Ming Porcelains & Works of Art by Vanderven Oriental Art

ming porcelain & works of art

vanderven oriental art â&#x20AC;˘ the netherlands www.vanderven.com â&#x20AC;˘ info@vanderven.com

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC; i looked, touched and learned. it was then that the chinese art virus really struck and stuckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 2

passion for ming It with great pleasure that we present our 2016 catalogue about Ming dynasty porcelain and works of art. Whenever I explain to people - strange to my profession - that I am a specialist dealer in Chinese art, I clarify by saying I deal in blue and white Ming vases. These are familiar to most people as they occur in films and stories, people can therefore easily relate to them. Ming to many people signifies an antique blue and white porcelain vase, but as this catalogue will testify, it is so much more. When my aunt and uncle Neeltje and Clemens van der Ven, introduced me to the world of art and antiques, I realized this was the career I wanted to pursue. My schooling as a specialist began in 1989, with an apprenticeship at the renowned firm of Spink & Son in London. This was truly the nirvana of Asian art dealerships. At that time Spink’s had at least 10 specialist working in its Oriental department, which was located on the first floor of their King Street premises in St. James’s. They dealt in all manner of Chinese and other Asian artefacts, such as lacquer, porcelain, jade, metal wares, textiles, glass and silver. It is during this formative period, that I acquired my taste and knowledge for Chinese porcelain and works of art. Under the guidance of Ben Janssens and Roger Keverne I looked, touched and learned. It was then that the Chinese art virus really struck and stuck. This year’s catalogue is a celebration of a fabulously rich period in Chinese history, incorporating a broad scope of Chinese materials. The introductory essay, written by Prof. Dr. Anne Gerritsen, delves into the famous Ming period novel, Jin Ping Mei and its leading character Ximen Qing. Her essay ends with the sentence : ‘…the beautiful things the Ming left behind helps us to better understand their rich and diverse world’. This wonderful world of artefacts, is reflected in our catalogue which incorporates many beautiful objects in an array of materials such as porcelain, celadon, jade carvings, lacquer boxes, bronze figures, incense burners, cloisonné and a wonderful semiprecious stone ewer with gold ornaments.

The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) runs parallel with the European Middle Ages. It is exactly in the middle of this period that the famous Netherlandish painter Jheronimus Bosch (c.1450 – 1516) lived. He was actually born in our home town ‘s-Hertogenbosch, working only a stone’s throw from our gallery. This year, our city is celebrating the 500 anniversary of Bosch, with an important oeuvre exhibition in the Spring and many other activities throughout the year. This celebration also inspired us to delve into this same period, but then of Chinese history. As with many Ming objects, Bosch’s paintings were also commissioned by royalty and high ranking nobles. He was already a celebrity artist during his lifetime, if he had lived in China, someone like Ximen Qing, could even have been his patron. We can’t encourage you enough to come and visit the Jheronimus Bosch exhibition. If you do, do combine it with a visit to our gallery, where we will be showing art from his parallel Chinese world: the Ming dynasty. Floris van der Ven

Vanderven Oriental Art The Netherlands Tel. +31 (0)73 614 62 51 info@vanderven.com www.vanderven.com www.vanderven.cn

the world of things in the ming dynasty prof. dr. anne gerritsen

A wealthy young man with decadent tastes inherits a pharmaceutics company in the centre of a provincial town from his father. He climbs rapidly in social status through a series of corrupt economic, political and sexual conquests, and eventually dies at the age of thirty-three from a drugs overdose. The story could come straight out of any tabloid newspaper or indeed feature as subplot in any soap opera. In this case, however, it describes the rise and fall of the main character in Jin Ping Mei, one of the most famous pieces of fiction dating to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Usually translated as The Plum in the Golden Vase or The Golden Lotus, Jin Ping Mei is a novel in one hundred chapters, featuring more than 800 characters. We do not know exactly when in the Ming it was written or by whom, but we do know that it circulated in manuscript form as early as 1596. The sexual exploits of the main character, known as Ximen Qing, are described in graphic detail, which has led the book to be banned frequently and for long periods of time, but perhaps unsurprisingly, that has rarely stopped its circulation and readership. And if we can look beyond the descriptions of sexual encounters, techniques and toys, and the jokes, puns, and innuendos,

ximen qing chose to surround himself with the finer things in life

we see not only a sophisticated masterpiece of Ming (or indeed world) literature, but also a fascinating and detailed treasure trove of descriptions of late Ming life. The world we enter when we read Jin Ping Mei is urban, commercial and luxurious, full of beautiful men and women, enjoying parties and celebrations, scheming and plotting to get access to the finest foods, the most efficacious aphrodisiacs, and the most fashionable clothing and accessories. Men and women are rarely simply adorned; they wear turquoise hairpins, silver combs, pearl necklaces, or jade rings. They rarely wear ordinary clothing; they wear robes of palace-style crimson brocade, jade-coloured silk tunics, or heavy chiffon velvet brocade clothing. And they pour wine, not in ordinary cups, but in jade foliate cups (no. 25) or carved red lacquer cups with silver lining (no. 28). The point is not only that Ximen Qing chose to surround himself with the finer things in life, but also that the Ming marketplace offered consumers a vast choice of things, made of luxurious materials by highly skilled craftsmen for extremely discerning customers. The novel offers us an insiderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s view of the spaces and contexts in which the objects featured in this catalogue might have been used, displayed or exchanged. Jin Ping Mei offers a fascinating glimpse of the world of things in the Ming dynasty. An ambitious individual like Ximen Qing knows the power of the gift. Reading through the hundreds of pages of the novel, we find him offering and receiving gifts on a regular basis: gifts exchanged with the women he wants to seduce, the politicians he wants to corrupt, the business partners he wants to deal with, or the monks he wants to pray for him. Gifts come in a great variety: from small gifts of tea, a handkerchief or some jewellery, to whole roast geese, silver

