Utah Antiquities Selected Papers Volume 1, Number 1-3 - 1975 by Utah Historical Society

SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

Volrrme 1, Numbers 1-3 a

Department of Development Services Division of State History

July 1975

STATE OF UTAH

Calvin L. Ramptw, Governor

DEPARTMENT

DEVELOPMENT SERVICES

Maton 2,Weilenmsum, Executive Director

DIVISION OF STATE HISTORY Melvin T. Smith, Director

STATE BOARD OF HISTORY Milton G. Abram, Chalrmn Juanita Brooks D e b a,Rayton Theron H.Luke Clyde LeMiller Elizabeth Mentague

H~len2.hpanikolss Howard 6.Price, Jr. Elizraboth Skanehy Melvin T. Smith Richm-d 0, Ulibami Nozami Wooley

STATE ANTIQUITIES COMMITTEE Milton C.Abrams, Chairman Clyde J, Benally Della G.Dayton Evan DcBloois J. Eldoa D o m a Richard E. Fike:

Donad V*Hague Ray T,Matheny Melvin T,Smith Staaford S. Smith Cbandkr P.St. John Harold Tippetts

EDITORIAL STAFF David 8. Madsen, Editor Thamw f, W l e r , A~sistztntEditor Laurie M.George, Editorial Assistant

EDITOR'S PREFACE

This volume institutes a monograph series designed to examine and interpret the prehistoric cultures of Utah. Antiquities Section Selected Papers will be specifically geared to Utah archeology, but will include papers from adjacent geographical areas and from ancillary disciplines relevant to the understanding of local archeological problems. The series has three goals: 1) to provide a vehicle for the publication of research carried out by the Antiquities Section; 2) to provide an outlet for archeological reports which do not have a general distribution (i.e., investigations done in conjunction with environmental impact statements); and 3) to allow publication of valuable manuscripts now on file and republication of articles now out of print and unavailable. Manuscripts from all sources, including state and federal agencies, educational institutions and private individuals, will be accepted for examination and possible publication. Articles should be typed double spaced and should be accompanied by photo-ready line drawings and photographs. Submitted articles will be reviewed by the Antiquities Section staff or other qualified reviewers in the case of ancillary reports. Papers will be published on an irregular basis, depending on the number and quality of reports on fde. David B. Madsen June 1975

THREE FREMONT SITES IN EMERY COUNTY, UTAH

DAVID B. MADSEN Antiquities S d o n Divisian of State Hiutory salt w e city, UWll

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

Number 1

THREE FREMONT SITES IN EMERY COUNTY, UTAH

DAVID B. MADSEN

Antiquities Section Division of State History Salt Lake City, Utah

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 1

March 1975

TABLE . OF CONTENTS

.........................................4 Introduction ..................................... 5 Windy Ridge Village ............................. 5 Setting ....................................... 5 Excavation ................................... 5 Preface

Structures .................................... 6 Structure I ..................................6 Structure I1 .................................7 Structure I11 ................................ 9 Storage/ Rubbish Pits .......................... 9 Artifacts ..................................... 9 Pottery ....................................10 Chipped Stone .............................-13 Ground Stone ...............................13 Perishables ................................. 13 Unworked Bone .............................13 Cultural Affiliation and Dating ..................14 Site Interpretation .............................15

Crescent Ridge ................................. 15 Setting ...................................... 15 Excavation ..................................15 Structures ................................... 16 Structure I .................................. 16 Structure I1 ................................ 17 Artifacts .................................... 18 Pottery ................................... 18 Chipped Stone ............................. 18 Groundstone ...............................18 Cultural Affiliation and Dating ................. 19 Site Interpretation ............................ 20 Power Pole Knoll ................................ 21 Setting ...................................... 21 Excavation .................................. 21 Structure and Stratigraphy ..................... 21 Artifacts ....................................22 Cultural Affiliation and Dating ................. 22 Site Interpretation ............................ 22 General Summary and Discussion ................. 23 Fremont Architecture in the San Rafael Area ..... 23 San Rafael Fremont Ceramics ..................26 References .....................................27

1. View looking Northwest across Windy Ridge Village .........................5 2. Windy Ridge Village contour map ...............6 3. Structure IPlan and Profile .....................6 4. View South of Structure I ...................... 7 5. View North of Structure I1 ......................8 6. Structure 11Plan and Profile ................... 8 7. Firebasin in Structure I1........................8 8. Structure 111Plan ............................ 9 9. Artifacts from Windy Ridge Village .............12 10. Crescent Ridge contour map .................. 13 11. Structure I Plan and Profile ....................13 12. View South of Structure I .................... 14 13. Structure I1 Plan ............................ 15 I4. Ground stone from Crescent Ridge ............ 15 15. View Northeast of Power Pole Knoll ........... 16 16. Power Pole Knoll contour map ................ 16 17. View South of Structure ...................... 17 18. Structure Plan .............................. 17 19. Slab-lined Firebasin ......................... 17

TABLES 1. Distribution of Artifacts Windy Ridge ...............................11 2. Unworked Bone .............................-14 3. Distribution of Artifacts Crescent Ridge ............................ -19 4. Distribution of Artifacts Power Pole Knoll .......................... 22

PREFACE

The three sites reported in the following paper were excavated over five years ago by students from the Department of Anthropology, University of Utah. Field notes were taken by a number of these students; principally James Adovasio who directed the excavations. A preliminary manuscript, prepared from these notes, has been on file since that time. Due to the nature of the sites, their dating and their importance in the definition of the Fremont culture, I felt that the information contained in the manuscript should be made available to students of Utah prehistory. Jesse D. Jennings, under whose direction this work was done, agreed and graciously permitted publication of this manuscript. The manuscript has been extensively edited, but not re-written. The excavator is no longer available and I felt it inadvisable to make new assumptions in the absence of both the excavator and adequate field notes. Some attempt to add more recent references has been made, but since very little additional work has been done in the area these are limited. Due to this lack of new data, the sections on San Rafael architecture and ceramics have not been changed.

The excavations at Windy Ridge Village, Crescent Ridge and Power Pole Knoll were conducted by the following volunteer laborers who participated willingly and diligently under trying climatic conditions: James Adovasio, Kris Coombe, Gardiner Dalley, Louise Dunn, Gail Hamilton, Mary Hartman, Mignonette Madsen, John Marwitt, Renee Marwitt, Robert and Nancy Morey, Mary Ellen Sloan, Larry Young and James Zeidler. Special thanks are due Lavern Young and the staff of the Bureau of Land Management Office in Price, Utah who brought attention to the sites and provided assistance whenever it was required. Acknowledgemmt is also due to Dr. Eldon Dorman of Price whose assistance, constant interest, and solicitous attention on many occasions should not go unnoticed. Photographic illustrations are by Mignonette Madsen. Dr. Stephen Durrant identified the unworked bone. The work reported herein was supported by the Research Council of the University of Utah.

INTRODUCTION The excavation of the Windy Ridge Village, Crescent Ridge and Power Pole Knoll sites was initiated in the spring of 1970 after Lavern Young of the Bureau of Land Management reported that the sites were in the process of being destroyed by relic hunters. Since very few archeological investigations have been conducted in this area of Utah it was felt that the three sites were too valuable to allow their destruction. Under the direction of James Adovasio, excavations were conducted April 3-20 by an irregular labor force drawn primarily from volunteers from the University of Utah Anthropology Department. The sites are located within five miles of each other in the general vicinity'of Sand Wash and Cedar Creek,

approximately 4 to 6 miles northeast of Huntington, Utah. All three are open sites occupying eminences or ridges adjacent to small washes cut through heavily dissected alluvial deposits. The sites lie 3 to 5 miles southeast of the base of the Wasatch Plateau near a primary ecotone separating the open and relatively dry Castle Valley from the Wasatch Mountains, and are ideally located for the exploitation of both of these major ecological zones. The water feeding the creeks and washes which drain the area is derived from the mountainous area to the northwest. A number of perennial streams are found within 1 to 2 miles of the sites.

WINDY RIDGE VILLAGE SETTING Windy Ridge Village occupies a low ridge 20 to 30 ft. above and adjacent to Sand Wash in Emery County, Utah, NWX, NWX, Section 33, T16S, R9E. The ridge lies immediately to the northeast of Sand Wash in the midst of a number of similar ridges formed by the intensive dissection of local alluvium. The ridge is approximately 1/4 mile long with a northwest-southeast orientation and consists of alluvial fill covered with gravel and a few large waterdeposited rocks (Fig. 1). The site occupies the northwest tip of the ridge and encompasses a roughly oval area 70 yds. northwest to southeast by 30 yds. northeast to southwest. Vegetation is sparse and consists primarily of rabbit brush (Chrysothamnw sp.), shadscale (Afriplex sp.), and sage brush (Artemisia sp.) growing in the bottom of Sand Wash. The site itself is almost devoid of vegetation. A perennial stream, Cedar Creek, is located less than 2 miles west of the site and along with Sand Wash is fed by melt and spring action in the mountainous area to the north of the site. Gentry Mountain, the easternmost extent of the Wasatch Plateau in the area, is located less than 9 miles northwest of the site and has an average elevation over 10,000 ft. The site lies in the foothills which separate Castle Valley from the Wasatch Plateau, at an elevation of 5,900 feet.

The fill in all structures proved to be homogeneous with no marked discontinuities. The fill in the remaining half of each structure was removed as a unit. Five foot wide trenches were then excavated through the wall of each structure to determine the relationship of the structure to the surrounding surface. A 20 ft. long, 5 ft. wide northwest to southeast trench was excavated through the northern end of the midden. The fill from this trench was removed in six inch levels until sterile subsoil or subsurface anomalies were reached. The sterile surface variedhetween 3 and 16 inches below the surface of the midden fill. Two small subsurface pits were uncovered by this trench. Neither the structures nor midden fills contained significant discontinuities and cultural fill was treated as a homogeneous unit during excavation.

EXCAVATION Excavations at Windy Ridge Village consisted of sectioning and clearing the fill of each structure and of trenching the midden area to determine its nature and depth. Sectioning proceeded by removing the fill from one half of each structure in six inch levels in order to ascertain the possibility of stratification within the fill.

Fig. 1

View looking Northwest across Windy Ridge Village

Fig. 2

Windy Ridge Village contour map (contour intervals of 5 feet)

STRUCTURES

firepit. The floor is stained by habitation. Ash deposits overlay much of the floor, but were concentrated near the firebasin. The floor is fire-reddened in some areas. Subfloor Features: A centrally located circular, clay-lined firebasin is basin-shaped in cross section and possesses a raised rim. The basin is 3 ft. 8 in. dia. with a max. depth of 4 in. in the center. The rim varies in width from 1 to 3 in. and stands 1 in. above the surrounding floor. Fill, which consists of undifferentiated ash and charcoal, contained several charred corncobs.

Three structures were present at the Windy Ridge Village site. All three of the structures originated on the sterile ridge surface and only sub-floor pits and firebasins were dug into the alluvial ridge fill. Unless otherwise specified, the following dimensions and measurements are interior ,dimensions,

STRUCTURE I Identification: surface dwelling structure. See Fig. 2 for location and relationship to other site features and Fig. 3 for plan and profile view details. Shape and Dimensions: square with slightly rounded corners. The dimensions are: west wall 13 ft. 7 in., north wall 13 ft. 8 in., east wall 13 ft. 3 in., south wall 12 ft. 10 inches. Walls: closely spaced vertical slabs of unworked sandstone erected on sterile yellow sandy subsoil. Few conspicuous gaps are present in the slab lining. The walls are not cut into the subsoil and it is presumed that after construction, dirt was piled outside the slabs for support. Average height of standing slabs is 2 ft. Their average maximum width is 6 inches. Floor: The floor was found 1 ft. to 1 ft. 5 in. below surface of the structure fill and consists of unprepared sterile yellow sand depressed slightly toward the central

Posthole

@ Subfloor Pit

Fig. 3 6

Structure I Plan and Profile

Fig. 4

View South of Structure I

A subfloor pit, 2 ft. 6 in. from the northwest corner of the structure is oval in plan view, 2 ft. 2 in. by 1 ft. 4 in. with a max. depth of 4 in. The pit fill could not be differentiated from the fill of the structure proper. Fifteen postholes are spaced between the firebasin and walls in a roughly circular pattern. The postholes ring the firebasin at an average distance of 2.5 ft. from the walls. They range in dia. from 4 to 11 in. with an average of 7 in. and range in depth from 2.5 to 6 in. with an average of 3.5 inches. Two postholes contained small rocks possibly used as post braces. Several postholes contained charcoal fragments similar to those in the structure fill, but no unburned wood was preserved. Fill: Structure I was filled with gravelly sand to the height of the standing slabs. The fill was undifferentiated from top to bottom and varied only in the degree of compactness, becoming progressively harder toward the floor. The fill was charcoal-flecked and contained a limited number of artifacts. Disturbances: A large pothole in the northeast cQrner of the house pierced both the fill and the floor. The hole was 2 ft. 6 in. wide by 3 ft. 2 in. long, with maximum depth of 1 ft. below the floor of the structure. Comments: It should be emphasized that Structure I (Fig. 4) is a surface structure and not a pithouse in the usual sense of the term. The walls were erected on the same sterile sandy yellow surface which constituted the floor. Dirt was presumably heaped around the

structure only after erection of the slabs. Structure I had been partially cleared by an amateur prior to excavation but the damage caused was minimal, consisting only of the pothole described above. The floor of Structure I was not extensively fire-reddened nor were there extensive ash deposits save in the vicinity of the firepit. This suggests that the house either collapsed without burning or was dismantled.

STRUCTURE I1 (Fig. 5) Identification: a mixed masonry and adobe surface structure. See Fig. 6 for plan and profile view details and Fig. 2 for location and relationship to other features. Shape and Dimensions: rectangular with slightly rounded corners. The interior dimensions are: north wall 14 ft. 4 in., west wall 16 ft. 5 in., south wall 14 ft. 5 in., east wall 17 ft. 1 inch. Walls: courses of adobe and flat slabs of unworked sandstone. The slabs are 3 to 6 in. apart in each course with the courses spaced at intervals of 3 to 5 in. within the adobe. The slabs in each course rarely touch each other and no courses are directly superimposed. The average thickness of the wall is 10 in. with an average extant height of 1 foot. The wall is built in a small trench cut into the sterile yellow sandy subsurface; this footing trench averages 13 in. wide and about 5 in.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

View North of Structure I1

Structure I1 Plan and Profile

have been an auxiliary hearth. A third possible pit in the southwest corner of the structure, about 9 in. from the wall, is circular with a dia. of 1 ft. 2 in. and a depth of 8 inches. This pit is unlined and its fill was similar to the structural fill.

deep. In the bottom of the trench are flat unworked sandstone slabs set at intervals of 3 to 5 inches. These slabs constitute the lowest of the four courses still remaining in the structure. The number of original courses could not be ascertained, but there are indications that they were not confined to the lower portions of the walls. Outside the west wall are numerous slabs of sandstone similar to those still in place, presumably representing remnants of the upper courses of stones from the collapsed wall. Floor: The floor was found 1 ft. below the surface of structure fill and consists of unprepared sterile yellow sand slightly depressed toward the central firepit. The floor is stained by occupation and is firereddened in many areas.

The structure contains 41 postholes which are arranged in no discernible pattern throughout the floor area between the firebasin and the walls. Two large (1 1 in. and 12 in. dia.) postholes are spaced 5 ft. 8 in. apart on the south side of the firebasin an average distance of 2 ft. from the rim. There are no corresponding postholes on the northern side of the structure. A single double posthole was found and may indicate either post replacement or additional support. The postholes varied considerably in size and depth, ranging in dia. from 2 in. to

Floor Features: The structure contains a centrally located clay-lined firebasin that is circular and basin shaped in cross section (Fig. 7). The basin is 3 ft. 9 in. in diameter and is a maximum of 13 in. deep in the center with a raised rim which varies in width from 5 in. to 6 in. and stands 2 in. above the floor. The floor of the firebasin is lined with four sandstone slabs which vary from 1 in. to 2 in. thick. The fill of the firebasin contained undifferentiated ash and charcoal and a single charred corncob. Two oval subfloor pits are directly north and south of the firepit. The northern pit is 1 ft. 8 in. long and 1 ft. 4 in. wide, with a maximum depth of 3 inches. It is 2 ft. from the northern rim of the firepit and is unlined. The fill of this pit was similar to the general structural fill. The southern pit is about 2 ft. from the south rim of the firepit and is 1 ft. 10 in. long and 1 ft. 7 in. wide, with a maximum depth of 6 inches. The southern pit was sealed with clay and, upon sectioning, was found to contain ash and charcoal beneath the clay. The bottom of the pit is clay-lined and fire-reddened. This pit could

Fig. 7 8

Firebasin in Structure 11

1 ft. (6 to 7 in. average) and ranging in depth from 2 to 9 in. (4 in. average). Fill: undifferentiated gravelly sand averaging 1 ft. deep, which became increasingly compact toward the structure floor. The fill was charcoal-flecked and contained numerous artifacts. Large fragments of charcoal mixed with extensive ash deposits were found lying on the fire-reddened floor and indicate that the structure was probably burned. Disturbances: A large pothole in the southwest corner of the structure had been dug completely through the fill and floor. It was 3 ft. 6 in. long by 2 ft. 5 in. wide and had a maximum depth of 1 ft. below the floor of Structure 11. Comments: Like Structure I, Structure I1 is a surface structure which originates on the sterile yellow sand immediately below the surface of the site. Their similarities end here. Structure I1 is rectangular, constructed with mixed adobe and masonry, and contains a stonelined firebasin. The large number of postholes suggests replacement and indicates a much longer occupation than was evident in Structure I. The artifact content of the Structure I1 fill was much higher and it appears to have burned extensively rather than having been dismantled.

STRUCTURE 111

Identification: an open ended surface arrangement of rocks which cannot be defined as a dwelling. See Fig. 2 and 8 for location, and plan view of the structure. Shape and Dimensions: roughly rectangular with slightly curved corners. The east wall is missing. The interior dimensions are: west wall 18 ft., north wall 19 ft. and south wall 21 feet. Walls: The walls, if indeed they are walls, consist of unworked sandstone boulders spaced closely together

on the surface of the sterile yellow sand. Only one course of rocks is present. No apparent effort was made to orient the individual rocks vertically or otherwise. The rocks average 1 ft. 6 in. in diameter with a wide range of variation. Floor: none present. Floor Features: none present. Disturbances: No disturbances were apparent, although the missing eastern wall may be a result of a post-construction disturbance. Comments: Structure I11 is apparently only a surface arrangement of rocks. No floor, firebasin, use area, or any other evidence indicating its use as a habitation or storage structure was recovered. Its purpose is enigmatic. STORAGE/ RUBBISH PITS

Two storage or rubbish pits are located outside the structures in the midden area of the site. They are both rimless and unlined, originating in the midden fill and intrusive into the underlying sterile subsoil. Pit I originates 3 in. below the surface of the midden and is dug completely through the fill into the sterile subsoil. As this pit was not completely excavated, its plan and profile view are unknown. Its maximum excavated width is 5 ft. 1 in. and it has a maximum depth of 30 inches. The pit fill was generally sirpilar to the midden fill, differing only in texture. Artifacts were slightly more numerous in the pit fill, particularly bone remnants, but in general they were about the same in kind and number as those observed in the midden fill. Pit I1 was initially encountered 1 1 in. below the surface of the midden and is located 3 ft. northwest of Pit I. It is oval in plan view, 3 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 2 in., and bowlshaped in cross section. The pit was dug into the sterile subsoil and has a maximum depth of 18 inchks. The pit lies directly below an area disturbed by vandals and it may originally have been much deeper. The pit fill was distinguished from the surrounding fill by both texture and color differences, but its artifact content was generally similar to the midden fill. MIDDENIREFUSE AREA

This site possessed an extensive midden area lying southeast of Structures I and I1 (Fig. 2). The midden is roughly oval in outline (100 ft. [N-S] by 40 ft. [E-W] ), and has a maximum depth of 16 in. with no major stratigraphic breaks.

ARTIFACTS

Fig. 8

Structure 111Plan

Artifacts from Windy Ridge Village consist primarily of non-perishables such as pottery and stone in addition to several charred corncobs. Artifact provenience is listed in Table I. The artifacts have been placed in previously defined categories whenever possible. All others are described as unusual or unknown.

POTTERY 458 sherds were recovered, representing four types of Fremont Gray ware. Over 94 per cent were from Emery Gray vessels. Sevier Gray and Ivie Creek Black-on-white (unslipped variety) represent 3.1 per cent and 2.6 per cent respectively, of the total collection. A fourth gray ware, Snake Valley Gray, is represented by two sherds. The Emery Gray and Sevier Gray wares are difficult to distinguish in a mixed collection and only those sherds which could definitely be identified as Sevier Gray were typed as such. The other types were readily identified. EMERY GRAY: PLAIN GRAY 384 Plain Gray sherds were found, making up the largest component of the ceramic collection. There is some variation within this group, but in the main they fit the definition of Emery Gray described by Wormington (1955) and Madsen (1970). Twenty-three of the sherds showed evidence of a fugitive red stain. Both bowls and jars were stained. EMERY GRAY: FUGITIVE RED DESIGNED Thirty Plain Emery Gray sherds bear unique fugitive red stained designs. All sherds appear to be from jars or pitchers and are painted on their exterior sides. The predominant design on 22 sherds, consists of a series of chevrons pointing toward the bottom of the vessel. The number of chevrons and length of the wings could not be determined because the sherds were too small. The average chevron width is 1.0 cm. and the average distance between chevrons varies between 0.4 cm. and 1.2 centimeters. The number of chevrons in each series could not be determined. Four sherds from rims or necks bear parallel lines of fugitive red stain which run down from the rims at angles averaging 45 degrees. Since their width and spacing are similar to the chevrons, they may be the upper end of the chevron wings. The remaining four sherds also bear parallel lines of fugitive red stain, but could not definitely be classed with the chevron-designed sherds. At least five vessels are represented in this category and at least two different vessels have the chevron design. A narrow-necked, vertically-rimmed vessel is represented, as is a wide-mouthed, recurved rim jar. Fugitive red-stained designs on pottery are rare over the entire Fremont area and none has been recovered in the San Rafael Fremont subarea prior to the Windy Ridge Village excavations. EMERY GRAY: CORRUGATED Fifteen sherds of this ceramic variety were recovered (Fig. 9, A). Twelve sherds originated from Structure I1 and may be from a single vessel. The corrugations are large and poorly made. The remaining 3 sherds originate from a thin-walled vessel and have much finer corrugations. EMERY GRAY: PUNCTATE One sherd has a punctate design on its exterior surface (Fig. 9, B). The punctations were made with a small, circular, hollow tool, probably a hollow bone or

reed, with a 0.5 cm. dia. The punctations are in rows and are spaced 0.4 cm. apart. The small sherd contains only two rows which run parallel to each other separated by 0.6 centimeters. EMERY GRAY: APPLIQUED Appliqued decorations were found on one sherd (Fig. 9, C). Five small coffee bean appliques are present with an average dia. of 0.7 cm. and an average depth of 0.15 cm. They have been placed in adjacent rows and are crowded closely together. The rows of appliques appear to have encircled the vessel at the juncture of the neck and shoulders. SEVIER GRAY Sevier Gray, described and defined by Steward (1936) and Rudy (J953), represents 3.1 percent of the collection. The 14 sherds were readily identified as Sevier Gray, but are too small to determine vessel shapes. A11 sherds are undecorated. IVIE CREEK BLACK-ON-WHITE Ivie Creek Black-on-white, originally defined by Lister (1960), is represented by 12 sherds, or 2.6 percent of the collection. The sherds are of the "unslipped" variety and all have interior-painted designs. A single rimsherd originated from a bowl and it is probable that the remaining 11 sherds represent bowl-shaped vessels as well. Eight of the 12 sherds were recovered from the floor of Structure I1 and may be from a single vessel. Designs could not be identified. SNAKE VALLEY GRAY AND BLACK-ON-GRAY One sherd of each variety was found. Both sherds fit Rudy's (1953) original definition. The Black-ongray sherd is a bowl rimsherd with an exterior fugitive red stain. Design could not be determined. VESSEL SHAPES The recovered sherds are too small to allow anything but a numerical discussion of vessel shapes. Narrow-necked, vertically-rimmed jars seem to have been the most favored form. Fourteen of 22 rimsherds originate from this shape. Six rimsherds are derived from wide-mouth jars with recurved rims. The remaining two rimsherds are from bowl-shaped vessels. The relatively large number of handles recovered indicates that the majority of ceramic pots were handled vessels. All ten of the recovered handles were of the "strap" variety. All but one were constructed of a single thick coil, with an average dia. of 2.0 cm. The exception is unique in that it consists of three small coil loops pressed together to form a broad, flat handle (Fig. 9). The handle is 2.4 cm. wide and 0.8 cm. thick. The average dia. of the individual coils is 0.8 cm.

CERAMIC ARTIFACTS POTTERY SCRAPERS A single scraper was manufactured from an unslipped Ivie Creek Black-on-white sherd (Fig. 9, E). Three sides of the sherd are ground; the fourth is broken. The sherd is rectangular with curved corners; ground edges are flat.

u%!sappar .%nj/mbarf) Lralu3

qsam par -%nj/m6813 Lralu3

w 00

-3

o m N m

Fig. 9

Artifacts from Windy Ridge Village: A - Emery gray corrugated; B - Emery gray punctate; C - Emery gray applique; D - loop handle; E - pottery scraper; F - drilled sherd; G - tubular ceramic pipe; H, I - projectile points; J - drill; K - scraper. 12

DRILLED SHERDS A Plain Emery Gray sherd contains a single biconically drilled hole (Fig. 9, F). The hole was probably for mending purposes. TUBE PIPE A small fragment from the mouthpiece of a tubular ceramic pipe was found (Fig. 9, G). The pipe was made from untempered, fired clay and is very thin-walled (0.3 cm. max.). The estimated exterior diameter of the pipe is 2.6 cm. Length is unknown. CHIPPED STONE Chipped stone is limited, but includes projectile points, blades, drills, scrapers, choppers, hammerstones, and detritus. The amount of stone found in Windy Ridge Village is sufficiently scarce and undiagnostic to preclude much discussion or comparison. The preferred material was chertlchalcedony (owing, perhaps, to the scarcity of obsidian in that area). The quality of workmanship of the recovered pieces varies considerably from crude in the case of choppers, to good in the case of drills. PROJECTILE POINTS The projectile point fragments were recovered from the site (Fig. 9, H & I). Both are the lower portions of small side-notched points with broken tangs. The fragments are made on straight flakes and both are planoconvex in cross section with retouch on the convex surfaces. The blade edges are straight. The notches are close to the base and average 0.4 cm. deep and 0.2 cm. wide. The material of both is chert/chalcedony. BLADES One complete blade and a single blade fragment were found. The complete specimen is triangular with a straight base and convex edges. It is made on a thick, straight flake and is plano-convex in cross section. Some retouch is evident on the convex surfaces and the base is thinned by chipping. The complete specimen is 5 cm. long and weighs 30 grams. The fragmentary specimen is a portion of a large blade shaft. It is made on a straight flake which is plano-convex in cross section. Retouch is evident on all surfaces. The material for both specimens is chert/ chalcedony. DRILLS A single specimen which may be a drill or punch was recovered from the site (Fig. 9, J). The drill is an elongate form and is quite slender in relation to its length. It tapers from a flattened to a pointed end. The specimen is triangular in cross section with retouch apparent on all surfaces. It is 4.2 cm. long and is made of chert/ chalcedony. SCRAPERS One scraper was recovered from Windy ~ i d ~ Village (Fig. 9, K). It is a side-scraper made on a long, thin, curved flake and is unifacially retouched around its entire circumference. The specimen is 5 cm. long and is made of chert/chalcedony.

CHOPPER The single specimen in this .category is made on a large flake, bifacially worked along one edge to form a cutting surface. The specimen is 10 cm. long at the widest point and is made of chertlchalcedony. HAMMERSTONES Two hammerstones are made on thick, roughly circular flakes and both show signs of pounding and abrading on all surfaces. The maximum diameters are 6 and 6.5 cm. respectively. The material for both is chert/ chalcedony. DETRITUS Fifty-three pieces of chipped stone detritus were found. They consist primarily of random unworked flakes. Forty-nine pieces are of chert/chalcedony. The remaining pieces are obsidian. GROUND STONE MANOS Two fragments represent manos with single flat grinding surfaces. Both manos were formed from slab sandstone material and are only roughly shaped, if at all. Sizes are 9.3 cm. and 9.4 cm. wide by 4.3 cm. and 3.1 cm. thick. Lengths could not be determined. One complete mano was made from a sandstone cobble. The mano is roughly rectangular and appears to have been shaped through use. Grinding on two adjacent surfaces has formed an almost 90 degree corner along one edge of the cobble. The primary grinding surface is longitudinally convex while the secondary surface is flat. The mano is 13.5 cm. long by 7.2 cm. wide by 7.7 cm. thick. METATES Eleven sandstone metate fragments were found. All fragments are from trough-type metates with at least one from an open-ended type. PERISHABLES CORNCOBS Four corncob fragments were recovered from Windy Ridge Village. Three fragments are six-rowed specimens. The number of rows on the remaining fragment could not be determined. UNWORKED BONE Only a limited quantity of unworked bone was unearthed (Table 11). Forty-one bones, representing 7 species, could be identified. The small size of the collection prohibits extensive speculation, but it appears that several rodent species were important food resources. Thirty-five of the 41 identifiable bones represented rodents of the Cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttallil], White tailed jackrabbit (Lepus calvornicus or townsendii), Prairie dog (Cynamys ceucurus), and Antelope e Ground squirrel (Cirellus townsendii) species. Other food animals represented are Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and bird (probably Grouse). Two bobcat bones (Lynx rufus) represent the only remains of predators at the site.

Species

TABLE I1 Unworked Bone

2h 2

% .

22 -c2us5 .-

Provenience

gt2

.-* 3 3 .?sa .- *a .-

.gal g LI

3 3

W E gl

-9 F

P;j$

Po'-,

2Q-O .-

2$ g: QJB gs -52 .*

0 3,

O E

-W O P :

153 2-

2 3 p b 2

* .r 'A i

2'"

Structure 11 Fill

Structure I1 Floor

Pit I Fill

Midden Fill

20(4)*

5(2)

11(3)

3(1)

2(1)

l(1)

Totals

l(1)

*Estimated number of individualsrepresented.

