Energy Dilemmas Energy security, the environment, and indigenous rights

By Anita Tvedt Kaksrud

The climate heats up, ecosystems face another The climate heats up, ecosystems face another mass extinction and expansive land use chang- mass extinction and land use es, and an energy crisis emerges. These three es, and an energy crisis emerges. These three crises all require immediate action. The prob- crises all immediate action. The lem, however, is that these crises are inherently is that these crises are interlinked yet the measures each requires coun- interlinked yet the measures each counteract the others While it is crucial to increase teract others. is to energy production and availability and to ex- energy and and to expand renewable energy plants, land use change renewable energy land use is the leading cause of species extinction while is the cause of species extinction while too often being a realization of colonial think- too often a realization of colonial thinking, misuse of power, and human conflict. Es- misuse of power, and human con pecially vulnerable in situations like these are vulnerable in situations like these are indigenous peoples and their rights. In other and their In other words, although increased energy availability is words, increased energy is much needed, it brings forward dilemmas and much it forward dilemmas and trade-offs that force us to ask ourselves how s us to ourselves much we are, or should be, willing to sacrifice much we are, or should be, to sacri ce. Indigenous peoples' rights include the right to rights include the to the land they use and identify with. However, the land use and with. However, this collective right to land is often vulnerable this collective to land is often vulnerable and tested to its furthest by non-indigenous ac- and tested to its furthest actors seeking to expand economic activity on tors to economic activity on indigenous lands This, sadly, is not a surprise lands. is not a considering the discrimination, assimilation, the discrimination, assimilation, and even genocide indigenous peoples around and even around the world have faced and still do. The colonial perception of indigenous peoples is very much of is very much still alive as it pictures them as either non-exis- still alive as it them as either non-existent or primitive and in need of development and tent or and in need of and assimilation into the majority culture. State ac- assimilation into the majority culture. State actors can use this framing as they attempt to jus- tors can use this as attempt to justify breaking the indigenous right to their land the to their land when such energy dilemmas emerge. Two of when such energy dilemmas emerge. Two of many examples of such cases are from the Ma- many of such cases are from the Mapuche people in Argentina and the Sámi people in and the Sámi in Norway. Although their cases are different in in their cases are di erent terms of their history, how they are playing out, terms of their how are out, and what energy sources are being promoted, and what energy sources are they both face the same fight – the right to exist both face the same – the to exist as indigenous peoples on their lands as on their lands.

The Mapuche and fracking The Mapuche and

In the case of Argentina, unconventional hy- In the case of unconventional drofracturing, “fracking”, became especially became important as a source of money and energy af- as a source of money and energy after Argentina’s financial collapse in 2001 This ter nancial in 2001. This is when one of the largest unconventional oil is when one of the unconventional oil reserves was found in a geological formation in reserves was found in a formation in Northern Patagonia – Vaca Muerta The Argen- Northern – Vaca Muerta. The tinian state then signed a contract with the Amer- tinian state then a contract with the American oil company YPF to start fracking. This ican oil company YPF to start This very area is also the home of the indigenous Ma- very area is also the home of the Mapuche people, and fracking developments have and have been built on specifically Mapuche-recognized been built on territory The impacts for Argentina as a whole territory. The for as a whole and for the Mapuche are therefore uneven. It is and for the are therefore uneven. It is the state who mainly benefits from economic the state who bene ts growth and enhanced energy security. Mean- and enhanced energy Meanwhile, the local Mapuche people have become while, the local have become on one of the indigenous groups worldwide to on one of the groups worldwide to experience the most pollution, while also being the most while also added to the already too-long list of indigenous added to the list of peoples to be forcefully evicted. Additionally, to be evicted. the social dynamics and roles attached to such the social and roles attached to such extractive industries have reinforced damaging extractive industries have reinforced gender roles and machismo, which had led the roles and machismo, which had led the women in the Vaca Muerta area to experience women in the Vaca Muerta area to increased trafficking and femicides. Howev- tra and femicides. However, the Mapuche people, just like indigenous er, the like peoples in general, are not passive victims. Al- in are not passive victims. Although the state has put efforts into framing the the state has put e orts into the Mapuche’s indigenous status as illegitimate by status as referring to them as solely opportunistic rebels to them as opportunistic rebels who just need to accept development, the Ma- who need to accept the Mapuche engage in both formal politics, symbol- engage in both formal ism, and civil disobedience in their resistance and civil disobedience in their resistance and demand for legitimacy and demand for legitimacy.

