpretations...and may not be effectively enforceable” [4, page 21]. Since these rules don’t always work together and cannot cover every conceivable situation, contradictory incidents will inevitably arise with no clearly correct course of action. Hypothetical situations show the difficulty in determining a set of unwavering combat rules to follow. In what instances is it ethically justified to kill civilians in order to complete a mission? What scenarios call for killing an enemy when nonlethal restraint may be possible, and when would it be ethically permissible to do so? Determining ethical courses of action in these types of murky situations requires human intuition. Due to their limited programming and inability to think in the same way as a human, computers will be unable to reliably determine moral conclusions in the wide variety of unexpected incidents present in war zones which are not covered by explicit heuristics. This could lead to a computer making a different decision than a human would in a given situation—a decision that may not be viewed by humans as ethically sound.

Naval Engineer John Canning confirms this conclusion: “Designing systems that would target humans...require(s) a ‘man-in-the-loop’ capability to perform target descrimination in order to meet LOAC (Law of Armed Conflict) concerns” [5, page 15].

Another idea promoting robotic weaponry is that using them helps protect lives of military personnel. As modern weaponry evolves, its potent lethality greatly increases the dangers faced by soldiers in combat. This is also mentioned by

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Krishnan: “It would be immoral to send soldiers on a military mission that they are unlikely to survive, unless it is absolutely essential for national survival...the chances of survival have dropped so significantly on the...battlefield as to make humans unfit for it” [1, page 122]. In addition, the general rules of combat have shifted significantly in response to the evolution of weaponry. This was clearly demonstrated during the Iraq War. As of 2007, roughly 63% of all US casualties in Iraq came as a result of IEDs (improvised explosive devices) [6]. This is primarily a result of insurgents using guerrilla strategies, seeking to do the most damage possible to US forces while simultaneously avoiding direct confrontations where they would be at a severe disadvantage. Using automated robotic weapons would allow us to meet military goals while keeping soldiers removed from the unpredictable and extremely lethal environment of the modern battlefield.

However, it is important to note that allowing these robotic weapons to operate with no human oversight implies that there is no person who truly takes responsibility for their actions. When a robot makes a decision to shoot a missile, any repercussions from that decision have no clear target, as the decision was not made by a person. While some people may have a role of responsibility in how the weapon is built, programmed and deployed, none of them actually “pulled the trigger.” This has a number of important implications. Krishnan discusses this, stating: “A military commander might not feel particularly morally responsible for any actions of a military robot that originated from some automated target selection routine. Similarly, the developers of the weapon will claim that they simply do not have any control about the context and manner in which the weaon is used” [1, page 130]. This makes the act of killing much easier since the responsibility of doing so is diffused among so many different

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parties. Without someone clearly deciding on the course of action that the weapon system takes in a given situation, the ease of committing violence due to a diffusion of responsibility may make the military more prone to engaging in unnecessary combat when using fully-autonomous weaponry.

It is therefore desirable to have autonomous weapons that both provide benefits and mitigate these moral issues. Similar gains should be found through using semi-autonomous weapons that have human oversight. These weapons provide soldiers with protection against enemies equivalent to that of robotic weapons, as the weapons have the same offensive capabilities and human operators are kept away from the dangers of the battlefield. Additionally, having a person or group of people overseeing the decision-making process allows for a more ethical operation of the weapons in the unpredictable modern world. Human oversight also places more moral responsibility on the operators, since they are responsible for the repercussions of their decision-making when using the weapon. However, the best way to achieve this is by designing semi-autonomous weapons that encourage their user to exhibit moral behaviors. If these weapon systems are designed in a way that does not promote ethical behavior, certain ethical issues will inevidibly arise.

One concern regarding the use of semi-automated weaponry is that while the weapons do require human input and oversight for ethical decision-making, they can still be constructed in ways that either heighten or lower the overall awareness of the user. Even though a human is in control of the weapon, s/he may be too far physically and psychologically distanced from the reality of the weaponâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s operation to make the same ethical decisions that they would make if

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they were more present in the situation. MIT Professor M.L. Cummings explains this idea quite well, commenting: “The implementation of these current and future ‘smart’ weapons systems means that...a more abstract layer of human cognitive control will be needed...as the human is further removed from direct manual control...the decision making process becomes more abstract and often difficult for the human to grasp” [7, page 29]. This leads to what Asaro refers to as “‘Moral buffers,’ which put psychological distance between users and their actions...diminish(ing) the effects of emotions...and reduc(ing) the emotional impact of the consequences of one’s actions” [4, page 22]. These weapon systems often present information to the user in a very results-oriented way; information is shown on TV screens or computer monitors, and the effects of using the weapon are represented as numerical data against dehumanized “targets” that do not trigger much emotional empathy. User-friendly computer interfaces allow for operators to very easily use these weapons while the psychological distance created by the abstract nature of the system may prevent them from truly comprehending the results of their actions. A useful example is that of launching a missile via the click of a mouse in an isolated room away from the battlefield. All of these traits add up to psychologically remove the user from the repercussions of using the weapon. The psychological ease of using these weapons due to a focus on results may make operators more prone to use them in situations where they may not be necessary, all while feeling little remorse.

Much like how semi-autonomous weapon systems psychologically distance the user from the situation, they physically distance this person as well. It is well-established that the mental difficulty a human faces when causing harm to another human is inversely related to the distance between them: at close

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range the difficulty is significant, while at long range the resistance is much lower. Cummings discusses this idea: â&#x20AC;&#x153;There are significant instances of refusal to kill when presented with hand-to-hand combat scenarios, yet there have been virtually no instances of noncompliance in firing weapons from removed distances such as dropping bombsâ&#x20AC;? [7, page 31]. This phenomenon is graphically represented in Figure 1.

High

Sexual Range Hand-to-Hand Combat Range

Resistance to Killing

Knife Range Bayonet Range Close Range (Pistol/Rifle) Handgrenade Range Long Range (Sniper, Anti-Armor, Missiles, etc.)

Low

Max Range (Bomber, Artillery) Close

Physical Distance from Target

Far

Figure 1. Mental Resistance to Killing as a Function of Distance [7, page 30]

This examination of semi-autonomous weapons exposes a problemâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;that users of these weapons may be inherently predisposed to make different decisions than they would make if they were more involved in the situation. One proposed solution is to construct semi-automated systems that analyze the situation they are involved in and give a recommendation to their user regarding the best

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course of action to take. These weapons are described by Asaro as: “Systems that provide advice to users, or which will act automatically unless overridden by users” [4, page 22]. The thinking behind this idea is that computers will be able to objectively determine the best course of action to take using a predesignated set of operational heuristics. This decision would then be given to the user, who can either accept or override the computer based on their ethical understanding of the situation. Constructing semi-automated weapons in this way could serve to heighten the user’s awareness of the situation. However, there are some ethical issues that must be considered if these systems are to be implemented in a morally effective manner.

An issue with computers giving guidance to humans relates to a well-studied phenomenon of how humans behave in the presence of a perceived authority figure. This psychological trait was studied by psychologist Stanley Milgram in his famous “Milgram experiment” [8]. The essense of the experiment involved a participant being ordered by a “research scientist” to administer pain of varying intensity to another individual in a different room, via electric shocks. While the individual in the other room was not actually receiving any pain, Milgram wanted to study how willing people are to cause another person pain when directed to do so by a perceived authority figure. The participants were able to hear the other individual’s faked cries, though whenever the participant questioned the experiment or stated their discomfort with the situation, the “scientist” would pressure them to continue. The results of the experiment were quite startling, with over 60% following directions to the point of causing the most pain possible to the other individual, giving them “shocks” that were strong enough to risk serious injury and possibly death. One explanation for this result is the

30

removal of the participant from their target. This removal was both physical and psychological: people were more willing to cause harm when they were physically separated from their target and directed to do so by an authority figure.

An additional issue comes tied to the cognitive process that occurs when a user receives a recommendation from a computer. Cummings explains this issue, describing: “A bias that often occurs when automation is introduced in the decision making process in complex systems...known as ‘automation bias’” [7, page 32]. She goes on to argue that people are often willing to accept a computergenerated course of action, even in situations where contradictory information may exist. This amount of automation bias generally increases as the complexity of the decision increases. Humans naturally seek simple solutions to problems and may be more willing to accept the decision of a computer by default rather than determine what is the most ethical thing to do in the situation, often a very difficult and involved task. Therefore, when a semi-automated system gives a recommendation to the user, they are inherently more likely to defer to the computer-generated course of action due to an automation bias.

The main conclusions to consider from the Milgrim experiment and the presence of automation bias in semi-automated weapon systems is that they both involve the user deferring to the computer-generated decision. Rather than objectively determining the most ethical course of action in a situation, the user may simply follow the conclusions of the computer, either out of obeying the computer (a perceived authority figure) or not wanting to make difficult ethical decisions and assuming that the computer has made the correct choice (automation bias).

This deference increases the distance between the user and the repercussions

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of their actions. Cummings summarizes this idea, saying: “Lack of empathetic cues, out of sight, out of mind, and physical distance...these same factors are present in the design and use of a weapons delivery computer interface that can launch weapons from hundreds of miles away from an intended target” [7, page 30]. Therefore, when directed by a computer to do so, users may resort to violence in situations where they would not use force if no violent plan of action was presented to them. Due to the inability for a computer to operate outside of its limited programming, a computer cannot always replicate the human ethical decision-making process. Therefore, having a system in place that encourages (whether intentionally or not) human deference to a computer in deadly decision-making matters is inherently unethical, since a computer cannot reliably make a well-rounded decision about the proper course of action. This flawed decision-making may lead to operators using violence more than they would if they were not biased by the computer-generated decisions.

While there are inherent problems in computers presenting decisions for users to accept or reject, there is still great potential in using computers to help reduce the large amount of information that a user must process. Therefore, the goal of using computers in semi-autonomous weapons must be to have the computer present unbiased, readily understandable information to a user without giving the user an explicit decision about a best course of action that threatens to bias the user’s decision making. If a semi-automated weapon system is able to do this, then it can be operated in an ethically justifiable manner.

Asaro presents a compelling idea regarding how to design semi-automated weapons that encourage ethical decision making. He states: “If one wishes to

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design a system to perform a task, then it is best to first understand that task.

If that task involves humans that are required to make ethical decisions based on interactions with a system, then one should try to understand the nature of the ethical decision-making task from an information-processing perspectiveâ&#x20AC;?

[4, page 23]. He refers to this process as User-Centered Design set in a moral framework. This will require the development of an in-depth morality model that accurately approximates the moral performance of users. Several things will play into this morality model, primarily an understanding of the requirements for making ethical decisions. This understanding must account for how emotions, perceived authorities, and different environments work together to affect the moral decision-making process. Once a morality model is developed, it can be referred to when designing semi-automated weapons to ensure that they allow for their user to fit within the framework of the model.

While this idea seems sound from a theoretical standpoint, there are several immediate problems regarding its implementation. Asaro acknowledges this, asking: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Just as we see variations in kinds and degrees of intelligence and learning styles, we are likely to see variations in ethical reasoning...is it ethical for engineers to impose an ethical model on users who have arrived at a different ethical model through a deliberate and rational process of their own?â&#x20AC;?

[4, page 23]. Designing an effective ethical model would be an imperfect and ever-changing process. Models must be continually refined as more real-world experience is gained using these weapon systems. However, following this methodology will result in the most ethical semi-autonomous weapon systems.

While some aspects of this design process may change, certain fundamental traits that emerge will lead to the greatest amount of ethical responsibility.

Automated weapons often stir strong arguments regarding their use. Using

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fully-automated weapons cannot be ethically justified due to fundamental deficiencies in how computers make ethical decisions. However, semiautomated weapons can be designed to promote the largest amount of ethical decision-making in their operation by focusing on encouraging users to make well-educated ethical decisions. When used in this way, these weapons have the potential for many benefits, including increased protection for military personnel and better fighting ability in modern day warfare.

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REFERENCES [1] “Killer Robots: Legality and Ethnicality of Autonomous Weapons” – Armin Krishnan

Ashgate Publishing Group – July 2009 [Pages 1 – 217] [2] “What are autonomous weapon systems and what ethical issues do they rise?” - Marek

Foss <http://www.marekfoss.org/misc/Autonomous_Weapons.pdf> – March 30,

2008 [Pages 1 – 5] [3] “Chinese Room Argument” – Larry Hauser

<http://www.iep.utm.edu/chineser> – July 27, 2005 [4] “Modeling the Moral User” – Peter M. Asaro. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine –

Spring 2009 [Pages 20 – 24] [5] “You’ve Just Been Disarmed. Have a Nice Day!” - John S. Canning. IEEE Technology and

Society Magazine – Spring 2009 [Pages 12 – 15] [6] “More Attacks, Mounting Casualties” <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/

content/graphic/2007/09/28/GR2007092802161.html> – September 30, 2007 [7] “Creating Moral Buffers in Weapon Control Interface Design” – M.L. Cummings.

IEEE Technology and Society Magazine – Fall 2004 [Pages 28 – 33] [8] “Stanley Milgram Experiment” <http://www.experiment-resources.com/stanley- milgram-experiment.html> ADDITIONAL MATERIAL “Automating War: The Need for Regulation” – Armin Krishnan. Contemporary Security

Policy, 30:1 – April 3, 2009 [Pages 172 – 193] “War as Business: Technological Change and Military Service Contracting” – Armin

Krishnan, Ashgate Publishing Group – February 2008 [Pages 1 – 220]

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A “Novel” Concept—Comic Books as Curriculum REBECA B. DELGADO School of Cinematic Arts, Department of Writing for Screen and Television John R. Murray, Faculty Advisor

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Not many people believed that Superman and Batman would survive to see the 21st century. As the 1990s came to a close, publishers doubted the success of the comic book market due to the “failed materialization of a mass market for graphic novels” (Lopes 151). However, Hollywood was in desperate search for forgotten heroes and resuscitated comic book stories with chart-topping success.