CULTURAL AFFILIATION AND DATING Windy Ridge Village is within the Eastern Fremont subarea defined variously as the "San Rafael" variant (Ambler 1966), the "Classical Fremont" variant (Taylor 1970), and the "San Rafael Fremont" (Marwitt 1970) (a redefinition of Ambler's description). Although the areal limits of this subarea vary somewhat according to definition, Windy Ridge Village lies in the northwestern corner of the San Rafael variant area. The primary characteristics which separate this Eastern Fremont variant from the rest of the Fremont cultures are present at the Windy Ridge Village site. The ceramic types and architectural designs at Windy Ridge Village are definitive San Rafael Fremont varieties. The only evidence of contact with regions outside the San Rafael area consists of two sherds of Snake Valley Gray, a ceramic type characteristic of the Parowan Fremont variant located southwest of the San Rafael area, and 14 sherds of Sevier Gray, a type representative of the Sevier Fremont area located directly west. A C-14 sample (RL-59) taken from the floor of Structure I dated 1260 120 B.P.: 690 * 120 A.D. A

second sample (RL-60) taken from the hearth area in 110 A.D. Structure I1 dated 980 * 110 B.P.: 970 These dates are generally in accord with those from other carbon-14 dated sites in the area. The Old Woman and Poplar Knob sites (Taylor 1957) which share characteristics of both the Sevier and San Rafael Fremont subareas are radiocarbon dated respectively at 1052 200 B.P.: 898 * 200 A.D. and 1162 250 B.P.: 788 250 A.D. (Flint and Deevey 1959: 173). However, Ambler (1969: 108) has rejected both of these dates as being too early, because, he contends, the dates conflict with ceramic evidence. The majority of Fremont sites in the San Rafael area are dated primarily by the correlations of ceramic typologies. Aikens (1967) rejects a carbon-14 date of 1505 * 95 B.P.: A.D. 445 + 95 years from Snake Rock Village as being too early because of a conflict with ceramic evidence. He assigns the site tentatively to a period from A.D. 1075 to A.D. 1275. Turner-Look is the only other dated Fremont site in the Eastern Fremont area and was dated by a ceramic typology as being initially occupied by A.D. 1050 (Wormington 1955:75). The Fremont drainage sites (Morss 1931) and Nine Mile Canyon (Gillin 1938) fit into the San Rafael Fremont pattern and are tree-ring dated to a 140 year

interval between A.D. 920 and A.D. 1160 (Gunnerson 1969). Although subsequent investigation may modify the picture, the Fremont occupation of the San Rafael area appears to be earliest in the northwestern sector of the region. Sites to the south and east date 200 to 300 years later. The overall time span for the Fremont culture in the area is on the order of A.D. 650 to A.D. 1200.

SITE INTERPRETATION The occupants of Windy Ridge Village apparently followed the normal Fremont subsistence pattern (Marwitt 1970). The presence of corncobs and a variety of animal species indicates a mixed hunting and horticultural economy. The larger species of rodents appear to have been the primary target of hunting activities. Several species of rabbit, prairie dog, and ground squirrel are represented. Mule deer is present, as is a carnivorous species (Lynx rufus). Irrigation and/or flood plain farming at or near the site is inferred from the presence of corncobs and the improbability of dry farming in the general area. Aikens (1967) points out that there is a 30 year average of only 7.64 in. of rain per year in the area and that much of the growing season precipitation is in the form of localized cloudbursts, which provide little in the way of suitable moisture for crops. Nearby Sand Wash cer-

tainly could have been utilized for irrigation or flood plain farming purposes along the broad channel bottom and crops from this area are the most likely source of the corncobs found at the site. Three surface structures were excavated. Two of these are dwelling structures which are markedly similar to semi-subterranean pit houses. Dirt, piled up around the structures for support, makes them appear to be sunk into surrounding fill. The small number of structures and the homogeneous cultural fill at the site, suggest that Windy Ridge Village is a single component, single occupation site. However, the two primary structures are easily distinguished by a number of different architectural features and have rather widely disparate C-14 dated periods of occupation. The artifactual content of each structure is also markedly different. Corrugated Emery Gray sherds and Ivie Creek B/ W sherds were found in Structure 11, dated at 980 110 B.P., while neither type was recovered from Structure I, dated at 1260 + 120 B.P. Gunnerson's (1969:170), Marwitt's (1970), and Berry's (1974) suggestion that corrugated and black-on-white pottery developed late in Fremont history is supported by this evidence from Windy Ridge Village. The factors of widely separate C-14 dates, different architectural features and artifactual differences, suggest that the site had two occupations, separated by a nearly 300 year interval. Windy Ridge Village is therefore defined as a double occupation, San Rafael Fremont site.

CRESCENT RIDGE SETTING The Crescent Ridge site occupies a low, semicircular ridge 4 miles north of Huntington, Emery County, Utah (SW1/4, NEX, Section 31, T16W, R9E.). The ridge runs east-west and rises to a height of 15 ft. above the surrounding area. Crescent Ridge lies in the middle of the Cedar Creek stream bed, surrounded by a number of old channel cuts. The present stream channel lies directly west of the ridge, not more than 300 ft. from its base. An old channel about 500 ft. wide forms an arc around the eastern side of the ridge, stretching from its northeast to southeast base. The ridge is approximately 1000 ft. long and varies in width from 25 ft. at the center to 150 ft. at either end. The ridge consists of alluvial fill, primarily gravels, but contains courser material as well. It is sparsely vegetated, with most vegetation being restricted to the ridge sides. The ridge top is relatively barren. Rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus sp.) sagebrush (Artemisia sp. ) and a variety of grasses

are scattered across the stream channels and on the ridge edges. Crescent Ridge lies at an elevation of 6000 ft. in the eastern foothills of the Wasatch Plateau. ~ e n t Mounr ~ tain, from which the perennial Cedar Creek derives, is located less than 5 miles northwest of Crescent Ridge.

EXCAVATION Excavation of the Crescent Ridge site consisted of sectioning and clearing a single primary structure, testing what proved to be an enigmatic structure, and trenching the midden area. Sectioning of the Structure I fill initially indicated some stratification. Two ash-and-charcoal-stained layers were present, spearated by a thin, relatively ash-free stratum. The upper ash layer, the result of the structure's burning, was removed prior to excavation of the remaining fill. The fill associated with the occupation of the structure was removed from the structure in a single continuous operation. A small, 3 ft. by 5 ft. trench was

Fig. 10

Crescent Ridge contour map (intervals of 5 feet)

extended from the northwestern sector of Structure I to determine relationship of the structure to the surrounding midden and to the underlying ridge surface. A 3 ft. by 5 ft. test pit was sunk into the fill of Structure I1 to investigate possible stratigraphy and to locate any features such as a floor or a firebasin. The test pit revealed neither floor nor significant stratigraphy and the limitations of time and inclement weather prevented further excavation. A small trench, 18 ft. long by 3 ft. wide was excavated through the midden. Neither stratification nor subsurface anomalies were found. The midden fill averaged only 3 to 4 inches in depth along the entire length of the trench.

Shape and Dimensions: roughly circular with an average diameter of 14 ft. 6 inches. Walls: vertical slabs of closely spaced unworked sandstone erected on sterile, yellow, sandy subsoil. Slightly more than one-half of the south wall is intact while the rocks of the north wall are missing completely. The walls are not cut into the subsoil. It is presumed that subsequent to erection of the slabs, dirt was piled outside the circumference. The average ver-

STRUCTURES A single structure is located on either end of the crescent-shaped ridge approximately in the center of each of the widest points of the ridge top. Both structures originate on the sterile ridge surface and only subfloor features extend down into the alluvial fill. The following measurements are all interior.

STRUCTURE I Identification: surface dwelling structure. See Fig. 10 for location and relationship to other site features and Fig. 11 for detailed plan and profile views.

Fig. 11 Structure I Plan and Profile

tical height of standing slabs is 1 ft. 7 inches. The average width is 6 inches. Floor: The floor was found 1 ft. to 1 ft. 2 in. below the surface of the structure fill and consists of unprepared sterile, yellow sand nearly level from wall to wall. The floor is stained by occupation and was overlain by extensive ash deposits, possibly burnt roofing. The floor is also fire-reddened in several areas. Floor Features: A clay-lined firebasin is located in the center of Structure I. The firebasin was probably originally oval; although its present configuration is distorted due to intrusive pits. It is basin-shaped in cross section and is 2 ft. 5 in. long by 1 ft. 7 in. wide. Originally, the firepit had a rim, the remaining portions of which are 3 to 4 in. wide and stand about 1 to 2 in. above the floor. The maximum depth of the firepit is 6 in. The fill consisted of undifferentiated ash and charcoal. A single subfloor pit is located on the north edge of the structure. The pit is oval in plan view and basinshaped in cross section. It is 1 ft. 5 in. long and 11 in. wide with a maximum depth of 3% in. The pit is unlined and its fill was similar to that of the rest of the structure. Originally, the posthole pattern of Structure I was probably circular, though the eleven extant postholes cluster in a semicircular pattern on the south end of the structure. The north end, lacking a wall, is also almost devoid of postholes. Although the floor could be traced to its limits, it was rather indistinct in the northern sector of the structure, possibly accounting for the absence of postholes reported by the excavator. The extant postholes seem to consist of an inner ring of small holes located near the central firepit and an outer ring of somewhat larger ones located near the south wall. The range in diameter for the inner ring of postholes is 5 to 7 in. and the range in depth is from 1% to 6 in. The average diameter is 6 in. while the average depth is 3 in. The range in diameter for the outer ring is 6 to 11 in. (8% in. average) and the range in depth is 2% to 6 in. (3% in. average). The fill of the postholes consisted of ash and charcoal. Fill: The fill was primarily undifferentiated gravelly sand which increased in compactness toward the structure floor. The fill contained a % in. thick layer of ash and charcoal which appears to have resulted from the structure's destruction. The fill averaged 1 ft. in depth and contained relatively few artifacts. Disturbances: Two burrows or pits disturbed the original configuration of the central firebasin. The pits originate below the surface of the fill, but above the ash layer. It appears that the pits are aboriginal but their purpose is unknown. They may have been dug to recover possessions in the structure, or they may have been dug by rodents. Comments: It is apparent that the north wall was removed after the structure burnt (Fig. 12). This seems particularly plausible since it was possible to trace the floor of the structure to its northern limits. The northern

Fig. 12

View South of Structure 1

and southern edges are equidistant from the central firebasin. Moreover, at the edge of the floor where the wall is missing, a very slight depression can be noted within which the rocks of the missing wall might have stood. The pits in the firebasin are interesting in that they occurred after the postulated burning, yet before the deposition of the rest of the structural fill. Perhaps, they correspond in age to the removal of the rocks of the north wall. Likewise, the absence of postholes in the north end of the structure is curious, but on present evidence cannot be resolved.

STRUCTURE I1 Identification: a surface structure of indeterminate use. See Figs. 10 and 13 for plan view and location. Shape and Dimensions: an elongated teardrop shape, narrow in relation of length to width, with rounded ends and no projecting points or corners. It is a maximum of 27 ft. 6 in. long and has a maximum basal width of 13 ft. 6 in. The maximum width of the apex is 11 feet. Walls: unworked, closely spaced (average gap 3 in.), random sandstone boulders on the surface of the sterile, yellow sand. Only one course of rocks is present. Although the dimensions vary greatly among the individual specimens, the average height of the rocks is 1 ft. 4 in. and the average width is 7 in. No effort was made to orient the individual rocks vertically or otherwise. The longitudinal orientation of the structure is north to south with the larger end of the teardrop facing south. Subfloor Features: none present in test area. Fill: gravelly charcoal-flecked sand ranging from 1 to 3 in. in depth. Sterile, yellow sand underlay the

facts, from all categories, were found. No bone material or perishables were recovered and the only diagnostic information is derived from pottery. Artifact provenience is listed in Table 111.

POTTERY Emery Gray pottery is the only ceramic type recovered from Crescent Ridge. Thirty-two of 33 sherds from the site area are of the plain Emery Gray variety and only one of these has an exterior fugitive red stain. A single Emery Gray sherd has an exterior fugitive red design similar to those from the Windy Ridge Village site. No worked sherds or other ceramic artifacts were recovered.

CHIPPED STONE

Fig. 13 Structure I Plan fill. The fill contained no artifacts in the limited test area. Disturbances: none present. Comments: Time limitations prevented the complete excavation of Structure I1 and only a small 3 ft. by 5 ft. area of the fill was tested. This prevents a precise definition. Neither firebasin, floor, nor other evidence indicating habitation was present. The limited test sample may have missed any such feature, however. Structure I1 is therefore designated a surface arrangement of rocks, forming a complete, unbroken, oval-shaped wall.

MIDDEN/REFUSE AREA A small midden area exists southeast of Structure I. The midden is roughly crescent-shaped and covers only 20 t o 30 sq. ft,; maximum depth is 4 inches. No stratigraphic breaks were encountered in the midden fill which consists principally of ash and some charcoal. No pits were found and artifact yield was small, consisting of a few sherds and a complete mano.

ARTIFACTS For a site containing two structures and a good sized midden area, the Crescent Ridge excavation recovered surprisingly few artifacts. Fewer than 50 arti-

Thirteen pieces of chipped stone material were recovered. Ten of these, all of chert/chalcedony, are unworked detritus. The remaining 3 chipped stone artifacts are discussed below. BLADE PERFORMS One complete specimen which may represent a blank or preform for a blade or drill, is roughly triangular in plan view and is made on a thick, straight flake. Little work is evident on the specimen, save for the removal of several large flakes. The specimen is 5.5 cm. long and 1.5 cm. thick. The material is chert/ chalcedony. CHOPPERS Two complete choppers were found. They are both made on large, thick flakes and are bifacially worked along one side to form a cutting edge. The specimens are both of chert/chalcedony. The measurements in terms of maximum width for7each are 2.8 cm. and 3.6 cm. respectively. Maximum diameters are 7.5 and 9.0 centimeters.

GROUND STONE Ground stone artifacts from Crescent Ridge consist of a complete mano and mano fragment. Both specimens are of sandstone and have been completely shaped and ground on all surfaces. The complete specimen is loaf-shaped and has a markedly convex working surface (Fig. 16, A). The mano is lenticular in cross section (both directions) with a marked ridge surrounding the primary grinding area. The mano is 19.2 cm. long by 7.0 cm. wide by 5.4 cm. thick. The fragment is also loaf-shaped with a convex working surface, but differs in being reticular in cross section (Fig. 14, B). The sides and working surface, although slightly convex, are much flatter than those on the complete mano. The specimen is 7.0 cm. wide by 6.1 cm. thick. Length is unknown.

TABLE 111 Distribution of Artifacts

CULTURAL AFFILIATION AND DATING

Fig. 14

Ground stone from Crescent Ridge

The Crescent Ridge site is located in the northwest sector of the Eastern "San Rafael" Fremont subarea and contains no artifactual. types representative of areas outside this region. To date, this is the only Fremont site within this subarea which shows no evidence of "outside" contact. The architecture at the site reflects this pattern of isolation, being similar to an architectural style unique to the San Rafael area. A charcoal sample (RL-61) taken from the firebasin in Structure I was dated to 1170 * 100 B.P.: 780 + 100 A.D. and is in agreement with the other dated Fremont sites in the area. The limited number of artifacts makes any typological dating tenuous, but the ceramic artifacts are relevant to R. Madsen's dating of Fremont pottery. No trade materials were recovered and the pottery from the site consists solely of the plain ~ m e r yGray variety. No carbon painted or corrugated sherds are present.

SITE INTERPRETATION

Two surface structures were excavated. No significant stratigraphic breaks were uncovered in either the Structure or midden fills, and it appears that the site is a single component, single occu~ationSari Rafael FremOnt

Subsistence at Crescent Ridge cannot be determined due to the lack of floral and faunal remains at the site. However, the mixed hunting, gathering, and agricultural orientation represented at other Fremont sites in the San Rafael area was probably present at the Crescent Ridge site as well.

POWER POLE KNOLL SETTING

The site consists of a small mound of cultural deposition found on top of the mixed alluvium of the ridge. The north to south oriented mound is approximately 5 ft. by 20 ft. wide. No cultural material was recovered from any areas of the ridge outside the oval mound. Power Pole Knoll is located less than 1 mile upstream from the Crescent Ridge site on the opposite bank of Cedar Creek with the same easy access to a wide range of surrounding ecological zones.

The Power Pole Knoll site occupies an eminence on the west end of a long east to west oriented ridge, approximately 5 miles northeast of Huntington, Emery County, Utah ( [SE%, NWS, Section 31, T16S, R9E] Fig. 17, 18). The ridge is about one-half mile long and relatively straight. Directly north and adjacent to the ridge is the Cedar Creek stream bed. The present channel of Cedar Creek lies approximately 600 ft. north of the site. South of the site lies a relatively open, sagebrush-covered flatland. The ridge stands about 40 ft. above Cedar Creek stream bed and is quite steep on the northern side. The southern side slopes gradually into the level area. Apparently, only a small promontory on the western end of the ridge was occupied. The site lies on the relatively level ridge top within 5 ft. of the precipitous slope of the ridge's northern side, directly overlooking Cedar Creek at an elevation of slightly more than 6000 feet. Vegetation on the ridge is relatively sparse and consists primarily of sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) with minor so.), amounts of shade scale (Atriplex . - . rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus sp.), and a few grasses mixed in. Considerably more vegetation grows in the stream channel below the site and most of the vegetation types commonly found in alluvial washes in the area are represented.

The Power Pole Knoll site consists of a single structure (Fig. 16) and its surrounding refuse area. No discontinuities were present in either the structural fill or the midden, and the occupation of the site is apparently represented by a single cultural stratum. The

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

EXCAVATION Excavations at Power Pole Knoll were restricted to the clearing and defining of the site's single structure. Several potholes left by relic hunters were dug through the floor of the structure. The profiles of these potholes clearly showed that the structural fill was thin and homogeneous. No sectioning was attempted. The structural fill and surrounding midden fill was removed in a single, continuous operation.

STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

View Northeast of Power Pole Knoll (structure is right of the power pole) 20

Power Pole Knoll contour map (intervals of 5 feet)

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TABLE IV Distribution of Artifacts

lH!

Stroeture Fill

6+.

W 2

(/1

3 E

z 93

0 u

Structure Floor

Totals

Disturbances: Two shallow potholes west and southeast of the firebasin pierced the floor. Both potholes were oval and about 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. long and 1 ft. wide. Maximum depth was 6 inches.

ARTIFACTS Only nine artifacts were recovered from Power Pole Knoll. This limited total precludes any comparitive discussion. Artifact provenience is listed in Table IV. POTTERY Five sherds were found. Four are plain Emery Gray; the fifth is a Snake Valley Black-on-gray sherd, which indicates possible outside contact.

CHIPPED STONE A single circular hammerstone is made on a thick chert/chalcedony core and is abraded on all surfaces. Maximum diameter is 5.0 centimeters.

GROUND STONE MANOS A complete mano consisting of a utilized sandstone cobble with a single flat grinding surface is roughly rectangular and has not been shaped. The flat grinding surface is 10.6 cm. by 5.8 cm. and the mano is 4.9 cm. thick. A fragment consisting of one-half of a formed loaf-shaped mano has been ground flat and rectangular on one surface and is 6.2 cm. in width. It is 8.3 cm. high and 7.3 cm. wide at maximum; length cannot be determined. The material of both manos is sandstone.

METATE A single trough-type metate, found in situ on the structure floor, is 37.4 cm. long by 31.7 cm. wide by 20.2 cm. thick and is made of sandstone. Trough dimensions were not recorded.

CULTURAL AFFILIATION AND DATING Power Pole Knoll, along with the other sites reported here, belongs to the San Rafael Fremont variant. The small number of artifacts almost precludes any comparison, but Emery Gray pottery is the primary ceramic type. The single structure is similar to architectural designs found only in the San Rafael Fremont area. Contacts with other Fremont subareas is evidenced by the presence of a sherd of Snake Valley Black-ongray pottery. A carbon sample, taken from the firebasin fill in the only structure at the site, dates to 1040 * 130 B.P.: 910 * 130 A.D. (RL-62). This places the site in the middle of the postulated 650 to 1200 A.D. time span for the San Rafael variant.

SITE INTERPRETATION The lack of flora and faunal remains at Power Pole Knoll prohibits discussion of subsistence adaption. Power Pole Knoll may well be related to the Crescent Ridge site, which is less than one-half mile away. Their economic adaptions were probably quite similar. The sites are visible from each other on ridges overlooking Cedar Creek and are possibly contemporaneous, since

the standard deviations of the radiocarbon dates overlap extensively. The fact that Power Pole Knoll consists of only a single structure strengthens the possibility

that there was some connection between the two sites. Power Pole Knoll is apparently a single component, single occupation San Rafael Fremont site.

GENERAL SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

These three San Rafael Fremont sites are generally similar to others along the eastern base of the Wasatch Mountain Range. Enough of these sites has been identified to allow a preliminary definition of distinctive features, such as architecture and ceramics. While these features alone are enough to distinguish the San Rafael Fremont from other Fremont groups, the excavations of Windy Ridge Village, Crescent Ridge and Power Pole Knoll [in addition to sites reported by Aikens (1967), Gunnerson (1957), Taylor (1957) and Schroedl and Hogan (1975) ] suggest that population demography/ settlement patterns are also relatively unique. It is apparent that permanent habitation sites (as opposed to temporary hunting/ gathering camping sites such as ~lyde's Cavern [Winter and Wylie 19731 ) usually consist of small, isolated hamlets or single dwelling units. These are found on small ridges overlooking the outwash plains of small streams emerging from the foothills of the Wasatch Mountains. Subjectively, the size of these sites suggests occupation of nuclear - or at most, extended family - units. Their small size and distribution suggest that huntinglgathering may have been economically more important than agriculture. They are dispersed along ecotones most suitable to a collecting resource base rather than congregated along agriculturally favorable areas. It appears that, eventually, it may be possible to define at least two occupational phases in the San Rafael Fremont area: an early phase characterized by slab or boulder-lined, semi-subterranean dwellings and plain, undecorated Emery Gray pottery; and a later phase characterized by the appearance of coursed masonry and adobe structures, surface-manipulated and decorated Emery Gray pottery, and the presence of large amounts of Anasazi tradeware. However, at present, the poor chronological controls prohibit speculation.

FREMONT ARCHITECTURE IN THE SAN RAFAEL AREA The San Rafael Fremont subarea is characterized by three distinctive types of dwellings. These three types, in addition to the other more common Fremont structures in the region, make the San Rafael area architecture the most varied and elaborate of the five Fremont regions. The types of structures characteristic of the area and their variations are discussed individually below, followed by a general discussion of San Rafael architecture. DWELLING STRUCTURES

Three basic types of dwelling structures, distinguished primarily by variation in wall construction,. are found within the San Rafael Fremont sub-area. The three types share a number of architectural features which are peculiar to the region. Stone was utilized in the construction of all three types, a feature unusual in architecture outside the area. Slab-lined firebasins are another feature common to all types of dwelling structures, although unlined firebasins are also present. Floors are leveled, prepared, and often clay-lined. Shallow, interior subfloor storage pits are usually present. Slab-lined Dwellings: These structures are usually semi-subterranean pit dwellings lined with large slabs of stone (usually sandstone). Slab-lined surface dwellings are found, but all have dirt piled around the exterior side of the structure giving the appearance of semi-subterranean dwellings. The dwellings are small, usually less than 12 ft. in diameter. Shapes range from roughly circular to round-cornered, square or rectangular structures. The slab-lining consists primarily of undressed sandstone slabs from 1 to 2 ft. high and usually less than 6 in. thick. The irregularly shaped slabs are closely spaced around the walls. Dressed stone is at a

minimum and in most cases no attempt was made to fit the slabs tightly together. Two types of posthole patterns are found and, in general, correspond to the shape of the structures. The circular structures have a circular arrangement of relatively equal sized postholes within 1 to 2 ft. of a centrally located firebasin. The square or rectangularly shaped structures have four primary postholes in a square or rectangular pattern around the central firebasin. Additional supports were added where necessary. Slab-lined dwelling structures have been reported from a number of San Rafael Fremont sites. Gillen (1938) and Gunnerson (1957: 138) report vertical slab-lined dwellings from Nine Mile Canyon and Ferron Creek Canyon. Dwellings of this type were present at all three sites reported above. Gunnerson noted structures of this type near Escalante (1957: 89) and the Fremont River (1957: 98). There is little evidence of the type of roofing used in these dwellings, but most likely the upper portion of the walls were formed with timbers slanting up from the top of the slab-lining to the central support posts. The structures were probably flat-topped with some sort of smokehole entryway, since no evidence of side entries exists. Coursed Masonry and Adobe Dwellings: These structures are similar to the slab-lined types in that they may be either semi-subterranean or surface structures. However, here too, dirt was occasionally piled outside the structure, giving the impression of a pit dwelling. The walls of these structures consist of alternating courses of adobe and slab-masonry, but the amount of each type of construction material varies from structure to structure. A shallow footing, not more than 6 in. deep, usually surrounds these structures and supports the courses of adobe and masonry. The stone utilized is usually sandstone, but a wide variety of other rocks is present, indicating that anything handy was used. The walls vary in thickness between 6 and 12 in. and are considerably higher than the slab-lined walls. At most sites the upper courses have fallen in or have been removed, but it is evident that wall heights of from 4 to 6 ft. were common. Structure shapes range from square or rectangular to circular or oval and are usually quite large, their average diameter being over 20 feet. Centrally located, clay-rimmed firebasins are present and may be slab-lined, clay-lined, or unlined. Prepared floors are the rule and are clay-lined in many cases. Gunnerson (1957: 6) notes that posthole patterns are often not necessarily regular. The one definable pattern consists of four primary support-posts placed in a square or rectangular arrangement around the central firebasin, with small posts added for support. The height of the walls suggests that the roofs were flat with pole rafters extending to the central support posts or completely across the structure. Little evi-

dence of the type of roofing construction exists, but wattle and daub roofing is probable. Entrance to these structures was probably made through the roof since most dwellings lack any gap in the relatively high walls. Side entryways are in evidence, however, at the Turner-Look site where Wormington (1955) found several dwellings with linteled doorways in the masonry and adobe walls. Mixed masonry and adobe structures are the most common dwelling in the San Rafael Fremont area and serve as one of the major regional characteristics. Structures of this type are reported in Nine-Mile Canyon (Gillen: 1936), near Hanksville (Gunnerson 1957), in Ferron Creek Canyon (Gunnerson 1957: 137), at the Poplar Knob site (Taylor 1957), at the Turner-Look site (Wormington 1955) and at the Windy Ridge Village site reported here. Boulder-lined Dwellings: These structures are characterized by one or, at the most, two courses of large basaltic boulders encircling the dwelling area. Both surface and' pit dwellings are found, but surface structures are the most common variant. These structures are, in the main, quite similar to the slab-lined dwelling structures, differing primarily in the kind of rock used to line the walls. Shapes vary from rectangular to circular and are relatively small with an average diameter of about 15 feet. The rock lining usually consists of basalt boulders, 1 to 2 ft. in diameter, spaced tightly together. The spaces between boulders are often chinked with adobe and an interior adobe plaster is evident in some cases. A partial or complete second course was sometimes added, but wall heights are rarely over 2 to 3 feet. In most cases, posthole patterns do not indicate the roof type of these structures, but it is probable that the construction of the upper walls and roof was similar to that of the slab-lined dwellings. The floors are nearly always leveled, prepared, and often clay-lined. Centrally located, clay-rimmed firebasins come in both slab-lined and unlined varieties. Lack of evidence suggesting side entryways indicates that entrance was through the top. Boulder-lined dwelling structures are reported near Torrey and Fruita by Morss (1931), from Nine Mile Canyon by Gillen (1939), from Last Chance Creek by Gunnerson (1957), and from the Snake Rock site by Aikens .(1967). (Both Marwitt and Ambler place Snake Rock in the Sevier Fremont Subarea, but the site shares a large number of ceramic and architectural features with the San Rafael Region.) A variant of the boulder-lined dwelling structure is a circular or square arrangement of boulders on the surface of many San Rafael Fremont sites. These structures consist of a single course of boulders, usually basalt, surrounding a hardened, use-stained floor with a central firebasin. Postholes are present, indicating roofing of some kind, but no adobe chinking is evident. Little or

no earth is found supporting the exterior side of the boulder arrangements. Aikens (1967: 15) suggests that these may be tipi rings, with the basalt boulders having been used to hold down the hide tipi covers. In nearly all respects, however, (including size, shape, interior characteristics and lower wall construction) they resemble the boulderlined dwelling structures. It is probable that any loosely packed mud or earth chinking or support was removed from these exposed structures by weathering and deflation. They may be surface variants of boulderlined dwellings similar to the surface variants of the slab-lined dwellings. Both explanations may have some validity, but the high percentage of square or rectangular structures supports the latter hypothesis. Square tipis are, to say the least, rare ethnographically and a hypothesis that explains all varieties of boulder encircled surface dwellings rather than just the circular types must be considered more plausible.

STORAGE STRUCTURES The San Rafael Fremont area is distinguished by two types of storage structures which are unique to the region. Slab-lined Cists: These storage units usually consist of a slab-lined floor surrounded by vertical stone slabs (usually sandstone) and covered, depending on the size, by either a large, flat, sandstone slab or wattle-and-daub roofing. The walls are often chinked with adobe to seal the structure better. The cists are usually less than 2 ft. deep. Unlined storage cists are common over the whole Fremont area, but the slab-lined variety is apparently restricted to the San Rafael region. Wormington (1955: 172) indicates slab-lined cists are found in the Uinta Basin, but she fails to list a location or a source, noting that, at the time, published reports on the area were "very poor." Breternitz (1968) mentions a single slab-lined cist in his survey of Dinosaur National Monument, but indicates that it is possibly a firebasin. Free Standing Masonry and Adobe Granaries: Storage structures of this type are similar in construction to the coursed masonry and adobe dwelling structures. They lack firebasins or other floor features, are generally smaller than the similar dwelling structures, and stand only 2 to 3 ft. high. They are nearly always &ngle room structures. Free standing granaries are common in much of the general Fremont area; and, with a single exception, are constructed of coursed adobe. These adobe granaries are nearly rectangular and are usually double or multiroomed structures. The single exception is a masonry and' adobe structure at Pharo Village (Marwitt 1969) which is shaped in the usual rectangular double-lined form. Square and circular, one room structures made of coursed masonry and adobe are restricted to the San Rafael area.