and they pour wine, not in ordinary cups, but in jade foliate cups

ewers, or bolts of brocade. When Ximen Qing wants to bribe the powerful Grand Preceptor Cai, he gifts him, amongst other things, two hundred taels of gold, eight golden goblets, twenty pairs of jade and rhinoceros horn cups, and more than a hundred bolts of different kinds of silk. It is a hyperbolic quantity, of course, described to make a point about Ximen Qing’s wealth and his wily ways. But when we see the fine quality of the red lacquer box (no. 29) with incised dragons, we might imagine that it was once intended as a gift, its smooth surface and fine craftsmanship serving to enhance its appeal. The consumption of food and drink features frequently in the novel. Of course Ximen Qing rarely eats alone; whenever there is something to celebrate, the servants prepare a feast, with musicians and singing girls, fine wines, seasonal delicacies, culinary specialties, cone-shaped piles of fruit, and pyramids of square-shaped confectionary. One one occasion, Ximen Qing and his extended family enjoy the performance of a play, while the servants bring square dishes (no. 12) with steamed Lantern Festival dumplings. Tables are set with plates and platters, dishes and bowls, saucers and trays. There are highstemmed earthenware goblets, goblets of jade and silver, and gold goblets in the shape of a peach. And of course there are deep blue-and-white porcelain bowls to serve the soup. In Ximen Qing’s wealthy household, food and drink are for sharing, for cementing and celebrating relationships, and for displaying wealth. The descriptions of the consumption of wine and tea show that one needs connoisseurship to appreciate just how much wealth is on display. Tea, for example, ranges in quality from plain tea to tea flavoured with pine-kernels or candied kumquats and tea made from ‘phoenix tablets’: round cakes of brick tea of the highest grade embossed with the stamped image of a phoenix and prepared for imperial consumption. The different regional wines, served hot or cold, are poured from jars, bottles, flagons and ewers of jade, precious metals, or porcelain, with round handles or curved spouts shaped like the neck crop of a bird, into silver-mounted, cloisonné or lacquered and lined cups (no 31). Sharing food and drink, one has to conclude from these elaborate

descriptions, are prime opportunities not just for the display of wealth, but for the superior knowledge of materials, craftsmanship and design that was expected of the discerning consumer. Despite the impression created thus far, Ximen Qing’s adventures do not revolve exclusively around the physical pleasures of food and sex; he also concerns himself with the transaction of wealth and power. Here, the fictional world of Jin Ping Mei can reveal something about where such transactions take place. Surprisingly frequently, local temples provide the setting for Ximen Qing’s plotting and scheming. Of course during the Ming dynasty, visits to local temples, prayers for specific deities, and performances of regular rituals were a feature of daily life. From the emperor and the residents of the imperial palace down to the vagabonds and beggars that moved from place to place to sustain themselves, all members of Ming society participated in religious practices. In the final decades of the fourteenth century, the first emperor of the Ming, known by his reign name of Hongwu, had initiated far-reaching legal reforms aimed at stripping the temples and monasteries of their wealth, limiting the overall number of religious institutions in the empire, and more specifically, the number of monks and nuns, whose tax-exempt status was considered by some to be a drain on state finance. By the late Ming, however, the emperors had lost the political will and power to execute those laws, and temples and monasteries were once again sites of considerable wealth and power. The monks and nuns described in the fictional world of Ximen Qing frequently break their vows of vegetarianism and celibacy. Their services—the recitation of prayers, the performance of rituals for the dead, but also the provision of aphrodisiacs or fertility potions—can be bought for a few bolts of silk. Of course these are the fictional excesses that make for a good story, but we are generally only willing to suspend our disbelief if there is a grain of truth in it. Either way, temples and monasteries were important sites for economic and political transactions, and the material culture associated with temples reflects that. The porcelain temple vase (no. 2) and stand (no. 4), the bronze and

pottery censers (no. 15 & 17), and the cast iron temple sculptures (no. 21) on display here all reflect the wealth and power of the residents and associates of the temples they belonged to. The rich insight Jin Ping Mei provides into late Ming life of course also includes death, including the elaborate rituals that form part of the funeral arrangements. When his second wife Li Ping’er dies, Ximen Qing plans an expensive funeral, with processions of monks and nuns carrying elaborately-dressed statues of deities, performances of ritual services, prayers, and eulogies, and a coffin encased in crimson lacquer ornamented with gold designs. The performances of rituals, in death like in life, provide a series of opportunities for conspicuous consumption. Offerings to the dead, like gifts for the living, reveal the

importance of the world of things: they include not merely incense and paper money, but bolts of satin brocade and roast pigs and sheep. In the case of Ximen Qing’s funeral for Li Ping’er, he offers fifty carrier-loads of gifts, including fine table settings, stacks of fruit and cakes, candied effigies of gods, gold dishes with meat, and piles of imitation gold and silver ingots. In this case, there is no mention of statues for inside the tomb, but these mingqi (funerary objects) (no. 16), intended to provide the deceased with a semblance of the life of the living, could easily have fit in a tomb for Ximen Qing and his associates. A wealth of things accompanied the men and women of the Ming through life and into death. Combining a famous fictional account of a Ming life with the beautiful things the Ming left behind helps us to better understand their rich and diverse world.

金瓶梅與明代世物《金瓶梅》不僅是明代最偉大的小說之一，更是堪比《源氏物語》(十一世紀初)和《堂吉訶德》（十六世紀初）的偉大文學作品，位於世界文學最早的小說之列。主人公西門慶跌宕起伏的人生構成了整部小說的架構，但他的家庭生活、衣食住行以至禮尚往來的社交活動的細節描寫，比如他們的穿著、飲食使用的器具以及互贈的禮物等往往更引人注目。這些細膩的實物描繪勾勒出了晚明極其豐富的社會和物質文化，亦為我們提供了豐富的研究資料。當然，虛構敘述的故事往往較為誇張，例如西門慶賄賂蔡太師的禮品，竟有金高腳杯八個，玉器和犀角杯二十對以及各色絲綢一百多匹。數目雖然誇張驚人，但豐富細膩的對物體的細節描述卻可以反映更廣泛的社會背景，書中對物體的材質、設計和裝飾技巧的詳細描繪都反映了晚明社會奢侈的消費文化。不僅禮品互贈為達官貴人們提供了絕佳的展示財富的大好機會，與此同時，宴會上盛裝各種美味佳餚精美的器具，更是他們奢華生活的再現。本次特展的許多藏品正是明人豐富生活的最佳見證，美酒佳餚、美酒、香茗雖早已不復存在，但見證這一切的精美各式各樣的瓷瓶杯碟依然光滑閃亮，它們見證了明人的生死輪迴，它們與金瓶梅里的故事一起，帶領我們探索明人美好的生活和世界。

1. guanyin Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, is the most popular Buddhist deities to appear in Chinese art. Of all the deities in the Buddhist pantheon, she inspired the most intense devotion. Initially represented in India and the Himalayas as the male deity Avalokitesvara (‘he who listens to the sounds of the world)’, in China she gradually morphed into a female form. Guanyin is the bodhisattva associated with compassion and seen as protectress of the world against evil. She was particularly popular with women, as she is thought to be able to bless them with children. Widely worshiped in Chinese culture, she appears on many art forms, for the home as well as the temple. Guanyin gained great popularity during the Ming era, her image was reproduced in many different media and in as many as 35 different manifestations.