Comics then became a rich harvest for the film industry and, in contrast to their parents, most children now associate caped crusaders with the movie theater, not inked and stapled pages from the corner store. Comics slowly returned to popularity once moviegoers yearned for the original content in bookstores and The New York Times lent credibility to the medium by regularly reviewing graphic novels (Lopes 152). Still, there remains a struggle for graphic novels to be accepted in the academic world “beyond genre material,” pushing writer/ illustrators to “create stories that are more similar to what are generally accepted as works of literature” (Weiner 114). In spite of the trivial stereotype of graphic novels as juvenile superhero stories, comic books have seen success in the most important social arena: the classroom. Beyond films and fanbases, comic books have academic merit that command their role as educational narratives for both literature and art history.

With their unique combination of words and images, comic books are a rich resource for dual education in literature and art. The process of creating a successful graphic novel is a mastery in which both art and literature must form a synchronous bond. Writing and drawing a graphic novel demands coordinated planning for both elements, one never taking precedence over the other. In structure, graphic novels range from about forty-eight to two hundred and twenty-four pages and cover an average of one hundred and eighty words on a

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page (Weiner 115). Script writing is an integral part of the graphic novel process, as is the initial mapping out of the frames in each panel. One cannot plan the special orientation of the image without writing the text for the page, making the graphic novelist both a writer and an illustrator. Additionally, the spacing, lettering, and illustrative style are fundamental visual components to relaying the narrative of the graphic novel’s story, considering that “space does for comics what time does for film” (McCloud 7). The integration of printed space and the written word are unique to the graphic novel medium, forming a vital asset to both art and literature.

Most apprehension from educators and parents is geared toward the inclusion of images in comic books, fearful that they connote lower level reading habits for children learning to read with picture books (Groensteen 32). Don Gallo, editor for The English Journal, admits that English language arts teachers “remain unfamiliar” with graphic novels “in part because our literary sentiments have been trained to avoid anything with illustration” (114). This approach to graphic novels as non-educational narratives stems from a limited grasp of art education and downplays the importance of multiple literacies. The reality of the graphic novel’s benefits are staggering: “The average comic book introduces children to twice as many words as the average children’s book and five times as many words as they were likely to be exposed to in the average child-adult conversation” (Burns et al. 221). The idea that comic books bear no literary merit is inaccurate and prevents the expansion of literary avenues in the classroom on the basis that comic books are playtime reading material. A story that is told visually as well as through written word is no less of a narrative; it is simply a category of its own. One form of storytelling is no more intricate nor educational than the other

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due to the absence or inclusion of illustrative art. The difference in the mediums should be celebrated, allowing comic books to be acknowledged as viable components in the literary world.

The illustrative art of graphic novels is a narrative element that enhances the literary construction in play. Rachel Marie-Crane Williams, an Associate Professor of Art Education at The University of Iowa, uses graphic novels in her university classrooms and concludes, “While words, images, layout, and story are all elements in these texts, none dominate the act of ‘reading’” (13). The visual quality to a graphic novel’s narrative is a platform from which readers can gain insight into the mind of the creator in a way that is transformative to the artist/audience relationship. The art in graphic novels is an informative tool that helps to convey the story the graphic novelist works to tell. To wipe the page clear of either the text or the images would lose the message that is meant to be presented. Illustrations do not rob the graphic novel narrative of clarity or function, rather “comics offer an opportunity for students to scrutinize how interdependent images and words can create a strong sequential narrative” (Williams 13). Using images to tell a story alongside the written word transforms the reader’s perception of the story’s world that would be manifested differently if developed solely through text. The imagery of graphic novels is commanding, creating a representation of exactly what the storyteller had in mind when writing the characters, location, and plot.

The imitable hybridity of the graphic novel leads to the resulting unique benefit of education across multiple literacies. High school teachers Heidi Burns and Darah Odelson constructed a summer curriculum around graphic novels for

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their deaf students (Burns et al. 228). Since American Sign Language is visual without a written component, deaf students must learn a “new symbolic system that, for them, has no basis in oral language” (Burns et al. 228). Burns and Odelson decided upon graphic novels as the focus of the course because of the parallel need for visual learning in deaf education and the visual literacy in graphic novels (Burns et al. 228). The students in the program “had failed 9th–12th grade English classes in the previous year primarily due to language and self-efficacy difficulties” (Burns et al. 229). The results of the class were a resounding success: students who had no interest in reading and struggled with discussion groups were swiftly consuming graphic novels and talking about them with fellow students, making predictions and giving recommendations (Burns et al. 234). The merits of the dual literacy of graphic novels were bountiful for the deaf classroom in a way that could not have been achieved with solely art or prose novels. Because of their need for visual instruction, the deaf students gained insight into the previously intimidating world of literature through their interest in comic books.

Graphic novels are equally useful in an art education context as well, creating opportunities for teachers “to engage students in meaningful discussions about visual perception, drawing and design, art history, and content on multiple levels” (Williams). Connecting visual images and words is an efficient way to help students develop “stronger visual literacy” (Williams 13). Classic graphic novels like Lynd Ward’s God’s Man (1929) and Frank Masereel’s Passionate Journey (1919) provide narratives told through “woodcut novels,” named so for the intricate wood cut process used to create each individual frame of story (McCloud 19). Introducing these works, among others, indicate a rich art history

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in the comic book timeline. Approaching art as a communicative narrative strengthens students’ abilities to examine how color, shadow, and lines can affect mood or tone in stories, or study the body language and facial expressions of the characters in the novels (Burns et al. 230). The pictorial structure of graphic novels were beneficial among Burns and Odelson’s students since the images supported the text, helping the readers to “decode the words and illustrations” and “identify events between visual sequences” (Burns et al. 231). In absorbing the images in order to better understand the text, students developed analytical skills that can be applied to both art and literature.

For a generation of media-rich students, graphic novels connect the living room couch and the classroom. In one of the first journal articles published in comic book panels, graphic novelist and educator Gene Yang attributes graphic novel’s success with students to the medium’s “visual permanence” (188).

While media like live-action film and animation have a visual narrative, they are on and off the screen in a matter of moments (Yang 188). However, graphic novels rely on the speed at which the reader goes through the panels, utilizing the print aspect of their publication (Yang 188). Yang experienced the success of visual permanence as an algebra teacher who made “comics lectures” for substitute teachers to administer during his absences (187). In using “comics lectures” as a type of “remote control” with which students can visually revisit possible confusing points during the algebra lectures, Yang demonstrated the effectiveness of translating subjects into comic book format, even material as formulaic as math lessons (189). Yang proposes that this method works for students because “graphic novels bridge the gap between the media we watch and the media we read” (187). For media-savvy students, having a visual

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component to a math lecture was useful beyond the prose-only textbooks and aural lectures. Playing to students’ need for multiple literacies gave Yang an opportunity to teach them on grounds that they could learn from, not simply memorize formulas in his absence.

Comic books’ success in the math classroom as well as the art and English rooms opens the door to a multitude of possibilities for the medium. Programs in K-12 schools have seen increasing numbers of comic book aided instruction (Yang 186). One example of recent success, George Fox University English professor Joanna Schmidt conducted a project in which her students were assigned to write four essays centered on graphic novels over the course of a semester (104).

Schmidt chose to use graphic novels to encourage the struggling students in her Writing 100 course (104). By the end of the course, the same students who had claimed not to have read more than four books in a semester nor written more than seven pages were turning in 20 page research essays (Schmidt 106).

In a following assignment, students wrote about how “their self-images had transformed” and that they were no longer “bad readers,” but instead graphic novels had taught them the joys of reading (Schmidt 106). The alternative approach to writing helped the students view literature with fresh eyes, much like in the case of Yang’s algebra students. Both instructors benefited from refreshing their curriculum with the visual and literary aid of graphic novels and in turn, experienced the reward of a rejuvenated classroom.

The reactions from Schmidt’s students lends to the social significance of comic book-based learning. Schmidt hoped that the graphic novels would invite hesitant readers to engage with the material, but did not anticipate the emotional

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response the students would have to the graphic novels (104). After assigning Shaun Tan’s The Arrival, a story of a man’s struggle to adapt in a foreign land, Schmidt received significant response from the Chinese exchange students in her class (104). The exchange students’ personal accounts and active participation in group discussions not only strengthened their involvement with the course, but inspired the rest of the class to ask about their own immigration stories and understand each other within a cross-cultural context (Schmidt 104). The social education was strengthened by the graphic novel’s impactful imagery and spoke to the students’ experiences in a way that prose may not have had the ability to connote. The group’s stirring excitement for a relatable source connected students learning English for the first time with students who had never engaged with texts in a personal way that magnifies the importance of multiple literary perspectives in the classroom.

In addition to their use as social teaching tools, graphic novels also bear a popular standing in university classrooms for their personal historical narratives.

Art Spiegelman’s Maus, an autobiographical account of the Holocaust through the eyes of Spiegelman’s father, is widely regarded as the best historical graphic novel of all time (Weiner 115). The Pulitzer Prize-winning work depicts Jews as mice and Nazis as cats. It is used both as an introduction to the Holocaust for children as well as studied at the university level as a groundbreaking piece of comic book history. Stephen Weiner writes, “If Maus were a prose novel, its impact would be weaker” (115). Weiner’s claim resonates with the pride of the graphic novel community in Spiegelman’s masterpiece, which has given the medium a significant amount of recognition. The reality of Maus’ success is linked to both its art and words. The interwoven narratives of Spiegelman and his father

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juxtaposed with the gritty yet fable-like illustrations makes Maus an achievement in both art and literature. Maus was a feat for Spiegelman that commanded thirteen years of his life (Weiner 115). Through this lens, it is difficult to imagine stripping Maus of its literary merit or artistic integrity, proving that the graphic novel medium is a stand-alone category that deserves praise for the creators’ dual talents.

Whether as a stepping-stone for literary adventures or as an art lesson disguised as a story, graphic novels educate readers in a way that cannot be realized by any other medium. The imaginative nature of the storylines range from Gotham City to its real life counterpart New York City, but the humanity of the characters and the intricate dimensions of storytelling remain the core of each graphic novel.

In response to her students’ passionate reaction to graphic novels, educator Joanna Schmidt concluded, “My goal for my students is not that they will just pass my class, but that they will be lifelong readers and writers who are literate in every sense of that word. For that to happen they first have to be interested in reading, and graphic novels can be the hook to draw them in” (107). Illustrated narratives engage readers of all ages and encourage both literacy and a love of literature, gifts that even the most traditional university professor can appreciate.

In living rooms where digital tablets and high definition televisions compete with one another to tell stories to students, it is encouraging to know that progressive language arts teachers are throwing graphic novels into the ring.

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REFERENCES Burns, Heidi, Dana L. Grisham, Darah Odelson, and Linda Smetana. “Using Graphic

Novels in the High School Classroom: Engaging Deaf Students with a New Genre.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 53.3 (2009): 228-40.

Web. <http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/25614551>.

Gallo, Don. “Bold Books for Innovative Teaching.” English Journal 94.2 (2004):

114-7. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. <http://libproxy.usc. edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/?url=http:// search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/237293715?acco untid=14749>.

Groensteen, Thierry. “Why Are Comic Still in Search of Cultural Legitimization?” Ed.

Hans Christian Christiansen and Anne Magnussen. Comics & Culture: Analytical

and Theoretical Approaches to Comics. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum

Tusculanum, University of Copenhagen, 2000. 29-42. Print.

Lopes, Paul Douglas. “The Heroic Age III: New Movements, Winning Respect, and the

Rise of the Graphic Novel.” Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American

Comic Book. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2009. 150-78. Print.

McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Perennial,

1993. Print.

Schmidt, Joanna. “Graphic Novels in the Classroom: Curriculum Design, Implementation,

and Reflection.” English Journal 100.5 (2011): 104-7. ProQuest Research Library.

Web. Nov. 2012. <http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc. edu/?url=http:/search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/864568603?acc ountid=14749> Williams, Rachel Marie-Crane. “Image, Text, and Story: Comics and Graphic Novels in the Classroom.” Art Education 61.6 (2008): 13-9. ProQuest Research Library. Web.

Nov. 2012. <http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com. libproxy.usc.edu/?url=http:/search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/199 427649?accountid=14749> Weiner, Stephen. “Show, Don’t Tell: Graphic Novels in the Classroom.” English Journal

94.2 (2004): 114-7. ProQuest Research Library. Web. Nov. 2012. <http://libproxy. usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/?url=http:/ search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/237293715?accountid=14749> Yang, Gene. “Graphic Novels in the Classroom.” Language Arts 85.3 (2008): 185-92.

ProQuest Research Library. Web. Nov. 2012. <http://libproxy.usc.edu/ login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/?url=http:/search. proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/196906344?accountid=14749>

Adding Life to Years: Quality of Life Among the Elderly SONIA HUA Davis School of Gerontology, Department of Human Development and Aging Jeffrey Chisum, Faculty Advisor

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Imagine yourself at the age of 75, sharing a cramped room with six other older adults ranging from the ages of 50 to 120, forced to listen to their snoring at night, their coughing in the morning, and their complaining about incurable back aches and soreness. Now imagine this unpleasant scene occurring not sometime in the far off future, but now, before the year 2020 even approaches.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population in the United States as of November 7, 2011 is estimated to be 312,567,635 people while the older population is the fastest growing age group. With such a large population, competition for jobs affects every age group, hitting the older population the hardest. Along with inflation of prices of consumer goods and resources, it is not surprising that “poverty among older adults is increasing at a staggering rate” (Magazine.Alliance1.org). With the rising number of older adults due to the baby boomer generation and advancements in the medical field, it is important today to acknowledge that everyone can live to a very old age. Now, however, it is also necessary to shed light on how to age comfortably as the population reaches their older years. A lack of quality of life among the older population is a serious problem that is too often overlooked and deserves to be solved with effective solutions.