Enigmatic Structures: Wormington (1955: 174) and Gunnerson (1957: 6) have both noted unique drylaid masonry structures in the San Rafael Fremont area. These tower-like structures are sandstone masonry in small, circular or square arrangements overlooking steep ridges or cliffs. The are usually small with a diameter of 5 to 10 feet. Since some remnants are over 8 ft. high, the original structures were probably much higher. These structures cannot be definitely assigned to the Fremont culture due to the paucity of cultural remains. They have a striking resemblance to similar Anasazi structures to the south and may be related. In any case, they cannot be definitely categorized as either dwelling or storage structures. Their purpose remains unknown.

OTHER ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES The San Rafael region shares a large number of architectural features with the rest of the Fremont area. Since these are well described elsewhere (see particularly Sharrock and Marwitt 1967 and Marwitt 1970) they will simply be listed. These structures are: Stone Alignments Coursed Adobe Surface Dwellings Jacal Surface Dwellings Lean-to's of Bark-Covered Poles Coursed Masonry and Adobe Granaries in Rock Shelters Unlined Cists Adobe Granaries The stone alignments referred to here are the curious arrangements of rocks in circular or square patterns which lack evidence of floors, postholes or firebasins. These structures are often open-ended and always enigmatic. Adobe dwellings, rare in the San Rafael area, are represented by a single structure in Nine Mile Canyon (Gillen 1939). Adobe granaries are unlike those in other Fremont subareas. In nearly all cases they consist of small (5 ft. diameter) rooms added to an existing masonry and adobe structure. Granaries in rock shelters consist of masonry and adobe structures which utilize the shelter wall for one or two sides of the structure. Granaries of this type are common in both the Uinta and San Rafael subareas.

DISCUSSION The San Rafael subarea is distinguished architecturally from the other regional Fremont variants primarily by the extensive use of stone in the construction of dwellings and granaries. Only a single adobe dwelling structure has been located in the area. Unlined pit dwellings occur only at Snake Rock, Emery, and Poplar Knob, which are probable Sevier variant sites. Adobe granaries are small adjuncts to larger masonry structures, rather than primary granary structures encountered in the other subareas. Where

the granary is the primary structure, it is constructed of mixed courses of stone and adobe. Surface dwellings built to resemble pit dwellings are unique to the area. Whether or not this resemblance was intentional is, of course, unknown; but unless tests of the fill surrounding these structures are made they are indistinguishable. An unusually large percentage of San Rafael Fremont dwelling structures originate on the surface. Unlike the other regional variants (with the possible exception of the Great Salt Lake Fremont), semi-subterranean dwellings are uncommon. To date, all well excavated San Rafael Fremont sites have surface dwelling units, pit dwellings being the exception.

SAN RAFAEL FREMONT CERAMICS Emery Gray is the primary ceramic type within the Eastern Fremont area. (Emery Gray has previously been designated Plain Gray, Type C [Gillen 19381, Turner Gray-Variety I1 [Wormington 19551, Turner Gray: Emery variety [Aikens, 19671, and Emery Gray [Gunnerson 19691; see Madsen [I9701 for a discussion of Fremont ceramic type designations.) The distribution center appears to be located along the foothills of the Eastern edge of the Wasatch Plateau. Emery Gray comprises at least 50 percent of the collections from all excavated sites within this area and reaches upwards of 90 percent or more at the Old Woman and Poplar Knob sites (Taylor 1957), as well as the three sites reported here. Northeast of this central core area, Emery Gray is replaced as the major ceramic type by Uinta Gray (Turner Gray: Cisco variety). To the southeast, Emery Gray continues as the dominant type until the borderof Anasazi country is reached. Directly west of the core area, Emery Gray is rapidly replaced by Sevier Gray as the dominant type. This seeming rapid replacement may be more a factor of geographical ceramic typing than of actual ceramic type change. Sevier and Emery Gray share a large number of distinctive characteristics and their ranges of variation overlap extensively. In any mixed collection roughly one-third of the sherds cannot be typed definitely as either variety, except through extensive technological tests. Variation in tempering material is the most useful distinguishing characteristic. Both types are characterized by crushed igneous rock temper combined with varying amounts of crushed quartz or quartz sand, but they can be distinguished by the size of temper particles and by the percentage of crushed quartz. Emery Gray is characterized by finely crushed igneous rock particles combined with comparatively large amounts of quartz. Sevier Gray, however, has coarser igneous temper and a lower percentage of crushed quartz or quartz sand. There is a variation in these characteristics, however, and the two types tend to blend into each other.

This difficulty in classification has resulted in what amounts to geographical typing. For the most part, all igneous tempered pottery from the east side of the Wasatch Plateau has been called Emery Gray (by whatever label) while that on the west side of the Plateau has always been termed Sevier Gray. Gunnerson (1957) noted the wide range of temper, but failed to distinguish more than a single type. Taylor (1957) noted a difference in the pottery from the Old Woman and Poplar Knob sites, but distinguished only two sub-varieties of Emery Gray. The first adequate distinction between the two types was made by Aikens in 1967. In a mixed collection, he distinguished between the two types primarily on the coarseness of the temper. Aikens' discussion of the differences between the two ceramic types is much more complete and should be consulted for typological definitions. See Madsen (1970) for a more complete discussion of ceramic distribution in the Eastern Fremont area. Variations of Emery Gray include surface-manipulated types such as appliqued, punctated, incised, and pinched. Designs such as these, usually restricted to vessel neck and shoulders, are relatively uncommon in the San Rafael region. Corrugated Emery Gray sherds are found, but are equally uncommon. The corrugations, usually large and coarse, are of the "clapboard" type. Exterior fugitive red stain is sometimes found on plain Emery Gray sherds, as are exterior fugitive red diagonal or "chevron" designs. Exterior staining is infrequent, however, and fewer than 50 designed sherds have been recovered. Ivie Creek Black-on-white pottery (Lister, Ambler, and Lister 1960; see especially Marwitt 1969 for a discussion of this type) is the only other ceramic type which is indigenous to the region. Its distribution area seems to be centered along either side of the Wasatch Mountains in the central part of the state. The type is common to both the Sevier and San Rafael variants. Ivie Creek Black-on-white is not a common ceramic type and is found in percentages of greater than 5 percent only at the Snake Rock site, a probable Sevier variant site. Intrusive ceramic types are present at nearly all sites in the San Rafael area, but, as would be expected, percentages vary according to each site's location. The most common intrusive type in the western portion of the area is Sevier Gray. This ceramic type is identified with the Sevier Fremont area and is undoubtedly deri~ed from this region. Uinta Gray is the primary intrusive type in the eastern portion of the San Rafael region (most notably at the Turner-Look site) and originates from the Uinta Basin to the north. A variety of Anasazi ceramic types becomes increasingly common in the southern portion of the area. Intrusion of San Rafael pottery types into Anasazi sites is exemplified by Harris Wash (Fowler 1963) and Coombs Village (Lister, Ambler, and Lister 1960). That these types are not indigenous, but are derived from groups adjacent to the

regions, is clear from their distribution. Sevier Gray and Ivie Creek Black-on-white are not found in the eastern sector of the area, nor is Uinta Gray found to the west. Anasazi types decrease to the north and are absent from excavated San Rafael sites north of Ferron Creek. DISCUSSION San Rafael Fremont ceramics are characterized by a lack of decoration. With the exception of Snake Rock, decorated sherds of all types (including intrusive painted wares) total less than 15 percent of the collections at

San Rafael Fremont sites. Fremont pottery is generally undecorated and the percentage of decorated sherds is not unusually low in the San Rafael area. The primary ceramic type in the region, Emery Gray, is one of the finer quality Fremont ceramic varieties. Temper and paste are fine-grained, making the surface and core texture of this pottery very smooth. Vessels are generally thin-walled and well shaped. Of all Fremont pottery Emery Gray is second only to Snake Valley Gray in quality control exercised by aboriginal Fremont potters.

REFERENCES

Aikens, C. Melvin 1967 Excavations at-Snake Rock Village and the Bear River No. 2 Site. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 87. Salt Lake City. Ambler J. Richard 1966 Caldwell Village and Fremont Prehistory. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder. 1969 The Temporal Span of the Fremont. Southwestern Lore, Vol. 34, #4, pp. 107-117. Boulder. Berry, Michael S. 1974 Evans Mound: Cultural Adaptation in Southwestern Utah. M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah. Salt Lake City. Breternitz, David A. 1968 Archeological Excavations in Dinosaur National Monument, Cojorado- Utah, 1964-1965. Ms. on file, University of Colorado Department of Anthropology. Boulder. Flint, R. F. and E. S. Deevey, Jr. (Eds.) 1959 Radiocarbon Supplement, Vol. I . New Haven. Fowler, Don D. 1963 1961 Excavations, Harris Wash, Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 64, Glen Canyon Series, No. 19. Salt Lake City. Gillin, John P. 1933 Archeological Investigations in Nine Mile Canyon, Utah. Bulletin ofthe University of Utah, Vol. 28, No. 11. Reprint&, 1955 in Universitj, of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 21. Salt Lake City.

Gunnerson, James H. 1957 An Archeological Survey of the Fremont Area. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 28. Salt Lake City. 1969 The Fremont Culture: A Study in Culture Dynamics on the Northern Anasazi Frontier. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 59, No. 2. Cambridge. Lister, Robert H., J. Richard Ambler and F. C. Lister 1960 The Coombs Site. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 41, Pt. 11, Glen Canyon Series, No. 8. Salt Lake City. Madsen, David B. 1970 Median Village Ceramics and the Distribution of Fremont Plain Gray Wares. In Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation, by J. P. Marwitt. University of Utah Anthropological Papers. No. 95. Salt Lake City. Madsen, Rex n.d. Fremont Ceramics. Museum of Northern Arizona Ceramic Series, in press. Flagstaff. Marwitt, John P. 1969 Pharo Village. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 91. Salt Lake City. 1970 Median Village and Fremont Regional Variation. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 95. Salt Lake City. Morss, Noel 1931 The Ancient Culture of the Fremont River in Utah. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. XII, No. 3. Cambridge

Rudy, Jack R. 1953 Archeological Survey of Western Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 12. Salt Lake City. Schroedl, Alan R. and Patrick F. Hogan 1975 Innocents Ridge and the San Rafael Fremont. Antiquities Section Selected Papers. Vol. 1 , No. 2. Salt Lake City. Sharrock, Floyd W. and J. P. Marwitt 1967 Excavations at Nephi, Utah, 1965-1966. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 88. Salt Lake City. Steward, Julian H. 1936 Pueblo Material Culture in Western Utah. University of New Mexico Bulletin, No. 287, Anthropological Series, Vol. I, No. 3. Albuquerque.

Taylor, Dee C. 1957 Two Fremont Sites and Their Position in Southwestern Prehistory. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 29. Salt Lake City. 1970 Classical Fremont. Paper read at the XXXV Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archeology. Mexico City. Winter, Joseph C., and H. G. Wylie 1974 Paleoecology and Diet at Clydes Cavern. American Antiquity. Vol. 39, No. 2. Washington. Wormington, H. M. 1955 A Reappraisal of the Fremont Culture. Proceedings, Denver Museum of Natural History, No. 1. Denver.

INNOCENTS RIDGE AND THE SAN RAFAEL FREMONT

ALAN R. SCHROEDL and PATRICK F. HOGAN with an appendix by LAMAR W. LINDSAY Department of Anthn,pology University of Utab salt L8ke City, Utab

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 2

April 1975

INNOCENTS RIDGE AND THE SAN RAFAEL FREMONT

ALAN R. SCHROEDL and PATRICK F. HOGAN with an appendix by LAMAR W. LINDSAY Department of Anthropology University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS Number 2

April 1975

ILLUSTRATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

..................................... 32 Introduction ................................... 33 Location and Setting ............................33 Stratigraphy ...................................35 Excavation .................................... 35 Architecture ...................................37 Structure I ..................................37 Structure 2 .................................. 38 Structure 3 .................................. 39 Structure 4 ..................................39 Structure 5 ..................................40 Discussion ...................................40 Middens ...................................... 41 Midden A ................................... 41 Foreword

Midden B Midden C

................................... 41

...................................42 Artifacts ...................................... 42 Pottery ..................................... 43

Figure

Page

1. View of Innocents Ridge from southeast ........ 33 2. Topographic map of Innocents Ridge and surrounding area ...................... 34 3. Schematic composite profile of Innocents Ridge . 35 4. Innocents Ridge site map ..................... 36 5. Slab-floor firepit in Structure 1 ................ 37 6. East wall of Structure 2 ...................... 38 7 . Corner bin within Room C of Structure 2 ....... 38 8. Juncture of the walls of Structure 2 and 4 ....... 40 9. Pottery ....................................44 10. Chipped stone artifacts and worked bone ....... 48 11. Lithic artifacts .............................. 51 12. Pictographs to the south of Innocents Ridge ..... 53 13. Map of rock enclosures to the west of Innocents Ridge .......................... 54 14. Chronology of Southwestern pottery types at Innocents Ridge ........................ 56 15. Pollen diagram ............................. 62

Chipped Stone ...............................46 Ground Stone ................................50 Worked Bone ................................52

Associated Sites ................................ 53 Pictographs and Petroglyphs ................... 53 Rock Enclosure Group ........................53

..................................54 Appendix I: Dating Innocents Ridge ............... 56 Appendix 11: Faunal Analysis ....................57 Interpretation

Appendix 111: Plant Communities in the Area of Innocents Ridge ....................58 Appendix IV: Plant Macrofossils .................. 60

TABLES Table

Page

1. Distribution of Pottery ....................... 43

Appendix V: Palynalogical Analysis and Paleoecology of Innocents Ridge by LaMar Lindsay ... 61

2. Distribution of Lithics

References .................................... -65

3. Faunal Material

....................... 47 ............................ 57

FOREWORD

The material being reported in this paper was generated during a field school in archeological techniques I taught annually at the University of Utah for several years. Although the field school operated for several years at a large and complicated site (Evans Mound near Cedar City, Utah), in 1974 a new concept was introduced. The idea to be tested was that perhaps it would be more beneficial to students to excavate small sites, where it would be possible for the class as a group to experience the entire chain of procedures from the initial mapping of the site to the completion of the excavation program and subsequent back-filling of the trenches. Innocents Ridge was selected for the first one-season location. First, and importantly, it lay within the San Rafael variant of the Fremont culture where data were scantiest and where the University of Utah research program has been shifted for the next several years, or as long as funds can be generated for such study. The reasoning was simple. In view of our ignorance of the San Rafael area, the data generated by the field school will contribute directly toward new understanding of the region in addition to serving as a learning situation for each successive class. Innocents Ridge was selected also because it was small and was known to contain both a pithouse and considerable masonry construction.

The archeological research conducted at the. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah has, through the years, developed several resource departments and individuals who are interested in furthering knowledge of Utah prehistory by serving in ancillary rolls. It is a pleasure to acknowledge, among the supporting scientists, the assistance of Lois Arnow and Beverly Albee who inventoried the modern day flora of the Innocents Ridge location and later gave assistance in the identification of plant macrofossils and seeds; and Steve Durrant, Professor Emeritus of biology, who supervised the identification of the mammal bones. Thanks are also due to Ginny Austin for typing the drafts and manuscript, David G. Crompton for the artifact photography, Jay Nelson and Richard Holmer for drafting, Curtis Wilson for editorial assistance, and, of course, the participants of the 1974 field school program: Barbara Bianco, Michael Diamantides, John Fritz, Patrick Hogan, Richard Holmer, Darryl Ritchie, Alan Schroedl and Kathleen Tuskamoto. It is particularly gratifying to have this report selected by David Madsen, Utah State Archeologist, for inclusion in the new monographic series being produced by the Antiquity Section of the State Division of History. This series, Antiquities Section Selected Papers, provides a much needed vehicle for making the results of Utah archeological research available to the professionals and interested laymen. Jesse D. Jennings April 1975

Fig. 1

View of Innocents Ridge from the southeast.

INTRODUCTION Innocents Ridge is a small Fremont site located in Castle Valley in central Utah, falling within the San Rafael Fremont variant as proposed by Marwitt (1970). Five structures representing a small settlement were excavated between June 17, and July 12, 1974 by the University of Utah Department of Anthropology archeological field school under the direction of Jesse D. Jennings. This excavation was undertaken not only as a training exercise, but also in hopes of shedding some light on the San Rafael variant of the Fremont culture.

LOCATION AND SETTING Innocents Ridge (42Em6) is located in Ferron Creek Valley on a small knoll in the NE 1/4 of the NW '/4 of Sec. 9, T20S, R8E (Lat. 39'5'N., Long. 111Â°2'W.) ca. 8 km. east of Ferron, Emery County, Utah, at an elevation of ca. 1690 m. (Fig. 1). This area is situated in Castle Valley on the eastern edge of the upthrust of the San Rafael Swell, ca. 15 km. east of the Wasatch Plateau. The knoll was formed prior to aboriginal occupation by a meander of the Ferron Creek stream channel which carved an arc into an outcropping of sandstone exposing a semicircular cliff face and leaving a small island of sandstone and its alluvial overburden rising ca. 3 m. above the surrounding alluvial plain. The knoll

has an elongated oval shape, ca. 175 m. long, running in a north-south direction, covering an area of approximately 7500 square meters. However, aboriginal occupation is restricted to the southern end in an area ca. 625 square meters (Fig. 2). The knoll is centrally located in a roughly circular floodplain of Ferron Creek. About 120 m. to the east, this plain is bounded by a 5 m. cliff face. To the west, ca. 140 m., the floodplain extends to the channel of Ferron Creek, a perennial stream. Today this channel is ca. 2 m. below the surface of the floodplain and is ca. 4.5 m. wide. The creek is about 3 m. wide and has a depth of 75 cm. in the summer. It empties into the San Rafael River which in turn drains into the Green River. To the west of Ferron Creek is an alluvial area that gently slopes up to meet the low foothills of Castle Valley which eventually extend further westward to the Wasatch Plateau. Innocents Ridge is located in the artemisia belt of the Upper Sonoran Zone. The pinyon-juniper belt is represented on the bluffs a few kilometers to the northeast of the site. Five distinct plant communities were noted in the area of Innocents Ridge. These included the dry cliff tops, the cliff bases, the dry river bed, the wet river bank, and the knoll. Greasewood, sagebrush, saltbrush, snakeweed, and rabbitbrush were some of the dominant species within these plant communities. Appendix I11 lists the plant species that were identified

Excovotad orao

SCALE METERS

INNOCENTS RIDGE AND VICINITY

in each of these communities and their dominant members. It is likely, however, that the dominant species do not reflect the vegetation patterns during aboriginal times since today Ferron Creek is the catch basin drainage for runoff from irrigation farming in the area. This irrigation runoff has resulted in an increase in the alkalinity of the creek causing a dominance of salt-loving plant species.

STRATIGRAPHY Three major strata are defined at Innocents Ridge overlying the Ferron Sandstone which comprises the bedrock base of the knoll (Fig. 3). Stratum 1 is a reddish-yellow sterile gravel layer directly overlying the sandstone. It is composed of unsorted gravel including tabular-shaped sandstone and limestone slabs and waterworn cobbles varying from 1 to more than 25 cm. in diameter. The distinctive color of this stratum may be due to the high lime content which also acts as a cement giving Stratum 1 an appearance similar to caliche. Stratum 2 is a variably thick layer (40 cm. maximum) of pink to medium brown compact alluvial sand which is almost continuous over the entire site. Only on the highest point of the knoll, near the northern wall of Structure 4, is Stratum 2 not present. Here Stratum 3 directly overlies Stratum 1. Stratum 3 consists of loose to compact light-tan colored eolian sand which overlies all the major structures and occurs as general fill within each of them. This stratum has localized pockets of eolian sand laminae deposited in standing rain water pools. This stratum varies in thickness from less than 10 cm. to more than 40 cm. within the wind-shadow of the east wall of Structure 4. All evidence of cultural occupation originates and is restricted to the aboriginal surface

Fig. 3

Schematic composite profile of Innocents Ridge.

directly under Stratum 3. Stratum 1 and the fill of Stratum 2 are culturally sterile.

EXCAVATION Innocents Ridge was first reported to the University of Utah by Homer Behunin, a resident of Ferron, Utah, who had collected some projectile points and bone awls in the area. The, site was later surveyed by Jack Rudy in 1953 (see Gunnerson 1957: 137) who noted the presence of two structures (Structures l a n d 4), partially dug by amateurs, and a number of shallow depressions. No more reconnaissance or professional excavation was undertaken until the site was dug during the summer of 1974 by the University of Utah Archeological Field School. A grid system of 5 m. by 5 m. squares was laid out across the site with an arbitrary datum point. Mapping of both topography and structural features was done with plane table and telescopic alidade with an arbitrary datum elevation of 100 m. Intensive surface collections were undertaken by 5 m. grid squares in a number of different areas across the knoll and in all areas of excavation. Test Trench A extended north-south and was 12 m. long and 1 m. wide. This trench reached a maximum depth of 75 cm. below present ground surface cutting about 10 cm. in sterile subsoil, Stratum 1. It cut through. the southern wall of Structure 4 and bisected the eastern edge of the masonry base of Structure 5. Test Trench B was 70 cm. wide and was excavated to the surface of Stratum 1. This trench was 9 m. long and defined the western wall of Structure 2. Structure 3 was encountered when Test Trench C, a north-south 70 cm. wide, 4.5 m. long, exploratory trench cut through the adobe footings of the center east-west wall. This trench was dug to a depth of ca, 50 cm. which was 5 cm. below the surface of Stratum 1. This trench was

Structure 3

Rimmed slab firepit

LEGEND 0

Postholes Rock slabs (sandstone)

Structure room A room 8 room C

Middens A and B

SCALE (meters)

Fig. 4

Innocents Ridge site map.

eventually extended south, sectioning the north wall of Structure 4 to ascertain the stratigraphic relationship between Structures 3 and 4. Test Trench D was a T-shaped area ca. 6 m.2 to the northeast of the main portion of the site. This trench was dug in an area that seemed to have partly exposed sandstone slabs and an abundance of artifacts on the surface. This trench was dug 35 cm. into Stratum 2 and no cultural phenomena were encountered. This area was then abandoned and no further excavation occured here. Artifacts analyzed under the provenience of these test trenches are those which were not associated with any structural or cultural phenomena.

ARCHITECTURE Five major structures (Fig. 4) and their related cultural phemonena were encountered a t Innocents Ridge. Structure 1 is a semi-subterranean pit dwelling. Structure 2 is a rectangular storage unit with three rooms. Structure 3 consists of a two-room dwelling. A wet-laid masonry structure, centrally located in the area of excavation, is Structure 4. Structure 5 appears to be the remnants of another wet-laid masonry structure. All of these structures originate on an aboriginal surface directly under Stratum 3. The probable sequence of construction is covered in the discussion of architecture. Twenty years prior to the excavation, the survey report shows that Structures 1 and 4 had been partially dug and disturbed by amateurs. In 1974 these disturbed areas had become filled with eolian sand and the exact extent of these disturbances could not be ascertained. However, it appears that Structure 1 was almost completely dug by amateurs down to the prepared floor of the aboriginal dwelling, and that the fill of this structure was their spoil dirt. Three fragments of a partially reconstructable mano were found scattered throughout the fill in different areas of this structure. Structure 4 appears to have been disturbed only in its northeast quadrant.

STRUCTURE 1 Structure 1 is an oval-shaped, semi-subterranean pit structure (Fig. 4) ca. 6 m. N-S, 7 m. E-W, originating on the surface of Stratum 2. This pit dwelling was 70 cm. deep (maximum), intruding 35 cm, into the sterile rocky subsoil of Stratum 1. Structure 1 is located ca. 3 m. from the edge of the knoll directly east of Structure 4. No evidence of crawlways, ventilator shafts, or deflectors were encountered in this pit structure, suggesting that it corresponds with the Type I pit dwelling that Marwitt proposed (1970:48). The pit walls were almost vertical in the southern portion and varied to a gradual slope in the northern portion. The floor was a 5 cm. thick (maximum) layer of light, puddled clay which rested directly on the gravelly subsoil of

Fig. 5

Slab-floor firepit in Structure 1. Note the wall fall of Structure 4 overlying Midden C in background.

Stratum 1. This prepared floor was marked by discontinuous, dark-brown discoloration and organic stains. All cultural phenomena encountered in Structure 1 originated on this surface. Centrally located is a large, slab-floor firepit (Fig. 5). This firepit consisted of a single heat-fractured discolored sandstone slab ca. 1 m. by 70 cm. resting in a shallow pit (10 cm.) lined with compacted coarse sand. No ash or charcoal was recovered from this firepit. On an east-west axis on opposite sides of the firepit, are two pits dug through the floor into Stratum 1. The trapezoidal-shaped pit on the west is ca. 30 cm. from the firepit and measures 60 cm. by 50 cm. (maximum) at floor level. This pit has gently sloping walls and a depth of ca. 10 cm. except at the end nearest the firepit where there is a circular deepening to ca. 30 cm. with a diameter of 15 cm. Six cm. to the east of the firepit, there is a similar oval-shaped pit which measures 37 cm. by 25 cm. at floor level. This pit, at the end nearest the firepit, also has a deep circular area ca. 14 cm. in diameter with a depth of 20 centimeters. Although no post butts were found, the location, diameter, and depth of these circular areas suggest that they were postholes for main roof support beams. The irregular shape and variable depth of these pits is accounted for by the slightly cemented gravel of Stratum 1 into which they intrude. To set roof supports, a pit somewhat larger than the diameter of the beam would have to be dug in order to clear out the large cobbles from this subsoil stratum. Adding to this interpretation is, that in the pit on the east, a kidneyshaped sandstone cobble was found that would have served as a chinking stone for an upright post. Only

.4 -

Fig. 6

East wall of Structure 2 showing construction detail and adobe plastering.

one other posthole was encountered, 1.3 m. southeast of the firepit. The posthole probably marked a support for a sagging roof and measured 14 cm. in diameter and 12 cm. deep. About 1.5 m. to the west of the firepit, two other pits were found. The first was approximately 70 cm. N-S, 45 cm. E-W, with a depth of 12 cm. The second was 40 cm. further west and measured 27 cm. by 15 cm. with a depth of 10 cm. The fill of both of these pits consisted of bone, stone detritus, potsherds, ash, and charcoal. These were probably trash pits. Near the posthole in the southeast quadrant, a small patch of charred reed grass (Phragmites communis) and some small twigs of either willow (Salix) or cottonwood (Populus) were found in situ. Directly under Midden C, on the western edge of Structure 1, another patch of charred reed grass was encountered. The extent or pattern of these plant remains could not be determined. No other charred remains were found on the prepared floor of Structure 1. This, as well as the apparent paucity of artifacts from the living surface, is accounted for by the fact that this structure was almost completely dug by amateurs.

STRUCTURE 2 Structure 2 is a rectangular, three-room surface storage structure adjoining Structure 4 (Fig. 4). It is separated from Structure 4 because of the differing construction method used and the haphazard juncture of the two. This juncture is discussed under Structure 4. Structure 2 measures ca. 5.4 m. N-S by 2.2 m. EW, the walls being about 1 m. high at the time of excavation. Walls were formed by laying an adobe footing on

Fig. 7

- -- --- -

% . -

-L.h

'-:

Slab-walled bin in southeast corner of Room C, Structure 2.

the aboriginal surface and then a core of irregular cobbles and small sandstone slabs cemented generously with adobe was built upward. Finally, the surfaces of this core were plastered with adobe mud (Fig. 6). The structure appears to have been constructed as a single unit. Room A, the most northerly of the three, has interior dimensions of 1.6 m. by 1.6 m. What is thought to be a clay use surface was cleared, revealing a discontinuous layer of ash and some reddening of the clay floor. Unfortunately, most of the floor surface was destroyed by rodent burrows which occupy most of the central area of the room. Room B encloses an 1.8 m, by 1.6 m. area in the middle of Structure 2. Rodent activity was negligible. What appears to be a puddled clay floor is continuous from wall to wall. It is assumed that the irregular patches of clay material found in the other rooms represent the remaining portions of such a floor. The interior area of Room C measures 1.5 m. by 1.5 m. While essentially the same as the other two rooms, a tabular sandstone bin was uncovered in the southeastern corner (Fig. 7). The bin consisted of three vertical sandstone slabs, enclosing an area of ca. 2 m. square, in conjunction with the southern and eastern walls. A fourth slab, found in the fill, was oriented in such a way as to suggest it was a cover for the bin. Examination of the fill revealed no clue to previous function or contents. Fill of all three rooms was for !the most part finely laminated adobe melt and eolian sand laid down by standing rain pools within the structure. A few sandstone slabs were intermixed, possibly wall fall from Structure 4. Though utilizing a different construction technique,

the form of Structure 2 is identical to Marwitt's Type IV Fremont surface structure (Marwitt 1970: 5). Such structural forms are reported by Marwitt as common in the Sevier and Parowan Valley sites and are found at Snake Rock and Old Woman. While we believe Structure 2 to have been a free standing unit prior to the building of Structure 4, the adjoining of an adobe structure to a masonry unit can also be seen at TurnerLook (Wormington 1955: 26). The utilization of quantities of stone in the adobe seems unique to Innocents Ridge and probably greatly increased the strength of the adobe wall.

This rim measures 49 cm. in diameter with a 7 cm. (maximum) width and a height of 3 cm. (maximum). Two other paved firepits were associated with this structure. One, measuring 39 cm. by 30 cm., occurred 2 m. north of the rimmed firepit and 95 cm. east of the posthole along the southern wall of the northern room. A very thin layer of ash, less than -5 cm., covered a thin sandstone slab. The other occurred outside Structure 3, ca. 30 cm. to the east of the north room. This was also paved with a thin sandstone slab and had a thin layer of ash and charcoal.

STRUCTURE 4 STRUCTURE 3 Structure 3 is the northernmost structure in the excavated area, ca. 6 m. north of Structure 4. It is a rectangular two-room dwelling with rounded corners, ca. 2.5 m. E-W and 9 m. N-S in total length (Fig. 4). This structure was encountered 12 t o 15 cm. below the present surface. All that remains of this structure is a light-gray adobe fill in a footing trench which extends almost completely around the perimeter of the prepared floor. This trench is 20 to 30 cm. wide with a maximum depth of 10 cm. The presence of stones embedded in the adobe suggest that the original construction of Structure 3 was similar to Structure 4. It is possible that the sandstone slabs of Structure 3 had been pirated for the construction of Structure 4. A single posthole was associated with this structure, located just outside the west wall at the juncture of the two rooms. The lack of postholes within the footing trench is additional evidence supporting the interpretation that this was a wet-laid masonry dwelling rather than a jacal structure such as the one encountered at the Old Woman site (Taylor 1957: 24-28). The northernmost room is rectangular-shaped with the internal dimensions of 1.6 m. by 4 m. The floor is a 2 to 3 cm. thick layer of light-gray puddled clay covered by a few centimeters of adobe melt from the walls. No cultural phenomena were associated with this floor, suggesting the possibility that this was a storage room rather than a living area. The southern room was enclosed on three sides, marked by the footing trench. There was no evidence of a wall on the eastern side, however, since this is the leeward side of the structure, there may never have been one. The floor of the enclosure was a 2 to 3 cm. thick layer of light puddled clay. Centrally located in the south room, is a circularrimmed, paved firepit. This firepit was originally dug to a depth of 10 cm. with a diameter of 78 cm. This pit was used until 4 cm. of ash and charcoal had accumulated and then two thin (1 cm. thick) slabs of sandstone were laid down. Two and a half centimeters more ash accumulated and then a circular clay rim was added on top of the existing ash and charcoal.