Literature This head of the goddess Guanyin, is made of moulded and polychromed stucco – a mixture of plaster and straw or other organic material. The face has a serene expression and the mouth, highlighted in red, has a gentle smile. On the forehead is a recessed urna, which would once have held a glass bead or gem. Her dark eyes are inlaid with black glass - for added depth of expression - and the elongated earlobes curve gently outwards. Pronounced earlobes are symbolic of wisdom and a recognisable feature in Buddhist figures. The hair is swept up into a top knot and covered in flowing scarves, reflecting the beauty ideal of the Ming era. The use of contemporary features made figures such as these recognisable and therefore approachable. Buddhism was first introduced into China from northeastern India, through Nepal and Tibet, during the Han dynasty, around the first century AD. By the Ming Period it had divided into two main branches: Mahayana in China, Korea and Japan and Hinayana, which was more prevalent in south-east Asia. The Mahayana concentrates on universal enlightenment. Having many affinities with Daoism, it was easily assimilated into Chinese culture. Daoism is an indigenous Chinese religion, which emphasizes personal freedom and harmony with nature.

Clunas 2009, p. 128-129 Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 537-543 Shanxi 1991, nrs. 123-137 Watson 2000, p. 126 pl. 193 Welch 2008, p. 201 Williams 1976, p. 241-244

Guanyin China, Ming dynasty, 16th century H: 26 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 觀音像（頭部）中國明朝（1368-1644）高：26厘米來源：英國私人收藏

2. temple vase accomplished or perfected in Sanskrit (xitán wénzi悉曇文字). This script continued to evolve locally, with minor variations seen across time and in different regions. It was used particularly for Buddhist chants, as Chinese was not suitable for the Sanskrit pronunciation. These characters - also known as lantsa script - can be found as decorative elements on porcelain temple vessels, particularly in the Ming dynasty. They usually render quotations from Buddhist scriptures and incantations. The large Om character on this vase, is the first part of the most famous mantra in Tibetan Buddhism, Om Mani Padme Hum. A mantra is a chanted sound to promote concentration in prayer.

This large temple vase, is freely decorated in a vibrant underglaze blue. It has an elegant baluster shape, with a tall neck gently flaring out at the mouth and foot. The decorative scheme is divided into horizontal sections, each separated by a narrower undecorated band. The uppermost part is decorated with Tibetan Sanskrit character, used in Nepal and Tibet especially for Buddhist prayers or in special religious texts. The following band, has a large central character of the Buddhist invocation Om- surrounded by scrolling foliage, creeping up from the main body of the vase. The main decorative theme in the middle section, is of large lingzhi fungi set amongst swirling scrollwork garlands. Under this is a band with open mouthed dragons with three-clawed front legs and curling tails, chasing flaming pearls amongst the clouds. This is followed by a broad band with a deep blue crosshatched pattern, a ruyi head border and finally a narrow band with a key-fret pattern around the foot rim. The elegant blue handles are in the shape of upright qilong dragons.

The combination of the shape and decoration on this vase, suggest that it would have been made for ritual use in a Buddhist temple. Vases of a similar shape but differing decoration can be found in The Bauer Collection, Geneva and Musée Guimet, Paris (nr G.4121). Dishes with similar Sanskrit characters are in the collection of the British Museum, London and the Bauer Collection, Geneva.

Literature Ayers 1969, pl. A190 & A185 Boulay, 1984, p. 105 Harrison-Hall, 2001, p. 156 nr. 5:21 & p. 313 nr. 11:101 Lion-Goldschmidt 1978, p. 138 pl. 130 Ströber 2011, p. 120, fig. 44 Welch 2008, p. 216

Temple Vase China, Late Jiajing Period (1522-1566) H: 82 cm Provenance; Private Collection, Savoie (France) 寺院供瓶

Many Buddhist texts taken to China along the Silk Road, were written using the Siddham version of Sanskrit in the period around 600-1200 AD. The word Siddham means

中國明朝嘉靖（1522-1566）高：82厘米來源：法國薩瓦私人收藏

Porcelain Production in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) The Ming dynasty was a time of great prosperity, as well relative political stability. Substantial economic growth through good administration and increased international trade, ensured that the patronage of the arts in China flourished. This very affluent period, saw the great rise in production of porcelains in the porcelain manufacturing town of Jingdezhen, turning it into the Chinese capital of porcelain production. At the beginning of the Jiajing reign (1522-1566) there were 18 imperial kilns, the number rising to 62 at the height of production, and back to 18 by the time he died. At the height of production orders of up to 100,000 pieces of porcelain were made for the imperial household alone. The costs were obviously very high; the process very labour intensive. The grinding of the cobalt for one vase could take up to 3 days! The huge production volumes exhausted the local supply of China clay, and for the following reigns raw materials had to be brought in from further away. A graphic description of the activities in Jingdezhen are described by Wang Shimou, in a text dating from the late 1570’s: tens of thousands of pestles shake the ground with their noise. The heavens alight with the glare from the fires, so that one cannot sleep at night. The place has been called in jest ‘the town of year-round thunder and lightning’. During the following reigns, great efforts were made to produce ever larger pieces, including great fish bowls. Even though the supervisors eventually managed to reduce the production of less useful items, the enormous pressure to produce wares, caused the potters to riot in 1598 and 1605. Legend has it that a potter named Tong, was made so miserable by all the demands, that he jumped into a fired up kiln to end it all.

pieces followed imperial designs, but were more loosely painted, in a smudgy blue. Even though some porcelain reached Portugal through trade from the early 16th century, it wasn’t until the Wanli reign, when the Dutch arrived in China, that larger quantities of porcelain reached Europe. The Ming dynasty saw a particularly large increased production of underglaze blue porcelain wares. The blue colour was created by using cobalt pigment, which was imported as well as mined locally. The exact date cobalt was first used on porcelain has not been pinpointed, but by the fourteenth century large dishes and bowls already featured blue decoration under the glaze. Cobalt had already been used as a pigment to decorated ceramics in Persia since the 11th century. It also already featured on early Chinese glazed earthenware during the Tang dynasty, but the use seemed to have died out for a period until revival in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. The quality and intensity of the blue varies greatly, as supplies of imported cobalt were uncertain. What was mined locally was of a much inferior quality. In Chinese eyes the blue on the porcelains of the Xuande period are the brightest and best; those of the Chenghua period were softer as the imported supply of cobalt dried up. At the beginning of the 16th century he blue is darker, but the best Jianjing wares have a strong almost purple blue, with subsidiary elements in a lighter wash. Literature Boulay 1984, p. 105-106 Harrison-Hall, 2001 Krahl, & Ayers, 1986 Ströber 2013

Besides the imperial manufacturers during the Yongle reign, there were also private kilns producing wares for the domestic market, as well as export to the west and the near Eastern markets, goods reaching as far as Istanbul and Ardebil. Many export and provincial

3. stem cups Emperor himself. The two placards show the characters for Zhuangyuan (狀元) and Jidi (及第), meaning selected in the examinations. Four fish swimming amongst lotus and weeds can also stand for the four character phrase qingbai lijie, meaning unsullied and incorruptible - the Confucian ideal of a gentleman scholar. The depiction of the ideal scholar Zhuangyuan can be found on many different materials, and in combination with the water plants and fish emblems, could indicate that these cups were given as gifts to an exam candidate.