In order to address problems of the elderly, it is imperative to acknowledge and understand the rate at which the population is aging. The older population is increasing so rapidly that it is projected by the year 2030 to have “about 2.1 million older persons, more than twice their number in [the year] 2000” (Administration on Aging). The population of 65 years and older currently represents more than 12.4% of the population and is expected to reach 19% of the population in less than 20 years. To paint a better picture, that is one 65+

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adult for every group of five people, ranging from infants to anyone under 65.

Table 1 below shows the projections for the number of persons 60+ between the

Number of Persons 60+

years 1900 to 2050 (Source: U.S. Census Bureau).

Age 85+ Age 75-84 Age 65-74 Age 60-64 120,000,000

100,000,000 80,000,000 60,000,000 40,000,000 20,000,000 0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Table 1. Population by Age: 1900-2050

Depicted in the graph is an upward trend for the number of people ages 60 and over, as well as an increase within each age group. For example, the age group 65-74, 75-84, and 85+ are all expected to be much larger in the year 2050 than in the year 1990. To accommodate for the increase of older people, terms have been created to divide what stages of “oldness” in which an adult may be. For example, the ages 65-74 are known as the “young old,” the ages 75-84 as the “older old,” and the age 85+ as the “oldest old” (Quadagno). These numbers are not without flaws, but are accurate enough estimations of what is the current population in America and what the expected population trends will be in the near future.

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One common stereotype among the older population is that they are all rich, senile, and stingy. Though there are a small percentage of affluent older adults, the majority of the 65+ population is actually living in or near poverty level.

Poverty for an older adult living alone is defined as having an “annual cash income before taxes [of] below $10,326” and poverty for an elderly couple is having an “annual income below $13,014” (Baer, O’Brien, and Wu). This indicates that a “poor” single older adult is allotted less than $860 a month for rent, groceries, and other necessities after taxes, while an elderly couple is allotted about $1084 a month after taxes. It is important to keep in mind that this income amount is the maximum to qualify as living in poverty in most cities, including expensive areas such as Los Angeles and New York City; thus, the 10% of 65+ who are labeled as living in poverty are very likely receiving much less than the $860 or $1084 a month either from the government or from part time jobs. With today’s rising costs in groceries, housing, and medical bills, it is difficult for anyone to live off $800 a month, let alone an older person on medication or with special living or eating requirements.

Though fast food and instant ramen may be inexpensive and reasonable meal options for college students, they are by no means healthy options for an older adult. According to the Elder Nutrition and Food Safety (ENAFS) guidelines adapted from the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), what are considered healthy eating habits for an adult 65+ are very different than for a person under 65 years of age. Although 65 is an arbitrary age selected for dividing statistics, there is a correlation between people 65+ having more issues than people 64 and under. This is because as a person ages, the digestive system slows down and fat metabolism becomes increasingly difficult, causing a higher risk of cardiovascular

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diseases. The dietary needs of older adults are so delicate that they have their own MyPyramid to follow (University of Florida). MyPyramid is a nutritional pyramid created by the USDA to help consumers eat healthier. Consumers are to choose a portion of food from each food group in order to eat a balanced meal.

The significant difference between the pyramid for older adults and younger consumers is the recommended amount of fluid intake. For example, in the pyramid designed for younger consumers, fluid intake is not emphasized in the pyramid at all, whereas in the older adultsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; pyramid, a whole section for 8 glasses of water is added (Tufts University). This emphasis on fluid intake is added because dehydration is one of the largest causes of illness among older adults.

Unfortunately, fresh produce, lean meats, and even clean water, are all costly.

If an older adult living on a tight budget is taking medication or is paying rent monthly, it is unlikely that he or she will have enough money to splurge on organic produce and bottled water. Because of insufficient income, these older adults resort to purchasing poor quality foods, eating less in general, or even purchasing items that should not be ingested by human beings at all. One example, often thought of only as urban legend, is older women purchasing pet food not to feed their pets, but themselves because they are less expensive than human food. This, sadly, is not just urban legend. According to Dr. Kapowski, PhD in cardiovascular disease and a registered dietician, many older adults, especially older women living in poverty, claim to purchase pet food for their pet; however, when social workers visit them in their homes, no pets are found.

Though this image may be too disturbing for some to believe, it is not something that can simply be dismissed as unrealistic because it has been witnessed in other countries. In Zimbabwe some people are too poor to afford meat and resort

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to eating whatever proteins are cheapest, even if that entails canned dog food (Moyana). Because poorer older adults cannot afford to maintain healthy diets, their chances of being burdened by chronic diseases tend to increase.

Chronic diseases are illnesses that persist for 3 or more months and “generally cannot be prevented by vaccines or cured by mediciation, nor do they just disappear” (MedicineNet). Some common chronic illnesses related to poor diet found among the older population in general are “arthritis, hypertension, ischaemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus” (Gray and Scott). According to MedicineNet, an online medical database updated by physicians and researchers, “eighty-eight percent of Americans over 65 years of age have at least one chronic health condition.” Older adults who cannot afford nutritious groceries carry the burden of two or even more chronic diseases. For example, as a person ages, he or she is, in general, more prone to getting high cholesterol or diabetes due to the amount of sodium or sugar intake increasing from the need for more intense flavors. What is particularly unfortunate about chronic illnesses is the trend that if an older adult obtains one chronic illness, the chances of obtaining another one are higher (Quadagno). Thus, it is common for an older patient to be taking more than one medication at one time to treat their various illnesses.

Contrary to modern stereotypes, doctors and pills are not the older populations’ best friends. According to the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), “217 of the most popular prescription drugs used by older Americans increased [in prices] by an average retail price of 8.3 percent during the year 2009.” This same study conducted by AARP known as the annual comparative drug pricing report also indicated that the overall retail price for popular brand-name drugs,

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that do not require prescriptions, increased by 41.5% just over the last 5 years.

This is a significant disadvantage to older Americans because as a person ages, it is likely that the number of medications he or she is on will increase too.

With increasing prices, some older adults resort to splitting a pill in half to â&#x20AC;&#x153;doubleâ&#x20AC;? the amount of medicine, as well as purchasing unfamiliar brand drugs (MedicineNet). Splitting a pill causes the effects of the medication to lessen and may require the adult to take the medication for a prolonged period of time, or even require a stronger, and maybe more expensive, medication if the body never completely gets over the illness the first time. The following data table shows the cost of 5 most commonly prescribed drugs for the elderly and its costs per year.

Name of Drug

What it Treats

Cost of 1-Year Supply

Lipitor

Cholesterol control

$871

Norvasc

Calcium channel blocker

$549

Fosamax

Bone density

$894

Prilosec (20 mg)

Anti-ulcer

$1,684

Celebrex

Rheumatoid Arthritis

$2,102

Cost of 5 Commonly Prescribed Drugs for the Elderly (Rubin and Rubin)

Lipitor is the best-selling drug of all time, peaking at $13 billion in sales in 2010, the last full year before its patent expired. Almost immediately after Pfizer, the manufacturer of Lipitor, lost protection for its patent on November 30, 2011 (Carollo), generic brands became available for nearly 80% less.

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Although there are generic brands of medications for the poorer elderly, there are still many undiscovered ones that will be on patent for as long as they can before less expensive ones can be sold. Thus, despite knowing that there will be a less pricy medication available in the future, continuing to pay the more expensive patented medication in the present is what most hurts older adults living on a budget. Most working adults aged 30-60 cannot afford to spend thousands of dollars on medications per year, so to expect an older adult with little to no income to do so is simply unrealistic.

Although there are still too many older adults starving in order to pay for medications, there are a few who take advantage of certain medical programs implemented by the government. The Medicare Modernization Act of 2003, for example, includes tax incentives for affluent older adults to purchase their own private insurance so the public money can be devoted to poorer, older Americans. In addition to the “$12 billion in subsidies to private insurance companies to encourage them to offer seniors these competing policies,” Medicare Part D was implemented to aid with paying for prescription drugs (Quadagno). Medicare Part D is a program that, if applied for, will pay up to 75% of up to $2,250 a year. However, after spending $2,250, Medicare will stop paying for prescription drugs until the older adult spends an additional $3,600, creating what is known as the “doughnut hole.” After the doughnut hole, Medicare will pay 95% of any prescription drug costs. If a patient is living in or near the poverty level, Medicare will pay almost all drug costs. However, because the prices of medications can vary depending on from where the adult purchases it, not all costs can always be covered. Thus, even with Medicare, the elderly can still end up paying hundreds of dollars out of pocket simply because Medicare only covers

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up to a certain price for each medication. With this lack of assurance, many poorer elderly people do not want to spend the time to register for something that confuses them and does little to benefit them.

Aside from nutrition deficiencies and pricy medications, financially burdened older adults also have a difficult time finding the right type of housing. Very often, the elderly start off living at a home with their spouse, children, and/ or grandchildren. This living arrangement where three or more generations live under one roof is not advised, but is often seen among poorer families. For example, living in Chinatown Los Angeles, the Lee family is a multigenerational household where the grandfather lives with his two daughters, his son-in-law, and his four grandchildren in a small apartment complex (Khramer). Though Mr. Lee is fortunate enough to have a caring family to support him through his older years, not all older adults are so lucky. Many are kicked out of their childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s homes or forced to live in nursing homes where they are left alone and never visited. In May Sartonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s novel As We Are Now, the main character speaks about her misery living in a nursing home and talks about how other older adults living with her are often mistreated by the caregivers because most nursing homes are government funded. Though this information is depicted in a novel, elder mistreatment from caregivers is indeed a genuine problem that is very often not reported (AGS Foundation).

Assisted living facilities are similar to nursing homes in that there are caregivers to watch over the elderly. They are encouraged because they provide opportunities for older adults to socialize, ranging from events such as group exercise to dining together. These social aspects help the elderly maintain good

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health, hygiene, and memory (Quadagno). However, because assisted living facilities are more expensive, very few older adults end up living in one unless their children support them financially or they had already saved enough money from their retirement funds.

The topic of one’s living situation is tricky when it comes to older adults. Not only do they require caregivers to assist them, but they also wish to age in a location where they are happy. Luckily, many programs are implemented nowadays to support the idea of aging in place. Many companies are starting home care so that instead of requiring older adults to be moved out toward a location for care, they can permanently reside in their home of choice and have caregivers visit them. This, at first, might seem more expensive, but because the elderly are not paying for constant care, the cost is actually reduced overall (Aging In Place Preserves Seniors’ Independece, Reduces Care Costs).

This less expensive form of housing with caregivers is also beneficial to older adults because it allows them independence and privacy (Henning, Ahnby and Osterstrom). Though there are still more poor elderly living in nursing homes or multigenerational households, there are companies supporting and spreading the idea of aging in place who provide home care for the people who want assistance or cannot afford any other option.

Another solution to help the elderly is Meals On Wheels, an excellent program that has been implemented in 41 states to start the campaign for “no senior goes hungry.” Not only does the program deliver daily food trays to older adults in the community, but they also provide freshly prepared “nutrition counseling, Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) services, [and] emergency

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meals and referrals to other local programs” (Meals on Wheels Association of America). Unfortunately, Meals On Wheels is an under funded program that is only starting to make an impact for the 6 million seniors facing the threat of hunger. Since 2007, Meals On Wheels has risen to be one of the top advocates to help many senior citizens eat healthier. Older adults are able to have prepared meals that accommodate their individual diets and may socialize with the person delivering their meals, building a friendship that is imperative, for seniors who live alone.

Another, more controversial resource for the elderly is AARP. Many county hospitals and clinics for low-income patients do not suggest AARP as a possible insurance provider because it is a privately owned, non-governmental organization. The truth about AARP is that it is a “non-profit advocate for its members” and is “one of the most powerful lobbying groups in the United States” (AARP). They provide a variety of programs and services for adults ages 50+, similar to Medicare, as well as benefits that Medicare does not provide such as travel and entertainment discounts. AARP encourages adults 50+ to take advantage of Medicare supplemental health insurance, discounts on prescription medication, and home and life insurance. One common mistake seniors make when avoiding AARP as a possible insurance is understanding that Medicare and AARP are two separate opposing organizations. AARP is not trying to compete with Medicare. Though they both provide similar benefits, AARP allows older adults who do not qualify for Medicare to have less expensive insurance, as well as encouraging seniors already on Medicare to sign up for AARP to help supplement other which Medicare will not pay. For example, because pricy medications may not always be covered by Medicare Part D, AARP can help pay

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for the leftover costs. AARP is too often perceived as a business purely seeking profits, but if more people looked into the benefits they would see AARP’s vision being put to effect: “a country that is free of poverty where no older person feels vulnerable” (AARP).

When addressing the topic of living to older ages, quality of life is a serious issue that is only beginning to be noticed. It is extremely important to realize that the population as a whole is getting older, and as a result, aging comfortably needs to be emphasized. Researchers and doctors have worked very hard to make the life span of every individual longer, from finding cures to providing caregivers. The important question now becomes when are we going to succeed in adding life to years? Many people with poor health, expensive medications, and undesirable housing situations, are living to very old ages. Although their life expectancy has increased, they are still not aging comfortably. Although many solutions are already available and many more are starting each year, it is vital that the younger and older populations become aware of these beneficial programs. Not acknowledging that these programs are effective can only prevent the current and future seniors from having positive lifestyles. Once the population as a whole becomes aware of the serious problems already occurring among the older age groups, the vision of working as a community to lessen the older adults’ burdens can finally become a reality.

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REFERENCES AARP. AARP. 2011. 21 November 2011. <http://www.aarp.org>.

AARP Press Center. Older Adults Have Highest Poverty Rate under Experimental Poverty Measure. AARP Report. Washington DC: AARP, 2010.

Administration on Aging. Aging Statistics. 1 September 2011. 7 November 2011. <http://www.aoa.gov/aoaroot/aging_statistics/index.aspx>.

Aging In Place Preserves Seniors’ Independece, Reduces Care Costs. 8 March 2011.

4 November 2011 <http://seniorjournal.com/NEWS/Eldercare/2011/20110308- AgingInPlacePreserves.htm>.

AGS Foundation. Elder Mistreatment. 28 February 2005. 20 11 2011. <http://www. healthinaging.org/agingintheknow/chapters_ch_trial.asp?ch=9>.