Structure 4 is a rectangular surface masonry dwelling with dimensions of 5 m. N-S by 4 m. E-W (Fig. 4). Its west wall is common with the eastern wall of Structure 2. As mentioned, this wall consists of an adobe and cobble core plastered with adobe. The remaining three walls are constructed of tabular sandstone slabs mortared with adobe. The flagstones vary in length from .2 to 1 m. with a width of about 20 cm. Of these walls, the northern one had seven courses of stone remaining, reaching a height of about 1.5 m. Only the lowest course remained of the eastern wall but much of it collapsed as a unit which was uncovered in situ indicating about 12 courses of stone, a rough height of somewhere around 2 m. Only the two basal courses of the southern wall were intact. The surface on which Structure 4 was built sloped to the south and consisted of both Strata 1 and 2. An attempt at leveling before construction is evidenced by a sharp increase in elevation of Stratum 1 outside the north wall of the structure, suggesting that Stratum 1 was dug out to make the surface more nearly horizontal. Also, a wedge-shaped stratum of clay at a level below the earliest evidence of occupation may have been a first attempt at leveling a living surface. The three tabular sandstone walls rest on footings of adobe. In the case of the southern and eastern walls, these were laid on the surface as were the footings for the storage structure. The footing for the north wall was trenched into Stratum 1, a further hint of surface leveling attempts. Where the southern and northern walls abutt the western wall, large, blocky sandstone boulders were laid in a thick matrix of adobe (Fig. 8). This juncture contrasts sharply with the smooth interfingering of slabs at nearly right angles which occur at the interfaces of the eastern wall with the northern and southern ones. It is therefore postulated that Structure 2 predates Structure 4 with the builders of Structure 4 utilizing the available standing wall. Occupation of Structure 4 is divided into two periods. The first is marked by the laying of a puddled clay floor (Floor 1) and the construction of a firepit just to the northwest of center. The firepit, cut to Stratum I gravel, was paved with thin, maroon, fine-grained sandstone slabs different from those used in construction of the

Masonry dwellings are reported by Wormington at Turner-Look (1955); these being circular. Rectangular masonry dwellings closely resembling those from Innocents Ridge are found a t the Gilbert site in the Uinta Basin (Shields 1967) and at Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957). STRUCTURE 5

Fig. 8

Detail of juncture between adobe plastered wall of Structure 2 and wet-laid masonry walls of Structure 4.

dwelling, but also locally procured from an outcropping at the base of the knoll. The firepit measures 1.05 m. N-S and .51 m. E-W. Original depth was .8 cm. After an apparent buildup of cultural debris, a second clay floor (Floor 2) was put down and a second paved firepit was constructed to the east of the first. This firepit is 67 cm. in diameter and 8 cm. deep. Slabs from the original firepit may have been used to pave the second. The original basin saw secondary use as an ash pit as evidenced by a deep ash fill of the first firepit to this occupational level. After further cultural deposition, the second firepit received an additional layer of slabs. A 2 cm. layer of fine ash and charcoal overlaid these. This was the final noticeable evidence of occupation and all deposition above this level is by natural processes. Seven postholes were discovered near the eastern wall forming a rough arc into the wall (Fig. 4). They were associated with the lower occupation surface (Floor 1). These range in diameter from 6 to 10 cm. The pattern seems inadequate to support a roof and may represent the remains of some early structure destroyed during the building of Structure 4. The lack of any posthole pattern of roof support leads to speculation on some type of wall to wall beam supporting system. No evidence was noted of any doors or windows or ventilator system. Entrance, then, is postulated to have been through the roof. According to Marwitt (1970: 52), Fremont masonry surface structures are restricted to the San Rafael and Uinta variants. Most common to the latter area are circular or ovoid structures on isolated points or the rims of canyons as reported by Gunnerson (1957). While he describes these as dry-laid structures, it seems possible, in light of our excavations, that these were mortared walls but the adobe has been weathered out. The characteristic layer of adobe melt that would verify this is usually found only upon excavation of the site.

Structure 5 appears to have been a small rectangular masonry surface dwelling measuring 2.8 m. N-S by ca. 2.5 m. E-W. The structure was poorly preserved with only a single course of stones marking the eastern wall and portions of the north and south wall adjoining it. The western third of the dwelling has eroded down the slope of the knoll as evidenced by a thin stratum of adobe melt and many scattered sandstone slabs. Wall construction is similar to Structure 4 although no adobe footing was laid prior to the placement of the first course of stone. A centrally located firepit was dug into the prepared clay floor measuring 37 cm. by 48 cm. and ca. 3 cm. deep. A single sandstone slab was set into this depression and the firepit then saw a period of use as indicated by a thin band of ash. Later, a molded clay rim averaging 5 cm. in width was put in place around the slab. Marwitt (1970: 55) cites the occurrence of tpese molded rims as traits of both the Parowan and Uinta Fremont. Two postholes were discovered in conjunction with Structure 5. One originates on the clay floor in the southeastern corner of the dwelling; the second is immediately outside the northeastern perimeter of the structure and is of uncertain association. The presence of a packed surface to the north of the structure may have been an outside use area and this posthole may have been a support for a ramada-like shelter. As with Structure 4, no evidence of doors, windows, or ventilators was found. DISCUSSION

There is no evidence to suggest that occupation of Innocents Ridge spanned a long period of time. On the basis of Southwestern pottery types which have some temporal significance, the primary span of occupation appears to be between A.D. 1125 and 1225. Although no firm ordering of construction can be established, a sequence of cultural events for the knoll can be hypothesided. The occurrence of Midden C, which is stratigraphically associated with Structure 4 within the fill of Structure I, shows that the occupation of Structure 4 postdates the occupation of the pit dwelling. Throughout the southwest and at Willard and Ephraim (Taylor 1957: 40), surface structures are superimposed stratigraphically over pit structures, suggesting then that Structure I was probably the first dwelling on the knoll. The distinctive abutments of the north and south

wall of Structure 4 to the east wall of Structure 2 clearly indicate that Structure 2 predates Structure 4. Structure 3 is believed to have been a wet-laid masonry structure similar to Structure 4. The absence of sandstone slabs in the area suggests that they were cannibalized for the construction of a similar structure nearby; Structure 4. The suggested sequence of events is first the occupation of the pit structure, then the construction of the adobe surface storage units. Next, Structure 3 was constructed, occupied, and abandoned and Structure 4 was constructed utilizing the masonry slabs of Structure 3. The relationship of Structure 5 to the other units is unclear but most likely was contemporaneous with either Structure 3 or 4. The structures encountered at Innocents Ridge are typical of Fremont architecture. Structure 1, a pit dwelling without deflector, crawlway, or ventilator shaft, falls under Marwitt's Type 1 classification for pit structures. Although distinctive for the Fremont area as a whole, this type of structure is not diagnostic of any of the variants since it occurs not only in the Parowan and Uinta areas (Marwitt 1970: 48), but is also now recognized in the San Rafael area as well, i.e., Innocents Ridge and the 1-70 salvage sites (Smith and Wilson 1975). Structure 2 was first constructed as a free standing storage unit, often referred to as a granary. Although modes of construction for these storage units or granaries vary, i.e., stone masonry at Pharo Village (Marwitt 1968), coursed adobe at Median Village (Marwitt 1970), Evans Mound (Berry 1972), and Old Woman (Taylor 1957), and adobe cobble construction at Innocents Ridge, neither these construction techniques nor the free standing granaries themselves appear to be distinctive for Fremont variants. They are found at sites within the Great Salt Lake, the Sevier, the Parowan (Marwitt 1970: 50) and now the San Rafael variants. Structures 3, 4, and 5 were probably all wet-lald rectangular masonry structures. Counterparts to these structures are found only at Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957) and the Gilbert site (ShieMs 1967). circular wet-laid and dry-laid masonry occur in Nine Mile Canyon (Gillin 1938) and at Turner-Look (Wormington 1955). ~ l t h o u g hthese forms are restricted to the San Rafael and the Uinta variants, they do not appear with sufficient regularity in these geographic regions to be useful as diagnostic traits for these variants. It appears, then, that architectural forms and construction techniques are not sufficiently exclusive to be used as diagnostic traits for defining Fremont variants. Some architectural characteristics are unique to certain geographical regions, i.e., deeply dug pit structures (Aikens 1967; Gunnerson 1957: 127) or slab lined semi-subterranean pit dwellings (D. Madsen 1975) along the eastern edge of the Wasatch Plateau; however, they are either so infrequently occurring or limited in extent as to be useless for placing particular sites within variants.

As with construction techniques and architectural form, the internal features of dwellings are not distinctly correlated with the cultural variants. The posthole patterns at Innocents Ridge were not distinctive nor were they relatable to other San Rafael Fremont sites. D. Madsen (1975) notes rings of postholes encircling a centrally located fire basin. Old Woman and Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957) as well as Sky House in Nine Mile Canyon (Gillin 1938) have a quadrilateral roof support system, which is found throughout the Fremont area. The plastering of walls with adobe mud exemplified by the common wall between Structures 2 and 4 may be distinctive for the San Rafael region. It occurs at the 1-70 sites (Smith and Wilson 1975) and is also found at Snake Rock (Aikens 1967) and Old Woman (Taylor 1957). While there are also wide variations in the type of fire basin found within dwellings in the Fremont area, the use of a single slab of sandstone or the paving of a firepit with thin slabs seems to be a distinctive characteristic of the San Rafael. This trait is found at Windy Ridge, Power Pole Knoll (D. Madsen 1975), Old Woman, Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957), and Snake Rock (Aikens 1967). The addition of an adobe rim or collar to these firepits is not distinctive since rimmed firepits are common in all variants. However, minor differences in size, shape, and construction have not yet been studied to determine their areal distribution.

MIDDENS MIDDEN A Midden A is a circular trash pit encountered in Test Trench A ca. 1.25 m. south of Structure 4. This pit originates on the surface of Stratum 2 with a diameter of 1.4 m. N-S. It is scooped out to a depth of 35 cm. to the surface of Stratum 1. It is possible that this pit was the original borrow pit for the adobe mortar of Structure 4. The fill of this pit consisted of bands of colluvial sand laminae and four ashy charcoal layers varying from 3 to 12 cm. thick. These cultural layers contained pottery, bone scraps, and stone detritus. Stratigraphically, the fill of this pit seems to correspond with the first occupation level of Structure 4, although no firm association can be established. See Appendix V for an alternate hypothesis. MIDDEN B Midden B is a thin (3 cm. thick) amorphous, ashy dark-colored layer with scattered pieces of charcoal, which produced some bone, pottery, and stone. It occurs in the same area as Midden A south of Structure 4. Stratigraphically it appears to be associated with the second occupation level of Structure 4 and was deposited after Midden A had been sealed by a 5 crn. layer of sand.

MIDDEN C

EMERY GRAY

Midden C is a 25 cm. layer of loose, dark soil which includes debitage and pottery. It too, is probably associated with the occupation of Structure 4, since it occurs directly to the east of this structure. The deposition of this midden must have occurred after the abandonment of Structure 1 since it slopes down into the depression left by this dwelling. It also overlies some charred reed grass remains that are believed to have been the roof thatching of Structure 1. The eastern wall fall of Structure 4 is superimposed over this midden. All of this evidence suggests that the occupation of Structure 4 post-dates the occupation of the pit dwelling (Structure 1).

The Emery Gray ceramic type was first described by Wormington (195571) as Turner Gray, Variety 11. The designation Emery Gray was first proposed by Gunnerson (1969). The Emery Gray from Innocents Ridge conforms generally to Wormington's description having a light-gray color and angular gray igneous temper. (The quality of most sherds of this type was so good that microscopic identification of temper material was often required to distinguish Emery Gray from the equally well made Snake Valley Gray.) Unlike Wormington's collection, a number of Emery Gray sherds from Innocents Ridge exhibited some decoration including modeling, incising, and applique. SEVIER GRAY

ARTIFACTS Artifact yield from Innocents Ridge was generally sparse, and limited to non-perishable materials: ceramics, stone, and some bone. The distribution of materials is random, exhibiting neither temporal nor spatial patterning. Extensive amateur digging may account for this as well as the paucity of recovered artifacts. Because of the suspect nature of artifact provenience, the focus of analysis was on intrinsic traits of the artifacts themselves with the aim of gaining some functional and technological perspectives as well as information regarding cultural affiliations. POTTERY

959 sherds from Innocents Ridge were analyzed. Identification was based on comparison with both published descriptions and type collections. When necessary, a 40x stereoscopic microscope was utilized for determination of temper. The provenience of the ceramic artifacts is shown in Table 1. Predominant were Emery Gray (56%) and Sevier Gray (33%), both of which are types of Desert Gray Ware. These along with Ivie Creek Black-on-White, a painted type represented by one sherd at the site, are considered to be the indigenous pottery of the San Rafael Fremont variant. The thirteen other types identified are considered intrusive or trade wares from other Fremont areas as well as from both the Mesa Verde and Kayenta Anasazi regions.

Sevier Gray was first defined by Steward (1936); this definition was elaborated by Rudy (1953: 83-84) and R. Madsen (1972). Characteristic of this type is a temper of crushed, dark igneous rock. The quality of Sevier ' ~ r ata Innocents ~ Ridge is variable. The size of temper fragments varies from 1 mm. to microscopic and sherds range from thick and friable to a thin hard ceramic indistinguishable from Emery Gray save for the darker temper. Color varies from dark to light gray with some buff to brown hue, possibly due to varying firing temperatures. As with the Emery Gray found at the site, Sevier Gray has a variety of decorative motifs. DECORATION. Of 560 sherds of Emery Gray, 26 show some type of decoration as do 17 of the 288 Sevier Gray sherds. The most basic form is a series of vertical wavy lines apparently formed by repeatedly pressing the thumbnail into the wet clay (Fig. 9 s, x). A second type of decoration consisted of pressing the top of the finger into the clay forming vertical or diagonal lines of shallow depressions (Fig. 9 t, 2). Tools were also used for incised decoration. One rim sherd has a diagonal cross-hatching and another a checkerboard pattern cut by some thin, sharp tool (Fig. 9 u, v). Other sherds exhibit small (2 mm. dia.) punctations at regular intervals (Fig. 9 w, dd). A tool-formed pseudo-corrugation similar to Mancos Corrugated ware is represented by two Emery Gray and two Sevier Gray sherds (Fig. 9 y, ee). A Sevier sherd had two parallel bands (presumably around the body of the vessel) incised with a round tipped instrument (Fig. 9 aa). Emery sherds from two jug-like vessels have tooled collars; one has a band of contiguous squares incising the neck and the second has a line of tooled punctations in a narrow strip of clay applied around the neck (Fig. 9 bb, cc). A sherd of Sevier Gray exhibits a similar pattern with several bands incised into the neck (Fig. 9 ii). A final form of decoration is applique, made by

TABLE 1 Pottery

Fig. 9

Decorated sherds. a) Tusayan Black-on-Red; b-h) Mancos Black-on-White; i, j, 1) Snake Valley Black-onGray; k) Ivie Creek Black-on-White; m, n) Mesa Verde Corrugated; o, p) Mancos Corrugated; q) Tusayan Corrugated; r) unidentified corrugated; s, x) fingernail imprint, Sevier and Emery Gray; t, z) fingertip impression, Emery Gray; u-w,aa, dd, ff, ii) tool incising, Sevier and Emery Gray; y, ee) psuedo-corrugation, Emery Gray; bb, cc) incised collars, Emery Gray; gg, hh) conical appliques, Emery Gray; jj) coffee-bean applique, Sevier Gray.

pressing small clay dabs (ca. 8 mm, diameter) in the shape of conical projections (Fig. 9 gg, hh) or "coffeebean" buttons (Fig. 9 jj) onto the body of the vessel. VESSEL FORM. No complete or restorable Emery Gray vessels were recovered but indications from rim sherds and other large ceramic fragments suggest two basic vessel forms; the hemispheric bowl, and a beaker-like jar with looped handles. One partially restorable vessel of Sevier Gray was recovered. It appears to have been a globular jar with a flaring neck. Other sherds indicate that such jars often had loop handles. While other vessel forms may have been present, the small size of most sherds precludes any identification of these.

IVIE CREEK BLACK-ON-WHITE A single sherd of the unslipped variety of Ivie Creek Black-on-White was identified. The type name was proposed by Lister (1960:216) although it was recognized earlier as Turner I1 Black-on-Gray (Taylor 1957; Gunnerson 1956). Tempering material is crushed igneous rock ranging from dark to light gray similar to that found in Sevier and Emery Gray types. The paint contains an organic pigment applied on either a highly polished surface (unslipped) or over a thick, creamy white to light gray slip. Type sites for Ivie Creek Black-on-White are Snake Rock Village, Old Woman and Poplar Knob suggesting that it is characteristic of the San Rafael Fremont variant.

SNAKE VALLEY GRAY Based on Madsen's description of Snake Valley Gray at Evans Mound (R. Madsen 1972: 541, fifteen sherds of this type were identified at Innocents Ridge. The type was first reported by Steward (1936) with a later detailed description by Rudy (1953: 85) who named the type. Considered to be the finest of the Desert Gray Ware types, it is distinguished primarily on the basis of a fine quartz sand temper and a well smoothed-to-polished surface finish.

SNAKE VALLEY BLACK-ON-GRAY Closely associated with Snake Valley Gray, Snake Valley Black-on-Gray is identical in terms of temper, firing, and construction. The distinguishing feature is the application of a black mineral paint as decoration. Motifs resemble Black Mesa and Sosi types from northern Arizona (R. Madsen 1972: 4). Six sherds of this type were recovered at Innocents Ridge. Decoration occurred on the interior of bowls and consisted of a combination of lines and triangular designs. The type was first described by Rudy (1953: 87-90) as part of the Snake Valley series.

UINTA GRAY Uinta Gray, formerly Turner Gray Variety I, was described by Wormington in her report on the TurnerLook site (1955: 69). Characteristic of this type is a temper of pulverized calcite which can be up to 40% of the sherd's composition. Uinta Gray is, with the exception of Turner-Look, restricted to the Uinta Basin where it makes up 90% or more of the total site collections. Two sherds were found at Innocents Ridge.

ANASAZI WARES Seventy-eight sherds representing eight intrusive Anasazi types were recovered from Innocents Ridge. Both decorated and utilitarian types from Mesa Verde and Kayenta Anasazi areas were represented (Fig. 9 a-q). All types matched closely with the descriptions from Colton (1955: 56).

Ceramic Type Mancos Black-on-White Tusayan Corrugated Mesa Verde Corrugated Tsegi Orange Mancos Corrugated Tusayan Black-on-Red Twin Trees Black-on-White San Juan Red Ware

Number of Sherds 22 20 8 7 8 10 2 1

Tusayan Black-on-Red, Tusayan Corrugated and, to a lesser extent, Twin Trees Black-on-White are listed by Breternitz (1966) as having been trade wares. The rest are considered indigenous types generally restricted to areas south of Innocents Ridge.

UNIDENTIFIED CORRUGATED Four sherds of an unknown corrugated pottery were found at Innocents Ridge. This type has a light gray color with a lavender cast and a temper of crushed quartz or quartz sand making up ca. 40% of the sherd wall. The quartz particles range in size from near microscopic to a millimeter in size. The larger particles protrude from the paste resembling the calcite temper of Uinta Gray. The inner surface of the sherds were scraped and corrugation pattern on the outer surfaces was simply the unobliterated horizontal coils (Fig. 9r). Sherds were too small to hazard a guess at any vessel form, though a single rim sherd did show a straight undecorated rim.

UNIDENTIFIED SAND TEMPERED Five sherds were recovered of an unknown dark gray to black sand tempered pottery. Sherd walls were relatively thick (ca. 7 mm.) and friable, closely resembling Great Salt Lake Gray.

CHIPPED STONE The lithic material from Innocents Ridge is conspicuously lower in the number of finished tools than would seem indicated by the quantity of debitage and blanks recovered from the excavation. Most probably this is an effect of selection by amateur collectors for recognizable tools. Analysis, therefore, is focused upon the technological traits of the materials themselves, and on functional clues for the type divisions. The nondescript nature of these artifacts precludes any but the most general comparison to other San Rafael variant sites. Over 99% of the siliceous material recovered was a moderate quality flint readily available in nodules at the base of the ridge and atop the plateau to the east of the site. This material was workable though quality varied greatly often within a single nodule, which was fissured and flawed making fracturing only moderately predictable. With the close availability of siliceous material of portable size, it is logical that all tool construction was done at the site itself as indicated by the presence of large percentages of primary flakes and intermediate artifact forms. The distribution of lithic artifacts in relation to strata and structures is shown in Table 2.

POINTS In this analysis a point is defined by the presence of some hafting aid such as notches or shoulders and a broad bifacially flaked blade tapering to a point. It is presumed to have been attached to a shaft or handle for use as a piercinglcutting tool. Eight such artifacts were found at Innocents Ridge. Seven are presumed to be projectile points casually manufactured for hunting and/or defense as described by Crabtree (1973: 11). Such points were quickly fashioned from selected spalls by pressure flaking for onetime use. These were divided into four types for description. Characteristic of these points is a random flaking pattern and, with one exception, notching to facilitate hafting. The validity of descriptive types of these points has been criticized by Crabtree in that " . . . the point conforms to the flake rather than the flake conforming to the point" (1973: 11). As expected, these points were devoid of any obvious use marks save abrading of the basal margin either as intentional dulling or to provide a better platform for basal thinning. The remaining point is larger than the others and shows some degree of polishing on the blade edges. This suggests that it was used for cutting, perhaps as a hafted knife. A caution here, however, is that multiple use of tools was probably common and an arrow or dart would make a handy cutting utensil. Descriptive types are labelled using alphanumeric tags, the different numerals indicating sharp breaks in a continuum of size/ weight ratios.

Type 1 A. The two points included here are small, thin, side-notched points closely resembling Desert Side-notched points (Fig. 10 a, b). Both are broken off at the midsection of the blade. Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

ca. 2 cm. 1.1 cm, 0.4 cm. 2.1 gm. local flint

#2 ca. 2.5 cm. 1.2 cm. 0.3 cm. 2.1 gm. local flint

Type 1 B. This point is the basal fragment of a small, triangular, corner-notched point resembling the Rose-Spring Corner-notched (Fig. 10 c). Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

ca. 2.3 cm. 1.6 cm. 0.3 cm. 2.3 gm. local flint

Type 1 C. The point is small and asymmetrically triangular with a slightly concave base and slightly flaring tangs (Fig. 10 f). An attempt was made to notch one side of the point giving it the asymmetrical configuration, but presumably enhancing its haftability. The tip is broken. While appearing crude, this point shows the ability of a skilled worker to overcome an inferior material. Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

ca. 2.6 cm. 1.8 cm. 0.5 cm. 3.4 gm. Quartzite or siliceous rhyolite

Type 1 D. These two points are triangular shouldered points with contracting stems (Fig. 10 d, e). They are derived from more rugged flakes than the preceding points as indicated by their greater thickness. Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

3.4 cm. 1.6 cm. 0.6 cm. 3.7 gm. local flint

ca. 2.4 cm. 1.5 cm. 0.4 cm. 3.1 gm. local flint

Type 1 E. This is a small stemless lanceolate point with a biconvex cross section (Fig. 10 g). Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

ca. 2.6 cm. 1.2 cm. 0.5 cm. 3.0 gm. local flint

TABLE 2 Lithics

Fig. 10

Chipped stone artifacts: a, b,) Type I A points; c) Type 18 point; d, e) Type I D points; 0 Type 1C point; g) Type 1E point; h) Type 2A point; i-k, m) biface blades; I, n, o) drill fragments; p-r) scrapers; s,t) flake knives; u-y) preforms. Bone artifacts: z) Type E awl; aa) tubular bead; bb) Type C gaming counter; cc) Type A bead; dd) miscellaneous bone artifact; ee) tubular bead.

Type 2 A. This is a large broadly side-notched point resembling those of the Elko series (Fig. 10 h). As previously discussed, it may have been a hafted knife. Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight material

ca. 5.1 cm. 2.3 cm. 0.4 cm. 6.2 grn. local flint

BIFACE BLADES The seven artifacts in this group are blades in the broad sense of being at least twice as long as they are wide. All are of local material and are finished by random pressure flaking to a thin, biconvex cross section with the acute edges sharp and regular. The lanceolate form tapers to either a rounded or straight base, the latter type showing marks of intentional abrading of the basal edge, probably to dull it; thus preventing it from splitting the handle after hafting. A few of the blades had use marks on the edges suggesting a cutting function for these artifacts.

DRILLS Six of the tools recovered from Innocents Ridge are presumed to be drills. Five of these are fragments, two shafts and three flared ends, and are representative of a finely flaked, narrow biconvex shaft tapering to a point while the opposite end remains broad. Such drills could have been hand-held or hafted to a shaft. Three are of local flint, the other two of jasper from an unknown source. The remaining artifact of this group is an irregular flake of milky translucent chalcedony which tapers naturally to a tip in a close configuration to the other drill shafts. Use marks on the point iddicate rotation with simultaneous downward pressure on a hard material. This flake, while similar in form to the manufactured implements, shows no marks of manufacture; rather, it seems to have been selected from the detrius, used and then discarded.

SCRAPERS As used here, a scraper may be defined as any artifact showing marks of apparent use in a scraping or planing fashion. Traditionally the term has tended to be reserved for artifacts believed to have been used in the preparation of hides. This pat analogy is rejected although two of the three subdivisions proposed - seem acceptable for such use, having a nearly obtuse unifacial edge. Flake Side-Scrapers. Ten of the scrapers are unaltered flakes selected for a nearly flat surface with an adjacent steep edge. Three of these also have a broad concavity within which use marks occur. The severity

of use marks suggests that primarily flakes such as these were woodworking tools selected when needed and readily discarded. Unifacial Scrapers. Four scrapers exhibited some degree of unifacial retouch along one or both of the lateral edges. In two, the same shaping of the tool was done to an elliptical form. One of these is both an end-scraper and side-scraper while the other is a sidescraper. The remaining two are side-scrapers and, though there was no attempt at overall shaping, extensive retouch was done to round the opposite edge facilitating a firmer grip. "Domed" or "Turtleback" Scrapers. The three scrapers of this subdivision are manufactured from thick flakes and are characterized by thick triangular cross sections formed by the removal of two flakes producing a longitudinal ridge prior to removal of the tool from the core. Further finishing of the tool by pressure flaking steepened the edge and rounded the outline. This results in the characteristic form described by Taylor (1957: 67) at Old Woman. Adovasio (1970: 86) proposes that these scrapers are among the definitive tool kit of the Parowan Fremont although he does note their occurrence in the Great Salt Lake variant. As these occur at Old Woman as well as Innocents Ridge, its significance as a diagnostic artifact for regional variants is questionable.

Dimensions length width thickness weight

#1 4.6 cm. 3.1 cm. 1.4cm. 24.5 gm.

4.0 cm. 2.5 cm. 1.1 cm. 9.7 gm.

#3 4.6 cm. 2.3 cm. 1.1 cm. 9.6 gm.

CHOPPERS Six of these are large cobble tools, percussion flaked, showing a crushed edge as would occur if they were used hammer-fashion to chop or cut. A seventh chopper was shaped bifacially by percussion to a elongate form; a crushed margin on the smaller end indicated its use as a heavy chopping instrument. All choppers were of local material. These cobble choppers average 7.5 cm. in diameter and 219 gm. in weight.

Biface Chopper. Dimensions maximum length maximum width thickness weight

10.9 cm. 6.1 cm. 3.1 cm. 216 gm.