Literature

This distinctive shape is known as a stemcup (gao zu bei), but is also known as ba bei or as a ‘cup used on horseback’ (ma shang bei). It comprises a shallow bowl, flaring slightly at the rim, decorated on the inside and outside in underglaze blue. The outside of the bowl, shows a celebratory procession of four figures; two holding banners - one beating a drum the other blowing a horn – followed by a man carrying a canopy and lastly an official on horseback. The bottom of the bowl has a double edged roundel, encircling a flowering lotus, the side has a scene of fish amongst water plants. The tall, slightly flared and hollow foot, has a band of decoration depicting flying horses amongst clouds and waves. These type of cups, extensively produced in the porcelain kilns in Jingdezhen, became particularly popular from the Yuan dynasty onwards and were used domestically for serving wine or fruit, as well as in official rituals. The scenes around the outside, are of the celebratory procession of the Zhuangyuan. This was the name given to the top scholar of the third and final level of the imperial examinations, which were presided over by the

Bartholomew 2006, p. 240 Harrison-Hall 2001, nr. 9:5 & 11:94-96 Hong Kong 2009, nr. 10 & 88 Qingzheng 2002, p. 26 Stöber 2011, p. 144, p. 104 fig. 37 Welch 2008, p. 96-100 & 250

Stem Cups Gao Zu Bei China, Wanli period (1573 - 1620) H: 10 cm ø: 12 cm Provenance: Private Collection, The Netherlands 高足杯一對中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620）高：10厘米；直徑：12厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏

4. porcelain stand This robustly potted circular stand comprises a ring, supported on five cloud-lappet feet, on a ring base. It is decorated in underglaze blue, except the top of the wide rim, which has been left unglazed. The outside of the rim, is decorated with meandering garlands with lingzhi fungus heads, interrupted by a large cartouche bearing the six-character mark of Emperor Wanli. Below this is a band with the Buddhist emblems. The double lobed apron and feet have fruiting peach trees, with birds perched on the branches. The base-ring has a band of waves dotted with blossoms and an inner rim, which is embellished with sprays of blossoms between each aperture. The underside of the stand is also left unglazed. Peaches, as well as the lingzhi fungus, are symbols of longevity. In China, wood from fruit trees was known as wood of the immortals (xianmu) and the wood of a peach tree in particular, had been used to make charms (taofu) against evil since ancient times. Blossoming peach trees were used as decoration in the new year; these trees would be planted in the nicest and oldest porcelain vase in the family, for it was believed the older the vase, the longer the flowers would bloom. What exactly this object was used for is unknown, but appears to have supported another object, such as a vase, dish or instrument of some kind. A stand with a matching dish from the later Qianlong Period (1736-1796), is in the Museum of Fine Art in Boston (Acc. Nr. 2013.463); this illustrates what such a stand could have been used for. A similar Ming stand is in the collection of The Museum of Fine Art Boston (Acc. Nr. 50.1352) and the Songde Tang Collection, Hong Kong.

Literature Bartholomew 2006, p. 270 Harrison Hall 2001, p. 430 fig. 13:43 & 13:44 Hong Kong 2009, p. 264 nr. 103 Welch 2008, p. 55

Porcelain Stand China, Wanli period (1573-1620) With a 6 character mark of Wanli and of the period Ø: 22 cm H: 8 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 底座中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620）銘文：大明萬曆年製直徑：22厘米來源：英國私人收藏

5. kraak bowl Such bowls are characteristic of the Kraak wares produced for export in this period. Similar bowls are also known with slightly varying decoration in the central panel, such as of a lady spooling silk or of large figures in a garden. A very similar bowl to this one is in the collection of The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (inv. Nr AK-RAK 1991-21) and Institut Néerlandais - Fondation Custodia, Paris (inv. 6967).

Literature

This large and robustly potted bowl, is decorated inside and out in intense underglaze blue with a violet tinge. It is in the typical so-called ‘Kraak’ style, with characteristics of the later Ming dynasty. The bowl has high straight sides with a lightly foliated rim. It rests on a V–shaped foot rim, with a triple blue line running around the outside, with a rough unglazed edge. The glazed underside is slightly convex, with no further marks or decoration. The decoration - both inside and out - is divided into six wide and six narrow bordered panels, alternately adorned with stylized flowers and narrative scenes. Each of the larger panels is framed by a straight-edged scroll border with a stylized flower along the top edge. The narrow panels are each filled with upright sprays of tulips or other flowers. The central medallion on the inside of the bowl, is loosely decorated with houses by a waterside, a decorative theme thought to be influenced by European designs entering China at this time.

Avitabile 1992, p. 40 pl. 53 Canepa 2008, p. 414 nr. 59 Jörg & van Campen 1997, p. 64 Hartog 1990, p. 48 nr. 20-22 Lion-Goldschmidt 1978, p. 215-216, pl. 245 & 245bis Lunsingh-Scheurleer 1981, nr. 70 p. 65-66 Rinaldi 1989, p. 138, 163-64 pl. 203 Sèvres 2004, p. 109 Wu 2014, p. 164, 174

Kraak Bowl China, c. 1635-50 H: 16 cm Ø: 32 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK with Vanderven Oriental Art (1997) 克拉克外銷瓷碗中國明清交接時期（1620-1683）高：16厘米；直徑：36厘米來源：英國私人收藏； Vanderven東方藝術行（1997）