Bailey, Patrick. “Longevity or Immortality.” Share Guide (2002): 30-31.

Beaubien, Greg. “Is Immortality a Possibility? Some Doctors Think So - If We Treat

Ourselves Right.” Natural Way for Better Health (1995): 27-28.

Best, Ben. “Immortality: Science That Isn’t Fiction.” Life Extension (1998): 53-54.

Binstock, Robert H. “The Start of Anti-Aging Medicine?” The Gerontologist (2004): 270-273.

Block, Melissa. “Steps Toward Immortality.” Life Extension (2000): 71-72.

Butrica, Barbara A. and Sheila R. Zedlewski. “Older Americans’ Economic Security.”

The Urban Institute (2008): 1-2.

Callahan, Daniel. “Living to be 100: good or bad?” Journal of Applied Gerontology (1997): 267-268.

Carollo, Kim. “Lipitor Among Top Drugs Coming Off Patent.” ABC News. 9 March 2011: 1-2.

Cawthorne, Alexandra. “The Straight Facts on Women In Poverty.” Center for American Progress (2008): 1-3.

Dyer, Mark. “ Intimations of Immortality: The Ethics and Justice of Life-Extending

Therapies by John Harris.” AgeLine (2009): 56-58.

Faloon, William. “Can Humans Attain Physical Immortality?” Life Extension (2007): 7-10.

“What We Are Doing To Reverse Your Biological Age.” Life Extension (2011).

General Media. “30 Years to Immortality.” Total Health (1998): 4.

Gray, Leonard C. and Ian A. Scott. “Chronic Illness in Older People.” The Medical Journal of Australia (2003): 241.

Haseltine, William. “Regenerative Medicine, Aging, and Human Immortality.” Life Extension (2002): 59-66.

Henning, Cecila, Ulla Ahnby and Stefan Osterstrom. “Senior Housing in Sweden: A New

Concept for Aging in Place.” Social Work in Public Health (2009): 235-254.

Herbert, Nick. “The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection

of the Dead.” Frontier Perspectives (1995): 45-46.

Hume, David. “On the Immortality of the Soul.” Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul. London: St. Augustine’s Press, 1783. 15-19.

Issa, Philip and Sheila R. Zedlewski. “Poverty Among Older Americans, 2009.” The Urban Institute (2011): 1-6.

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Kerr, Cheryl. Independent Living Solutions for Senior Citizens a Booming U.S. Industry.

5 October 2009. 5 November 2011. <http://seniorjournal.com/NEWS/ Housing/2009/20091005-IndependentLivingSolutions.htm>.

Khramer, Sarah. “Three Generations Under One Roof.” The New York Times. 23 September

2011: 1-11.

Magazine.Alliance1.org. “Aging in Poverty: A Silence Crisis Brews.” Alliance for Children &

Families Magazine Issue 3 (2010): 29-30.

Meals on Wheels Association of America. Foodnet Meals on Wheels Delivers More Than

Just A Meal. 21 November 2011. 22 November 201. <http://mowaablog.org/?p=1885>.

MedicineNet. Chronic Disease Definition. 1996. 2011 November 10 2011. <http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=33490>.

Moyana, Jimmy. “Poor, Hungry Zimbabweans Turn to Pet Food.” Institute for War & Peace Reporting. 8 April 2011: 1-3.

O’Brien, Ellen, Ke B. Wu and David Baer. Older Americans in Poverty: A Snapshot. AARP

Public Policy. Washington DC: AARP, 2010.

O’Brien, Sharon. “Many Older Adults are Living in Poverty.” About.com Guide. 6 May 2010.

Office of Public Communications. “Older Adults’ Health and Age-Related Changes: Reality

Versus Myth.” American of Psychological Association (1998): 1-4.

Quadagno, Jill. Aging and the Life Course. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Rice, Janelle C. “Immortality.” Midwifery Today (2010): 4.

Rosch, Paul J. “Can Biologic Aging Be Slowed or Reversed.” Health and Stress (2009): 1-12.

Rubin, Allan and Harold Rubin. Prescription Drugs and the Elderly. 6 May 2011. 10

November 2011. <http://www.therubins.com/geninfo/eldpresc.htm>.

Sarton, May. As We Are Now. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1973.

Smith, Philip. “Dr. Sanjay Gupta’s Search for Immortality.” Life Extension (2007): 41-45.

Tufts University. Modified Pyramid for Older Adults. 20 December 2007. 7 November 2011. <http://nutrition.tufts.edu/research/modified-mypyramid-older-adults>.

University of Florida. Elder Nutrition and Food Safety Program. 25 August 2010.

7 November 2011. <http://fycs.ifas.ufl.edu/enafs/MyPyramid%20for%20 Older%20Adults.html>.

West, Michael and William Andrews. “Turning On Immortality: The Debate Over

Telomerase Activation.” Life Extension (2009): 79-83.

West, Michael D. “Back to Immortality: The Opportunities and Challenges of Therapeutic Cloning.” Life Extension (2003): 63-70.

Whitman, Debra and Patrick Purcell. “Topics in Aging: Income and Poverty Among Older

Americans in 2005.” CRS Report for Congress. 2006.

The L.A. Riots of 1992 and the Right of Revolution DANIEL JIA Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, Departments of Economics and International Relations Global Business Ellen Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Connor, Faculty Advisor

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If the United States is known as the “Melting Pot,” then Los Angeles should be known as the City-Where-the-Pot-Boils-Over. Despite its outstanding cultural heterogeneity, Los Angeles has had no shortage of racial and ethnic clashes.

The most prominent example of this was the Los Angeles Riots of 1992, largely considered to be one of the worst manmade disasters in American history (Samad). The riots occurred only half an hour after four Los Angeles Police Department officers were acquitted of assault and use of excessive force against Rodney King, an African-American motorist. The violence escalated over the next several days as former Mayor Tom Bradley was forced to enact a curfew on the city and summon the National Guard to keep Los Angeles from dissolving into complete anarchy. The riots were covered extensively by the media, which played a major role in shaping public opinion about the riots (Campbell et al.). In the years after the chaos, it is generally believed that the riots were primarily an excuse for senseless violence, looting, and frenzied race conflicts (Marks et al. 4). This long-standing public sentiment is largely a result of media coverage that focused on the turmoil following the trials rather than the LAPD’s infamous history of police abuses, particularly toward the African-American residents of Los Angeles (Oliver et al. 121). Considering these repeated offenses by law enforcement, the emotional reactions of the frustrated residents to the acquittal of four white officers should be seen as neither surprising nor without precedent. American history is filled with examples of the people rebelling against government entities to protect their right to self-preservation, from the Boston Massacre to the race riots during the Civil Right Movement. From this perspective, despite media framing that has swayed public opinion to the contrary, the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 were completely valid as the Angelinos’ response to government abuses.

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The riots are commonly seen as a violent, circus-like event that engulfed Los Angeles for several days. This attitude is reaffirmed by a brief statistical inspection of the aftermath: fifty-two people dead, over 2,300 people injured, and property damage between $750 million and $1 billion dollars (Oliver et al.

118). These horrific numbers are amplified by the media’s live coverage of much of the riots, including the attack on Reginald Denny, an innocent, white truck driver, by a group of men known as the LA Four (Gray). All the major newspapers in the country published many pictures of arson and looting. These isolated incidents of senseless violence and law breaking gave the riots, as a whole, a negative reputation. During these unstable times, public opinion is especially vulnerable and turns to the media to “become sense-makers to the world, providing stocks of knowledge, available concepts, and interpersonal rules by which individuals can classify and interpret events” (Campbell et al.). Due to the chaotic nature of the riots, the public was easily influenced by media coverage that “included using scare headlines over relatively mild stories, staging rock throwing and other events, reporting rumors, broadcasting live from a riot site without the benefit of editing, [and] speculating about potential violence” (Campbell et al.). In other words, the media portrayed the rioters as unethical opportunists in difficult times, while their suffocating coverage was equally as opportunistic, by taking advantage of a bewildered and worried public.

News reports were frequently responsible for negatively classifying the riots by the repeated mislabeling of events. A study conducted by Shannon Campbell, Phil Chidester, Jason Royer, and Jamel Bell centralized two main components of media framing during the riots: firstly, that the riots were a rebellion against government control rather than a desperate call for justice, and secondly, that

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rioting as a demonstration is illogical. These components were primarily the result of their hasty reporting, which often created an inaccurate depiction of the events, and misled the public (Campbell et al.). In a Los Angeles Times article, Swati Pandey notes that the newspaper used the word “riot” to describe the incident over 1,000 times, as opposed to “rebellion” and “uprising,” which are favored more by the people who saw a political message to the protests. As Representative Maxine Waters said, “If you call it a riot, it sounds like it was just a bunch of crazy people who went out and did bad things for no reason. I maintain it was somewhat understandable…so I call it a rebellion” (qtd. in Pandey).

Another example is the labeling of the trial of the four LAPD officers as the “Rodney King trial,” despite the fact that King was not on trial for anything. This mislabeling by the media deflected attention from any justifiable reasoning the people may have had. As a result, the lasting legacy of the riots is significantly affected because public opinion was saturated with the media’s negatively connotated terms and portrayals.

By perpetuating these widely published labels, the media commonly portrayed the riots as a defiance of the government rather than a plea for justice. In effect, the public was largely unaware of the mistreatment at the hands of the LAPD in the decades preceding the riots, especially in the African-American community.

In the 1980s, 18 individuals died as a result of chokeholds from LAPD officers. Of the 18 who died, 16 of them were African-American (Oliver et al. 121). The City of Los Angeles was also forced to pay millions of dollars to citizens who had filed lawsuits complaining of LAPD abuse (Oliver et al. 121). There was not only a welldocumented pattern of abuse within the LAPD, but the black community believed these cases to be indicative of the notion that they were being specifically

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targeted. Despite reoccurring, dubious behavior demonstrated by the LAPD, numerous newspaper articles covering the riots still emphasized the “need for order superced[ing] the need for justice” (Campbell et al.). This coverage was contrary to previous perceptions put forth by the media. Campbell’s study indicates that the media was not as accepting towards the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 because they were not part of a greater social movement, as opposed to rioting in colonial times and during the Civil Rights Movement. The patriotic and race riots were two methods of fighting oppression that most Americans do not even consider “riots.” Because of the media’s portrayal, the public was not able to realize the parallels between the uprisings, which provided “further evidence of the active delegitimization of the concept [of rioting] through contemporary media treatments” (Campbell et al.). Even though the Angelinos’ protests were similar to many historically lauded efforts, the media ignored the connections and deemphasized the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 by failing to recognize the LAPD’s injustices.

Contemporary media has also spread the notion that rioting is an illogical response to any kind of injustice. Media framing directed public opinion towards the rioters as the perpetrators, rather than the reason the rioters chose to protest. The media demonstrated an “emphasis on things like property damage and financial losses as a result of riotous activity rather than the social inequities that engulf the lives of the disenfranchised” (Campbell et al.). During the riots, the heaviest damage was sustained in South Central where residents “found themselves in conflict and competition with one another over jobs, housing, and scarce public resources (Oliver 121). The state of the neglected community signaled the desperate need for a city hall-sponsored revitalization. Despite

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the region’s condition, the local government continued to invest vigorously in the wealthier areas of Downtown and the Westside “at the expense of South Central” (Oliver 124). This geopolitical background was seldom mentioned during the media coverage of the riots. Throughout the riots, the media were solely focused on the illogical acts committed, such as the Reginald Denny beating and widespread looting. Excluded from the coverage was any allusion to the failure of the government to provide for their discontented constituents, many of whom may have been motivated to loot for the sake of self-preservation. The media consciously chose to neglect these details because it was not as compelling a story to sell. This one-sided coverage of the riots led the public to conclude that all riotous behavior was inherently illogical.

Although media coverage has clouded the public’s view of the riots, it does not mean that the rioters were unjustified in airing their grievances with the law, particularly the LAPD. In his Second Treatises of Government, John Locke reminds us that there exists a social contract between any government and its people; many of our nation’s laws are based on this concept. Applying this notion to the problems surrounding the riots and the LAPD, it makes sense that this social contract must underlie our laws and these laws maintain their legitimacy only if they uphold the common good. A survey conducted after the Rodney King beating showed that 92% of people believed that the government ostensibly responsible for protecting them in fact used excessive force in this and many other instances (Linder). The acquittal of the four LAPD officers was another indication that the law enforcement was above the law they were to serve. Their repeated cases of abuse within the African-American community directly contradict the LAPD’s own mission statement to “safeguard the lives and

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property of the people we serve” (lapdonline.org). In Chapter XIX, Section 222 of the Second Treatises of Government, Locke explains that “whensoever therefore the legislative shall transgress this fundamental rule of society; and either by ambition, fear, folly or corruption, endeavor to grasp themselves…by this breach of trust they forfeit the power the people had put into their hands.” According to Locke, when government entities do not promote the common good, their laws and the government itself are obsolete.

Under the social contract, Locke determined that the people could initiate a revolution against the government if it did not serve the common good, a concept known as the right of revolution. Locke goes as far as to say that this revolution is an obligation of the people to prevent tyranny (“Of the Dissolution of Government”). The long history of the LAPD’s excessive use of force and subsequent lawsuits demonstrate that Angelinos considered the department above its own law. The government also continually and deliberately directed resources away from areas in greatest need. Alexander Hamilton stated that when “the rights of a whole people are invaded, the common forms of municipal law are not to be regarded” (“The Farmer Refuted”). African Americans endured decades of discrimination at the hands of the LAPD and watched in horror at the George Holliday video of the Rodney King beating. They waited on legal justice for over a year until the conclusion of the trials, and then were utterly discontented by the acquittal of the officers. The President at the time, George H. W. Bush, responded to the verdict by saying that it “left us all with a deep sense of personal frustration and anguish” (qtd. in Linder). It is important to note that the rebellion did not occur after a decade of excessive force in the 1980s or even after the explicit Rodney King video. The people chose to rebel after the

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trial, when both law enforcement and the judicial system had failed them. In this sense, the government did not properly serve the people according to the ideals of Locke and Hamilton, and the people of Los Angeles finally responded.