FLAKE KNIVES Fifty-eight unaltered flakes of various size and shape show evidence of use as a cutting tool. A flake struck from a siliceous material has a clean, sharp edge immediately useful for cutting. It seems logical

that as such a tool was needed, it was selected from the debitage scattered over the area, utilized and discarded. PREFORMS Thirty-one recovered artifacts were classified as preforms as defined by Crabtree:

. . . a preform is an unfinished, unused form of the proposed artifact. It is larger than, and without the refinement of, the completed tool. It is thick, with deep bulbar scars, has irtegular edges, and no means of hafting. Generally made of direct percussion. (1972: 85) Preforms along with the presence of cores, hammerstones, and quantities of debitage indicate that at Innocents Ridge all phases of stone implement production were carried out within the occupation area. HAMMERSTONES Twleve hammerstones, all of local siliceous material, were classified on the basis of heavy percussion use markings. General configuration is a rough spheriod, the nodules natural shape being altered by periodic shifting of the hammerstone to bring an unbattered surface into use. These artifacts had an average diameter of 6.5 cm. and weighed from 182 gm. to 487 gm. with an average of 288 gm. CORES As used here, the term "core" is defined broadly to include "[A] piece of isotropic material bearing negative flake scars" (Crabtree 1972: 54). Probably included in this group are blanks for core tools, as well as the discarded remains of the nodule from which no more useful flakes could be derived. There is no evidence of patterned flake removal though there is a tendency for a flake to be struck to flatten an edge of the rounded nodules and all other flakes struck from the nodule at roughly a right angle to this platform. All twenty-two of the cores are local material. DEBITAGE At Innocents Ridge 1797 fragments of flint material were collected. Of this 98% was local material while 2%, including obsidian, jasper, chert, and silicious rhyolite, were from nonlocal sources. The distinction between a flake and a core is ambiguous as a large spall may be utilized as a core. As used here a flake is defined by the presence of a bulb of percussion and a positive flake scar. All of the siliceous detritus recovered, resulted from direct percussion, 46% of which are considered to be primary flakes defined by the presence of some cortex

material. The high percentage of these, in relation to secondary flakes defined as having both positive and negative flake scars, reflects the small average size of available flint nodules. A final feature noted in examination of the chippage was the characteristic "greasy" luster indicating thermal alteration in 13% of the material. This process of heat treatment has been shown to enhance the flaking quality of the coarser cryptocrystalline minerals (for discussion see Crabtree 1964). The presence of heat-treated silicates at Innocents Ridge has two significant aspects: it indicates a high degree of sophistication in flint-knapping technology and secondly, the fact that it was known but used only in the manufacture of certain of the implements, points to a scheme of very casual production and use. The question arises whether the form of such tools is of any significance in terms of diagnostic artifacts to define a variation in culture over a time or space dimension. GROUND STONE Ten ground stone artifacts were recovered from Innocents Ridge. The small number of specimens collected is probably the result of a combination of two factors: 1) the area has been known to amateur collectors and ground stone tools are readily recognizable, and 2) the short occupation period of the site. MANOS Four mano fragments of four basic forms were recovered at Innocents Ridge. Type I. This is a slab of local fine-grained sandstone broken on three sides indicating it to be a fragment of a larger implement (Fig. Ilk). The single grinding surface is flat except that it continues around the edge and up onto the side. This seems to show a very pronounced rocking motion; perhaps secondarily. That is, after the mano was broken the fragments were reused. Type 11. This is a midsection of a mano with a lozenge-shaped cross section (Fig. I lj). It is well used on both primary grinding surfaces to the extent that the polish probably affected efficient use. Little can be said of the overall form of the mano except that it is narrow (7.3 cm.) in width. Type 111. This end fragment is characterized by a loaf-shaped form (Fig. lli). There are two grinding surfaces at roughly right angles to each other separated by a sharply defined corner. One of these surfaces is well used as indicated by a slight degree of polish. This surface retains a near perfect planar section. The second surface is less well used, and has a definite convex section indicative of a rocking motion. This difference between the grinding surfaces apparently suggests two distinct grinding phases: one in which the material was

Fig. 11

Lithic artifacts. a, d) choppers; b, c) gaming pieces; e, h) cores; f) Type IV mano; g) hammerstone; i) Type I11 mano; j) Type I1 mano; k) Type I mano; 1) trough metate fragment.

fairly coarse and best reduction would be achieved with a rocking back and forth motion and a second phase in which the now reduced material was finely ground with a simple back and forth motion. A similar sequence of grinding is reported by Bartlett (1933) for the modern Pueblo. Type IV. This is a reconstructed tabular end fragment of a river cobble, presumably shaped by pecking and grinding for use as a mano (Fig. 1 lf). The form is similar to that described for Type I except that the grinding surfaces are distinctly convex giving the mano a lozenge cross section. The fragments are fire-cracked and fire-reddened. METATES

Three fragments that are presumably from metates were recovered. Two of these, both of local sandstone, show only a simple flat grinding surface and their identification as metate fragments is admittedly tenuous. Of interest is that one of these is of a very fine-grained, maroon sandstone that with this single exception was used exclusively to pave the fire basins in Structure 4. The piece shows a general deepening of color and some blackening typical of slabs used for this purpose and it thus seems logical that here we have an example of reuse of these slabs. The other fragment is a corner piece from a trough metate (Fig. 11 1). It is made from a metamorphosed conglomerate with sand and pebble size inclusions. The degree of smoothing and polish indicates long use.

The three specimens have no use marks nor has any attempt been made to alter them. However, their occurrence on the site is anomolous to the native material; therefore, it is assumed they were brought to the site most likely as curiosities. WORKED BONE

Only 10 pieces of bone were recovered from Innocents Ridge that show any evidence of being worked. They were not identified to species, however, most were mammal bones, probably ungulates. The distribution of these artifacts showed no cultural significance. They are analyzed according to the classification used by Dalley in Median Village (Marwitt 1970). AWL

One 5.3 cm. long Type E splinter awl (Fig. 10 z) was found in the general fill of Structure 4. It was worked on one end to an abruptly tapering tip and was made from a section of mammal bone. GAMING COUNTER

One Type C gaming counter (Fig. 10 bb) was recovered from the general fill of Structure 1. This specimen is 3.1 cm. long, crudely shaped, and shows no evidence of surface polishing. It is probably an unfinished blank. TUBULAR BEADS

COBBLE DISCS

Two discoid water-smoothed cobbles, one 7.8 cm. and the other 10.5 cm. in diameter were recovered. The larger of the two is fire-reddened but otherwise there is no modification giving a clue to possible function of these artifacts. These have been termed variously as hammerstones, grinding stones, or polishing stones. GAMING PIECES

Two small pieces of sandstone, well worked by grinding, are grouped as gaming pieces following Woodbury (1954). One is a slightly bowed cylinder with rounded ends ca. 6.5 cm. in length, and 1.7 cm. in diameter (Fig. 1l b). The second is a fragment of a rectangular section column with a squared end (Fig. I lc). The fragment is 5.7 cm. long, 1.7 cm. wide, and 1.1 cm. thick. All faces are finely ground. GASTROLITHS

Three cobbles were recovered from the site with a high glossy polish. These may be from a conglomerate though the extreme polish makes it more probable that they are "gastroliths" or dinosaur gizzard stones.

One example (Fig. 10 ee) of a small hollow bone with both ends cut, measuring .9 cm. in length and .3 cm. in diameter, and showing no other evidence of end smoothing or polishing was found inserted threequarters of its length into the single specimen of a Type B bone bead described below. This may have been only a coincidental occurrence. Both specimens were recovered from the general fill of Structure 1. Another piece of worked bone (Fig. 10 aa) with unknown provenience, shows cutting on one end and partial transverse sawing .7 cm. from the opposite end. Had this cut been completed, this specimen would have been classified as a tubular bead. BEADS

Found within the general fill of Structure 1 was a fragment of a Type A tabular disk-shaped bead (Fig. 10 cc) with a diameter of 1 cm. and a thickness of .3 cm. The center hole appears to have been biconcially drilled with a diameter of .3 cm. Also recovered from the general fill of Structure 1 associated with the tabular bead described above was an elliptical-shaped Type B bead (Fig. 10 ff) smoothed on both ends and showing surface polishing. It is 1.3 cm. long and has a maximum diameter of .6 cm.

MISCELLANEOUS BONE ARTIFACT A 2.8 cm. long distal end of a phalange that had been cut and smoothed was found in Stratum 3 (Fig. 10 dd). The epiphysis of this bone had been sawed (?) and worked to form two hook-shaped protrusions at a ca. 45' angle to each other. The function or use of this object is unknown and no other bone artifacts in the Fremont area resemble it. Its shape is vaguely reminiscent of mountain sheep horns.

WORKED BONE FRAGMENTS Three other pieces of worked bone were found. One was a 1.5 cm. long proximal end of a phalange from Midden A that had been sawed transversely, showing no other evidence of being worked. A fragment of a mammal long bone with unknown provenience also showed some transverse sawing. The third, was half of a distal end of a mammal metapodial showing transverse sawing ca. 1.6 cm. from the end. DISCUSSION Although the collection of worked bone from Innocents Ridge is limited in size, the types of artifacts, awls, gaming counter, beads, etc., are typical of Fremont sites and have been variously described and discussed (Marwitt 1970: 96-127; Berry 1972: 119-143). None of the artifacts encountered appear to be dis.tinctive for the San Rafael variant.

ASSOCIATED SITES

PICTOGRAPHS AND PETROGLYPHS

A large single panel of pictographs and petroglyphs (Fig. 12) occurs on the sandstone cliff face ca. 100 m. to the southeast of the knoll. This panel is about 2 m. above the present surface and is 1.5 m. long. It consists of at least seven anthropomorphic figures, five of which are pecked, with two having red painted lines. Two others, not pecked, are painted red. In varying degrees, they all show the trapezoidal-shaped body typical of rock art found in the Fremont area. Above these figures are two parallel red lines that zig-zag up and down. The area between the two red lines is pecked in. To the left of the figures, are several zoomorphic petroglyphs that may represent mountain sheep. Several other figures with indistinct forms occur a few meters to the east of this panel. Also two other large anthropomorphic figures painted in red occur ca. 1.5 m. higher on the cliff face.

Fig. 12

Rock art panel on cliff face to south of Innocents Ridge.

ROCK ENCLOSURE GROUP Approximately 1 km. to the southwest of Innocents Ridge on the edge of a butte overlooking the site is a grouping of six rings of boulders (Fig. 13). The boulders vary in diameter from 10 to 50 cm. with an average size of about 20 cm, in diameter. The rocks are composed of a variety of materials including sandstone and siliceous rock. No occupational features were noted and the only artifacts were occasional bits of debitage. Although these enclosures are not clearly linked to Innocents Ridge, stone encirclements are common throughout the western Fremont area (Taylor, 1957: 32) and are believed by many to be Fremont structures of unknown function. Two basic types of these boulder enclosures have been noted. One as typified at Round Spring (42Sv23) reported by Gunnerson (1957:102) is a large boulder ring with a prepared floor, a fire basin and postmolds. Into this category can also be included the isolated circular "forts" reported by Gillin (1941) in Nine Mile Canyon. The second variety is characterized by an absence of cultural features, as in the rings near Innocents Ridge. Comparable features were noted by Aikens at Snake Rock (1967: 14) by Taylor at Old Woman (1957: 31-32), by D. Madsen at Windy Ridge Village (1975) and at the 1-70 sites by Smith and Wilson (1975). Aikens (1966: 79) has argued that these were "tipi rings," while Taylor prefers to think of them as ceremonial or ritualistic areas. Unfortunately a total lack of evidence concerning function is typical of such enclosures and further speculation seems pointless at present.

Fig. 13

Map of rock enclosure group ca. 1 km. west of Innocents Ridge.

INTERPRETATION Innocents Ridge can best be included in the San Rafael variant as defined by Marwitt (1970). Diagnostic features of this variant are listed as wet-laid and dry-laid masonry, a predominance of Emery Gray pottery and a relative abundance of Anasazi tradewares in contrast to other Fremont sites. The site bears closest resemblance to Snake Rock Village (Aikens 1967), Old Woman, and Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957) in ceramic material, architecture, and general site setting. These sites, however, are all classified with the Sevier Fremont variant by Marwitt; Old Woman on the presence of coursed adobe structures, considered a Sevier Fremont trait, Poplar Knob because of the presence of a rectangular masonry structure that Marwitt believes is identical in form to Sevier adobe surface storage granaries, and Snake Rock presumably on its similarities and geographical proximity to the others. As previously discussed, the architecture of the Fremont area is exceedingly variable. However, there does appear to be tendencies toward regional distribution of certain traits. Wet- and dry-laid masonry dwellings seem to be restricted to areas east of the Wasatch Plateau, i.e., Poplar Knob (Taylor 1957), Gilbert Site (Shields 1967). Turner-Look (Wormington 1955), Nine Mile Canyon (Gillin 1938) and Innocents Ridge. Similarily, the lack of free standing storage units within the Uinta variant seems to be

distinctive. Also the internal structural features of wall plastering and slab-floor firepits appear to be limited to the San Rafael variant. However, these features do not occur with sufficient regularity in every site within the San Rafael or the Uinta variants to be used as diagnostic traits for these variants at this time. Nor does the distribution of worked bone or lithic artifacts, with the possible exception of the Parowan basal-notched point, appear to be distinctive enough for use as type artifacts for these variants. It appears that only the predominance of particular ceramic types and the delination of geographic regions (as loose environmental indicators) can serve as definitional criteria for the Fremont variants at this time, as these have mutually exclusive distributions. Thus the predominance of Emery Gray, their geographic location, and overall similarities of artifact inventories, architectural forms, and construction techniques clearly indicate that Snake Rock, Old Woman, and Poplar Knob should be grouped into the San Rafael variant, along with Innocents Ridge, the 1-70 salvage sites (Smith and Wilson 1975) and the three Emery County Fremont sites reported by D. Madsen (1975). On the basis of these -sites as well as a reinterpretation of Gunnerson's survey report on the Fremont area (1957), we wish to redefine the San Rafael variant. These sites, all located on the eastern slopes of the Wasatch Plateau, bring to light a pattern of small village sites, usually with less than a dozen dwellings per site (fewer occupied at any one time), situated on low knolls or ridges on stream channels near arable land. Emery Gray pottery predominates. However, other Fremont ceramic types, as well as limited quantities of Anasazi wares are present. Structural tendencies are for simple rock or slab-lined pit houses, often with plastered walls, without ventilators, deflectors, or crawlways; rectangular surface dwellings, often of wet-laid masonry; and free standing storage structures. This pattern contrasts with those sites Marwitt places in this variant which occur to the northeast; namely Turner-Look and the Nine Mile Canyon sites. These are characterized by dry-laid masonry surface structures with an absence of free-standing storage units, "towers", and locations primarily situated on ridge tops and buttes far above any arable land. Furthermore, the predominance of Turner 1 pottery (Uinta Gray) at Turner-Look indicates an affinity to the Uinta area, rather than the San Rafael area. Uinta Gray is also known to occur along with other Fremont ceramic types in Nine Mile Canyon. However, the relative quantities are not reported, and the determination of the cultural affilation of these sites on the basis of ceramics must await re-examination of the pottery. Other sites from this locale are reported by Gunnerson (1957), notably in the Hill and Willow Creek drainages, that conform to these characteristics. On the basis of these possible Uinta affiliations and

the dissimilarity with the previously defined San Rafael variant, we propose that these sites be grouped together and tentatively assigned to the Uinta Fremont variant. If these sites are placed within the Uinta variant, then dendrochronological dates from Nine Mile Canyon and ceramic cross dating from Turner-Look indicate that they fall later in time than sites assigned to Cub Creek and Whiterock phases of the Uinta variant. It is suggested that sites in the Tavaputs area be assigned to this variant within a new phase, the Book Cliff phase, that has an assumed range of A.D. 900-1200, just following the Whiterocks phase. In summary, the sites of the Book Cliff phase seem to be usually located on high buttes and at canyon heads generally some distance from arable land. Surface masonry structures often circular or oval-shaped, not seen in the Cub Creek phase but appearing in the Whiterocks phase, are the dominant architectural

feature. As with earlier Uinta phases, free-standing storage structures are absent. The dominant pottery type continues to be Uinta Gray. However, the increase in the percentages of Anasazi wares, Sevier Gray, and Emery Gray may be indicative of increasing contact with other regions. In conclusion, the excavation of Innocents Ridge and the availability of other information has led us to redefine the San Rafael variant by restricting its geographical extent so that sites within this area become much more homogenous in their characteristics. The sites that fall outside this newly defined region, but were previously part of the San Rafael variant, i.e., Nine Mile Canyon and Turner-Look, appear to have more affinities with the Uinta variant and are tentatively placed in that variant until more information on sites in the Tavaputs area becomes available.

APPENDIX I DATING INNOCENTS RIDGE

The date of occupation of Innocents Ridge was estimated on the basis of a best fit line plotted over a chronological occurrence chart of the ceramic material. At best, this date is tenuous and serves only as an indicator of late occupation of the site. As stated previously, Innocents Ridge had, based on the archeological evidence, a single short occupation span. The time span for the Southwestern ceramic types, however, ranges from BM I11 to PI11 periods. It is assumed that types that fell into disuse prior to occupation of Innocents Ridge could possibly be present as heirlooms or relics gathered by the village occupants. However, it is unlikely that pottery types will occur on the site which post-date the time of occupation. A final consideration is that the site is in an area peripheral to the major areas of Southwest culture and that the Southwestern pottery types which are found at Innocents Ridge would probably occur there later

than in the core areas. For these reasons, the line of fit was skewed somewhat in favor of a later period. Dates for the Southwestern types were taken preferably from Breternitz (1960) but where dates were not available Colton (1955) was accepted. Dates for the Desert .Gray types were taken from R. Madsen (1972) and are generally more tentative than the Southwestern types. Date ranges were plotted on a time scale and the one hundred year wide period which contained the most type ranges was selected, taking into account the conditions mentioned above (see Fig. 14). On this basis, we may assume the occupation of Innocents Ridge occurred sometime between 1125 and 1225 A.D.; relatively late in Fremont history. This time span corresponds to the date of occupation suggested by Lindsay in Appendix V which he derived independently from palynological data.

Fig. 14. Chronological chart of ceramic types present at Innocents Ridge. Dashed lines indicate estimated time of occupation.

APPENDIX I1 FAUNAL ANALYSIS

17 unmodified, but identifiable, bones were recovered from Innocents Ridge, representing at least seven individuals from six different species. Identification was based on the comparative osteological collection of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Utah. Table 3 lists the total number of bones recovered for each species and the minimum individual count. There was no pattern to the distribution of these remains within the site. The particular species represented are .commonly found at many Fremont sites (see Table 8, Marwitt 1970: 131) with the exception of squirrels. Also collected were ca. 250 gm. of unidentifiable fragments. From Room B in Structure 2, a number of rodent bones were found within the burrows that riddled the prepared floor; these bones were not counted nor incorporated into the analysis. Although the low quantity of worked bone may be accounted for by differential collection by amateurs, the limited amounts of unmodified faunal remains are not so easily explained. Most of the Fremont sites nearest Innocents Ridge also seem to show a similar lack of faunal remains, i.e., the 1-70 Salvage sites (Smith and Wilson 1975), the three sites reported by D. Madsen (1975), Poplar Knob and Old Woman (Taylor, 1957). Only at Snake Rock (Aikens, 1967) does the quantity of bone seem to approach the amounts recovered at other Fremont sites. Some of the variation in the amount of faunal remains at sites within the San Rafael area may be due to differential preservation. However, there does seem to be a distinct quantitive difference between the

limited amounts of bone recovered from San Rafael sites and the amounts recovered from sites within other Fremont variants, especially the Parowan (see Marwitt 1970; Berry 1972). This lack of faunal materials implies that Fremont populations within the San Rafael area were probably placing a greater emphasis on vegetal resources for subsistence than were Fremont populations in other areas of Utah. Whether this emphisis was on cultivated plants rather than wild vegetal resources cannot be determined at this time. It seems most likely, however, that San 'Rafael populations relied heavily on the cultivation of maize, but given our present lack of knowledge concerning wild plant and seed utilization, a gathering mode of subsistence rather than farming cannot be ruled out as the major form of adaptation in this area.

TABLE 3 Faunal Material

Prairie dog (Cynomysparvidens) Rabbit (including Syvilagus sp. and Lepur sp.)

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Canis sp.

Squirrel (Citellus sp.) Total

Total Bone Count

Min. Indiv. Count

6 2 I 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

APPENDIX I11 PLANT COMMUNITIES IN THE AREA OF INNOCENTS RIDGE

On July 1 and 2, 1974, Lois Arnow and Beverly Albee of the Garrett Herbarium identified five distinct plant communities within the area of Innocents Ridge. The total number of species is noted in each community in parantheses, and the dominant species are marked by asterisks (*). Those plants not determined to species were spring-flowering and fragmentary at this season. Dry Cliff-Top (48 species)

*Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh] Britton (broom snakeweed; matchweed) Haplopappus nuttallii T. & G. (goldenweed) Hymenoxys acaulis [Pursh] Parker (rubberweed) Leucelene ericoides [Torr.] Green (leucelene) Thelesperma subnudum A. Gray (greenthread) Townsendia incana Nutt. (hoary townsendia)

CRUCIFERAE (mustard family) Lepidium montanum Nutt. (pepperweed)

ANACARDIACEAE (sumac family) *Rhus trilobata Nutt. (skunkbush sumac; squawbush)

EPHEDRACEAE (ephedra family) Ephedra torreyana S. Wats. (mormon tea; Torrey ephedra)

BORAGINACEAE (borage family) CryptanthaJava [A. Nels.] Payson (cryptantha) C. jamesii Uorr.1 Payson (cryptantha) C. paradoxa [A. Nels.] Payson (cryptantha) Cryptantha sp [annual] (cryptantha) Lithospermum multiflorum Torr. (stoneseed)

EUPHORBIACEAE (spurge family) Euphorbia fendleri Torr. & Gray (spurge)

CACTACEAE (cactus family) Echinocerars triglochidiatus Engelrn. (echinocereus) Opuntia polyacantha Haw. (Plains prickly pear) Sclerocactus sp. (echi ocactus) CARYOPHYLLACEAE (pink family) Arenaria east woodiae Rydb. (sandwort) Paronychia sessiizflora Nutt. (creeping nailwort)

GRAMINEAE (grass family) *Arbtida longiseta Steud. (red three-awn) *Elymus salinus M.E. Jones (Salina wild rye) *Hilaria jamesii [Torr.] Benth. (galleta grass) Oryzopsis hymenoides [Roem & Schult.] Ricker (Indian ricegrass) Sporobolus cryptandrus [Torr.] A. Gray (sand dropseed) Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr. (needlegrass; needleand-t hread) HYDROPHYLLACEAE (waterleaf family) Phacelia sp. [annual] (scorpionweed)

CHENOPODIACEAE (goosefoot family) *Artriplex confertifolia Torr. & Frem.] S. Wats. (shad scale; shad scale saltbush) Eurotia lanata [Pursh] Moq. (common winterfat; white sage) Kochia americana S. Wats (summer cypress) *Sarcobatus vermiculatus [Hook.] Torr. (greasewood; black greasewood)

LEGUMINOSAE (pea family) Astragalus 6.flavus Nutt. (locoweed; milk vetch; poison vetch) A. mollissimus Torr. (locoweed; milk vetch; poison vetch)

COMPOSITAE (sunflower family) *Artemisia arbuscula Nutt. (low sagebrush) A. bigelovii A. Gray (Biglow sagebrush) Brickellia scabra [Gray] A. Nels. (brickellia) *Chrysothamnus nauseosus [Pall.] Britton (big rabbitbrush; rubber rabbitbrush; false goldenrod)

NYCTAGINACEAE (four o'clock family) Oxybaphus linearis [Pursh] Robins. (oxybaphus)

MALVACEAE (mallow family) Sphaeralcea coccinea [Pursh] globemallow)

Rydb.

(scarlet

POLEMONIACEAE (phlox family) Erastium sp. (eriastrum) Leptodactylon pungens [Torr.] Nutt. (prickly phlox)

POLYGONACEAE (buckwheat family) Eriogonum deflexum Torr. (erigonurn) E. divaricatum Hook. (erigonum) E. hookeri S. Wats (erigonum) E. jamesii Benth. (erigonum) E. microthecum Nutt. (slenderbush erigonum) ROSACEAE (rose family) *Amelanchier utahensis Koehne (serviceberry) SCROPHULARIACEAE (figwort family) Castilleja sp. (Indian paintbrush; painted-cup)

Base of the Cliff (7 species) ANACARDIACEAE (sumac family) *Rhus trilobata Nutt. (skunkbush sumac; squawbush) CHENOPODIACEAE (goosefoot family) *Sarcobatus vermiculatus [Hook.] Torr. (greasewood; black greasewood) COMPOSITAE (sunflower family) *Artemisia tridentata Nutt. (common sagebrush) *Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus [Hook] Nutt. (rabbitbrush, false goldenrod) *Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh] Britton (broom snakeweed; matchweed) CRUCIFERAE (mustard family) Lepidium montanum Nutt. (pepperweed) SAXIFRAGACEAE (saxifrage family) * Ribes aureum Pursh (golden gooseberry)

Dry River Bed (18 species) CHENOPODIACEAE (goosefoot family) Artiplex canescens [Pursh] Nutt. (fourwing saltbush) Kochia americana S . Wats (summer cypress) *Sarcobatus vermiculatus [Hook.] Torr. (greasewood; black greasewood) COMPOSITAE (sunflower family) Cirsium undulatum [Nutt.] Spreng. (wavyleaf thistle) *Chrysothamnus nauseosus [Pall.] Britton (big rabbitbrush, rubber rabbitbrush; false goldenrod) *C. viscidiflorus [Hook.] Nutt. (rabbitbrush; false goldenrod) Grindelia squarrose [Pursh ] Dana I (curlycap gumweed) Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh] Britton (broom snakeweed; matchweed) *Iva axillaris Pursh (poverty sumpweed; povertyweed)

CRUCIFERAE (mustard family) Lepidium montanum Nutt. (pepperweed) GRAMINEAE (grass family) *Distichlis spicata [L.] Green (saltgrass; desert saltgrass) Hordeum jubatum L. (foxtail barley) Muhlenbergia asperifolia [Nees. & Mey.] Parodi (scratchgrass)' *Sporobolus airoides [Torr.] Torr. (alkali sacaton) LEGUMINOSAE (pea family) * Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh (American licorice) MALVACEAE (mallow family) Sphaeralcea coccineae [Pursh] Rydb. (scarlet globemallow) ROSACEAE (rose family) Rosa woodsii Lindl. (rose) SALICACEAE (willow family) *Populus fremontii S. Wats. (cottonwood) Knoll (9 , s~ecies) . CHENOPODIACEAE (goosefoot family) *Atriplex confertifolia [Torr. * Frem.) S. Wats. (shad scale; shad scale saltbrush) A. powelli S. Wats. (saltbush) Eurotia lanata [Pursh] Moq. (common winterfat) Kochia americana S. Wats. (summer cypress) *Sarcobazus vermiculatus [Hook.] Torr. (greasewood; black greasewood) COMPOSITAE (sunflower family) Artemisia spinescens D. C. Eaton (bud sagebrush; budsage) A. arbuscula Nutt. (low sagebrush) *Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh] Britton (broom snakeweed; matchweed) POLYGONACEAE (buckwheat family) Eriogonum deflexum Torr. (erigonum) Wet River Banks (19 species) COMPOSITAE (sunflower family) Crepis runcinata [James] Torr. & Gray (dandelion hawk's beard) Oxytenia acerosa Nutt. (prickly oxytenia) CRUCIFERAE (mustard family) Lepidium montanum Nutt. (pepperweed) CYPERACEAE (sedge family) Eleocharis palustris [L.] R. & S. (common spikerush) *Scirpus americanus Pers. (bulrush) S. maritimus L. (alkali bulrush) GRAMINEAE (grass family) *Distichlis spicata [L.] Green (saltgrass; desert saltgrass)

Hordeum jubatum L. (foxtail barley) *Phragmites communis Trin. (reed grass) Polypogon monspeliensis [L.] Desf. (rabbitfoot grass) Puccinellia airoides [Nutt.] S. Wats. & Coult. (alkali grass) Spartina gracilis Trin. (alkali cordgrass) JUNCAGINACEAE (arrowgrass family) Triglochin maritima L. (arrowgrass) LEGUMINOSAE (pea family) Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh (American licorice)

POLY GONACEAE (buckwheat family) Polygonurn sp. [fall-flowering] (knotweed) POTAMOGETONACEAE (pondweed family) Potamogeton sp. [aquatic] (pondweed) RANUNCULACEAE (buttercup family) Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh (alkali buttercup; Rocky Mountain buttercup) SALICACEAE (willow family) *Populus fremontii S. Wats. (cottonwood) *Salix exigua Nutt. (sandbar willow; narrowleaf willow)

APPENDIX IV PLANT MACROFOSSILS

All plant macrofossils recovered at Innocents Ridge were carbonized. Maize, the only cultigen, and five genera of wild seeds were recovered through a modification of the flotation techniques outlined by Struever (1968). In relation to the relative frequency of occurrence, maize was the most abundant species. One of two charred fragments of corn cobs was found in the general fill of Structure 1, the other was collected in Stratum 3 near Structure I. Although maize for the Fremont area has been analyzed in some detail (Winter 1973), these fragments were too small to permit any comparison. However, they appear to conform to Fremont maize. Charred kernels of maize were also found within the firepit associated with the second occupation of Structure 4, and also within the fill of Middens A and C. Besides producing evidence of maize, seeds of alkali bulrush (Scirpus maritimus) and Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) were also noted in the second occupation firepit of Structure 4. Midden C produced evidence of chenopods, possibly Chenopodium lepthophyllum, in addition to maize. Evidence of maize, Indian ricegrass, chenopods, and sedge (Carex sp.)

were recovered from Midden A. From Stratum 3 one seed was recovered that is tentatively identified as juniper (Juniperus spp.). The limited variety of wild seeds recovered from Innocents Ridge and their distribution within the site are not particularly informative. The seasonality of these five genera is variable - from early spring to autumn and their habitat is primarily the artemisia belt (Berry 1972: 239-245), the same zone in which the site is located today. These genera show no marked divergence from what has been recorded at other Fremont sites, in particular, Evans Mound (Berry 1972). Also ethnographic sources (Steward 1938; Kelly 1964) cite many of these species as being utilized by historic groups within the Great Basin. Whether the small number of genera of wild seeds recovered is a result of differential preservation, or in reality represents a very limited utilization of vegetal resources by aboriginal occupants of Innocents Ridge, is difficult to determine. Plant macrofossils have generally not been noted at other sites within the San Rafael area and no comparison can be made at this time.

APPENDIX V PALYNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND PALEOECOLOGY OF INNOCENTS RIDGE

LaMar W. Lindsay Department of Anthropology University of Utah

ABSTRACT Pollen samples from both natural deposits and cultural phenomenon were collected from an archeological site in Emery County, Utah. Although possible contamination and poor preservation prevent definitive statements, the eleven samples suggest initial site occupation during a late twelfth or early thirteenth century dry period and a heavy reliance on wild plant resources.

INTRODUCTION A large corpus of palynological research has accumulated on the Fremont periphery. A number of studies, cited as exemplary contributions, include: Martin (1963) on Southwestern environments; Martin and Sharrock (1964) at Glen Canyon; Shoenwetter and Eddy (1964) at Navajo Reservoir; and Mehringer (1967) at Tule Springs, Nevada. Only recently have Fremont developments become the focus of palynological study. Fremont components were initially considered at important Archaic sites (Kelso 1970; Madsen 1973). A study by Dalley (1972) at the Evans site in south-central Utah represents the only exclusively Fremont study to this point. Unpublished data from Clyde's Cavern in Emery County (Lindsay n.d.) represent the only information available on the San Rafael variant. PROCEDURE Eleven soil samples were obtained from the Innocents Ridge site deposits and cultural features during the 1974 University of Utah field season. The samples were taken from a variety of site phenomenon including soil strata, structure floors, and use surfaces. The samples represent a late (ca. 1125 to A.D. 1225) San Rafael Fremont occupation (see Appendix I). In addition, a contemporary surface sample was collected which reflects, to some degree, the present day floral distributions (see Appendix 111). All samples were extracted following the procedures outlined by Mehringer (1967) and those in general use for alluvial samples from the American

Southwest and the Great. Basin. Extracted material was stained with basic fuschin, mounted in glycerol, and counted under 600x magnification. Identifications were made using modern reference material made available by the University of Utah Herbarium. Pollen abundance and state of preservation were highly variable. Most samples contained pollen that was somewhat eroded and poorly preserved, making identification difficult. In general, samples collected from cultural deposits tended to be sparse and poorly preserved. Samples taken from the pre-cultural strata and the contemporary surface were better preserved. All samples reflect 100 grain counts which renders any inferences extremely tenuous (Martin 1963). Still, the identification of economic types allows some definition of the subsistence strategies employed by the population at Innocents Ridge. The eleven samples collected (see Fig. 15) are described below. 1. The sample, obtained from pre-cultural Stratum 2 (lower component), was collected from ca. 10 cm. above Stratum 1 and represents the earliest sample. 2. The sample, obtained from Stratum 2 (upper component), was collected from ca. 30 cm. above Stratum 1. Stratum 2 at point of collection measured ca. 40 cm. 3. The sample was obtained from the floor of Structure 1; the earliest structure. 4. The sample was obtained from the center of Midden A. 5. The sample was obtained from the fill of Structure 4 (Subfloor I); the earliest component within the structure.