Kraak Porcelain Kraak, is a Western term for the earliest type of export porcelain made for the foreign trade. The term Kraak is thought to have derived from the name for a type of Portuguese ship - caracca which the Dutch famously looted in 1600. These fully-loaded cargo ships included a great deal of this type of Chinese porcelain. This and the rest of the load of exotic far-eastern goods, were duly auctioned off by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) raising a fortune. From then on, blue and white porcelain became very popular. Not only amongst the well-to-do Dutch burgers and noblemen, but also in the aristocratic and royal households across Europe. Kraak porcelain was produced in very large numbers, becoming one Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most successful mass produced export goods. To achieve such a large production, short cuts were inevitably made. Lesser pure clay was used, resulting in impurities in the body. Easier, less labour intensive, shapes were made such as bowls and dishes, which could easily be turned and pressed. The glaze was clear and transparent, but did not always adhere well to the body, regularly resulting in flaking on the rim. Grit and sand from the kiln, is often found stuck to underside of the foot rim. This type of porcelain was also the earliest type of porcelain which was actually especially made for the West; first for the Portuguese and later the Dutch markets. It was produced during the Wanli Reign (1573-1620), in the latter part of the Ming dynasty. But, because of its great success as an export product and popularity in Europe, it continued to be manufactured until the end of the 17th century. It appears in the inventories of the VOC as indische aerde-werck, meaning it came from the East. The actual term Craequporselein only became common usage from around 1675 onwards. Kraak bowls, cups and plates can often be found on still life paintings in the first half of the 17th century, its fragility making it an appropriate vanitas object. It can also be found in Dutch interior painting of this period, as it was deemed a status symbol due to its rarity and high value and was displayed as such. Literature Amsterdam 2015, p. 235 nr. 66-78 StrĂśber 2013, p. 90, 94 & 194

6. kendi This round bodied vessel, with an elongated bulbous spout, is decorated in dark underglaze blue with darker outlines. The neck - decorated with lotus scrolls - flares out into a flat disc under the rim. Around the shoulder it has a band of lappets with a border of squares underneath. The main body has three lobbed cartouches with bold flower decoration, interspersed with stylized clouds. It stands on a low foot rim with a double blue line, the underside also has a double blue ring marked in the center with a stylized rabbit. This type of vessel - known as a kendi - was used in Asia for drinking wine or water. They were filled through the neck and imbibed or poured from the spout.The term is actually a Malayan word, thought to derive from the Sanskrit name for a waterpot, kundika. This was a type of ewer used in Buddhist ceremonies for sprinkling purification water. The form, which probably originated in India spreading throughout South East Asia, appears to have been produced in many variations. Even though the Chinese themselves never actually used them, kendi were a very popular and mass produced at the kilns in Jingdezhen. From here they were exported throughout Asia and the Middle East. From the 17th century kendi came to Europe via the Portuguese traders, not for use but as curiosities and decorative items. Substantial quantities of these ewers were found in the Ming cargos of the Witte Leeuw (1613) and the Hatcher Cargo (1643). The shape and size of these ewers vary greatly, some have animal forms such as elephants or frogs. The decoration was mainly Chinese in style and treatment, often floral as Muslim countries excluded living beings from their decorative motifs. When the habit of smoking was introduced in the Middle East, kendi also formed part of the Turkish water pipe set. A similar kendi to this one, can be found in the collection of the Topkapi Saray (Istanbul), a museum famous for its large collection of Chinese porcelain with Islamic shapes and decoration.

Literature Jörg & van Campen 1997, p. 67 nr. 54 Kerr & Mengoni 2011, p. 21 Krahl & Ayres 1986, p. 665 nr. 1044 Pinto de Matos 2011, nr. 50 Pijl-Ketel 1982, p. 130 Rinaldi 1989, p. 174-176 Stöber 2013, p. 184-187 & 216

Kendi China, Early 17th century H: 18 cm Provenance: Private Collection, The Netherlands 軍持（淨瓶）中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620）高：18厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏

7. pomegranate ewers These underglaze blue ewers, are reminiscent of a kendi (cat. nr. 6) as they have no handles, but are much more detailed and finely potted. They have elongated curved spouts, attached high on the waist, with applied leafy branches which spread out over the body. The high neck, ends in a distinctive star-shaped mouth-rim. The globular body is divided into panels following the moulded form. The flower decoration in each panel is divided by a thin double line. The panel under the spout, has an ornamental lappet with bows. The shoulder has a distinctive large key-fret pattern and the long narrow neck, is adorned with a bird on rocks. The shape of these ewers and their star shaped mouths are associated with the pomegranate fruit, which is why these type of vessels are sometimes referred to as pomegranate ewers. In Chinese symbolism, these fruits with their many seeds (zi) symbolize the wish for many sons (zi), both words having the same sound in Chinese. This type of porcelain was made at the kilns in Jingdezhen in a period when court patronage declined. This was mainly due to political instability, in the lead up to the downfall of the Ming dynasty. These ewers would have been made for export, as is attested by the items recovered from the ship wreck of the San Diego - a Spanish war ship sunk by the Dutch off the coast of the Philippines. Similar ewers are now in the collections of The Princessehof Museum, Leeuwarden (Inv. Nr. NO860), Victoria & Albert Museum, London (c.90-1956), Ashmoleum Museum, Oxford (inv. Nr. 1978.1935) and the Lady Lever Gallery, Liverpool (Acc. nr. LL6437).

Literature Carré, Desroches & Goddio 1994, p. 338 nr. 106 Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 282-283 Hartog 1990, pl. 23 Lunsingh-Scheurleer 1981, nr. 56 & 57 Lunsingh-Scheurleer 1989, pl. 28 Oxford 1981, p. 28, nr. 32 Rinaldi 1989, pl. 225 – 230. Stöber 2013, p. 211

Pomegranate Ewers China, Wanli period (1573-1620) c. 1575-1610 H: 16 cm Provenance: H.O. collection, United Kingdom (2014) With Sotheby’s (2006) 石榴壺一對中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620），約萬曆十八至三十八年間高：16厘米來源：英國H.O.收藏（2014）；荷蘭阿姆斯特丹蘇富比（2006）

Ming Voyages to the West Middle eastern ceramic shapes and decoration came into China in the Ming period. Possibly through the famous massive maritime missions undertaken by the great eunuch general Zheng He (1371-1433), under the auspices of Emperor Yongle (1403-1424). Zheng He made a total of seven voyages, with legendary self-supporting fleets of up to 250 ships - some ships an incredible 140 m long. These vast armadas sailed as far as the Middle East and Africa loaded with soldiers, horses, diplomats, translators and, above all, Chinese treasures. These luxury goods were intended as diplomatic gifts and would have included items such as silks, teas, lacquerware and of course porcelains. Even though Chinese maritime and land trade was known to have taken place as early as the Tang dynasty, these massive maritime expeditions were the first imperial sponsored missions. They were made with the specific intention of expanding Chinese influence and power across the region. On these journeys - which are very well recorded - tribute gifts were also brought back to the Emperorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s court. These included many outlandish and rare objects, even wild animals such as giraffes. Amongst these artefacts, there would probably also have been objects with distinct Middle Eastern forms. As these foreign items made their way into China, they would have influenced the shapes and designs of the pieces produced by the kilns at Jingdezhen.