The Los Angeles Riots of 1992 were valid in principle, because the people rebelled against entities that strayed from the laws they established. Although the execution of the protests and the degree to which it was taken are questionable, much of the public opinion can be placed on one-sided media coverage in a time when many news outlets were simply looking for the most enticing story.

The frustration built up in the community came not only from years of LAPD abuses but also from the government having turned a blind eye to these abuses.

In addition, the media failed to publicize their difficulties, while thoroughly exploiting their faults when the people could no longer stand for the lack of justice in the governmental system. The legacy of the rebellion will not only be the appalling images and accounts that took place during a few dark days in Los Angelesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; history, but also the people who were able to make their government and the rest of the nation take notice of the unjust practices in the city.

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REFERENCES Campbell, Shannon, et al. “Remote Control: How Mass Media Delegitimize Rioting as

Social Protest.” Race, Gender & Class 11.1 (2004): 158. ProQuest. Web.

5 April 2011.

“The Farmer Refuted.” TeachingAmericanHistory.org—Free Seminars and Summer

Institutes for Social Studies Teachers. Web. 06 April 2011. <http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=406>.

Gray, Madison. “The L.A. Riots: 15 Years After Rodney King.” Time. Print. “John Locke: Of

the Dissolution of Government.” LONANG.com: The Laws Of Nature And Nature’s God. Web. 06 Apr. 2011. <http://www.lonang.com/exlibris/locke/loc-219.htm>.

Linder, Doug. “The Trials of Los Angeles Police Officers’ in Connection with the Beating

of Rodney King.” UMKC School of Law. 2001. Web. 6 April 2011. <http://law2. umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/lapd/lapdaccount.html>.

Marks, Mara A., Matt A. Barreto, and Nathan D. Woods. “Race and Racial Attitudes a

Decade After the 1992 Los Angeles Riots.” Web. 5 April 2011. <http://faculty.washington.edu/mbarreto/papers/riots.pdf>.

“The Mission Statement of the LAPD.” Los Angeles Police Department. Web.

06 April 2011. <http://www.lapdonline.org/inside_the_lapd/content_basic_ view/844>.

Oliver, Melvin L., James H. Johnson, Jr, and Walter C. Farrell, Jr. “Anatomy of a

Rebellion: A Political-Economic Analysis.” 117-39. Print.

Pandey, Swati. “Was It a ‘riot,’ a ‘disturbance’ or a ‘rebellion’? - Latimes.com.” Los

Angeles Times - California, National and World News - Latimes.com.

29 April 2007. Web. 06 Apr. 2011. <http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/ suncommentary/la-op-wordwatch29apr29,1,3907230.story>.

Samad, Anthony A. “What has Changed since 1992: On One Hand... Not Much, on the

Other Hand... the Whole World.” Sentinel, sec. 72: A7. Ethnic NewsWatch. 2007.

Web. 4 April 2011 <http://search.proquest.com/docview/369309131?ac countid=14749>.

Spencer, James H. “Los Angeles since 1992: How did the Economic Base of Riot-Torn

Neighborhoods Fare After the Unrest?” Race, Gender & Class 11.1 (2004): 94.

ProQuest. Web. 3 Apr. 2011.

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America Needs Foreign Languages ROZA PETROSYAN Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, Departments of History and Psychology Stephanie Bower, Faculty Advisor

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In Armenia, where I grew up, most people around me spoke at least two languages, while some even spoke three or more. Starting from first grade I studied Armenian, Russian, and English, adding French or Persian in the third grade. After moving to the U.S., I noticed a sharp contrast in that only English was taught in earlier grades; it was only in high school that I had the opportunity to closely study a foreign language. This is a situation faced by many students throughout the US. One reason for this policy was a fear among some Americans that foreign languages could threaten the dominance of Englishâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one of the few unifying factors of the American population. Furthermore, research in the beginning of the twentieth century validated the harmful nature of bilingualism, thus propelling the exclusion of foreign language instruction in earlier education. However, recent multidisciplinary research disproves earlier findings, demonstrating that bilingualism provides cognitive, social and occupational advantages while not disturbing the position of English as the dominant language. These advantages suggest that foreign language education should be reformed in American schools to expose younger students to other languages.

Throughout history, Americans have feared that languages brought by immigrants would replace English as the dominant language and disturb national unity. At first, there was tolerance toward cultural groups that spoke Spanish, French or other European languages, even though English was the principal language in the colonies (Dicker 47). Yet, increased immigration from Germany and Ireland in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries diminished acceptance of other languages as well as the expectation that immigrants would learn English and stop using their mother tongue (Dicker 165). The twentieth century followed with increased restriction and xenophobia toward immigrants and resulted in

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exclusivity movements aimed at establishing English as the official language of the country, thereby suppressing foreign languages (Dicker 169). Even though these movements were not successful in completely eradicating other languages from the United States, they were able to curtail a multilingual education to maintain a unified nation (ibid).

Psychological research in the beginning of the twentieth century demonstrated that not only was bilingualism harmful to national unity, but it was also damaging to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mental health and intelligence. Some of the studies conducted at that time demonstrated that bilingual students did not perform as well as their monolingual counterparts on IQ tests and thus were identified as less intelligent.

One such researcher, D.J. Saer, gave intelligence tests to a selected group of monolingual and bilingual students in Wales. Following the low scores of bilingual students on the test, the experimenter concluded that their knowledge of a second language was responsible for their bad performance (Saer). He stated that bilingualism created confusion in the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; brains, which transferred to their performance in writing and reading (ibid). A similar study conducted with Spanish speaking children demonstrated that those who were bilingual performed below the norm on comprehension tests, while those who were monolingual did much better; thus, concluding that bilingualism was responsible for a deficiency in the reading skills of the bilingual students (Kelley 210). Such studies were replicated with Japanese, Chinese, Puerto Rican, Mexican and other students in the US and other countries, and convinced most psychologists that bilingualism was a burden and a hazard to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intelligence. These ideas that bilingualism was a handicap influenced popular belief that dictated foreign language instruction in schools (Beardsmore 18).

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Despite convincing the general public of their accuracy, these studies were flawed because they did not compare students of equal socioeconomic backgrounds. The monolingual students who were selected to participate were often from middle or upper class families, while the bilingual students were from immigrant, minority groups (Sanchez). This suggests that many of the bilingual students lived in poor neighborhoods and attended under funded and understaffed schools. These students were not â&#x20AC;&#x153;mentally challengedâ&#x20AC;? because they were bilingual; instead, they appeared to have lower IQs because of their socioeconomic status and family background. If their scores had been compared with monolingual students of similar backgrounds, the negative effects of bilingualism would have disappeared (Beardsmore). In order to accurately research the effect of bilingualism, hereditary, cultural, social and educational factors should have been considered (Sanchez). Nevertheless, these findings convinced many Americans that the knowledge of a second language was harmful to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intellect and fluency of English.

Recent research confirms that some disadvantages do exist in knowing more than one language, including having trouble in expressing thoughts and having a foreign accent. In a psychological study, Jennie Pyers and her colleagues tested whether bilinguals took longer to identify objects than monolinguals because of having to compromise between two languages (Pyers). In her results, Pyers found that bilinguals indeed have more difficulty in cognitive activities that require identifying the name of an object, a state called tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (ibid). Since one language may interfere with the other, bilinguals usually need more time to organize and express their thoughts (Rubio-Fernandez 1). Another potential disadvantage is having a foreign accent when speaking

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English. Immigrant parents, who feel that their native tongue will impede their childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge of English, particularly by inducing an accent, discourage their children from being bilingual. These fears were confirmed in an experiment where Anglo-American college students evaluated the voice of Mexican-American individuals with different levels of foreign accents (Dicker 11). Those voices that had the strongest Chicano accents while speaking English received the most negative judgments related to success, ability, and social awareness (ibid). While the accent may not predict oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success, this experiment does demonstrate the existence of much discrimination against those who speak English differently; in their case, having an accent might be mistakenly equated with not knowing English well.

However, these disadvantages pale in comparison to the cognitive advantages that recent research has revealed. New findings have disproved earlier beliefs and have demonstrated that one of the vital advantages of speaking more than one language is having greater cognitive flexibility and executive control (Bialystok 637). In her experiment, Ellen Bialystok divided 60 preschool children into groups of bilingual (English and Chinese) and monolingual (English-only) students and conducted memory and problem solving tests (Bialystok 638). Her findings revealed that bilingual students demonstrated higher levels of control, fewer cases of distraction and were better at solving problems based on conflict and attention (ibid). Their experience in having to switch between two languages with conflicting representations had given them skills to practice more control over thinking and a better sense of analyzing situations (Costa 136). As a result, bilinguals are able to improve their memory and easily shift between different symbol systems, including those outside language (Met 215).

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This mental flexibility goes beyond linguistics and can even affect one’s performance in other school subjects. According to Tochon, the aforementioned cognitive advantage extends to improved scores on standardized tests (654).

One such test is the SAT, which requires skills such as understanding unfamiliar vocabulary, using cues to establish context in reading passages, and being able to concentrate on solving problems for a long period of time (Cooper 386). Since these are some of the skills that foreign language students practice, those who study languages are likely to do better on such tests. In fact, studies do prove that those students who have studied a foreign language perform at higher levels in English language tasks and even in mathematics, thus getting on average a higher score on the SAT (Cooper 381). In his research, Thomas Cooper explains that there is a positive correlation between SAT scores and foreign language study and that “scores represent increases of 14% and 13% respectively, over the scores of those who had taken no foreign language” (Cooper). Moreover, each additional year of foreign language study improves SAT scores even more.

The advantages of being bilingual do not cease when one graduates from school or college; on the other hand, they continue to positively influence an individual’s career. Current globalization trends demonstrate that multilingualism is important to communicate with foreigners. Getting a job in a company in China or France would be an option predominantly open to someone who spoke the relevant language. Unfortunately, this puts Americans at a disadvantage when competing for business ventures with those from multilingual countries (Met 218). This disadvantage extends to other international occupations, such as those involving diplomacy and national security, where multilingualism is highly valued (ibid). Yet, even domestically, many employers prefer to hire multilingual

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employees, especially in culturally diverse communities. For example, most job listings for Bank of America in the Los Angeles area reveal a strong preference for bilingualism in Spanish or Korean (Bank of America). This preference extends to human resources occupations, sales, humanities, and any other sector in which the employees must interact with other individuals. Furthermore, some jobs provide an increased salary â&#x20AC;&#x153;when an employee uses their bilingual skills an average of 10% or more of their total work timeâ&#x20AC;? (Bilingual Differential Pay). This high demand for bilingualism within and outside the US borders demonstrates how crucial it is to solve the problem of foreign language education in American schools.

In addition to cognitive flexibility and occupational advantage, Americans who are multilingual are often more culturally aware, which is important in diverse communities where problems often arise from misunderstandings between people of different cultures. Studies in this area show that foreign language knowledge leads to a better attitude toward other cultures and a greater understanding of people from different backgrounds (Pufahl 281).

Moreover, adults who are bilingual have better sociolinguistic awareness and because of that are able to better tolerate othersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perspective on issues (Rubio-Fernandez 7). Thus, bilinguals suffer less from an egocentric bias in perspective-taking situations more than monolingual individuals do (ibid). These findings confirm that learning foreign languages will possibly minimize misunderstandings and conflicts among people of different cultural backgrounds. With high levels of immigration to the US, it is therefore important for Americans to have cross-cultural understanding in order to prevent xenophobia and minimize conflict (Met 215).

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Foreign language instruction in high schools does provide students the opportunity to become bilingual, yet this method is highly ineffective. Starting to learn a language in high school is too late, because an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to learn a new language decreases with age (Torchon 651). Furthermore, foreign language instruction in high schools is not evenly distributed throughout the United States. Depending on school quality and funding, some institutions are able to provide several foreign language courses, while others sacrifice languages in order to provide instruction for basic subjects such as English and mathematics (Finn 287). Even schools that are able to offer such courses do not make them mandatory and categorize them as electives. Students who are college bound do take these courses, but only to fulfill the approximately two-year foreign language requirement (ibid). According to Myriam Met, taking a foreign language course for the entire span of high school education is not enough time to develop proficiency in the language, let alone in two years (Met 216). Thus, students simply learn some vocabulary and grammar in the first two years and never master the language. This lack of systematic teaching of language in high schools and the problems with the available program do not improve the situation of foreign language education in the United States.

Unlike high school foreign language teaching, immersion programs in the United States and multilingualism education in Europe are successful and thus can provide examples for educational reform in America. In places where immersion programs are absent, immigrant children often replace their heritage language with English and as a result become monolingual (Met 216). On the contrary, schools that do have immersion programs teach subjects both in English and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; native languages, in which case both the immigrant

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children and the native students benefit from strong language instruction (ibid). As a result of these programs, both minority and English speaking students demonstrate higher academic achievement in all subjects, including English and mathematics (Met 216). Another thriving model is the European school system. In contrast to the sporadic and inefficient programs in the US, European schools have a centralized way of teaching language that is dictated by the government. Language instruction in these schools begins in elementary grades and continues to college, resulting in better language skills, a more tolerant attitude toward other cultures and increased self-esteem (Pufahl 281). The Anglo European School in Essex is one example of this approach. At AES, students study “at least two languages as well as English, beginning with French and German and adding Spanish, Russian, Chinese, Italian or Japanese as an enrichment language in Year 9” (Barrs 143). Educators in this school avoid the term “foreign” language, and instead strive to create an atmosphere of intercultural awareness, social responsibility, and respect for one’s neighbor (Barrs 142). This European system creates high achieving students who are respectful and open to cultural differences.