Fig. 15

Pollendiagram of Innocents Ridge.

6. The sample was obtained from the center of Midden B which was found to overlie Midden A. 7. The sample was obtained from the center of Midden C found within Structure 1 and presumably deposited following the structure's abandonment. 8. The sample was obtained from the fill of Floor 1 of Structure 4. 9. The sample was obtained from the firepit which originated on the second occupation level (Floor 2) of Structure 4. The sample is not used due to insufficient pollen. 10. The sample was obtained from Stratum 3; the post-cultural deposition. 11. The sample, the contemporary surface, was obtained in the laboratory from stone slabs collected from the surface. In addition to the problems created by a small count and poor preservation, problems created by collection and sampling also require special mention. Evidence exists of some contamination in Samples 1 and 2 (both components of Stratum 2), i.e., the identification of TAMARICACEAE, an historic import. This may reflect either improper collection, or contamination in either the field or laboratory. In either case, the identification raises some question regarding the validity of the percentages from the earliest levels sampled.

RESULTS In general, the short span of occupation and the use of 100 grain counts precludes statements of environmental change. While the decrease in GRAMINEAE (grasses) from 27 percent to 5 percent and the corresponding increase in Pinus from 2 percent to 14 percent during the deposition of Stratum 2 appears significant, the data may be questioned due to limited sampling and contamination. However, if the upper component of Stratum 2 is a cultural deposit one would expect GRAMINEAE (grasses), "cheno-ams" (CHENOPODIACEAE - Amaranthus) and other pollen types associated with human habitation to increase. A comparison of the pollen percentages obtained from the cultural deposits with that of the contemporary surface sample suggests that the paleoenvironment was much the same as it is today. Pinus and Juniperus percentages during site occupation vary from 3 percent to 12 percent and 2 percent to 12 percent respectively. Low-spine COMPOSITAE and GRAMINEAE percentages vary from 5 percent to 9 percent and 4 percent to 10 percent respectively. These percentages compare favorably with present day levels. With few exceptions, the interpretation of pollen percentages is consistent with those elsewhere (Lindsay 1974). In general, Pinur percentages remain relatively low. "Cheno-am" percentages which vary from 18 percent to 48 percent are significantly higher than

that of the present day sample of 22 percent. The erratic occurrence of Artemisia (sage), the "cheno-ams" and Sarcobatur (greasewood) probably suggests seasonal economic use. Other types, Ephedra (mormon tea), CACTACEAE, Opuntia (prickly-pear cactus) and Typha (cattail) were of economic importance during historic times (Kelly 1964;'*steward 1938). Typha was heavily used at the Evans Site (Dalley 1972) and while not observed near the site today has been observed along the Muddy River ca. 16 mi. to the south (personal communication, Bureau of Land Management). The presence of Zea in samples 3 and 7 indicates that agriculture was practiced. That Zea pollen is poorly represented contrasts sharply with the macrofossil evidence (Appendix 11) where Zea was observed as the most abundant species. The discrepancy is probably best explained in terms of preservation and/or sampling factors. The increases in Pinus and Juniperus as well as Picea (spruce) and Abies (fir) following site abandonment are consistent with that observed from the pollen records of: the Four Corners area (Martin 1963); Glen Canyon (Martin and Sharrock 1964); Cedar Mesa (Lindsay 1974) and elsewhere. It has been noted that an increase in proportions of conifer pollen postdates the thirteenth century. The deposition of Stratum 3 is seen as a post-abandonment episode occurring sometime during the thirteenth century. The subsequent surface sample reflects the increase.

PALYNOLOGICAL/PALEOECOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS Given the limitations of the study two conclusions are offered from the palynological and extrinsic data. 1. The initial occupation of the site sometime during the late twelfth or early thirteenth century dry period is profferred from several lines of evidence. The dramatic decrease in grass pollen during the deposition of Stratum 2 followed by the relatively low percentages of grass and COMPOSITAE pollen during occupation compares favorably with pollen records elsewhere (Martin 1963; Shoenwetter and Eddy 1964; Hevly 1964; Lindsay 1974). The pollen percentages of Pinus and other conifers, "cheno-ams" and grasses from the cultural deposits, when compared with the pollen percentages from the contemporary surface sample, correspond with the thirteenth century Southwestern phenomenon of increasing conifer percentages and the concomittant decrease of other pollen types (e.g., Martin 1963). These data support the ceramic evidence of a late Fremont occupation. 2. Despite the presence of Zea during occupation, the dramatic fluctuations in the percentages of "Chenoams," Artemisia and Juniperus tend to reflect a reliance on a broad variety of vegetal foods. Plant

macrofossils lend partial support for the suggested economic use of several plant types. Chenopods, grasses and possibly juniper are represented (Appendix 11). However, Zea is relatively the most abundant plant macrofossil, which departs from the palynological interpretation of limited agriculture with a correspondingly heavier reliance on wild vegetal resources. Apparently the mechanics of preservation differ markedly for the two types of plant fossils. Seeds were recovered from firepits, but the pollen sample (Sample 9) contained insufficient pollen for analysis.

The subsistence model for the Parowan Fremont tendered by Berry (1972) is only partially applicable to Innocents Ridge since a heavy reliance upon agriculture is not indicated. Nor is there evidence of a heavy "on site" utilization of grasses as seen at Clydes Cavern (Winter and Wylie 1974). These data plus the relative absence of chipped stone artifacts at Innocents Ridge may suggest that at least a portion of the population was engaged in subsistence activities elsewhere during a part of the year.

Adovasio, James 1970 Chipped Stone Artifacts. In "Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation," John P. Marwitt, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 95, pp. 75-87. Salt Lake City. . Aikens, C. Melvin 1966 Fremont - Promontory - Plains Relationships in Northern Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 82. Salt Lake City. Excavations at Snake Rock Village and the Bear River No. 2 Site. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 87. Salt Lake City.

1941 Archeological Investigations in Central Utah. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 17, No. 2. Cambridge.

Bartlett, Katherine 1933 Pueblo Milling Stones of the Flagstaff Region and their Relations to Others in the Southwest; a Study in Progressive Efficiency. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin, No. 3. Flagstaff.

Kelly, Isabel T. 1964 Southern Paiute Ethnography. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 69, Glen Canyon Series, No. 21. Salt Lake City. City.

Berry, Michael S. 1972 The Evans Site. Special Report, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.

Kelso, Gerald 1970 Hogup Cave, Utah: Comparative Pollen Analysis of Human Coprolites and Cave Fill. In Hogup Cave, C. Melvin Aikens, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 93. Salt Lake City.

Breternitz, David A. 1966 An Appraisal of Tree-Ring Dated Pottery in the Southwest. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, No. 10. Tucson. Colton, Harold S. 1955 Checklist of Southwestern Pottery Types. Museum of Northern Arizona, Ceramic Series, No. 2. Flagstaff. 1956 Pottery Types of the Southwest. Museum of Northern Arizona. Ceramic Series, No. 3C. Flagstaff. Crabtree, Don E. 1964 Notes on Experiments in Flintknapping: 1. Heat Treatment of Silica Minerals. Tebiwa, Vol. 7, No. 1. Pocatello. 1972 An Introduction to Flintworking. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, No. 28. Pocatello. 1973 Experiments in Replicating Hohokam Points. Tebiwa, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 10-45. Pocatello. Dalley, Gardiner F. 1972 Palynology of the Evans Mound Deposits. In The Evans Site, Michael S. Berry, A Special Report, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. '

Hevly, Richard H. 1964 Paleoecology of Laguna Salada. Anthropology, Vol. 55. Chicago.

Fieldiana:

Gillin, John P. 1938 Archeological Investigations in Nine Mile Canyon, Utah, During the Year 1936. Bulletin of the University of Utah, Vol. 28, No. 11. Republished in 1955 as University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 21. Salt Lake City.

Lindsay, LaMar W. 1974 Preliminary Palynological Studies on Cedar Mesa. In Highway U-95 Archaelogy: Comb Wash to Grand Flat, Vol. XI, C. J . Wilson, ed. A Special Report, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. n.d. Palynology of Clydes Cavern Site Deposits. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Lister, Florence C. 1960 Pottery. In "The Coombs Site, Part II", Robert H. Lister, J. Richard Ambler, and Florence C. Lister, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 41, pp. 182-238, Glen Canyon Series, No. 8. Salt Lake City. Madsen, David B. 1973 The Pollen Analysis of O'Malley Shelter. In Prehistory of Southeastern Nevada, D. D. Fowler, et al, Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social Sciences, No. 6. Reno. 1975 Three Fremont Sites in Emery County, Utah. Antiquities Section Selected Papers. Vol 1, No.1. Salt Lake City. Madsen, Rex 1972 Evans Mound Ceramics. In The Evans Site, Michael S. Berry, pp. 45-96, A Special Report, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. Martin, Paul S. 1963 The Last 10,000 Years: A Fossil Pollen Record of The American Southwest. University of Arizona Press. Tucson.

Martin, Paul S. and Floyd W. Sharrock 1964 Pollen h a l y s i s of Prehistoric Human Feces: A New Approach to Ethnobotany. American Antiquity, Vol. 30, No. 2. Washington. Marwitt, John P. 1968 Pharo Village. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 91. Salt Lake City. 1970 Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 95. Salt Lake City. Mehringer, Peter J., Jr. 1967 Pollen Analysis of the Tule Springs Site, Nevada. In Pleistocene Studies in Southern Nevada. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers, No. 13. Carson City. Rudy, Jack R. 1953 Archeological Survey of Western Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 12. Salt Lake City. Shields, Wayne F. 1967 1966 Excavations: Uinta Basin, Miscellaneous Paper, No. 15, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 89, pp. vii-32. Salt Lake City. Shoenwetter, J. and F. W. Eddy 1964 Alluvial and Palynological Reconstruction of Environments, Navajo Resevoir District. Museum of New Mexico, Papers in Anthropology, No. 13. Santa Fe. Smith, Howard L. and Wilson, Curtis J. 1975 The 1-70 Salvage Sites. Ms. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.

Steward, Julian H. 1936 Pueblo Material Culture in Western Utah. University of New Mexico Bulletin, No. 287. Anthropological Series, Vol. 1, No. 3. Albuquerque. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Socio-Political Groups. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 120. Washington. Struever, Stuart 1968 Flotation Techniques for the Recovery of Smallscale Archaelogical Remains. American Antiquity, Vol. 33, No. 3. Washington. Taylor, Dee C. 1957 Two Fremont Sites and their Position in Southwestern Prehistory. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 29. Salt Lake City. Winter, Joseph 1973 The Distribution and Development of Fremont Maize Agriculture: Some Preliminary Interpretations. American Antiquity, Vol. 38, No. 4. Washington. Winter, Joseph C. and H. G. Wylie 1974 Paleoecology and Diet at Clydes Cavern. Arnerican Antiquity, Vol. 39, No. 2, Pt. 1. Washington. Woodbury, Richard B. 1954 Prehistoric Stone Implements of Northeastern Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, No. 34. Cambridge. Wortnington, H.M. 1955 A Reappraisal of the Fremont Culture. Proceedings, Denver Museum of Natural History, No. 1. Denver.

EOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE NORTHEAST PORTION NATIONAL PARK !by

m-s.lEePy AdbqabQhMmLd.lmh

SiYubm,yb'5r

ANnQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

Number 3

June 1975

AN ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE NORTHEAST PORTION OF ARCHES NATIONAL PARK

MICHAEL S. BERRY Antiquities Section Division of State History Salt Lake City, Utah

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SELECTED PAPERS

Number 3

June 1975

FIGURES and TABLES

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface ....................................... 70 INTRODUCTION .............................72 SETTING .....................................73 PREHISTORIC CULTURES OF THE REGION ............................... 73

.................... 80 ARTIFACTS ..................................86 Chipped Stone ...............................86 Groundstone ................................93 Pottery .....................................93 Faunal Remains ..............................93 Perishables ..................................93

ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES

CULTURAL AFFILIATION AND CHRONOLOGY ............................. 95 References .................................... -97

2. 3. 4. 5. 6a. 6b. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

Figure Page Site Distribution in Arches National Park ...........................71 Replica of Delicate Arch 72 Major Paleo-Indian and Archaic Period Sites .............................74 Known Distribution of Fremont and Anasazi Cultural Variants .................77 Distribution of Site Types in Arches National Park ....................81 Distribution of Culturally Modified Lithic Material ..........................83 Areal Distribution of the Summerville Formation .............................. 83 Quarry Sites 42Gr552,42Gr555. 42Gr556 and42Gr557 ............................84 Close-up View of Summerville Formation and Associated Quarry ...................84 Historic Petroglyph ........................ 85 Chipped Stone Points ......................87 Chipped Stone Drills. Unifaces and Bifaces .............................91 Pottery. Ground Stone and Corn Cob .........94

Table I Distribution of Artifacts

....................

....................95

PREFACE

The material reported herein is the result of an archeological survey of the northeastern sector of Arches National Park, Grand County, Utah. The survey was conducted by representatives of the Antiquities Section, Division of State History, State of Utah, and funded by the National Park Service pursuant to Executive Order 11593. Investigations were initiated on September 1, 1974 and concluded on November 2, 1974. Field operations were supervised by myself and David B. Madsen. Crew members were Christian Lund, Thomas Zeidler, Jan Applegarth and Stanley Davis. Kathy Applegarth accompanied us in the field and assisted in camp duties. I would like to express appreciation to David Madsen and Claudia Berry for providing constructive criticism of several drafts of this report and to Carl Falk, Francis Calabrese and Marvin Kay of the Midwest Archeological Research Center for their critical evaluation of the first version. Thanks are also due to Larry Reed, park ranger, for his courtesy and cooperation on logistic matters during the survey. Laurie George typed numerous drafts and the final copy of the report. La Mar Lindsay compiled the bibliography. A few comments are necessary regarding particulars of format. I have not included a summary of previous intestigations. Several of these are readily

available in published form (Gunnerson 1957, 1969; Sharrock 1966; Winter 1975; Wormington and Lister 1956). The interested reader should refer to these sources. However, for present purposes, the discussion and citations offerred in the section termed "Prehistoric Cultures of the Region" provide adequate coverage of relevant data and interpretive frameworks. All temporal references are given in terms of before present (B.P.) rather than B.C.1A.D. Radiocarbon dates have been rounded off to the nearest fifty years. We are currently involved in a project to convert all radiocarbon dates from Utah and adjacent states to calendric dates based on the Bristlecone pine data of Da.mon, et a1 (1972). The results may necessitate some modifications in the temporal/cultural relationships proffered in this report. All sites recorded in Arches National Park are located in Grand County, Utah. The standard Smithsonian trinomial system designations for state (42) and county (Gr) have been deleted from maps depicting site distributions to avoid crowding. With these exceptions noted, the report is a straightforward, descriptive account of survey activities and subsequent analysis. Major sections include: Introduction, Setting, Prehistoric Cultures of the Region, Archeological Sites, Artifacts, and Cultural Affiliation and Chronology.

Fig. 1

Reported site distribution in Arches National Park and survey limits of Antiquities Section investigations. All sites are located in Grand County, Utah. The 42Gr prefix has been deleted.

INTRODUCTION The Antiquities Section, Division of State History, conducted an archeological survey of Arches National Park, Grand County, Utah, between September 1 and November 2, 1974. The area (Figure 1) comprised approximately 28 square miles including: T23S, R21E, Sections 23, 25, 26, 35, 36; T24S, R21E, Sections 1, 2, 11, 12, 13, 14; T23S, R22E, Sections 31, 32, 33; T24S, R22E, Sections 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 32. Thirty previously unrecorded sites were located during the survey. These and the fifty-nine sites located by earlier surveys are shown in Figure 1. Time limitations did not allow a concerted effort to revisit all the known sites. We only attempted, with varying success, to locate those plotted within the present survey area. The extant archeological literature for the Park and adjacent areas was consulted prior to investigation and found generally acceptable in terms of descriptive content but mediocre at the interpretive level (see Prehistoric Cultures of the Region). In the absence of any coherent areal synthesis, no a priori hypotheses or "problem oriented" research designs were justified as a guide to investigation. The purpose of the survey was simply to locate all sites within the arbitrarily bounded area described above. In keeping with this "statement of ignorance'' approach, no universal definition of what constitutes a "site" was employed. It has been our experience that, as a matter of practical expedience, site definition is context specific, i.e., one flake of obsidian would be considered a "site" if found stratigraphically associated with mammoth bones, but ordinarily would not if found as an isolated surface artifact. An attempt will be made later to formalize the subiective criteria as they evolved during the progress of the survey. The survey techniques were concordant with the modest investigatory goals. We merely walked every square foot of the survey area with no preconceived notions of where we might find evidence of aboriginal occupance. This procedure entailed approximately 930 man-hours with the crew consisting of four to five individuals. When artifact concentrations were encountered, they were photographed, located as nearly as possible on the available U.S.G.S. maps, and recorded on standard survey forms. In addition, surface collections were taken where practicable. No standardized collection procedure was employed due to the great disparity in site size (see Archeological Sites). Sites varied from small chipping stations about 10 ft. in diameter to chert quarries

which covered several acres. Intensive sampling of the quarry sites was not attempted. We recognized immediately that an adequate sampling and subsequent analysis of the quarry materials would constitute a major project beyond the scope of the present survey. An extensive project designed to extract the maximum information from these sites should be undertaken in the near future. One more factor bears mentioning with regard to the general productivity of this survey. We recovered very few "finished" artifacts useful for comparison with better known archeological areas. I initially attributed this phenomenon to the presumed "primary" function of the survey area. I inferred that the large quarries were the only significant attraction for the aboriginal inhabitants and that these were the source of raw materials which were both fabricated and used in other areas. This seemed reasonable since I have conducted surveys in numerous portions of Utah and never have I seen an area so devoid of artifacts of diagnostic utility. The inference was plausible but incorrect. Moab residents freely acknowledge that Arches National Park used to be a good place to find arrowheads and pottery and the local museum boasts a collection of several hundred projectile points recovered from within the Park boundaries (see Figure 2). The new, and equally plausible, inference is simply that road development in national parks provides easy access to archeological sites, attracting more amateur archeologists than can reasonably be controlled by park rangers. Given the small size and less than illuminating character of our survey collection, we sought to augment the interpretive value of this report by incorporating all extant collections from Arches National Park in the present analysis. The results were disappointing. Artifacts from previous surveys were labeled to indicate their site provenience. However, with few exceptions, the labeled artifacts do not resemble the artifacts described in the site survey forms.

r%a-

Fig. 2

-w\.

Replica of Delicate Arch fabricated from projectile points.

There was an apparent break-down between field and laboratory procedures that cannot be credibly unscrambled in retrospect. All of these artifacts have been included in the tentative typology presented later, but the reader should not assume any degree of confidence in their purported provenience. Artifacts from previous collections, comprising the bulk of described material, are appropriately distinguished in the descriptive section and marked with an asterisk in all provenience charts. In sum, the data from Arches National Park preclude interpretation beyond a very rudimentary level. The tentative conclusions that may be justifiably drawn are summarized at the end of this paper.

SETTING Arches National Park lies within the Canyon Lands subdivision of the Colorado Plateau physiographic province: a semi-arid, highly dissected region of southeastern Utah. The Park is named for its many spectacular natural arches formed in the Entrada Sandstone. It was established as a National Park in 1971, and is one of the major tourist attractions of "Red Rocks" country. The major stratigraphic exposures of the Canyon Lands subdivision (after Lohman 1974 and Stokes 1952) are: Hermosa Formation, Rico Formation, Cutler Formation, Moenkopi Formation, Chinle Formation, Wingate Formation, Kayenta Formation, Navajo Sandstone, Entrada Sandstone, Summerville Formation, Morrison Formation, Cedar Mountain Formation, Dakota Sandstone, and Mancos Shale. The dominant structural feature in the area is the Salt Valley Anticline which runs from southeast to northwest through the middle of the survey area (Stokes 1952). Exposed rocks consist primarily of Jurassic and more recent formations with Entrada Sandstone predominating although the Hermosa is exposed at the crest of the anticline and in Salt Wash. Navajo and Entrada exposures on the flanks of the anticline are higher than the more recent Summerville and Morrison Formations to the northeast. Remnants of the Summerville Formation contain large concretionary masses of white, gray, blue and pink chert which were aboriginally used as sources of lithic material. The distribution of these quarries (Figure 5) graphically indicates the direction of the anticline which parallels them on the' southwest. No meteorological data is available for Arches National Park. The nearest weather station is in Moab. Direct extrapolation from the Moab data is misleading due to elevational differences. Moab lies at an elevation of 4000 ft. whereas the majority of sites located by the survey were between 4400 and 5000 ft. Precipitation in the Park area is probably higher than recorded at Moab while the frost-free period and mean annual temperature are presumably lower.

Average annual precipitation during the 85 year history of the Moab weather station is 8.4 inches. June is typically the dryest month but, in general, precipitation is distributed equally throughout the year. The average frost-free period is 166 days. The average temperature during the growing season is 70 degrees as compared to an annual mean of 55 degrees. Arches National Park is located primarily in the pinyon-juniper and desert scrub zones (Richmond 1962; Kuchler 1964). Vegetation is sparsely distributed over the landscape though occasional pockets of denser growth occur in the immediate vicinity of seeps, springs and intermittant drainages. Juniper (Juniper utahensis) and pinyon (Pinus edulis) occur in both pure and mixed stands between 4400 and 5200 ft., with juniper dominating the lower elevations. Associated species include Mormon tea (Ephedra sp.), sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissimum), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), squawbush (Rhus trilobata), yucca (Yucca sp.) and prickly-pear (Opuntia sp.). Willow (Salix sp.) and tamarisk (Tamarix gallica) dominate the sandy flood plain of Salt Wash. The principal game species in the triangle formed by the Colorado and Green Rivers are mule deer and mountain sheep. Carnivores include mountain lion, bobcat, gray fox, red fox and coyote. Beaver, badger, weasel, porcupine, ring-tail cat, jackrabbit, cottontail, and skunk occur as well as several species of rats, mice, squirrels, chipmunks and bats (Durrant 1952).

PREHISTORIC CULTURES OF THE REGION Portions of southeastern Utah have been variously occupied by Paleo-Indian "Big-Game" hunters, Archaic period hunter-gatherers, Fremont and Anasazi agriculturalists and the proto-historic and historic Ute and Navajo. Our knowledge of particular periods of occupance and adaptive specializations of these groups is much more secure at the recent end of the time scale. Deficiencies in the extant data and the major interpretive difficulties involved are discussed below. PALEO-INDIAN The evidence of Paleo-Indian occupation of the area (Figure 3) consists solely of undated surface finds of Folsom fluted points. Most of these points were found on the divide between the Green and Colorado Rivers at an elevation of 4800 ft. (Hunt and Tanner 1960). Isolated finds are also reported from the Tripp (Tripp 1966) and Silverhorn (Gunnerson 1956) sites located in south-central Utah and from Sweet Alice Spring, San Juan County (Sharrock and Keane 1962). These distinctive points have been radiocarbon dated in the Plains area between 10,780 135 and 9880 5 350 B.P. (Irwin 1971; Haynes 1971). In addition, Meig-

miles

Fig. 3

Major Paleo-Indian and Archaic period sites discussed in text. Triangles denote Paleo-Indian surface finds. Circles denote Archaic sites. The limits of Holocene Great Salt Lake depict the post 10,000 B.P. maximum (after Madsen and Berry 1975). 74

han and Haynes (1968, 1970) suggest a date of 9000 B.P. for the Folsom complex at Borax Lake, California on the basis of obsidian hydration dating. These data do not, of course, settle the question of the age of the Utah finds. However, a tentative range of 11,000 to 9000 B.P. may be posited in lieu of direct dating evidence.

ARCHAIC HUNTER-GATHERERS The term "Archaic" refers to the time span between the inception and demise of the earliest hunting and gathering cultures in western North America. The terms "Desert Archaic" and "Desert Culture" (Jennings various) are not employed here since the adaptive implications and the associated interpretive framework are inconsistent with current models of paleoenvironmental conditions (Madsen and Berry 1975). Temporal placement varies from region to region as do the specific artifact complexes. The Archaic period in Utah (Figure 3) began at ca. 10,000 B.P. (and thus partially overlapped the temporal range of Folsom points) and lasted until ca. 2500 B.P. (Madsen and Berry 1975). Initial settlement occurred along the periphery of Holocene Great Salt Lake. Faunal remains from lake-side sites such as Danger Cave (Jennings 1957), Hogup Cave (Aikens 1970), and Sandwich Shelter (Marwitt, Fry and Adovasio 1971) included mule deer, bison, antelope, several species of rodents, and shore and wading birds. Edible plant remains from lakeside sites such as Danger Cave species dominated by pickleweed (Allenrolfeu occidentalis). Associated artifacts included the atlatl with both lanceolate and notched triangular points, flat milling stones, basketry, rabbit nets, rabbit skin robes, stone drills and scrapers, bone awls, and a wide variety of utilitarian lithic implements. Lakeside settlement ceased by ca. 3500 B.P., probably as a result of Neoglacial flooding and the consequent inundation of fresh water springs and halophytic resource zones (Madsen and Berry 1975). The entire eastern Great Basin was abandoned by ca. 2500 B.P. and remained unoccupied prior to the influx of Fremont agriculturalists (Madsen and Berry 1975). The Archaic period on the Colorado Plateau in eastern Utah began at ca. 8000 B.P. as indicated by the basal date from Joe's Valley Alcove (Evan DeBloois, personal communication). Nearby Sudden Shelter was occupied by Archaic hunter-gatherers from ca. 7500 to 3300 B.P. (J. D. Jennings, personal communication). The artifacts from the two sites are quite similar, both being marked by the dominance of notched, triangular points to the near exclusion of lanceolate varieties. At Clyde's Cavern in the San Rafael Swell the Archaic component has been dated at 3000 B.P. (Winter and Wylie 1974). Deluge Shelter (Leach 1970) in the Uinta Basin of the Colorado Plateau was first occupied at either

ca. 3800 or 3600 B.P. (the two lowest dates were stratigraphically reversed). The terminal Archaic date is given as 1600 B.P. However, I am not convinced that the artifacts associated with this date are assignable to the Archaic hunter-gatherer complex. I have obtained the Deluge Shelter collection through the cooperation of David A. Breternitz. A comparison of the artifacts in question with Archaic collections from Sudden Shelter, Joe's Valley Alcove, Danger Cave and Hogup Cave should resolve the question. If Leach's assignation proves to be correct, the Deluge Shelter data will extend the known duration of the Archaic period in Utah by nearly 1000 years. Thorne Cave (Day 1964), which is also located in the Uinta Basin, was occupied briefly at ca. 4200 B.P. Cowboy Cave (J. D. Jennings, personal communication) and Sand Dune Cave (Lindsay, et a1 1968) both have early components dated respectively at 6800 B.P. and 7700 to 7150 B.P. The radiocarbon sample from Cowboy Cave was charcoal from the basal cultural deposit. Associated with this stratum was a distinctive, open-twined yucca fiber sandal. I mention this since the dates from Sand Dune Cave were derived from samples of nearly identical sandals. No stone has been recovered from Cowboy Cave and the lithics that may have been associated with the early dates from Sand Dune Cave cannot be unequivocally determined. Stratigraphic controls were not employed by the excavator and spurious artifact associations are evident in the written report. Moonshine Cave (Pendergast 1961) is located on Mill Creek, a short distance south of Arches National Park. While no dates are available, the distinctive split-twig figurines recovered from the deposits are diagnostic of Archaic period occupation. They have been dated elsewhere to between 4100 and 3100 B.P. (Fowler 1973). Little may be iderred regarding Archaic subsistence-settlement patterns on the Colorado Plateau. Certainly, the lake periphery exploitation model is inapplicable, though it is possible that there might have been some dependence on the resources of high elevation marshes. Any reasonable statement regarding these matters must await the results of additional research including controlled stratigraphic excavation and macrofossil and faunal analysis as well as palynological research of both cultural and natural depositional sequences. DISCUSSION The origin of the Western Archaic hunter-gatherers is unknown. The association of Folsom points with Holocene lakes in the western Great Basin (Davis and Shutler 1969) suggests a subsistence orientation similar to that documented for the earliest Archaic period settlements on the periphery of Holocene Great Salt Lake. However, the evidence is, as yet, too scant to posit cultural continuity.