8. pheasant meiping To the Chinese pheasants were very auspicious animals, representing beauty and good fortune. Marco Polo spoke with wonder of the Chinese pheasants, which were he describes to be about as large as peacocks. During the Ming dynasty, the golden pheasant with its two straight tail feathers, was also the symbol for civil servants of the second rank. A vase of a similar shape, but with differing decoration is in the collection of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (nr. AK-MAK 1164).

Literature

This sturdily potted mei ping vase, has a slightly tapering body and is decorated with underglaze blue decoration in horizontal bands. The décor, shine of the glaze and the structure, date it firmly to the late Wanli period. The main scene, is of long tailed pheasants and rocks in an abundant flower garden. Around the bottom is a band depicting frolicking winged animals, amongst clouds and waves. The high shoulder has lotus scrolls reserved on white, on a washed blue ground, its short neck has a band of stiff plantain leaves. The mouth has a rougher partially unglazed edge. The recessed base has an unglazed thickly potted foot ring, to which ample kiln sand has adhered. This typically shaped vessel, is known as a mei ping - or plum vase - as it was suited to display a bough of plum blossom. A late Ming book on vases especially recommends this form as ‘.. the mouth of the vase should be small and the foot thick. Choose these. They stand firm and do not emit vapours…’. This Wanli period meiping, has straighter sides than those from earlier periods; this could indicate that this shape is the possible pre-curser to the later Rolwagen vases, with similar straight sides but a wider opening at the mouth.

Butler 2008,p. 6 nr. 6 Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 290 nr. 11.32 Hobson 1923, p. 22 Jörg & van Campen 1997, p. 42 nr..20 Joseph 1971, p. 57, nr. 52 Little 1983, p. 38 nr. 2 Wang 2002, p. 51 & 112 Welch 2008, p. 80

Pheasant Meiping China, Wanli period (1573-1620), High Transitional Style 1634-43 H: 44 cm Provenance: Private Collection, Italy 雉雞圖梅瓶中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620）高：44厘米來源：意大利私人收藏

9. ewer with silver mounts but not overtaking, the object in question. European aesthetic notions of the time, provide a conceptual model for this type of enhancement providing borders and boundries for the main object: the parergon. This word can be translated as ‘by-work’ (from the Greek word for work ergon). The terms parergon and parerga can be found used in late 16th and early 17th centuries texts, referring to objects embellished with precious metals with European motifs and iconography. Importantly this was done for charm and enrichment not functional necessity. Thus the mounts become a western frame as well as a way of handling the rare Chinese porcelain. Similar shaped mounted ewers with contemporary mounts are in the collections of the Kunstgewerbemuseum. (Berlin) and , MAK – Austrian Museum of Applied Art, Vienna (Inv Nr. KE 8154).

This porcelain ewer is largely of the same shape and decoration as nr.7 in this catalogue. However, this one is elegantly mounted with Dutch silver. The hinged silver lid and rim are star-shaped, following the form of the ewer. The lid is embossed with scrolls and cherubs and has a pineapple finial. A curling handle, which joins the lid and the neck, is embellished with the torso of a caryatid. The neck ring has a floral band, with narrow strips joining it to the foot ring, which is embossed with scales. The shape and decoration of this vessel, suggest it would have been made for the middle eastern market, but curiously there are actually none known in Eastern collections. They were, however, imported into Europe, where they were seen as exotic curiosities. This type of rare object would have fitted perfectly into the renaissance and baroque Kunstkammers of the day. For the wealthy and influential, it was the custom to have such a special treasure room filled with the exceptional and exotic. Object could include nautilus shells, ostrich egg cups, crystal vessels, amber objects, corals, nutmegs, silver & gold objects and of course fine Chinese porcelain.

Literature Lion-Goldschmidt 1978, p. 201 Lunsing-Scheurleer 1980, p. 190. Stöber 2013, p. 46-47 Chu & Ding 2015, p. 29-32

Silver Mounted Ewer China, Wanli period (1573-1620), c. 1590-1610 Mounts: Dutch 19th century. H: 22 cm W: 16 cm Provenance: H.O. collection, United Kingdom with Vanderven Oriental Art (2001) Langhout – Han Collection, The Netherlands (1980-’s) 鑲銀瓷壺中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620），約萬曆十八至三十八年間銀鑲飾：荷蘭19世紀來源：英國H.O.收藏；

To further embellish already rare objects, they were often mounted in gold or silver, as a way of framing and enhancing,

Vanderven東方藝術行（2001）；荷蘭蘭霍特-韓氏收藏（20世紀80年代）

10. ewer with handle considerable demand for goods for the domestic, as well as foreign markets. Porcelain was produced by official kilns (guanyao), as well as privately owned ones (minyao). When the imperial kilns closed in 1608, many of the best artisans could now be employed by the minyao, ensuring a steady stream of high quality porcelain for the elite and rich merchant class outside the court. This is why such high quality potting and painting can be seen in this so-called transitional period. A similar shaped ewer, with differing décor, is in the Lady Lever Gallery collection, Liverpool (Acc.nr. LL 27) and the Frits van der Lugt Collection, Fondation Custodia, Paris (inv. Nr. 6577).

Literature This bottle-shaped ewer, with a tall slender neck, lip-spout and long handle, is decorated in a good blue in the high transitional style. The main body of the ewer, is decorated with a continuous narrative scene of soldiers approaching a single soldier holding a flag under a large willow tree. Such large stylized willow trees, are typical of the transitional decoration of this period. Between the figures there are copious v-shaped ticks representing grass, in a style is often seen on porcelain between 1634-1643. On the shoulder there is a scrolling border of flowers and leaves The neck, has a vertical décor of a formal tulip, indicating this piece was intended for the Dutch market. The high curved handle is decorated with clouds. Politically, the late Ming dynasty was a period of decline. It was a watershed period between the final downfall of the Ming empire and the definitive installation of the Qing empire. But despite this unrest, it was a period of great social and economic advancement. The Ming era saw immense progress in the porcelain production in terms of volume and techniques; the main production centre being Jingdezhen. Towards the end of the Ming dynasty, when orders for imperial wares declined, there was still a

Butler 2008, p. 106 Lunsingh-Scheurleer 1981, nr. 70 p. 65-66 Lunsingh-Scheurleer 1989, pl. 49 Medley 1981, p. 5, Plate 3-4