Despite having successful examples to observe, the US will have difficulty in implementing language programs because of the large amount of resources they require. However, it is important to note that a language is a human capital that provides benefits that range from mental flexibility to occupational and cultural advantages. Therefore, it is important to invest in language acquisition to receive these monetary and non-monetary returns in the future (Breton 2).

Most American schools do not provide the opportunity for gaining this language capital and this is detrimental to Americans, particularly because most US

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citizens are already behind their counterparts in other industrialized nations in language and cultural studies (Met 218). The US government should consider the importance of closing this gap and preparing world citizens who can compete with those of other countries. In order to stay a world power, America should invest in a program of foreign language instruction, which will be both globally and domestically beneficial. Considering the advantages and returns possible from implementing such programs, foreign language should be viewed as crucial and not be the first item to be cut in the case of funding shortages.

From colonial America to modern United States, many Americans have feared that foreign languages will diminish the importance of the English language and consequently have blocked multilingual education in American schools.

Today more than ever, such fears are unsupported as English has become the lingua franca of the world and the second language of many people outside the US. In addition, recent laws in Arizona and Alabama demonstrate that if these negative attitudes are not countered, they can result in discriminatory legislation and increased prejudice against other cultures. As the United States becomes more and more interdependent with other countries, the vitality of clear communication between the countries increases. Begun at an early age, foreign language instruction can serve as a source of cultural education that could ultimately help to ease tensions between differing ethnic groups and nations.

Consequently, the United States will also benefit on an international scale, as it will create citizens of the world who will be able to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers and rise to the top of the world market.

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REFERENCES “Bank of America: Careers, Job Search.” Bank of America: Careers, Overview. Web.

26 October 2011 <http://careers.bankofamerica.com/jobsearch. aspx?countryid=1>.

Barrs, David, and Jill Martin. “The Anglo European School: How an International Dimension

in Education Enhances All-Round Learning.” Multilingual Europe: Diversity and Learning. Ed. Charmian Kenner and Tina Hickey. Great Britain: Trentham

Limited, 2008. 142-44. Print.

Beardsmore, H. Baetens. “Who’s Afraid of Bilingualism?” Bilingualism: Beyond Basic Principles. Ed. Jean Marc Dewaele, Alex Housen, and Li Wei. Toronto:

Multilingual Matters, 2003. 10-27. Print.

Bialystok, Ellen. “Cognitive Complexity and Attentional Control in the Bilingual Mind.” Child Development 70.3 (1999): 636-644. PsycINFO. Web. 24 Oct. 2011.

“Bilingual Pay Differential - Human Resources - Department of Rehabilitation.” California

Department of Rehabilitation. California Department of Rehabilitation. Web. 30

November 2011. <http://www.rehab.cahwnet.gov/per/biling-pay-diff.htm>.

Breton, Albert. Bilingualism: An Economic Approach. [Montreal]: C.D. Howe Research

Institute, 1978. Print.

Cooper, Thomas C. “Foreign Language Study and SAT-Verbal Scores.” The Modern

Language Journal 71.4 (1987): 381-87. JSTOR. Web. 24 Oct. 2011.

Costa, Albert, et al. “On the Bilingual Advantage in Conflict Processing: Now You See it,

Now You Don’t.” Cognition 113.2 (2009): 135-149. PsycINFO. Web.

26 October 2011.

Dicker, Susan. Languages in America: A Pluralist View. 2nd ed. Great Britain: Multilingual

Matters, 2003. Print.

Finn, Jeremy D. “Taking Foreign Languages in High School.” Foreign Language Annals 31.3

(1998): 287-306. ERIC. Web. 24 Oct. 2011.

Kelley, V. H. “The Reading Abilities of Spanish and English Speaking Pupils.” The Journal of

Educational Research 29 (1935): 209-211. PsycINFO. Web. 31 Oct. 2011.

Met, Myriam. “Improving Students’ Capacity in Foreign Languages.” The Phi Delta Kappan

86.3 (2004): 214-18. JSTOR. Web. 24 Oct. 2011.

Pufahl, Ingrid, Nancy C. Rhodes, and Donna Christian. “Foreign Language Teaching: What

the United States Can Learn from Other Countries.” Foreign Language Annals

34.3 (2001): 281-82. Wiley Online Library. Web. 24 Oct. 2011.

Pyers, Jennie E., Tamar H. Gollan, and Karen Emmorey. “Bimodal Bilinguals Reveal the

Source of Tip-of the-Tongue States.” Cognition 112.2 (2009): 323-329.

PsycINFO. Web. 24 October 2011.

Reid, T.R. “Spanish at School Translates to Suspension.” The Washington Post.

The Washington Post Company, 09 Dec. 2005. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/12/08/ AR2005120802122.html>.

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Rubio-Fernández, Paula, and Sam Glucksberg. “Reasoning about Other People’s Beliefs:

Bilinguals have an Advantage.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,

Memory, and Cognition (2011) PsycINFO. Web. 26 Oct. 2011.

Sánchez, G. I. “Bilingualism and Mental Measures. A Word of Caution.” Journal of Applied Psychology 18.6 (1934): 765-772. PsycINFO. Web. 27 Oct. 2011.

Saer, D. J. “The Effect of Bilingualism on Intelligence.” British Journal of Psychology 14

(1923): 25-38. PsycINFO. Web. 27 Oct. 2011.

Tochon, F. “The Key to Global Understanding: World Languages Education-Why Schools

Need To Adapt.” Review of Educational Research 79.2 (2009): 650-

681. Research Library Core, ProQuest. Web. 27 Oct. 2011.

Yoshioka, J. G. “A Study of Bilingualism.” The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 36 (1929): 473-479. PsycINFO. Web. 27 Oct. 2011.

Political Cartoons: Visual Framing, Emotional Response, and Their Correlation to Persuasiveness VANESSA VILLANUEVA Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, Department of Political Science Ann Crigler, Faculty Advisor

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In 1876, an American man stowed on board a Spanish ship under the guise of a common seaman. His name was William Macy “Boss” Tweed, and he reigned as the boss of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that held much sway over 19th century New York politics. During his regime, he tripled the city’s bond debt to almost $90 million, paid hundreds of thousands of dollars in bribes, and stole from $25 million to $40 million—to about $200 million in later estimates—of New York tax money through political corruption (Ackermann 2005). A few years prior, he had been one of the wealthiest and most powerful men in New York, and it seemed like no one could stop him (Burrows & Wallace, 1999).

Only a few years later, he was on the run on the Spanish ship. His Tweed Ring had been destroyed by exposé pieces from The New York Times, and more importantly, by the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, which brought Tweed’s corruption to the public’s attention through months of attack (Boime 1972; Burrows & Wallace, 1999). Tweed reportedly once said, “Let’s stop them damned pictures. I don’t care so much what the papers write about me—my constituents can’t read—but damn it, they can see pictures!” (Compton 2008; Jackson 2000).

Tweed would soon be caught coming into Spanish borders, recognized from one of Nast’s cartoons (Nilsen 2008).

Throughout history, political cartoonists have managed to affect politics with their medium. Most historians agree that cartoonists like Nast had at least some influence over the events that followed the publication of their works (Compton 2008). As well as helping take down the corrupted Tweed Ring, Thomas Nast “profoundly affected the outcome of every presidential election during the

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period 1864 to 1884” with “the strength of his visual imagination” (Boine 1972 43).

Cartoonist Herbert Block coined the term “McCarthyism” and helped turn public opinion against the Nixon administration with his visual editorials, winning three Pulitzer Prizes throughout his lifetime by having a solid reputation as one of the country’s foremost political commentators during the 20th century (Compton 2008, Graham 1993). Even in the 21st century, political cartoons still hold sway.

At the beginning of the Iraq war, the American government did not allow any pictures of killed soldiers’ flag-draped coffins, but the government relented after cartoonists brought them to the public’s attention (Nilsen 2008).

These historical examples of political cartoons framed public opinion. Despite making up only a small part of print media, cartoons are considered to play an integral role in the editorial portion of newspapers (Abraham 2009). Political cartoons have been described as “powerful forces in affecting attitudes and beliefs,” “one of the most powerful weapons in the journalistic armory,” and “a vital component of political discourse” (Compton 2008 40). As part of mass media, they have had a major role in defining social issues (Spector & Kitsuse, 1977; Best 1995). This makes sense, because like journalists, most political cartoonists’ primary objective is to create and manipulate public opinion (Coup 1969; Abraham 2009). Unlike news reports, cartoons do not have to claim objectivity; they are essentially opinion pieces that give interpretation to events, framing them in the terms of the cartoonist’s perspective (Nilsen 2008).

As Abraham notes, a cartoon’s representations “constitute ways of knowing, articulating, and interpreting different facets of our environment, and thus ways of exerting knowledge and power in society” (2009). Like textual editorials and news articles, these cartoons are a method the public uses to understand and evaluate events and issues outside of their direct scope of experience.

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Despite the historical evidence that Nast and Block’s illustrious careers seem to provide, there are those who doubt the effectiveness of political cartoons in framing social issues. Abraham (2009) notes that political cartoons are often dismissed based on the grounds of “political absurdity and ideological insignificance,” meaning that their brevity and use of humor make it difficult for some to see cartoons as influencing the serious world of politics and social issues (120). Greenberg (2002) observes that “sociologists normally dismiss (the) ideological import” of cartoons, claiming “that cartoons simply offer newsreaders absurd accounts of putative problem conditions and are not likely to be taken seriously.” Though there have been a plethora of analytical and critical works written which scrutinize political cartoons, very little experimental research has been done to provide empirical evidence for the effectiveness of political framing through this unique medium (Abraham 2009, Compton 2008, Nilsen 2008). This experiment’s main purpose is to provide more empirical evidence of political cartoon’s effect on emotional response and effectiveness in framing social issues to supplement what history seems to show.

A major component of this experiment builds off of one of the few political cartoon research experiments, which Del Brinkman conducted in 1968. In his experiment, he showed editorials, cartoons, and cartoons matched with editorials to study groups. He found that although editorials were more persuasive than cartoons alone, a cartoon paired with an accompanying editorial persuaded people more than either one alone (Compton 2008). He illustrates that political cartoons have a positive effect in persuasion, if not perhaps as much as a textual piece.

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As the independent variables are essentially text versus visuals, this is also a study on the effectiveness of visual framing in general. The majority of scholars who believe in the effectiveness of political cartoons credit their persuasiveness to their compactness and brevity when displaying information and opinion.

Paradoxically simple and complex, editorial cartoons “condense and reduce complex issues into a single, memorable image often pregnant in deeply impeded meanings” (Abraham 2009 121). The reason why cartoons and visuals are so effective is because they give people “a visual handle for what they already knew and felt,” all in the few seconds it takes to digest a small paper square of doodles (Jackson 2000). The brevity of visuals appeals to the current fast-paced, information-overloaded population, since most cartoons draw from familiar, mainstream allusions and symbols. We live in a cultural setting where visual products have become salient (Abraham 2009, Nilsen 2008).

Some experimental research has been done regarding the effect of visual framing on politics, but like political cartoons, they are few in number. One in particular, conducted by Mary Wheeler and Stephen Reed, had to do with political cartoons. In their experiment, they gave research participants caricatured faces of former President Richard Nixon from different points during his presidency and asked them to sort between positive and negative faces. Most of the Nixon caricatures the participants put in the negative pile came from cartoons after Nixon’s Watergate scandal and most of the caricatures in the positive pile came from cartoons published before (Wheeler 1975). Though nothing conclusive can be drawn from this small experiment, it does “clarify the power of caricatures to elicit affective evaluations,” furthering evidence that cartoonists can affect their audience’s emotions towards issues

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or public figures through drawing and capturing the public’s feelings toward the public figure (Compton 2008 41, Nilsen 2008).

Wheeler’s study also has to do with the second interest of this experiment, which is the emotional response and persuasiveness that political cartoons elicit within their readers. There is a lack of research on the role of emotion in political communication. Since most research efforts study cognitive rather than affective response, there are those who have noted that “emotions can play a crucial role in how citizens process political information and arrive at political judgments” (Gross 2008 169). Gross’ experiment found that between thematically framed and episodically framed articles, the latter—which was more emotionally engaging— would be more persuasive than the former for the short term. In another example, Brewer found that participants in his experiment “might have rejected frames that made them angry and accepted frames that did not,” meaning that their emotional reaction to a certain frame depended on their positive or negative opinion to that frame (2001 57). The study of emotional response is important to political cartoons because more often than not they elicit a response that is primarily affective. By manipulating and distorting simulations of our real world visual experiences, cartoons “elicit attention and emotion, and orient us to particular points of view” (Abraham 2009 152).

Based on the research done by Del Brinkman and Wheeler, as well as the critical research of many other intellectuals, we conducted an experiment that searches to confirm the political cartoon’s effectiveness as a visual medium.

We also sought to confirm this connection between framing through political cartoons and emotional response, and from this, supplement Gross’ study

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between emotional response and persuasiveness. Thus, the hypotheses of this experiment are: (H1) On the basis of previous visual framing research and experiments, the sample with both a cartoon and article will be the most persuasive.

(H2) On the basis of previous research on emotional response, the sample that is most persuasive will also garner the strongest emotional responses.

Method In order to explore the effect of visual framing on emotional response, as well as the correlation of this emotional response and persuasiveness, we conducted an experiment which focused on participant’s emotional reactions to an article on gays and lesbians in the army, a trending debate at the time since the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy had just been repealed the previous December. In the spring of 2011, the experiment was conducted online at YourMorals.org, a scientific research website whose main goal is to “understand the way our ‘moral minds’ work.” The website is used primarily by professors and graduate students in social psychology at the University of Virginia, the University of California (Irvine), and the University of Southern California, though anyone may choose to register and participate in the website’s studies. The participants of this experiment elected to take, from a long list of studies, a study entitled “Media Framing Study 1 - What are your reactions to these three news stories about Facebook privacy, gays in the military, and the Falun Gong?” As the title suggests, there are three stories for the participants to read; each one is a separate experiment, albeit all concerning media framing. This experiment concerns the second story about “gays in the military.”