One of the Mapuche women at the forefront of One of the women at the forefront of the fight against colonial-like extractivism is colonial-like extractivism is Moira Millán, who emphasizes how “the Moira Millán, who how “the local effects that are provoked in our e ects that are in our zone are not endemic, they are a part of zone are not are a part of a global policy”. The policy does indeed a The does indeed have a global reach, from the south of have a reach, from the south of South America to the very north of the South America to the very north of the Nordics.

The Samí and wind farms

Though vastly different countries, Argentina di erent and Norway do have a few things in common. and do have a few in common. They both have large reserves and production both have reserves and of fossil fuels and a population of indigenous of fossil fuels and a of peoples.

Recently, Norway has started to expand its ef- has started to its efforts in wind farms in a much need effort to de- a e ort to crease dependence on fossil fuels While this is crease on fossil fuels. While this is good news regarding climate change, the ex- news climate the expansion has caused conflicts over indigenous has caused con icts over Samí people’s land and rights. Still, wind farms Samí land and wind farms have been attempted to expand onto indigenous have been to expand onto land Norway’s largest wind farm, with the land. wind farm, with the Norwegian state as the largest owner, was built state as the owner, was built on indigenous land which the Samí on land which the Samí uses for their traditional reindeer uses husbandry.

Just like in Patagonia, the Just like in the pursuit of energy was to be of energy was to be enforced at the expense of enforced at the expense of indigenous rights. Like the Like the Mapuche, the Samí refuses to the Samí refuses to be disregarded and be and yet again harmed yet harmed by the state the state.

Although the wind farm stood tall and ready the wind farm stood tall and in 2019, both the UN and the Norwegian Su- in 2019, both the UN and the Supreme Court ruled in 2020 that the wind farm preme Court ruled in 2020 that the wind farm had breached the Samí human rights and that the had breached the Samí human and that the state now must repair the damages it has caused state now must the it has caused. However, the wind farm is still there three years However, the wind farm is still there three years later, and the Norwegian parliament insists on later, and the insists on finding a compromise. a

Energy vs. human rights? vs. human

The question is then if we should or can com- The is then if we should or can compromise on human rights. Should it be okay to on human Should it be to down-prioritize some human rights in face of the some human in face of the energy crisis? energy crisis?

If so, should the already marginalized indige- If so, should the nous peoples be the humans we decide to restrict nous be the humans we decide to restrict rights for, yet again? Yet, without a fast increase for, yet Yet, without a fast increase in energy availability, even more people could in energy even more could suffer Could it be okay to sacrifice the rela- er. Could it be to sacri ce tively few indigenous peoples for the majority few for the of non-indigenous? Or does the history of im- of Or does the of imposed suffering on indigenous peoples leave the su on leave the non-indigenous with a duty to conserve indige- with a to conserve nous rights more carefully now? Adding the ur- nous more now? the urgency and vast consequences of climate change gency and vast consequences of climate to the equations makes this list of ethical ques- to the makes this list of ethical questions even longer For example, should indige- tions even longer. For should nous people, who generally are associated with nous who are associated with more sustainable environment management, be more sustainable environment management, be the ones to pay the price of climate change? Or the ones to pay the of climate Or is climate change already so urgent that it is jus- is climate so urgent that it is tified to make current human rights less import- ed to make current human less ant?

The three interlinked crises – climate change, The three interlinked crises – climate mass extinction and land use change, and energy mass extinction and land use and energy shortage – need to be handled with care if we – need to be handled with care if we are to avoid the unintentional consequence of are to avoid the unintentional consequence of building on the emerging fourth crisis of further on the fourth crisis of further restricting indigenous and human rights. indigenous and human ♦

The point is simple yet so complicated; the en- The is yet so the energy crisis is so complex that we should be wary ergy crisis is so that we should be wary of any easy solutions of any easy solutions.

Image by Ministerio Bienes Nacionales (CC BY 2.0)