Archaic settlement in Utah is best documented for the western half of the state which lies in the Great Basin physiographic province. On the Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah, only seven tested or excavated sites have been dated to this period. Regrettably, the three dated sites nearest Arches National Park (Clyde's Cavern, Cowboy Cave and Sand Dune Cave) are uninformative regarding artifact associations. Hunt's survey work in southeastern Utah (Hunt 1953; Hunt and Tanner 1960) has served to establish the presence of pre-agricultural groups in the La Sal Mountains to the southeast of the Park. The evidence adduced in support of her proposed "complexes" is highly conjectural and her tentative chronology is based on typoligical cross-dating and presumed association with poorly dated alluvial events. These objections aside, Hunt's framework stands as the only attempt at ordering the data for pre-agricultural groups in southeastern Utah. The sequence (from earliest to latest) includes the Moab, La Sal and Uncompaghre complexes. The criterion of the Moab complex is the association of Folsom and Pinto projectile points. However, this contention is based solely on surface collection and these two widely distributed point types have yet to be found associated in a stratified context.Hunt's La Sal complex is marked by the predominance of Gypsum points in association with Pinto varieties. The most recent non-agricultural complex is the Uncompaghre. The Uncompaghre complex was initially defined by Wormington and Lister (1956) as a result of survey and excavations in western Colorado. Hunt incorporated the terminology in the La Sal Mountain sequence due to similarities in artifact content. The complex is defined by the presence of small corner-notched arrow points, flat-slab milling stones and the absence of pottery and agriculture. Both Hunt (1953, 1960) and Wormington and Lister (1956) propose the Uncompaghre complex as the immediate predecessor of the Fremont agriculturalists and Hunt (1960) suggests a dating range of 3000 to 1500 B.P. The derivation of the Fremont culture from the Uncompahgre complex is an intriguing possibility, but there is no firm evidence of this relationship and no direct chronological data. The Uncompaghre sites in Colorado were never dated and all the radiocarbon samples have been subsequently lost (H. M. Wormington, personal communication). Hunt's "guess dates" for the complex are based on the presumed association with the Tsegi alluvium and may be as much as 1500 years too early. One criterion of the Uncompaghre complex is the corner-notched point associated with the use of bow and arrow. However, the bow and arrow was not introduced into the Colorado Plateau or the Great Basin (and possibly the whole of western North America) until ca. 1500 B.P. (Madsen and Berry 1975). This sets the beginning rather than the end of the Un-

compahgre complex and indicates possible contemporaneity with Basketmaker I1 or I11 in western Colorado and at least some early Fremont groups in eastern Utah (Marwitt 1970). The Uncompaghre complex will not be included among the Western Archaic hunter-gatherers. They are distinct temporally from what is defined as the Archaic pefiod (ca. 10,000 to 2500 B.P.) and are separable on artifactual grounds from the huntergatherers of the Archaic period in the utilization of the bow and arrow rather than the atlatl. Uncompahgre groups may have been functionally similar to the late prehistoric Numic-speaking peoples who lived in proximity to Fremont and/or Anasazi agriculturalists, but retained a hunting-gathering subsistence base (Berry 1972, 1974). In sum, with the exception of a single radiocarbon date from Deluge Shelter, the evidence suggests that the Archaic period on the Colorado Plateau terminated prior to 2500 B.P. (3300 B.P. at Sudden Shelter and 3000 B.P. at Clyde's Cavern) and that these early hunting and gathering cultures were thus unrelated to subsequent developments in the region.

PREHISTORIC AGRICULTURALISTS Prehistoric agricultural settlement in Utah is generally divided into four geographic areas (Jennings 1975; Marwitt 1970; Sharrock 1966). Kayenta and Mesa Verde Anasazi sites are located respectively, in the extreme southern portion and southeastern corner of the state, generally south and east of the Colorado River. Virgin Branch Anasazi settlements occur thinly scattered throughout the southwestern corner of the state. The remainder of the state represents the approximate known distribution of the Fremont culture. These divisions should not be interpreted as "culture areas" in the ethnographic sense of the term, but merely as the approximate distribution of congeries of archeologically recovered material traits that represent typological "entities" (Figure 4). It is probable that the subsistence activities of prehistoric agriculturalists included hunting and gathering as well as the cultivation of domesticated plants. This is based, in part, on ethnographic observation of the historic Pueblo groups (Whiting 1939; Titiev 1944; Hack 1942) and further supported by the recovery of a broad range of wild seed species and faunal remains from archeological sites (Berry 1972, 1974; Wilson 1974). The balance struck between these components of aboriginal economy was subject to ecological circumstance and cultural factors. The stability of crop production must have varied markedly from area to area. Groups utilizing rudamentary irrigation techniques and/or who were located in areas climatically favorable for crop growth were probably less dependent on wild resources than groups occupying regions characterized by extreme year-to-year

/.-.-.

Uinta

Fremont

1 Sevier

Fremont

Parowan Fremont

Mesa Verde

I 1

-. +.

- .-.-.-.

0'-

I ,

Fig. 4

Known distribution of Fremont and Anasazi cultural variants. 77

climatic variation. It is reasonable to assume, however, that all groups must have occasionally experienced crop failure, in which case, the local abundance of wild resources would have been critical. I mention this because most discussions concerning the diffusion and terminal distribution of southwestern agriculture are based solely on the environmental variables affecting cultigen production. Obviously, other factors must have played a determining role and the presence of alternate resources would have been a crucial settlement consideration. With these brief comments on the agricultural1 hunting-gathering adaptive strategy in mind, we may now turn to a review of the known cultural sequences. Kayenta and Mesa Verde Anasazi The cultural sequence first proposed by A- V. Kidder (1927) in the 19203, is (in modified form) still utilized as a research framework by most Southwestern specialists. The generally accepted outline of this so-called Pecos Classification is as follows (after ~ennings 1968; "A.D." dates have been converted to B.P. for purposes of consistency): Latest:

Pueblo V Pueblo IV Pueblo 111 Pueblo I1 Pueblo I Basketmaker I11 Basketmaker I1 Earliest: Basketmaker I

250 B.P. to the present 650 to 250 B.P. 850 to 650 B.P. 1150 to 850 B.P. 1200 to 1050 B.P. 1500 to 1200 B.P. 1950 to 1450 B.P. Pre-1950 B.P.

Basketmaker I was originally an hypothesized hunter-gatherer stage presumed to have existed over the entire southwest prior to the introduction of cultigens. Subsequent work has tended to support the hypothesis, since most workers agree that the Archaic period populations are representative of the Basketmaker I level of technology. However, the commonly held assumption that Basketmaker I1 developed from an Archaic or Basketmaker T substratum within the region of Anasazi occupance has yet to be demonstrated. Basketmaker 11 is the term applied to the earliest Anasazi farming groups of the Southwest. Defining characteristics include domesticated corn and squash, the atlatl, milling stones, distinctive sandals and basketry. The majority of excavated sites are located in caves and rockshelters and frequently contain numerous slab-lined pits and storage cists (Kidder and Guernsey 1919; Guernsey and Kidder 1921; Nusbaum 1922; Guernsey 1931; Morris and Burgh 1954). However, the earliest dated Basketmaker I1 remains in Utah are open sites with pit structures on Cedar Mesa (Lipe and Matson 1973) and Castle Wash (Sharrock, et a1 1963). Radiocarbon determinations and

dendrochronology tentatively place occupance at ca. 1650 B.P. and 1750 B.P. respectively. The majority of Basketmaker I11 sites in Utah are small open settlements consisting of one or two subrectangular pit dwellings, though numerous cave/ rockshelter sites are also reported (Lindsay, et a1 1968; Dalley 1973; Wilson 1974). The artifact assemblage is essentially identical to Basketmaker I1 with the addition of both plain and black-on-gray pottery vessels and unfired anthropomorphic figurines. Cultivated plants include domesticated corn, beans, and squash. Dated sites on Cedar Mesa (Dalley 1973; Wilson 1974) and Navajo Mountain (Lindsay, et a1 1968) range - from 1350 to 1250 B.P. The "type" site for Pueblo I in Utah is Site 13, Alkali Ridge (Brew 1946). This extensive settlement consisted of over 300 contiguous jacal and slab foundation surface structures enclosing three large plazas. The plazas contained small rectangular pit structures nearly identical to the Basketmaker 111 dwellings and three large, deep, circular pit structures. Pottery included a neck-banded gray ware, red-onorange bowls, and effigies. The bow and arrow replaced the atlatl as the principle hunting weapon by the beginning of Pueblo I times. The dates from Site 13 cluster around 1200 B.P. No additional Pueblo I sites of this size have been reported in Utah. Most sites contain only one or two pit structures and associated surface dwellings similar to Basketmaker 111 settlements. Pueblo I1 sites typically consist of a single subterranean structure and one to four contiguous masonry surface rooms (Brew 1946). The subterranean structures are generally referred to as kivas which (from ethnographic data) connote a ceremonial function. However, prehistoric ceremonial usage cannot be unequivocally demonstrated and it is equally plausible that these structures served as dwellings. Black-on-white decorated pottery and corrugated cullinary vessels were the dominant ceramic types. The bow and arrow remained in use but side-notched points replaced the corner-notched varieties characteristic of the Pueblo I period. The early Pueblo I1 period was marked by dispersed site distribution and small settlement size (Brew 1946; Jennings 1966). Settlement pattern gradually became more nucleated in late Pueblo I1 times with a consequent increase in village size (see Dalley 1973; and Lister, Ambler and Lister 1960 for examples). The Pueblo 111 period is best seen as a continuation of this nucleating trend, culminating in the large and impressive cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde and Canyon De Chelley and the large multi-story Pueblos and Great Kivas of Chaco Canyon. Pueblo IT1 settlements in southeastern Utah were considerably less spectacular than the ruins of the great centers, but nonetheless indicate a heavy occupational

density (Brew 1946; Lipe and Matson 1973; Dalley 1973; Wilson 1974). Anasazi abandonment of the area occurred by ca. 700 B.P. for reasons which have yet to be adequately explained. Virgin Branch Anasazi Virgin Branch Anasazi settlement is poorly documented and the chronology is based on very few radiocarbon dates. Shutler (1961) distinguishes four developmental phases. The Moapa Phase is typologically analagous to Basketmaker I1 and began some time before 1450 B.P. Both open and cave/rockshelter sites have been excavated. Open sites consist of one or two circular to oval pit structures with no associated surface rooms. With the exception of a few unfired sherds from Cave Dupont (Nusbaum 1922), pottery is not associated with this phase. The principal weapon was the atlatl. Cultigens included corn and squash. The Muddy River Phase is equivalent to Basketmaker 111. Open villages are somewhat larger than in the preceeding phase. Pottery and the bow and arrow were the only significant additions to the artifact inventory. The Lost City and Mesa House Phases occurred between 1250 and 800 B.P. and represent a developmental continuum similar to Pueblo I1 and 111. The Lost City Phase is marked by a rapid increase in site density and settlement size. Pit houses were typically associated with multiple room masonry and jacal surface structures. Beans and cotton were added to the list of cultivated plants. The Mesa House Phase was marked by a shift from circular to rectangular pit structures and several stylistic changes in artifact forms. Numerous cliff dwellings were constructed during this phase, but mesa top villages were the predominant settlement type. The distinctive architectural features which serve as the defining criteria for "kivas" elsewhere in the Southwest are virtually absent in the Lost City and Mesa House Phases. The Mesa House Phase terminated at ca. 800 B.P. when the entire Virgin Branch area was abandoned. As was the case for the eastern Anasazi cultures, extant models do not adequately explain the demise of the Virgin Branch agricultural systems. Fremont Aboriginal farming groups in Utah north of the Anasazi area are referred to collectively as the Fremont culture. Marwitt (1970) has defined five variants: the San Rafael and Uinta variants of the Colorado Plateau and the Great Salt Lake, Sevier and Parowan variants of the eastern Great Basin. The earliest sites occur on the Colorado Plateau by ca. 1350 B.P. Fremont settlement of the Great Basin did not occur until 1250 B.P. in the Great Salt Lake region (Madsen and Berry 1975) and 1050 B.P. in the Parowan Valley to the south (Marwitt 1970; Berry

1972, 1974). Fremont occupation of Utah ended by ca. 650 B.P. Thus, the temporal span of the Fremont culture essentially paralleled the Anasazi sequence encompassed by Basketmaker I11 through Pueblo 111. However, in terms of the trait criteria of the Pecos Classification, all sites recognized as Fremont fall within the Basketmaker 111-Pueblo I range. The absence of a Basketmaker I1 level of technology in the Fremont sequence may simply be an erroneous conclusion imposed by the misuse of typology. These sites, wherever they are found, are invariably assigned to the Anasazi sequence. The only plausible explanation for this is that the Pecos Classification was originally designed to accomodate the Anasazi data at a time when virtually nothing was known of the Fremont. The association of Basketmaker I1 with Anasazi subsequently became a deeply entrenched typological "fact" in the half century of Southwestern research that followed. However, the only way to distinguish a Fremont from an Anasazi site, especially in the ill-defined "border area" between the San Rafael Fremont and the Mesa Verde-Kayenta Anasazi, is on the basis of pottery types. Since one of the defining criteria of Basketmaker I1 is the absence of pottery, the inclusion of all these sites in the Anasazi sequence may be a serious error. It seems much more reasonable to consider Basketmaker I1 as a widespread technological level which was the precursor of later developments in both the Fremont and Anasazi areas, Research along these lines might well demonstrate regional specialization in Basketmaker I1 artifact assemblages that will permit assignation of these sites to separate developmental lines. The earliest dated corn in Utah (ca. 1550 B.P.) is from the pre-pottery levels of Clyde's Cavern (Winter and Wylie 1974) in association with both Fremont and Anasazi textiles. Subsequent levels contained Fremont pottery suggesting the possibility of a Basketmaker 11-San Rafael Fremont continuum. As already discussed, there are no firm data to support the prevailing hypothesis that the Fremont developed in situ from an Archaic base. The Clyde's Cavern data thus provide a feasible alternate hypothesis of Fremont origins. This of course does not disallow the later introduction of certain technological traits (specifically the bow and arrow and possibly pottery) to the Fremont culture from areas other than the Southwest. Under present criteria, all sites which are recognizably Fremont contain diagnostic pottery types, evidence of bow and arrow, domesticated corn and numerous minor artifact forms which do not occur in Anasazi contexts (Marwitt 1970). The distinctive "Utah type" metate and anthropomorphic figurines are associated with all Fremont variants with the exception of the Uinta Basin assemblage. Village Sites vary markedly in size and architectural style. Uinta Basin sites consist of a few shallow pit dwellings, some-

times associated with coursed masonry or adobe surface structures (Breternitz 1970). The absence of deep accretional deposits suggests brief or seasonal occupance. San Rafael villages are poorly documented. Excavated sites are generally small and quite similar architecturally to the Uinta Fremont. However, survey data indicate the existence of very extensive, possibly stratified, mounds which suggests longer sedentary habitation (Gunnerson 1957). Subsistence related data is so scant as to preclude the possibility of any confident statement regarding the adaptive strategy of either the Uinta or San Rafael variants. Beyond the apparent involvement in limited agriculture, the numerous temporary use sites found in both regions attest to some dependence on hunting and gathering. However, the relative dependence on domesticated and natural resources cannot be posited. A great deal more research effort has been expended on the Fremont occupation of the Great Basin which includes the Great Salt Lake, Sevier, and Parowan variants. The latter is the best understood as a result of extensive excavations in the Parowan Valley by the University of Utah (Marwitt 1970; Berry 1972, 1974), and the University of California, Los Angeles (Meighan, et a1 1956). The largest known Fremont sites occur in that region. They are typically large, stratified mounds containing numerous pit dwellings and large multiroomed adobe granaries. Subsistence related data from the Evans Mound (Berry 1974) indicates an annual round geared to the sedentary requirements of flood plain farming with heavy reliance on locally available floral and faunal resources. Additional data suggest that during years of crop failure, the Parowan Valley agriculturalists journeyed to the pinyonjuniper zones along the Utah-Nevada border. They remained there throughout the winter subsisting on the fall pinyon harvest and returned to the valley sites the following spring to resume agricultural activities. A similar adjustment to the capricious year-toyear variability of Great Basin environments may be assumed for the Sevier variant until adequate information is available from that region. Sevier Fremont village sites are much smaller in area and were apparently occupied less frequently and for a shorter duration than the Parowan examples (Marwitt 1970). A somewhat different subsistence model is probably applicable to the Great Salt Lake variant due to a highly favorable set of environmental circumstances. The ameliorating effects of the Great Salt Lake on the local climate resulted in a stability of the critical variables of corn growth not replicated elsewhere in the state. In addition, the abundant resources of the lake periphery marshes were heavily exploited by the Fremont farming groups on a seasonal basis (Aikens 1967; Marwitt 1970). This unique combination of productivity of both wild and domesticated resources

supported a cultural system whose potential viability was unrivaled by any in the state. Nonetheless, the Great Salt Lake Fremont area was ultimately abandoned just as were the other regions of Fremont occupance. DISCUSSION The origin of the Fremont and Anasazi cultures is still a subject of debate. It has long been assumed that both developed in situ from local Archaic period hunting and gathering cultures (Jennings 1957; Wormington 1955; Aikens 1970; Marwitt 1970). Aikens' (1970) interpretation of the Hogup Cave data lent credence to this assumption since the purported cultural sequence demonstrated a "smooth transition" from the Archaic period lifeway to the Great Salt Lake Fremont agricultural economy. However, a subsequent reassessment of the Hogup Cave sequence (Madsen and Berry 1975) has demonstrated the existence of a ca. 2000 year hiatus between the termination of the Archaic period and the inception of occupance by Fremont agriculturalists. Furthermore, a review of extant data from the eastern Great Basin led to the conclusion that the entire region was abandoned by ca. 2500 B.P. and remained unoccupied until the advent of the Great Salt Lake, Sevier and Parowan variants of the Fremont culture. Similarly, there is no evidence of Archaic/Fremont or Archaic/ Anasazi cultural continuity on the Colorado Plateau. Radiometric data for the recent end of the Archaic time scale, while admittedly scant, suggests even a lengthier hiatus than occurred in the Great Basin. In short, those who claim cultural continuity and in situ development must bear the burden of proof. As the evidence now reads, the Archaic period terminated by 2500 B.P. in the eastern Great Basin and by 3000 B.P. on the Colorado Plateau. It follows that the introduction of cultigens in these regions was brought about by immigration of populations from adjacent areas that have yet to be identified. As suggested earlier, it is reasonable to postulate that these new populations functioned on a Basketmaker I1 level of technology and provided the base for subsequent, independent developments in the Anasazi and Fremont areas. This is admittedly conjectural but the occurrence of Basketmaker I1 "type" sites in western Colorado (Hurst 1945), east-central Utah (Gunnerson 1969; Gaumer 1937) and the Uinta Basin (Burgh and Scoggin 1948) make this hypothesis at least as tenable as the prevailing view.

NUMIC SPEAKERS The initial dispersion of Numic-speaking groups from a southern California homeland began about 1000 B.P. (Lamb 1958; Miller, Tanner and Folley 1969). They entered the southeastern Great Basin by ca. 900 B.P. and occupied the Great Salt Lake region by at least 650 B.P. (Madsen 1975). Their arrival on

Survey Boundary

Cove/Rocksheltmr Open Comp

Fig. 5

Distribution of site types in Arches National Park. 81

the Colorado Plateau is undated but the distinctive Paiute-Shoshoni pottery is frequently found in archeological contexts that suggest a prehistoric temporal placement (Hunt 1953). The Numic-speaking Utes occupied the Moab area at the time of White contact (Tanner 1937).

mentioned earlier, we had no a priori notions of what would a site in the ~~~h~~

example, a concentration of flakes on the periphery of a quarry was considered part of the quarry distribution rather than a discrete site whereas a similar concentration a mile from a quarry was designated an "open camp." Cavelrockshelters presented less of a problem since any of these found to contain cultural materials automatically qualified as sites. Of the thirty sites located during the survev, eleven were quarries, five were cavejr~cksheltersaI;d fourteen were open camps. We observed no examples of aboriginal rock art. Quarries The quarry sites were generally coextensive with isolated outcrops of the Summerville Formation which contains large concretionary masses of chert. Figure 6 a and b compares the quarry distributions with a geologic map of the northern portion of the survey area (after Stokes 1952). Anomalies in correspondence are due to variation in the quality of the chert. The large Summerville outcrop northwest of site 42Gr552 and the outcrop between sites 42Gr557 and 42Gr564 contained coarse-grained chert with a tendency toward lamellar fracture. Neither of these showed any evidence of aboriginal utilization. In contrast, the relatively small outcrop associated with site 42Gr563 contained a superior quality, fine-grained white chert which was heavily utilized. Thus the distributional limits of the site are considerably greater than the actual size of the outcrop. Site 42Gr571 is associated with a previously unmapped Summerville outcrop. The majority of the lithic debris found at the quarries is what Binford and Quimby (1963) refer to as "shatter;" large discarded flakes produced in the initial stages of manufacture. However, a few bifaces and unifaces were recovered and one Type VIII projectile point was collected from 42Gr552. This was the largest of the quarry sites and it is also possible that it was used as a camp. It contains several fairly extensive (ca. 50 meters square) areas of discoloration which may indicate refuse middens or the remains of fires used for heat-treating lithics. The latter is a distinct possibility since the projectile point and several specimens of chipping debris exhibit the waxy luster characteristic - o f heat-treated chert (Crabtree and Butler 1964; Collins and Fenwick

survey. We were fortunate in discovering the location and geological context of the immense quarry sites early in the conduct of the project. The Dresence of these auarries ~rovided a framework for the evaluation of other artifact concentrations. Lithic debris occurs in varying concentrations throughout the survey area. The density and nature of lithic material varies inversely with distance from the quarries, constituting a crude distributional continuum. Sites termed "open camps" consist of unusually high and/or areally discrete concentrations of artifacts relative to this continuum. For

1974). Figures 7 and 8 depict the general morphology of the quarry sites. Figure 7 shows (from left to right) sites 42Gr552, 42Gr555, 42Gr556 and 42Gr557 as "islands" of the Summerville Formation separated by intermittent tributaries of Salt Wash. Figure 8 is a closer view showing the darker color of the formation in contrast to the dissected Entrada Sandstone which underlies it. The austere setting of these northernmost quarries suggests that site utilization was restricted (with the possible exception of 42Gr552) to raw material procurement.

ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES Eighty-nine sites have been recorded in Arches National Park. Fifty-nine were located as a result of previous surveys (Hunt 1953; Pierson n.d.) and thirty were discovered during the Antiquities Section investigation. Figure 1 shows the known distribution of sites and distinguishes between those previously recorded and sites located by the present survey. Figure 5 is encoded to show the distribution of the four types of recorded sites: cave/rockshelter, open camps, quarries and pictograph/petroglyphs. It proved extremely difficult to revisit all previously recorded sites in the survey area. The best available maps are the U.S.G.S. 15' series with eighty foot contour intervals. Hundreds of narrow canyons in this highly dissected landscape do not show on these maps and until smaller scale maps become available, anyone engaged in survey activities must accept, and adjust to, being "lost" about half the time. Except where prominant terrain features are in reasonable proximity, site locations shown on the map are only approximations and may be "off' by as much as 100 meters. We can only say with confidence that we succeeded in relocating Pierson's cave/ rockshelter sites near the confluence of Winter Camp and Salt Washes. In other areas, the possibility of duplication of site numbers exists. For instance, either one of our site numbers 42Gr549 and 42Gr550 might refer to Pierson's site 42Gr548 (all outside the northwest corner of the survey area, Figures 1 and 5). Because of this perplexing situation and the contradictions already noted between previous survey records and artifact collections, our work and the results of earlier surveys will be summarized separately.

ANTIQUITIES SECTION SURVEY

Quarry Locolions

Fig. 6 (a, b) Figure 6a (top) depicts the distribution of culturally modified lithic material at the quarry sites. Figure 6b (bottom) shows the areal distribution of the Summerville Formation (after Stokes 1952). Anomalies are discussed in text.

. e

Fig. 8

.*--

- .

Close-up view of typical Summerville Formation and associated quarry.

Quarry sites in the more heavily vegetated and wellwatered areas along Salt Valley and Winter Camp Washes (42Gr565, 42Gr560 and 42Gr572) may have additionally been related to subsistence activities. This is suggested by the presence of a mano at 42Gr560 and the relatively dense concentration of open camps and cave/rockshelters near the confluence of Winter Camp and Salt Washes. With one exception, the quarry sites show no evidence of vandalism. 42Gr556 has been essentially destroyed as a result of excavations for the El Paso Natural Gas pipeline which bisects the site longitudinally. Five cave/rockshelters containing cultural materials (42Gr551, 42Gr553, 42Gr568, 42Gr569 and 42Gr570) were located during the survey. All were wind or water eroded features in the Entrada Sandstone. Site 42Gr551 in the extreme northwest corner of the survey area (Figure 5) is located in one of the many unmapped intermittent tributaries of -salt Wash. The steep-walled tributary (ca. 40 ft. deep) contained chipping debris along its entire course. Site 42Gr551 was the easternmost of three water-cut caves and the only one found to contain evidence of occupation. An eight-rowed corn cob was recovered from the surface of the deep, sandy, sloping deposits. Site 42Gr553 is a shallow overhang at the head of Clover Canyon. It contained no deposits and only a few specimens of chipping detritus. Site 42Gr568 is a water-cut overhang which overlooks quarry site 42Gr565 to the south. The ceiling of the overhang is fire-blackened and at least three hearth areas are visible on the surface of the deposits. Chipping debris and Paiute-Shoshoni pottery were collected. Open Camps None of the open camps yielded pottery. In general, those nearest the quarries contained bifaces, Type I and I1 cores, and a preponderance of thick unmodified flakes. Camps a mile or more from the quarries (42Gr549, 42Gr550, 42Gr575, 42Gr576, 42Gr577) are marked by the absence of the larger specimens and contain projectile points and large numbers of unmodified "thinning" flakes. In fact, four of the five projectile points recovered during the survey came from sites 42Gr575, 42Gr576 and 42Gr577, the three sites furthest from the quarry areas. The mano and slab metate (left in field) at site 42Gr559 further attests to subsistence activities in the Winter Camp-Salt Wash confluence area. Historic Petroglyph As mentioned above, no aboriginal rock art was observed. A historic petroglyph enscribed "J.E.D. 1860" (Figure 9) was found at quarry site 42Gr560. We have not yet been able to identify this individual but he was probably associated with the initial Mormon

Fig. 9

Historic petroglyph.

settlement of the Elk Mountain Mission in Moab, Utah, which began in 1854 (Tanner 1937).

PREVIOUSLY RECORDED SITES Of the fifty-nine sites previously recorded, nineteen were open camps, thirty-one were cavelrockshelters and one was an isolated petroglyph. In addition, four of the open camps and six of the cave/rockshelters contained examples of rock art. Hunt (1953) recorded eight sites at the southern end of the Park (42Gr192, 42Gr 195, 42Gr 196, 42Gr204, 42Gr205, 42Gr206, 42Gr207,42Gr246). The remainder of the sites (marked with open circles in Figure 1) were reported by Pierson (n.d.). Sixteen of Pierson's sites are located within the area surveyed by the Antiquities Section. We revisited only six of these (42Gr294, 42Gr295, 42Gr516, 42Gr5 17, 42Gr5 18, 42Gr5 19). The remainder could not be located. All six are cave/rockshelters cut in the Entrada Sandstone north of Winter Camp Wash. They overlook quarry site 42Gr572 to the south. None was found to contain cultural materials. Either Pierson collected all surface artifacts or the sites have subsequently been "picked clean" by tourists. The latter is a distinct possibility since the paved walkway to Delicate Arch cuts through the center of the quarry (42Gr572) and allows easy access to the cavelrockshelters. The following summary includes only a few references to specific sites due to the problems of site location and artifact provenience mentioned earlier. Open Camps The nineteen open camps are located along the courses of intermittent tributaries of Salt Valley Wash, Courthouse Wash and the Colorado River. They consist primarily of surface concentrations of chipping debris and chipped stone artifacts. Three of the sites yielded Pueblo I1 Anasazi pottery types. Four contained points described herein (Types I, IV, VI, VII, VIII, XI, XI1 and XIV). Ground stone implements are

reported at six of these sites but apparently were not collected. Four sites contained examples of stone architecture: a "crude stone masonry structure" (Pierson n.d.) at 42Gr536; a "low rock circle" (Hunt 1953) at 42 Gr192; and small (2 to 4 ft. diameter) circular, slab and coursed masonry "granaries" (Hunt 1953) at sites 4 2 ~ r 1 9 5and 42Gr196. A wooden beam from the granary at 42Gr196 has been radiocarbon dated to 950 * 150 B.P. Except for the Anasazi pottery types, none of the artifacts are diagnostic of specific cultural associations. Cave/Rockshelters The thirty-one cave/rockshelters are primarily concentrated along Courthouse Wash, Winter Camp and Salt Valley Washes (Figure 5). Five of the sites contained Pueblo I1 Anasazi pottery and two sites contained Paiute-Shoshoni ware. Only one of these yielded both types. Five contained point types described herein (Types I, 11, 111, V, VI, VII, IX, X and XIII). Ground stone implements are reported for ten sites but were apparently not collected. Four cave/rockshelters described by Pierson (n.d.) contain architectural features: a "D-shaped masonry room" at 42Gr546; a "crude stone retaining wall" at 42Gr542; a "storage cyst" at 42Gr525; and a "small masonry storage cyst" at 42Gr527. As in the case of the open camps, only the pottery types are culturally diagnostic. Petroglyphs/Pictographs Eleven examples OT rock art have been recorded in Arches National Park. Reported site associations and available descriptions are summarized below. 42Gr206-207 (open camp): "Petroglyphs include hump-backed flute player" (Hunt 1953). 42Gr288 (open camp): "one petroglyph of maze type" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr294 (cave): "Petroglyph in red paint (Part missing)" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr297 (isolated): "Petroglyphs . . . of horses w/riders and goats" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr513 (open camp): "Petroglyph . . . Photoed by Steward, 1941, mentioned by Hunt, 1953" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr519 (cave): "Petroglyphs" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr520 (cave): "Lots of petroglyphs . . . Reported by Hunt, 1953" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr537 (open camp): "Pictographs" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr538 (cave): "Pictographs, one showing Delicate Arch which may be modern as game and horsetrail runs in front of cave" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr539 (open camp): "a series of pecked pictographs on north side and one panel of painted on south side" (Pierson n.d.). 42Gr542 (rockshelter): "Goat petroglyphs" (Pierson n.d.). Obviously, little may be inferred as to the nature of the rock art from these modest descriptive accounts.

ARTIFACTS Artifact classes include chipped stone, ground stone, pottery and perishables. These have been subdivided into types and described in various degrees of detail. Both the artifacts collected by the Antiquities Section and those obtained by previous surveys are included in this report. However, as mentioned earlier, some doubt exists as to the provenience of the previous collections. All specific references to these artifacts have been marked with an asterisk to indicate to the reader that the provenience may be in error. Provenience of all specimens is included in the appropriate descriptive sections. The provenience of chipped stone and pottery is also shown in Table I for ease of reference. CHIPPED STONE

This section is not intended to represent an exhaustive analysis of chipped stone implements. The "traditional" format employed is adequate for the present purposes. Statistical techniques which have been usefully applied to larger collections (Ahler 1970; Binford and Quimby 1963; Calabrese 1972) are inappropriate in this case due to the small sample size. Microscopic analysis of wear patterns has not been attempted for reasons adduced later (see Discussion of Bifaces). The chipped stone artifacts have been subdivided into nine categories: Points, Drills, Unifaces, Bifaces, Cores, Large Amorphous Flakes, Retouched Flakes and Unmodified Flakes. POINTS

The point category include8 probable arrow points (Types I through VII); probable atlatl points and/or small knives (Types VIII through XII); and large knives (Types XI11 and XIV). Type 1 No. Specimens: Six Description: Small triangular points with straight to convex edges. All examples are sidenotched and all but one (Fig. lob) have a single basal notch. Three (Fig. lOa, e, f) are plano-convex in cross section and display more flake scars on the dorsal than the ventral face. The other three are bi-convex in cross section and are worked equally on both faces. Flaking technique varies from random to fine parallel pressure flaking. Measurements: Length, 1.8 to 2.5 cm.; width, 1.1 to 1.4 cm.; thickness, 0.2 to 0.3 em.; weight, 0.5 to 2.2 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr575 (Fig. 10 a, c); 42Gr538* (Fig. 10 b, d, e); 42Gr299* (Fig. 10 f) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 18, a c . Hunt (1953), Fig. 18, a-i. Gunnerson (1969),

Fig. 10

Chipped stone points from Arches National Park: Type I (a-f); Type I1 (g-i); Type 111 6); Type IV (k, 1); Type V (m); Type VI (n-p); Type VII (q, r); Type VIII (s, t); Type IX (u, v); Type X (w, x); Type XI (y); Type XI1 (z); Type XI11 (aa); Type XIV (bb).