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Procedure The study included a textual article on the subject of gay and lesbian personnel serving in the military from MSNBC.com named “Admirals, generals: Let gays serve openly - More than 100 call for repeal of military’s ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ policy” (Appendix A), as well as a political cartoon on the subject of gay and lesbian personnel in the military by David Fitzsimmons for the Arizona Daily Star (Appendix B). The textual article was chosen for its relatively positive (as opposed to normative) news reporting, and the cartoon was chosen for its relevance to the content of the article, as it depicted generals speaking negatively about the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy.

Many aspects of this experiment find inspiration from an experiment done

by Kimberly Gross on episodic versus thematic framing (Gross 2008), where she asked participants to show how much they perceived an article to incite emotions such as anger and sympathy. Unlike Gross’ study, which focused solely on emotional impact and did not take into account agreement or disagreement with the subject of the article itself, this study also wishes to find a correlation between emotional response and persuasiveness and includes both negative and positive emotions. Accomplishing this means finding out if strong positive emotions make the participant perceive that the sample is persuasive and vice versa. Prior to the study, participants are told the following: “Thank you for your interest in our study. We are exploring the effects of media on political attitudes. You will be presented with three articles, based on popular press stories that may have been slightly altered to explore how framing affects

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perceptions. At the end, you’ll be able to compare your reactions to these articles to those of other participants.”

Participants are then randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Condition 1, which contained only Fitzsimmons’ political cartoon, and is meant to represent visual framing; Condition 2, which contained only the MSNBC textual article, and is meant to signify simply textual framing; Condition 3, which contained both the political cartoon and the textual article, and is meant to signify textual framing supplemented by visual framing.

It should be noted that the MSNBC article was modified slightly in Condition 2 in order to incorporate textual information within the political cartoon and lessen the differences between samples. It is important to this study that the visual element of the cartoon remain the only independent variable as much as possible, as visual framing is the focus of this experiment. These changes can be seen in Appendix A. After reading their assigned condition, the participants were given ten statements and were asked, on a scale of one to seven, to say whether they agree or disagree with each question. Four of these questions (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) asked the participants about their opinions concerning gay and lesbian rights as well as the government’s involvement in social activism (Appendix C). These questions were used partly to reveal participants’ biases, but their main purpose was to make the study’s true purpose less transparent. The remaining six questions were meant to gauge the participant’s emotional reaction to the stimulus, as well as what he or she perceived to be its persuasiveness (Appendix D). Of the six questions, two

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questions connected the stimulus to positive emotions (Q5 and Q9) to see with what intensity the participants would react with positive emotion to the stimulus.

Another two questions connected the stimulus to negative emotions (Q6 and Q8) in order to see whether the stimulus would produce strong or weak emotional reactions in the negative spectrum. The remaining two questions (Q7 and Q10) connected the stimulus to persuasiveness, to see whether the persuasiveness ratings participants gave the stimulus would correlate with their ratings of how positive or negative they found the condition.

Participants A total of 247 participants answered the experiment’s questions. 41% of the participants identified as female, while the remaining 59% identified as male. The average participant’s age was 35 years old, with the median age of the sample at 34 years old. The sample consists primarily of the professors and students of the schools that use YourMorals.org, though none of the participants’ identities are disclosed. As such, most of the participants tended to be well educated. Of the participants, 20% completed a graduate or professional degree, 19% completed college or university, and 30% were currently in college or in a graduate program. Most also had an interest in politics, with 41% professing that they were “somewhat interested” in politics, and 52% professing that they were “very interested” in politics. 57% of the participants self-identified as liberal, 9.7% self-identified as conservative, and 12% self-identified as libertarian.

This general overview of the sample’s political makeup is given for simplicity’s sake; however, most participants cannot be strictly defined by the left-right political spectrum, each having their own complex political ideologies. This

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complexity was revealed when participants were asked to give their political view on a few areas of politics, and when several of the participants elaborated even further on their political identities in the comments section provided on YourMorals’ registration. Concerning political standing on social issues, most participants chose to identify themselves at the left end of the political spectrum, with 32% saying they were very liberal, 26% saying they were liberal, 9.3% saying they were slightly liberal, and 7.7% saying they were some form of conservative.

Finally, in terms of religious values, 56.3% stated they were raised in a Roman Catholic or Protestant household, 55% said they had “no religion” and 17% identified with some Christian denomination.

Results Chart 1 graphs the average score for each question given to the participants in each condition. It is apparent from the results that the first hypothesis, which stated that both the cartoon and the article would be the most persuasive, had turned out to be correct. While Q7 did not garner any significant outcome, Condition 3 was found to have the highest rating for Q10 by a significant amount, meaning that participants found the article and cartoon combination to be the most persuasive condition. Similarly, results for Q2 showed that the participants who received Condition 3 agreed more with the statement “Gays and lesbians should be allowed to serve openly in the military” than participants in the other two conditions. This is perhaps the most significant finding because it shows that the article and cartoon combination is more effective in persuading participants to move in the direction of pro-gay rights than the cartoon or article alone.

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Article and Cartoon Cartoon only

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Chart 1: Participant Responses to Questions

In terms of the first hypothesis, the results of this experiment support Del Brinkman’s research in 1968, wherein he found that the combination of article and cartoon was found to be more persuasive than a textual article or cartoon alone. It’s also interesting to note that the results of this experiment mirrors Del Brinkman’s even further. In this experiment, Condition 1 was rated significantly less persuasive—both in Q7 and Q10—than Condition 2 or Condition 3, meaning that participants found the cartoon less persuasive than both the article and article/cartoon combination, just as participants did in 1968. Thus, this experiment further supports the idea that while a political cartoon by itself may not be as persuasive in portraying an opinion as an actual article, it can be a very effective supplement as a visual aide in informing the reader.

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The second hypothesis proved to be partly true when Condition 3 turned out to be the most effective (Q9), least offensive (Q8), and least disrespectful (Q6) of the three conditions. However, the condition that received the highest rating for being funny (Q5) was Condition 1 (the cartoon alone) which also was the least persuasive (Q9) and least effective (Q10). In short, the article and cartoon combination was the condition least connected to negative emotions and the most persuasive, while the cartoon alone was the condition which participants attached the most positive emotion to, but was the least persuasive. From this, it can be assumed that instead of persuasiveness being correlated to strong emotional reactions, it is instead correlated to a lack of a negative emotional reaction.

The reason for this outcome most likely goes back to observations made by Abraham and Greenberg about the general dismissal political cartoons face from scholars on the grounds of “political absurdity and ideological insignificance.”

Because the punch from their emotional impact often comes from ridicule and absurdity, political cartoons are often treated as merely entertainment, nothing more. The reader compartmentalizes the emotional reaction to the fictional world of the absurd, and thus disregards creating an opinion on a real topic. However, this knowledge does not invalidate a political cartoon’s effectiveness as a visual aide that supplements the information a reader receives from an accompanying article. To reiterate, cartoons give people “a visual handle for what they already knew and felt,” (2000) acting as a summary of the article. Like study guides, political cartoons cannot be the main transmitter of information. They are too brief, too opinionated, and too ambiguous, but they still work as effective framers of political opinion.

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Conclusion This experiment found that political cartoons as visual aids managed to frame the topic of gay and lesbian personnel in the military in a way that caused the participants to react with positive emotions. Conditions 1 and 3 scored much higher in funniness than Condition 2, and as stated before, Condition 3 was considered the most effective, least offensive, and least disrespectful. This experiment also found that Condition 3 was by far the most persuasive. In short, this experiment supports the idea of visual elements as an effective supplement to framing topics of debate, as well Grossâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; idea that articles with episodic elements in them elicit a stronger emotional response.

Much more extensive research could be done in the studies of visual framing and affective response. Firstly, the experiment could have used more than two questions each for the positive, negative and persuasive criteria, as well as more accurate adjectives in each question. Though â&#x20AC;&#x153;effectiveâ&#x20AC;? was used to gauge positive emotional response, it is better suited to gauge persuasiveness. The experiment could have also been done on a more diverse group of participants.

While the topic of gay and lesbian rights is often a contentious issue, participants were mostly liberal, non-religious scholars, meaning that they are predisposed to feel comfortable and agree with the topic at hand. It would be interesting to conduct an experiment with a group of participants that have an unfavorable bias against the topic at hand, and thereby see how effective or ineffective visual framing would be, as well as how they would react emotionally to the stimuli.

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APPENDIXES Appendix A: Textual Article Admirals, generals: Let gays serve openly More than 100 call for repeal of military’s ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ policy ANNAPOLIS, Md. — More than 100 retired generals and admirals called Monday for repeal of the military’s “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy on gays so they can serve openly, according to a statement obtained by The Associated Press(…)

“As is the case with Great Britain, Israel, and other nations that allow gays and lesbians to serve openly, our service members are professionals who are able to work together effectively despite differences in race, gender, religion, and sexuality,” the officers wrote(…) (ARTICLE ONLY) “The times are changing.”(…)

The officers’ statement points to data showing there are about 1 million gay and lesbian veterans in the United States, and about 65,000 gays and lesbians currently serving in the military. (ARTICLE ONLY) “Frankly,” one officer joked during conversation, “that policy [DADT] is so totally gay. No offense to anyone present.”(…)

The military discharged about 12,340 people between 1994 and 2007 for violating the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, according to the Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, a military watchdog group. The number peaked in 2001 at 1,273, but began dropping off sharply after the Sept. 11 attacks. Last year, 627 military personnel were discharged under the policy. Source: MSNBC.com Appendix B: Political Cartoon

Source: David Fitzsimmons

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Appendix C: Questions 1-4 Q1. The government should play a prominent role in social activism. a. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q2. Gays and lesbians should be allowed to serve openly in the military. b. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q3. I closely follow the news and opinions concerning Don’t Ask Don’t Tell. c. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q4. Homosexuality should be considered an acceptable lifestyle. d. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Note: Answers will be on a seven point scale.

(These questions are to make the study’s purpose a little less transparent, and also perhaps to see any strong biases.)

Appendix D: Questions 6-10 This article/cartoon was: Q5. Funny a. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q6. Disrespectful b. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q7. Informational c. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q8. Offensive d. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q9. Effective e. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q10. Persuasive f. Strongly Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . Strongly Agree Q5 and Q9 – Gauge Strong positive emotional response Q6 and Q8 – Gauge Strong negative emotional response Q7 and Q10 – Gauge Persuasiveness

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Society and History 11 (1969): 79-95.

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Politics in the Media Age. Jody C. Baumgartner and Jonathan S. Morris. New

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Wheeler, Mary E. and Stephen K. Reed. “Response to Before and After Watergate Caricatures.” Journalism Quarterly 52 (1975): 134-136.

Is Animal Testing Ethical?

DAN WEISEL Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences Jeffrey Chisum, Faculty Advisor

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It is an all-too-common scene: the classic depiction of a scientific laboratory where two eager scientists work amidst a table of steaming beakers and flashing machines. Cages filled with mice or frogs line the walls behind them. The scientist grabs an animal, injects it with a blue substance, and Eureka! A new discovery has been made.

While this movie-like depiction is not completely accurate, it touches on one absolute truth: animals do scienceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dirty work. In all branches of biological research, animals are the test subjects for new drugs, new clinical techniques, and new disease case studies. Year after year, science subjects millions of animals to life-threatening ailments to further their knowledge of the universe (Welfare Act Report). Current U.S. laws only require labs to report the use of dogs, cats, primates, and other large animals. Only about 1.4 million animals are reportedly used in labs each year; however, current estimates suggest that 90% of labs use other animals such as mice, rats, and birds that they are not required to report, bringing the total animals used each year to approximately 14 million.

Of all the experiments that report data, less than half are officially recorded as causing the animals pain, though this does not account for the other 90% of bird and rodent labs.

There is no doubt that the laboratory environment is not suited for wild animals.

It provides neither the freedom of a natural habitat, nor the resources of a zoo.

Instead, the animals receive only what science and politics dictate. In the United States, the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 is currently the only legislation regarding the scientific use of animals. The law requires that these animals are adequately fed and seen by a veterinarian at least twice per year. It also demands a hygienic

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experimental setting, but does not require that the animal â&#x20AC;&#x153;storageâ&#x20AC;? areas be kept clean. The principle question becomes whether the numerous benefits of animal testing can outweigh the suffering endured.

Many experiments subject animals to physically painful processes in order to gather results. For instance, a study by N.L. Bodkin et al. utilized rhesus macaques to explore the effects of gastric bypass surgery on weight loss. As many as 30 monkeys were anesthetized for this surgery and follow-ups included daily blood draws to check hormone levels. Monkeys that showed interesting results were euthanized so that their brains could be examined. Though the laws are compassionate enough to require anesthesia to avoid excessive pain, these primates were still forced to undergo dangerous experimental surgery.

The surgeries not only altered organ placement in the body, but also affected hormone levels in the stomach and intestines. The experiment resulted in appetite changes that caused severe weight loss in animals whose natural diets differ from humans. Some subjects did not survive the surgery or the recovery, losing their lives in the name of modern science.

In other instances, lab animals are subjected to physical harm even when no data is being gathered. Mice are common victims of these practices. They are used in a variety of experiments, specifically those that investigate transgenic properties.

One such experiment required mice to breed in order to obtain an entire pedigree of genomes. In order to genotype each mouse, a sample of DNA was required.

Because the epithelial cells in the tail are thin enough to dissolve quickly in solution, the DNA sample is typically acquired by docking the tail of each mouse.

As more and more mice were born or genotyped, researchers needed a way to

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keep track of their subjects. Since one mouse is generally indistinguishable from another, researchers often clipped off a specific toe from each animal. Mouse three would lose its third toe, while mouse four would miss its fourth toe (Ku et al.). These techniques are handy shortcuts for lab technicians, but aside from the pain caused by the procedures themselves, docking often leads to excessive bleeding or infection (Saenger).