Ewer with Handle China, Chongzhen Period (1628-1644) c. 1634-1643 H: 38 cm Provenance: Lai collection, Hong Kong 2013 Baltzer – Bohm collection, Germany 2011 With Vanderven Oriental Art 1990’s 帶柄壺中國明朝崇禎（1628-1644），約崇禎七至十六年間高：38厘米來源：香港賴氏收藏（2013）；德國巴爾策收藏（2011）； Vanderven東方藝術行（20世紀90年代）

11. wall vase The structure of the porcelain reveals that this wall vase (bi ping) was made in the Kangxi period, even though it carries an apocryphal mark of the Ming Emperor Chenghua (1465 – 1487), which reads Daming Chenghua nian zhi. Robustly potted with two small handles, it has a square body and a bottle-shaped neck. It is flat on the reverse with a small hole, allowing it to be hung on a wall. The vase is decorated in an intense cobalt blue with peonies, pomegranates and rocks. The flaring mouth is embellished with a ruyi motif around the rim. The flared foot rim has a decoration of blue leaves in relief. The imitation of earlier style and motifs, has been done in all periods of Chinese art. It was not done with the intention to mislead or as a counterfeiting practice, but an intentional part of the decorative scheme. Fifteenth century imperial marks, or Nian Hoa, appear regularly on later non-imperial Kangxi period wares. These were added as a tribute to the level of quality of the finest Ming dynasty items. A wall vase such as this one, could have been part of the decoration of a scholars studio. Flower appreciation and arrangement, were typical pastimes amongst the educated classes in China. Small sophisticated floral arrangements would have been common, as miniature representations of nature indoors. The flowers used would vary with the seasons. Wall vases such as these, were considered practical as they could be hung on the wall, therefore taking up less space on the scholar’s desk. An identical vase is in the Laura Collection, Italy. A late Ming double gourde shape wall vase, is in the collection of the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco (Object ID: B69P111L).

Literature Hay 2010, p. 347-9 & 354 Qingzheng 2002, p. 45 Rinaldi 1993, p. 114 Scagliola 2012, p. 169 nr. 92

Wall Vase China, Kangxi period (1662-1722) circa 1690 Apocryphal Six-character Chenghua Mark inside the rim H: 29 cm W: 10 cm D:6 cm Provenance: Private Collection, United Kingdom (2014) With Vanderven Oriental Art (2002) 倚牆瓶中國清朝康熙（1662-1722），約康熙二十九年作偽銘文：大明成化年製高：29厘米；寬：10厘米；長：6厘米來源：英國私人收藏（2014）； Vanderven東方藝術行（2002）

12. square ko-akae dish to Japan were quite substantial; goods having a great variation in style and decoration. The potting of this type of wares tends to be slightly rough and the painting is not precise, but certainly lively and amusing. Initially the exported pieces are just blue and white, but later coloured enamelled wares also become popular. The colour palette besides blue, could include red, green yellow, black and sometimes turquoise and aubergine. These coloured wares are referred to as Ko-akae, meaning ‘old red wares’ in Japanese. The blue and white export wares are referred to as Ko-sometsuke, ‘old blue and white’. Chinese export pieces for the Japanese market are mainly found in Japanese collections, and rarely in western collections. Similar shaped dishes but with a differing decoration, are in the Shanghai Museum and the George Weishaupt Collection, Berlin. This thickly potted square dish has a broad flat rim, curved sides and a thick foot ring. The rim and inside of the dish, are decorated in red and green enamels. A few gold accents are now slightly faded. The application of gold was called kinrade - ‘gold brocade’ - and used specifically for the Japanese market. The rim is decorated with a red wave pattern, interspersed with green plum blossoms. Each of the inner sides has a beribboned Buddhist symbol. The bottom of the dish has a square central panel surrounded by a double red line, with a landscape scene of flowering shrubs, with a fox on a rock by a pond; in the air are three flying birds, clouds and a red sun. The outside, as well as the underside of the base are undecorated and unmarked; the bottom of the foot rim is rough and left unglazed. This dish was probably part of a set of five used in the Japanese tea ceremony. Japanese porcelain production began in the 17th century, the items being produced were mainly for the tea ceremony or other special dining occasions. As the use of ceremonial porcelain spread, the need for more of these special plates and dishes increased. This demand was partly met by ordering the required porcelain from China. It is known, that the quantities that were exported

Literature Butler, Medley & Little 1990, p. 46 & 66 nr. 28 Butler & Qingzheng 2006, p. 330, nr. 125 Butler 2008, p. 61 Butz & Masahiko 1996, nrs. 43-48 Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 350-354, nr. 12:128 & 12:129 Jörg & van Campen 1997, p. 71

Square Ko-akae Dish China, Tianqi period (1621-1627) W: 14.4 cm L: 14.3 cm Provenance: Private Collection, the Netherlands (2014) With Marchant, London 古染付碟中國明朝天啓（1621-1627）寬：14.4厘米；長：14.3厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏英國倫敦Marchant（標簽）

13. zhangzhou ‘swatow’ dish This deep large dish, is freely decorated in red, green, turquoise and black enamels. It has a broad rim with a thick edge, with a repeating pattern of leaves and chrysanthemum flowers. The side of the deep well is decorated with four quatrefoil cartouches; each outlined with a red and green border with a large turquoise character representing a virtue: (counter-clockwise from the top) Zhong (loyalty), Xiao (piety), Lian (integrity), Jie (perseverance). In between the cartouches are bold sprays of flowers representing the seasons: peony (spring), lotus (summer) and chrysanthemum (autumn) and plum blossom (winter). On the bottom is a large garden scene with two female figures, circled by a double red line. The white exterior, has loosely rendered bands and scrolls in red. The underside and the gritty foot rim, are left unglazed. What was formerly referred to as ‘Swatow’ wares, is a distinctive group of provincial Chinese porcelain - in blue and white as well as a polychrome colour palette. These type of wares were exported from Southern China, and sold throughout the countries of South-East Asia in the late Ming Period (late 16th and 17th century). The name Swatow, derived from the port city of Shantou in Northern Guangdong province, from which wares such as these were shipped out of China. However, excavation of various kiln sites, has revealed that these good were actually produced in Pinghe county in the Zhangzhou region of Fujian province. So now, instead of Swatow, these wares are more aptly referred to as ‘Zhangzhou Wares’. Generally the pieces are simply and sturdily made, with imaginative designs, the enameling executed freely and spontaneously. This informality, ensured that no two examples are alike, giving them a special charm. This swift production process, often left the kiln-grit embedded on the foot. This type of porcelain was produced in a limited number of shapes, large dishes being the most common one. These goods were not only traded by the Chinese, but also by the Portuguese and Dutch, who used them for their inter-Asiatic trading.