Fig. 43, d. Sharrock (1966), Fig. 48, h. Kehoe (1966), Fig. 1 Type I1 No. Specimens: Three Description: Small triangular points with relatively straight edges. All examples are corner-notched with slightly expanding stems. Tangs are sharp and extend ca. halfway to the base of the stem. All are made on curved flakes and are plano-convex in cross section. Dorsal surfaces are worked much more extensively than the ventral. The ventral surface of one (Fig. 10 h) exhibits no flake scars except edge treatment. Parallel to random pressure flaking. Measurements: Length, 2.3 to 2.9 cm.; width, 1.5 to 1.8 cm.; thickness, 0.3 cm.; weight, 1.0 to 1.4 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298* (Fig. 10 g), 42Gr300* (Fig. 10 h), 42Gr577 (Fig. 10 i) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 18, j-1. Hunt (1953), Fig. 11, e-f. Wormington and Lister (1956), Fig. 40, a-d, Fig. 41, a-f. Brew (1946) Fig. 172, a-g) Type I11 No. Specimens: One Description: Small triangular point with straight edges and relatively broad, rounded side notches. The base is excurvate in shape and is bifacially thinned. The specimen is bi-convex in cross section and is worked equally on both faces. Random pressure flaking with little or no edge retouch. Measurements: ILength, 3.2 cm.; width, 1.3 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm.; weight, 1.5 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr543 (Fig. 10 j) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 18, d-f, Hunt (1953), Fig. 11 b Type IV No. Specimens: Two Description: Small triangular points, long in proportion to width. Both are stemmed with barbs at right angle to the midline. One (Fig. 10 k) has an expanding stem and slightly excurvate edges. It is made on a curved flake and is plano-convex in cross section. Neither face is worked extensively. The other (Fig. 10 1) has straight serrated edges, is bi-convex in cross section and has fine parallel pressure flaking on both faces. Measurements: Length, 2.7 to 2.8 cm.; width, 1.1 cm.; thickness, 0.3 cm.; weight, 1.1 to 1.2 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr536* (Fig. 10 k), 42Gr576 (Fig. lo I) Comparable Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 10, a and c-g Type V No. Specimens: One Description: Small triangular point with shallow side notches. Edges and base are slightly excurvate with bifacial basal thinning evident. Specimen is plano-

convex in cross section and is minimally worked on both faces. Measurements: Length, 2.4 cm.; width, 1.3 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm.; weight 1.1 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr518 (Fig. 10 m) Comparable Types: None Type VI No. Specimens: Three Description: Small triangular points with marked basal concavity. Excurvate edges and bifacial basal thinning. Lenticular in cross section with random pressure flaking evident on both faces. Measurements: Length, 2.2 to 3.0 cm.; width, 1.7 to 1.8 cm.; thickness, 0.2 to 0.4 cm.; weight, 1.2 to 1.9 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr299* (Fig. 10 n-o), 42Gr528* (Fig. 10 p) Comparative Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 8, f. Aikens (1970), Fig. 18,m. Gunnerson (1969), Fig. 43, s-t Type VII No. Specimens: Two Description: Small triangular points with rounded bases and slightly excurvate edges. Lenticular in cross section and equally worked on both faces. Measurements: Length, 2.6 to 3.0 cm.; width, 1.4 to 1.5 cm.; thickness, 0.3 to 0.4 cm.; weight, 1.3 to 2.0 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr532* (Fig. 10 q), 42Gr539* (Fig. 10 r) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 18, n Type VIII No. Specimens: Two Description: Large triangular stemmed points with straight edges. Tangs project at right angles to midline. Stems are slightly expanding. The stem of one specimen (Fig. 10 t) is bifurcated by a basal notch. Points are bi-convex in cross section and display random pressure flaking on both faces. Measurements: Length, 3.0 to 3.4 cm.; width, 1.7 cm.; thickness, 0.4 to 0.5 cm.; weight, 2.3 to 2.5 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr539* (Fig. 10 s), 42Gr552 (Fig. 10 t). Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 20, m-r. Hunt (1953), Fig. 13, g-j Type IX No. Specimens: Two Description: Large triangular, side-notched points. Bases are straight to convex and bifacially thinned. Side notches are broad, rounded and directed at a slight angle toward the tip. Specimens are bi-convex in cross section and randomly flaked on both faces. Edges have secondary retouch. The tip of one specimen (Fig. 10 v) has an impact fracture.

Measurements: Length, 2.9 cm.; width, 1.9 to 2.3 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm.; weight, 2.7 gms. (Fig. 10 v only) Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298* (Fig. 10 u). 42Gr535* (Fig. 10 v) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 19, e and k. Hunt (1953), Fig. 15, i-1 Type X No. Specimens: Two Description: Large, triangular, corner-notched points. One (Fig. 10 w) has short tangs extending toward the base and a slightly expanding stem. It is bi-convex in cross section and is randomly pressure flaked on both faces. One margin has been retouched to a form a denticulate edge. The other (Fig. 10 x) is made on a curved flake and cortex is still present on the dorsal face. The single unbroken tang extends nearly to the base of the stem. This specimen is planoconvex in cross section and the ventral face is unworked. Measurements: Length, 3.0 to 3.5 cm.; width, 1.9 cm.; thickness, 0.4 to 0.5 cm.; weight, 2.2 to 2.6 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr532* (Fig. 10 x), Unknown (Fig. 10 w) Comparable Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 19, h Type XI No. Specimens: One Description: Long, thin triangular point with basal or corner notches (indeterminable since stem is broken). One remaining tang is sharply pointed and directed toward the base. Specimen is lenticular in cross section and exhibits fine, parallel pressure flaking on both faces. Flake scars terminate at the median line. Measurements: Length, 4.0 cm.; width, 1.7 cm.; thickness, 0.3 cm.; weight, 2.4 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr540* (Fig. 10 y) Comparable Types: None Type XI1 No. Specimens: One Description: Triangular specimen with pointed base and lateral, rudamentary tangs. Blade constricted immediately above the tangs, producing nearly parallel edges. Base below tangs is bi-convex in cross section and much thicker than the blade. Blade is lenticular in cross section and randomly flaked on both faces, Measurements: Length, 3.5 cm.; width, 1.9 cm.; thickness 0.5 cm.; weight, 2.5 grns. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (Fig. 10 z) Comparable Types: None Type XI11 No. Specimens: One Description: Large, poorly made side-notched triangular point. Side notches are broad and directed

toward the tip. Edges are very irregular and crudely serrated. Specimen is bi-convex in cross section and displays no flake scars on either face. Measurements: Length, 4.6 cm.; width, 2.9 cm.; thickness, 0.7 cm.; weight 9.2 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298* (Fig. I0 aa) Comparable Types: None Type XIV No. Specimens: One Description: Finely made large triangular point with excurvate edges. Specimen is side-notched and has a single basal notch. All notches are "keyhole" shaped with the distal (interior) aspect of the notch rounded. The specimen is made on a long, broad, slightly curved blade. It is lenticular in cross section and parallel flaked on both faces. Most of the flake scars terminate at the midline while some extend the entire width of the blade. Blade edges are minimally retouched. Measurements: Length, 7.0 cm.; width, 3.3 cm.; thickness 0.5 cm.; weight, 11.6 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr299* (Fig. 10 bb) Comparable Types: None. This apparently unique point probably served as a hafted knife. Discussion of Points Type I is referred to as the Desert Side-Notched in the Great Basin (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959) and the Billings Double Spur Basal-Notched on the Northwestern Plains (Kehoe 1966). This geographically widespread point type has been dated from ca. 650 B.P. to the historic period (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959; Hester 1973). Its posited occurrence at 3000 B.P. in the Hogup Cave sequence (Aikens 1970) was based on erroneous interpretations of the stratigraphic and radiometric data (cf. Madsen and Berry 1975). Type I1 is similar to the small corner-notched points associated with the Uncompahgre Complex (Wormington and Lister 1956) and Late Woodland sites (Johnson 1974) between the Colorado Front Range and the Missouri River. It is formally identical to the Great Basin type, Eastgate Expanding-Stem. These points occur as early as 1450 B.P. on the Great Plains (Johnson 1974) and from 1350 to 650 B.P. in the Great Basin (Lanning 1963; Clewlow 1967). Types I11 and IV fall within the range of variation of, respectively, Rose Springs Side- and ComerNotched as defined in the Great Basin (Lanning 1963). The temporal range is the same as posited for Type 11. Type V is a small, poorly made, side-notched point with no discernable parallels. On the sole criterion of size, it is probably an arrow point and, therefore, datable within the gross time span of Types I through IV. Types VI and VII are usually lumped under the heading of Cottonwood Triangular which is presumably a type of arrow point preform (Aikens 1970). Types VIII, IX and X are large, triangular points for which temporal placement cannot be posited with

any degree of confidence. Similar specimens have been found in Archaic period (Aikens 1970; Leach 1970; Jennings 1957) and Basketmaker I1 (Kidder and Guernsey 1919; Guernsey and Kidder 1921; Guernsey 1931; Morris and Burgh 1954) contexts in which they are interpreted as atlatl points. However, they also occur in Fremont and Pueblo contexts, in which case they have been interpretated as (probably hafted) knives (Adovasio 1970; Berry 1972). The rationale for these interpretations is a loosely defined set of partially supportable premises. The large points are frequently found hafted on atlatl dart foreshafts in Archaic period and Basketmaker contexts. While multiple use as cutting and skinning knives must be considered as a possibility (Wylie 1975), their use as projectile points cannot be seriously doubted. Fremont and Pueblo sites are marked by the use of bow and arrow to the total exclusion of the atlatl (Madsen and Berry 1975). In the absence of wear pattern studies, the large points found in these contexts are interpreted as knives since they are considered too heavy to have been used as arrow points. This latter assumption has not been subjected to rigorous experimental testing, but it is an acceptable working hypothesis in most cases. Where Types I through IV occur with Types VIII through X at sedentary Fremont village sites, the latter are typically four to five times heavier than the former (cf. Berry 1972; Wormington 1955; Sharrock and Marwitt 1967; Marwitt 1968; Taylor 1957; Aikens 1967). The problem may eventually be resolved when the burgeoning field of wear pattern analysis transcends its present state of particularism. Given present knowledge, cultural affiliation and temporal assignation of Types VIII through X cannot be determined from survey collections. DRILLS Four specimens have been classified as drills (Fig. 11 a-d). Their morphological differences warrant separate description. Drill I Description: This specimen was made on a curved flake. The base is unmodified. The drill portion tapers to a blunt point. It is bi-convex in cross section and bifacially flaked. Measurements: Overall length, 4.8 cm.; length of drill point, 2.1 cm.; base width, 2;6 cm.; width of drill point, 0.5 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm.; weight, 3.5 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: General surface collection (Fig. 11 a) Comparable Specimens: Hunt (1953), Fig. 34 a Drill I1 Description: Specimen is long and slender with a flanged base. Base is bifacially worked on all edges. Drill portion .is parallel-sided and tapers abruptly to a blunt tip. It is biconvex in cross section; displays steep retouch on both faces. Measurements: Overall length, 5.2 cm.; length of

drill point, 3.9 cm.; base width, 2.4 cm.; width of drill point, 0.9 cm.; thickness 4.1 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298* (Fig. 11 b) Comparable Types: Aikens (1970), Fig. 33, d. Hunt (1953), Fig. 34 a Drill 111 Description: This specimen was probably hafted. The base is roughly parabolic in form. It is basally notched to form two short tangs and a stem. The stem is bifurcated. The drill portion is plano-convex in cross section and is unworked on the plane surface. Edges are steeply retouched. Measurements: Overall length, 5.1 cm.; length of drill point, 3.0 cm.; base width, 2.4 cm.; width of drill point, 0.8 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm.; weight, 5.1 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (Fig. 11 c) Comparable Types: None Drill-- -IV Description: Classification of this specimen as a drill is somewhat conjectural, since a large portion of the tip is broken off. The base is roughly oval in shape and bifacially flaked on all edges. The point section is tapered, lenticular in cross section and bifacially flaked on both edges. Measurements: Overall length, unknown; base width, 4.0 cm.; width of drill point, tapers from 3.3 to 2.3 cm.; thickness, 0.6 cm.; weight, 21.3 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr299* (Fig. 11 d) Comparable Types: Apparently a unique specimen. Discussion of Drills As the term "drill" implies, this is a functional category. This departure from the primarily descriptive format employed in the present report is justifiable and has clear precedent in the literature of the Southwest, Great Basin and Colorado Plateau. Similar specimens are invariably - probably correctly - referred to as drills since their form appears to be functionally specific. Drills have been recovered in stratigraphic association with Fremont, Anasazi, and Archaic period cultures and are of no cultural or temporal diagnostic utility. UNIFACES Only eight unifacially flaked specimens were recovered. Fig. 11 e and f represent the range of variation from nearly circular to subrectangular in form. Description: The four subrectangular specimens are unifacially flaked on one edge only. All are planoconvex in cross section and display steep retouch on the worked edge. Neither ventral or dorsal surfaces are extensively flaked. The four circular to oval specimens are unifacially flaked around the entire circumference. They are plano-convex in cross section. Ventral surfaces are unmodified while dorsal surfaces display multiple flake scars.

9 Fig. 11

Chipped Stone: Drills (a-d); Unifaces (e-f); Bifaces (g, h, i).

Measurements: Length, 3.7 to 5.6 cm.; width, 2.5 to 5.0 cm.; thickness, 0.6 to 1.6 cm.; weight, 11.7 to 31.2 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298 (3); 42Gr528 (1); 42Gr561 (1); 42Gr556 (Fig. 11 e; General surface collection Fig. 11 f); 42Gr575 (1) Comparable Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 44, 54 Similar specimens are usually referred to as "scrapers." The examples from the Arches National Park collection are of no cultural or temporal diagnostic utility. BIFACES Eleven specimens not included in the point category make up this class of artifacts. Description: All examples are triangular in form. Bases vary from square to excurvate. Edges vary from straight to excurvate. Flaking technique ranges from percussion thinning to fine parallel pressure flaking. Cross sections are plano-convex, bi-convex and lenticular. Measurements: Length, 3.0 to 10.5 cm.; width, 2.0 to 3.3 cm.; thickness 0.4 to 0.9 cm.; weight, 4.0 to 27.5 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr298* (2) (Fig. 11 i); 42Gr300* (1); 42Gr301* (Fig. 11 h); 42GrS32* (1); 42Gr538* (1); 42Gr554 (I); General Surface Collection (4) (Fig. 11 g) BIFACE FRAGMENTS No. Specimens: Twenty-seven Description: Broken portions of specimens similar to those described in the Biface artifact class. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (5); 42Gr293* (2); 42Gr298* (6); 42Gr 299* (2); 42Gr532* (1); 42Gr551 (1); 42Gr552 (1); 42Gr556 (1); 42Gr560 (3); 42Gr566 (1); 42Gr570 (1); General Surface Collection (3) Discussion of Bifaces These specimens may represent "finished" artifacts used as cutting or skinning tools or, alternatively, they may be "unfinished" preforms. The prevailing view (Crabtree 1972) asserts that the tool/preform distinction can be made on the criterion of distinctive wear patterns on the former and the absence of these patterns on the latter. Such inferences might possibly be applicable to lithic complexes recovered in stratigraphic association. Even then, the distinction cannot be made unequivocally. For instance, a specimen originally "intended" as a preform may have been utilized as a tool and subsequently discarded without being reduced to its final form. Or a "finished" artifact may have been discarded without being used. It is also probable that some tools were used on soft materials that caused no wear patterns whatsoever (Brose 1975). In varying degrees, these problems can be statistically overcome when dealing with large collections

recovered from discrete site components. However, they become insurmountable in a survey context when the collection is small and the specimens cannot demonstrably be assigned to a complex of related artifacts. Thus, wear pattern analysis of the small Arches National Park surface collection would have been a self-serving exercise and none was attempted. CORES Type I No. Specimens: Nineteen Description: Generally oval to triangular in form. All are bifacially flaked by percussion. Cross sections vary from bi-convex to plano-convex. Flake scars are broad and deep and show a marked bulb of force. Measurements: Length, 7.5 to 11.0 crn.; width, 3.0 to 6.2 cm.; thickness, 1.3 to 3.5 cm.; weight, 45.5 to 205.5 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (1); 42Gr538* (5); 42Gr551 (1); 42Gr552 (1); 42Gr555 (1); Gr556 (2); 42Gr557 (1); 42Gr565 (2); 42Gr565 (2); 42Gr567 (1); 42Gr570 (1); 42Gr572 (1); General Surface Collection (2) Comparable Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 57, 58 Type I1 No. Specimens: Twelve Description: These specimens vary from Type I in that the bifacial percussion flaking is more regular and flake scars are smaller. They are smaller in size and considerably thinner. Measurements: Length, 4.5 to 7.5 cm.; width, 4.0 to 6.5 cm.; thickness, 1.0 to 2.5 cm.; weight, 18.0 to 81.0 gms. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (1); 42Gr298* (2); 42Gr538* (1); 42Gr552 (1); 42Gr561 (3); 42Gr566 (1); 42Gr570 (1); General Surface Collection (2) Comparable Types: Hunt (1953), Fig. 59, 60 These specimens are probably "exhausted" cores from which flakes and/or blades were struck in the process of tool manufacture. They are not diagnostic of any particular culture or temporal period in southeastern Utah.

LARGE AMORPHOUS FLAKES Description: These specimens are large flakes, some of which retain the cortex on one or more surfaces. A few show flake scars with large negative bulbs of percussion. Large amorphous flakes comprise the bulk of the lithic debris at the quarry sites. They conform in all details to what Binford and Quimby (1963) term "shatter;" lithic debris resultant from the initial stages of manufacture or "testing" to determine flaking characteristics. Material: Chert Provenience: (The provenience data given here does not represent the true distribution since the quarries were not intensively collected.) 42Gr298* (1); 42Gr552 (4); 42Gr555 (1); 42Gr556 (2); 42Gr561 (1)

RETOUCHED FLAKES No. Specimens: Fifty-four Description: These specimens show minimal retouch on one or both faces and presumably were utilized for scraping and/or cutting. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (6); 42Gr298* (3); 42Gr299* (18); 42Gr528(4); 42Gr532 (2); 42Gr536 (2); 42Gr538* (2); 42Gr550 (2); 42Gr552 (2); 42Gr555 (1); 42Gr556 (3); 42Gr561 (2); 42Gr566 (3); 42Gr567 (I); 42Gr570 (1); 42Gr576 (2) UNMODIFIED FLAKES No. Specimens: 313 Description: Flakes which show no evidence of retouch. Material: Chert Provenience: 42Gr290* (2); 42Gr293* (1); 42Gr299* (15); 42Gr528* (2); 42Gr532* (1); 42Gr536* (1); 42Gr538* (3); 42Gr549 (8); 42Gr550 (27); 42Gr551 (19); 42Gr552 (35); 42Gr554 (14); 42Gr555 (6); 42Gr556 (19); 42Gr557 (5); 42Gr558 (9); 42Gr560 (3); 42Gr561 (10); 42Gr565 (11); 42Gr566 (17); 42Gr567 (24); 42Gr569 (2); 42Gr570 (18); 42Gr571 (1); 42Gr572 (11); 42Gr575 (4); 42Gr576 (10); General Surface Collection (35) HAMMERSTONES No. Specimens: Three Description: Two amorphous flakes and one sandstone cobble showing extensive battering marks on one end have been classified as hammerstones. Measurements: Length, 4.5 to 6.5 cm.; width, 5.0 to 6.5 cm.; thickness, 3.4 to 4.1 cm.; weight, 74.2 to 204.2 gms. Material: Chert (2); sandstone (1) Provenience: 42Gr290* (I); 42Gr298* (1); 42Gr572 (I\

GROUND STONE Only five ground stone specimens were collected during the survey. Four of these are manos. The other is a grinding implement of unknown function. MANOS No. Specimens: Foqr Description: The two complete specimens are subrectangular in shape. The larger of the two (Fig. 12 b) is pecked on all surfaces,, but is only ground on one side. The smaller shows nb evidence of pecking, but is ground to a smooth surface on both faces. The two fragmentary specimens are river cobbles with one surface pecked and ground. Measurements: Length, 8.7- to 15.1 cm.; width, 4.5 to 9.0 cm.; thickness, 2.9 to 5.5 cm. Provenience: 42Gr559 (1); 42Gr560 (1) (Fig. 13 c); 42Gr569 (1); 42Gr570 (1) PROBLEMATIC GROUND STONE IMPLEMENT No. Specimens: One Description: Roughly ovoid in form with three

symmetrically ground faces. Triangular in cross section. Surfaces that do not evidence grinding are pecked. Measurements: Length, 6.1 cm.; width, 5.0 cm.; thickness, 6.2 cm. Material: Sandstone Provenience: 42Gr552 (1)

POTTERY Of the sixty-one sherds reported herein, fifty-four were recovered during the conduct of a previous survey (Pierson n.d.) and seven were collected by the Antiquities Section. Hunt's (1953) collections from the southern portion of the Park have not been analyzed. Given the range of variation of pottery types, this small sample size precludes ariything but gross distinctions. None of the specimens resemble known Fremont types, though Hunt (1953) reports two calcite tempered sherds from 42Gr204 which may be classified as Uinta Gray. The collection at our disposal clearly falls into two distinct wares: Anasazi and PaiuteShoshoni. As in the case of chipped stone, the bulk of the collection is of questionable provenience and will be marked with an asterisk. MESA VERDE ANASAZI San Juan Whiteware: Eight slipped sherds appear to be from bowls. No rimsherds were recovered and the identification as bowl fragments is based on the degree of smoothing of the interior surfaces. Provenience: 42Gr290 (4); 42Gr536 (2); 42Gr538* ('4 Three additional sherds of San Juan Whiteware are tempered with crushed sherds of an unidentified red-orange ware. Exterior surfaces are smoothed and no design elements are visible. Provenience: 42Gr538* (3) Mancos Corrugated: Twenty-nine sherds from six sites are tentatively identified as Mapcos Corrugated. All have coarse crushed rock temper. Several sherds show evidence of both corrugation and unaltered coils. A partially restored vessel from 42Gr538* is a spherical, open-mouthed jar with a curved rim (Fig. 12 a). Interior neck diameter is ca. 12.0 cm. Height could not be determined. Provenience: 42Gr290* (4); 42Gr298* (2); 42Gr520* (2); 42Gr538* (4); 42Gr532* (4); 42Gr538* (13) PAIUTE-SHOSHONI Twenty-three sherds are assigned on the basis of ethnographic data to Numic-speaking groups (Madsen 1975). Temper consists of coarse crushed quartzite. Sherd exteriors are uniformly reddish-brown in color and exhibit fingernail indentations. Provenience: 42Gr5 16* (12); 42Gr538* (4); 42Gr568 (2); 42Gr570 (5) DISCUSSION OF POTTERY The Anasazi sherd collection is indicative of a Pueblo I1 occupation. A tentative temporal placement of ca. 900 to 700 B.P. is indicated by tree-ring dated associations in the Four Corners region (Breternitz , a .

.- "..

Fig. 12

A " .

. -. : i . *

Pottery, ground stone and corn cob from Arches National Park.: (a) Mancos Corrugated vessel (b) mano, (c) eight-rowed corn cob.

1966). However, timelspace relationships of Anasazi ceramics outside the so-called "core" areas are poorly understood and this temporal assignation is only a rough approximation. The temporal placement of the Paiute/Shoshoni pottery is even less secure. The initial appearance of Numic speakers in the area was probably sometime after 650 B.P. (Madsen 1975). Occupation may have occurred anytime between this date and the early historic period. Numic-speaking groups were inhabiting the Moab area at the time of White contact in 1854 (Tanner 1937). FAUNAL REMAINS Nine bone fragments were recovered from the sites, only four of which are identifiable. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Provenience: 42Gr532* (2) Modern Bovine (Bovius sp.). Provenience: 42 Gr538* (2) Unidentified. Provenience: 42Gr532* (3); 42Gr570 (2)

PERISHABLES Three artifacts normally classified as perishables are found in the combined collection from Arches National Park. DartlArrow Foreshaft: The broken proximal end of an atlatl or arrow foreshaft is reported from 42Gr538*. The fragment is 7.3 cm. long and 0.7 cm. in diameter. It is smoothed and tapered at the proximal end. Eight shallow, parallel lines are engraved longitudinally on its surface. The specimen is made of Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus sp.). Arrow Mainshaft (?): A fragment of a possible arrow mainshaft of Phragmites sp. is reported from 42Gr516*. The specimen is 17.7 cm. long and 0.9 cm. in diameter. Fletching, nocks and other technological attributes are absent. Corn Cob (Fig. 12 c): A single cob of eight-rowed corn was recovered from 42Gr551. It is 16.0 cm. long and 2.3 cm. in diameter. Both ends of the cob were pierced to a depth of ca. 2.5 cm. by "skewers" ca. 1.0 cm. in diameter. The "skewers* are not present in this specimen but the holes in the butt ends of this cob suggest similarities to the practice of inserting short sticks in cobs as evidenced at numerous sites in southern Utah and northern Arizona (Winter and Wylie 1974; Fowler 1963; Kidder and Guernsey 1919; Guernsey and Kidder 1921).

CULTURAL AFFILIATION AND CHRONOLOGY Interpretation of the Arches National Park data must, at present, remain at a fairly low level. Unwarrented speculation would only add to the confusion so evident in the literature of southeastern Utah prehistory.

Consistent with this view, the inferences offered here are limited to what may be justifiably posited on the basis of a small scale survey in a large and poorly understood geographic area. Pottery types are the firmest evidence of cultural affiliation and temporal span in the Arches collection. Seven of the ten pottery-bearing sites contained Mesa Verde Pueblo I1 varieties, suggesting that occupation occurred between 900 and 760 B.P. (Breternitz 1966). Unfortunately, all of the Mesa Verde ceramics were recovered by previous surveys and site associations cannot be determined with any degree of confidence. Paiute-Shoshoni ware was recovered from four sites, at least two of which (42Gr568, 42Gr570) are located in the Salt Wash-Winter Camp Wash confluence area. These sites may date anywhere from ca. 650 B.P. to the historic period. Hunt (1953) reports two sherds of calcite tempered pottery from site 42Gr204 at the southern end of the Park. These may be examples of the Fremont type, Uinta Gray, which probably dates from ca. 1350 to 1050 B.P. (Marwitt 1970). However, this classification is subject to change when and if Hunt's collection is reanalyzed in terms of currently accepted definitions of Fremont pottery types (R. Madsen n.d.). Whatever the outcome, two sherds of pottery do not demonstrate Fremont occupance. Side-notched and corner-notched points within the size range usually associated with bow and arrow technology were found at both pottery and nonpotterybearing sites. Corner-notched arrow points are associated with Pueblo I artifact assemblages in the Four Corners area (Brew 1946) and also with the aceramic Uncompahgre complex as defined by Wormington and Lister (1956) in the central Utah-Colorado border area. The presence of these points may relate to seasonal hunting activities of Pueblo I agriculturalists or occupance by Uncompahgre hunter-gatherer groups. The total absence of Pueblo I ceramics argues in favor of the latter although the small sample size militates against a strong case for either alternative. Sidenotched arrow points were prevalent during the Pueblo I1 period (Brew 1946) and their occurance in Arches National Park is compatible with the ceramic data. Occupation by Basketmaker I1 and/or Archaic period cultures cannot be unequivocally demonstrated. Both culture periods predate the introduction of the bow and arrow and are thus characterized by the use of the atlatl. Judging from Hunt's (1953) La Sal Mountain collections, the dominant Archaic period dart points in the Arches vicinity were Pinto and Gypsum types. Since none of these have been recovered from the Park, it is reasonable to infer that any dart points in the collection are assignable to Basketmaker 11. However, as discussed earlier, the designation of the large triangular specimens (Types VIII through XII) as projectile points is conjectural. The only supporting evidence for this functional designation is the apparent impact fracture on the tip of the large side-

notched point recovered from 42Gr535* (Fig. 10 v). The "skewered" corn cob from 42Gr551 reflects a practice common in Basketmaker I1 and early Fremont contexts. The absence of Fremont pottery and the possible occurence of atlatl technology suggests a Basketmaker I1 affiliation. This is, admittedly, less than incontrovertible evidence. In sum, the meager data suggest a n occupational sequence for Arches National Park consisting of Basketmaker 11, Pueblo I1 and Numic-speaking populations. Possible utilization by Uncompahgre related groups must also be considered. There is no evidence of Archaic period, Pueblo I or Pueblo I11 cultures and the case for Fremont occupance is exceedingly weak. Mesa Verde Pueblo I1 pottery types are the most frequently occurring diagnostics. This affiliation is supported temporally by a radiocarbon date from 42Gr196 of 950 150 B.P. (Hunt 1953). Barring paleoclimatic conditions radically different than those witnessed in modern times, it is within the realm of reasonable inference t o posit that the resources of Arches National Park were exploited only

on a seasonal o r intermittent basis. The specific floral and faunal resources that may have been available can only be determined through excavation. Even when this is known, the adaptive implications will only be comprehensible if considered in relationship t o subsistence activities at contemporaneous sites outside the Park. For example, the small Pueblo I1 open camps may indicate seasonal hunting and gathering activities by groups primarily dependent on agricultural yields in the adjacent Castle and Spanish Valleys to the south. Hunt (1953) reports numerous - presumably agricultural - village sites containing Pueblo I1 pottery types in these valleys. This posited relationship is, of course, only a n educated guess. Inferences regarding the intricate details of seasonality and scheduling (Flannery 1968) require more subsistence related data than is currently available. The point is, that the Park was probably never the locus of yearround habitation, hence, any research design arbitrarily limited by Park boundaries will undoubtedly prove inadequate.

REFERENCES Adovasio, James 1970 Chipped Stone Artifacts. In Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 95. Salt Lake City. ..,

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