While there are laws that prohibit certain cruel procedures, these laws are not extensive enough to protect all laboratory animals. For example, the Animal Welfare Act of 2006 banned the docking of a dog’s tail and ears in the United Kingdom, but mice and other animals do not share that same protection. Since all animals feel pain, these laws should logically protect all animals in order to be morally consistent. Researchers can also find alternative ways of maintaining order in the cages. For instance, dyeing each mouse’s tail with different colored ink would cause minimum damage to the mice. Likewise, DNA can be extracted from an animal without clipping its tail. A simple needle and syringe can provide a blood sample containing plenty of DNA. It may be more arduous to separate nucleic acid from blood serum than from epithelial cells, but that seems a small price to pay to avoid unnecessary pain in a living creature.

Opponents of animal testing base their arguments on the assumption that the animals do, in fact, feel physical pain. Without explicit data to defend this claim, animal rights activists must rely only on the empathy of their audience. Because animals have what has been called a “lower consciousness,” there have always been questions as to whether animals perceive pain in the same humans do.

In his book, Animal Liberation, Peter Singer demonstrated sufficient evidence

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that animals can feel what humans consider pain. For instance, writhing, facial contortions, yelping, and physically avoiding a learned source of pain have been observed in mammals and birds. Singer also explains that pain is most likely an evolutionary mechanism that functions to keep victims alive. The instinct to avoid painful experiences allows animals of all species to learn which behaviors and environments are safe and which are not. However, because humans no longer survive in the wilderness, the biological need for a pain-alarm system has decreased, while this need has increased for virtually every other species.

A study performed in 2006 suggested that mice not only feel physical pain, but that they also empathize with other mice experiencing pain. Jeffery Mogil discovered that mice responded differently to pain when their cage-mates were present to witness certain procedures. Scientists injected acetic acid into the paws of two same-sex mice, causing them to writhe in pain. They found that mice who had shared a cage for at least two weeks tended to writhe more violently when their cage-mates experienced pain at the same time. Skeptical that the mice may simply be mimicking each other’s behavior, Mogil exposed one mouse to acid and another to heat. They reacted differently to each pain source, but in both cases, watching one mouse’s pain exacerbated the other mouse’s reaction.

The researchers then blocked the sense of smell, hearing, and pheromone production to test how the mice were communicating their panic to one another.

They concluded that sight induces this sense of empathy. This was surprising, as mice rely primarily on their sense of smell in day-to-day activities (Ganguli).

The results of Mogil’s experiment imply that “low consciousness” animals are not given enough credit. “Lots of psychologists think top-down, hence equate empathy with complex cognition... which requires introspection,” notes

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primatologist Frans De Waal, who took a keen interest in the experiment.

The ability to feel empathy suggests that mice are capable of a much greater cognitive ability than previously believed.

Even in cases in which the animals are not mutilated or killed, significant trauma can occur in the lab. In Harry Harlow’s famous experiment, baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth in order for scientists to study the psychological development of the infants. The animals were put in a cage with two surrogate mothers. One made of wire and the other made of terry cloth.

Harlow et al. watched the behavioral development of the foster monkeys and compared them to the control rhesus, who were raised with regular exposure to their birth-mother. They discovered that the young monkeys had an astounding need for motherly comfort. Regardless of whether the wire-mother or the clothmother provided milk, the monkeys all preferred the soft mother’s company, with whom they could cuddle and feel safe. Because these monkeys lacked a true parental figure, they developed disturbing behaviors such as self-mutilation, unreasonable fear at the approach of living creatures (humans or fellow rhesus), and a disinterest in exploring new environments. Monkeys left in total isolation, without even a fake mother, became so emotionally distressed that they engaged in “autistic self-clutching and rocking,” and “emotional anorexia” as several monkeys died from refusing to eat.

Undoubtedly, Harlow did not know what to expect when he began his experiment, yet this study laid the foundation for much of today’s developmental psychology.

In another study, Harlow designed what he dubbed, “The Pit of Despair,” in which infant rhesus lived in isolation in a dark chamber for up to a year after birth. Not

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surprisingly, the subjects rapidly became depressed and neurotic in a manner that has become the model for human depression. The trauma Harlow evoked in his test subjects was quickly evident and judged to be exceedingly cruel. Many of his subjects could not survive their emotional crises, and those who did were outcast from their social groups, forced to live the rest of their lives without any ability to learn, gather food, or find a mate.

The laboratory life is not well suited for any animal, but if not for these nonhuman test subjects, humans would be without countless drugs and medicines that are taken for granted today. The discovery of insulin, used by million of people on a regular basis, was the result of working with diabetic dogs (Karamitsos 1). Without this information, the mechanisms and physiology behind diabetes mellitus might still be a mystery. Thanks to Nicolae Paulescu, who is credited with first isolating insulin from a canine pancreas, this disease is treatable and is no longer drastically life-altering. Modern treatments such as chemotherapy were designed based on animal models. Louis Goodman and Alfred Gilman, tasked with turning World War II chemical weapons into potential treatment options, induced lymphoma in mice using mustard gas in order to develop treatments (Origins of Chemotherapy). The result is a technique that revolutionized how cancer patients are treated to this day. Countless other examples enhance the list of the animalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; contributions to science.

Even those who oppose animal testing based on principle must also consider the practical applications of specific animals in the laboratory. Since the human genome project was completed, there has been a growing interest in studying genetic diseases. In order to investigate the effects of gene-manipulation on an

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individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health, labs have dramatically increased their use of transgenic mice.

A transgenic animal has had its genes manipulated, whether via gene silencing, induced mutations, or other ways of altering genetic information. Since the mouse genome has been completely sequenced, mice make up approximately 98% of all genetically altered lab animals, with the remaining percent distributed among rats, pigs, fish, and amphibians (NC3Rs). While mice have been used in labs for centuries, this recent surge is no coincidence. First and foremost, they are mammals that share a great deal of their genes with humans and are thus ideal for studying human ailments. Furthermore, because they have been bred in labs for so long under controlled conditions, very little genetic variation occurs. Scientists can breed mice of any genotype because they can manipulate rates of recombination and gene frequencies. Because mice are so commonly used, researchers have perfected drugs and tools specifically made to study them. Anesthetics, dissection tools, and even mouse-retina readers have been created, making it a simple task for scientists to examine this creature in any way imaginable. If labs removed or replaced mice with a different animal, it would take a significant amount of time and money to generate pure-breeding animals and develop techniques and tools for a completely different species.

Some organizations encourage the increased use of mice on the basis that fewer animals of other species will be used. While this may be true in the realm of transgenics, there is another species that appears indispensable to science: primates. Since humans are so closely related to them, primate subjects are the best available model of human behavior and physiology. In the obesity study on rhesus macaques, monkeys were chosen because of how closely they mimic human behavior.

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In the study, the monkeys were given a high calorie, high fat diet with the freedom to eat whenever they chose. Like many obese Americans, the monkeys adopted a “couch-potato” life style. Not only was their anatomy similar, but like humans, the animals ate when they were bored or when they were not even hungry. Unlike humans, however, the monkeys could not lie or report false data about their calorie intake. Research teams carefully and individually observed the monkeys the entire time.

The 96-98% genetic similarity between humans and other apes is both a blessing and a curse (Chimps, Humans 1). While primates have provided a perfect human substitute in experiments, they also sparked a great deal of controversy. Because primates are so similar to humans, significantly more oversight and stricter laws limit their use (Carbone 207). Politicians have developed a system of determining the value of an animal’s life. The more closely an animal is related to the Homo sapien, the more unethical it becomes to expose them to laboratory experiences. Indeed, while primates are extremely difficult to gain permission to use, mice, who share about 90% of their DNA with humans, are widely used. Similarly, the use of fruit flies, which are another model organism in genetics, is not regulated at all since bugs are quite unrelated to humans. While there may be some logic to this spectrum approach, the ethical reasoning is hazy at best. On one end of the spectrum, it seems that a fly’s life is virtually worthless and requires no consideration. On the other end, a human’s life is far too valuable to compromise in experimentation. However, some people would say otherwise.

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During World War II, as the Nazis corralled “lesser races” into concentration camps, their scientists conducted a variety of experiments on human subjects.

Jews, homosexuals, and Romanians were castrated without anesthesia to investigate possible forms of forced birth control. Others were dunked in freezing water to study hypothermia and to determine what temperatures were lethal. The lucky ones died. The less fortunate individuals lived to endure further experimentation. Without question, this research was highly unethical and cannot be considered anything less than torture (Freedman). From this shameful chapter in human history, useful medical and physiological knowledge was acquired. Modern human testing would theoretically expedite the process of curing modern diseases, but when the cost of such knowledge compromises human safety and dignity, it is simply not worth it.

Perhaps nonhumans ought to be extended the same moral considerations.

Aside from the aforementioned genetic link between humans, apes, and other mammals, nonhumans suffer and feel pain too. In his Animal Research: A Moral Science, Bernard Rollin argues that animals should not be excluded from our moral parameters. The Nazis were wrong to use race and ethnicity to determine the value of an individual’s life. Rollin insists that “certain beliefs about animals—for example, that they lack a soul, are ‘inferior’ to humans in power or evolution, and lack reason or language—cannot morally justify their exclusion.” In other words, if humans are consistent with their moral outlook, our intellectual superiority does not justify abuse of “inferior” species any more than it allows for the discrimination against mentally handicapped individuals.

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Rollin further argues that the use of nonhumans may actually be even more morally reprehensible. He points out that humans are able to understand when they are in pain. People have the ability to discern the source of distress and when it will end. They can reason that stepping on a sharp nail causes pain in their feet, and that after adding ointment and paying a visit to the doctor, their pain will be relieved. A sedated rat who is administered a new drug does not have these luxuries. It cannot understand why it suffers or identify the source.

As a result, the rat cannot avoid suffering. It has no sense of when an excruciating experience will end. The rat is essentially consumed by the pain, and for that indefinite amount of time, knows nothing but pain (Kitchell and Guinan 1989). It is only fitting that humans take every precaution to prevent such suffering in any creature, human or nonhuman.

Advocates of animal testing argue that the use of animals in research is the natural course of history. When humans must choose between helping ourselves or helping animals, we should and will prioritize the well being of our own species (Khalifeh et al.). Thus, Khalifeh suggests that if we can cure cancer and save countless human lives, we should not hesitate to do so simply to protect frogs, mice, and rabbits. However, animal testing is not so black-and-white. There are several solutions that would allow scientists to continue their research without the need for nonhuman subjects.

Some animals suffer to provide the world with miracle drugs or new medical techniques. Yet far too many animals endure the hardships of the lab for trivial or failed experiments. Regulations limiting the type of experiment in which animals may be used would go a long way towards reducing animal testing. For instance,

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the obesity study involving rhesus macaques was simply not a useful experiment.

One of the goals of the experiment was to develop a diet pill that would help fight obesity. The results were quite inconsistent. In one trial, the preliminary drug actually increased the appetites of the obese monkeys, causing them to double or triple their food intake. Ironically, it is now being considered as a weight gain pill for cancer patients. Other trials were more successful, with up to 40% of the rhesus losing weight. Interestingly, the researchers did corroborate that calories, not fat, are primarily responsible for weight gain and obesity. While this is useful information, the study ultimately determined that a healthy diet and exercise are the best ways to fight obesity (Pollack 1-2). Aside from the fact that this experiment could have been easily accomplished using human volunteers, it also provided minimal useful information. After spending months of time, thousands of dollars, and risking the well being of dozens of monkeys, scientists merely confirmed what was already common knowledge. The lives and health of the rhesus macaques were jeopardized for nothing. True, there was initially potential to develop a new, truly potent diet drug to combat obesity, a prominent health issue. Yet there were plenty of diet drugs available already. Adding another pill to the stockpile of infomercial drugs hardly qualified as a valuable research goal.

For legitimate medical experiments, protecting animalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rights becomes trickier.

In the United Kingdom, laws regarding animal testing revolve around the Three â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Râ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s which allow labs to focus their efforts on reducing the number of animals used, refining experimental procedures so as to limit the demand for animals, and replacing animals with nonliving test subjects. Simon Festing and Robert Wilkinson discuss the work towards developing better in vitro technologies in their article, Talking Point: Use of Animals in Scientific Research. In particular,

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British oncologists have used hollow-fiber systems to examine cancerous tumors.

Researchers grow tumors in the hollow fibers, which are then injected into a mouse temporarily along with drugs, and are later removed for analysis. This technique introduces tumors to a multiple organ system without endangering or hurting the mouse, and increases the amount of data extracted from a single animal (Double 2004). Likewise, cryogenic technology, which freezes cells at a temperature low enough to stall all metabolism, allows labs to store rodent embryos and cells of specific genotypes for a long period of time without the need to breed endless generations. While these technologies do not eliminate the need for animals, they reduce the demand.

In the United States, scientists are diligently working to develop machines that actually replace living creatures in experiments. For instance, the Tox21 is a recently invented robot capable of testing potentially harmful chemicals entirely in vitro. The robot requires only minute tissue samples to assess the toxicity of chemicals, and can test up to 1,500 different tissues simultaneously.

Not only can humans provide the small amounts of organ tissues, but the robot can also determine how toxins will interact between different types of tissue. Unfortunately, the Tox21 will cost a lab about 10 million dollarsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; much more than many labs can afford to spend. However, its overwhelming efficiency more than makes up for its price. It can acquire 2.2 million data points spanning from thousands of different chemicals at any concentration within one week. It may take years and millions of dollars to assess the risks of even a single chemical using conventional animal testing techniques (Schmidt 117). As more of these types of technologies appear, the use of live organisms will eventually become obsolete.

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There is no doubt that animals have made major contributions to biological and medical research. Looking toward the future, the need for nonhuman contributors may be diminishing. Instead of using our intellectual gifts to force other animals to do our bidding, it can be focused on designing more technology that will continue to reduce our reliance on other species. Europe has made great strides to limit animal use in laboratories, and ultimately may reach the point where they no longer need animals at all.

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