Similar dishes, but with a differing central scene are in the Princessehof Museum, Leeuwarden (OKS 1971.2)., Peabody Essex Museum, Salem (AE86547) and the Idemitsu Museum of Art, Tokyo.

Literature Canepa 2006, p. 128 nr. 27 Harrison 1979, p. 114-115, nr. 228 & 228a Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 337 Sargent 2012, p. 172 nr. 74 Stöber 2013, p. 134-136

Zhangzhou ‘Swatow’ Dish China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644), 1600-1630 D: 39.5 cm Provenance: Private Collection, the Netherlands (2013) 漳州窯（汕頭器）五彩盤中國明朝（1368-1644）, 萬曆二十八至崇禎三年間裝飾文：忠、孝、廉、節直徑：39.5厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏

14. chrysanthemum bowl This large conical bowl, fluted inside and out, has a thick glossy soft green glaze. It has a bracket lobed rim and a small unglazed foot-rim. The glazed base has a hole covered with a plaque applied from the inside. The plaque is decorated in relief on the interior of the bowl, with a double-petal chrysanthemum flower and a hatched centre. Green or celadon ceramic wares (qingci), were produced in the Longquan kilns in southern Zhejiang province. They are therefore generally referred to as Longquan wares. These stonewares, with their distinctive green iron-oxide glazes, were fired in reduction at medium temperatures (under 1250˚c). When the white-bodied highfired (above 1300 c) porcelains produced in Jingdezhen, gained increasing popularity, the striking celadon wares continued to hold their appeal for their high quality and distinctive colour. Green-glazed wares were held in particularly high esteem in China, as the colour was closely associated with jade - a material which was greatly valued for its magical properties since ancient times. Bowls such as this one would have been produced for the national market as well of for export. The Topkapi Seray Museum in Istanbul has a large collection, including an identical bowl (TKS 15/399). There is also a similar bowl from the Ardebil Shrine, now in the Bastan Museum, Teheran (4167/1167).

Literature Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 459-462. Krahl & Ayres 1986, p. 248-250 Misugi 1981, p. 314 nr. A226

Chrysanthemum Bowl China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) early to mid-14th century H: 16 cm Ø: 42 cm Provenance: Private Collection, Belgium (2014) 菊形青瓷碗中國明朝（1368-1644），約15世紀早期至中期直徑：42厘米；高：16厘米來源：比利時私人收藏（2014）

green-glazed wares were held in particularly high esteem in china, as the colour was closely associated with jade

15. incense burner This large grey stoneware incense burner, or censer, has a globular body with a wide upright rim. It stands on three cabriole legs with lions heads and paws as feet. The two wide flat handles, are set at the shoulders and flaring out above the rim. On one side the body is decorated in bold relief with a two dragons facing a lotus flower; on the other side are two big scrolling flowers. It is glazed in turquoise yellow, and aubergine enamels. This shape is based on an ancient bronze food vessel called a ding, which was later adopted for incense burners. This censer bears a great many inscriptions. The rim is painted with a line bearing the date it was made Wanli shiliu nian shi’er yue jiri zao (爐口內側銘文：萬曆十六年吉日造 Made on an auspicious day during the twelfth month of the sixteenth year of the Wanli reign). The handles bear the painted names of the patrons who gifted the vessel: disciples Zhang Quanxi, Yang Quanlin, Fan Changshan and Chang Yanfeng, as well as the name of the maker: Zhang Heyan. (手柄寫有：門徒張全喜、楊全林，門弟子范常山、常演鳳，燒造人張合焉).

This type of utilitarian ceramics, would have been produced in specialised tile-work kilns, such as those in the Shanxi area. They produced different types of bold earthenware products with bright glazes, such as architectural tiles, religious sculpture and temple vessels such as this one. A comparable example in yellow and green glazes, which is dated, but has no patrons inscribed, is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York (Acc. Nr: 62.101.1). Similar but earlier and larger incense burners, both with green & yellow glazes, are in The British Museum, London (OA 1985.11-19.8) and the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. Both are also inscribed with a date and patron names.

Literature Cox 1973, p. 524 fig. 761 Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 456 nr. 15:19 Riddel 1979, p. 120 Li, Bower & He 2010, p. 439 Toronto 1992, p. 66

Incense Burner China, Wanli period (1573-1620) dated 1588 H: 37 cm D: 39 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 香爐中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620），標記萬曆十六年（1588）高：37厘米；直徑：39厘米爐口內側銘文：萬曆十六年吉日造手柄寫有：門徒張全喜、楊全林，門弟子范常山、常演鳳，燒造人張合焉來源：英國私人收藏

16. pottery procession group This pottery group is brightly glazed in green, aubergine and yellow enamels. There is a male servant, in a yellow robe, his unglazed head sporting an orange hat. A smaller male and female servant, stand smiling and respectful in attendance. The furniture comprises two upright high backed chairs, an altar and two screens. The unglazed backs of the chairs are cold-painted with orange pigments. The figures and the chairs stand on sturdy unglazed bases. This type of wares would have been made in moulds and fired at low temperatures. They would have been produced by local kilns, much like the tile work goods used in the architecture at the time. During the Ming dynasty, the custom of burying figures in tombs, was gradually being replaced by paper effigies of people and animals. However, there were still some important officials who commissioned earthenware burial objects (mingqi), to show off their wealth and status. But by the Ming dynasty, funerary figures were clearly less impressive than those of the Han or Tang dynasties. However, the colourful enamelling and realistic rendering speak for the high artistic and technical standards of the Ming craftsmen. These figures would be placed in the burial chambers in life-like groups, engaged in a wide range of everyday duties and activities. They were also frequently placed in funerary processions, which was part of the burial ritual in China. Similar objects were found in the tomb of eunuch Wei Cunjingh (1445-1510), whose family has served as trusted advisors to four generations of princes. This tomb was particularly lavishly appointed, with over 80 figures to attend the deceased. Above the door of the tomb was the inscription ‘Realm of Eternal Life’. Similar, but unglazed, figures have also been found in Jiangxi Province Military Governors tombs. The British Museum, London (OA 1935.4-18.4 & 5) and The Lady Lever Gallery, Liverpool (LL6626) both have similar glazed figures in their collections.

Literature Caroselli 1987, p. 153-4 fig. 105b 105c Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 544-549 & nrs. 20:8, 20:23 & 20:24 Kerr 1991, p. 69 Petzäll & Engel 2002 p. 304- 307. Machida 2005 p. 78, fig. 73 Sheng Jiang 1991, p. 78-86

Pottery Procession Group China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) ca. 16th century H: 22 cm Provenance: Private Collection, The Netherlands 儀仗瓷人組合中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀高：22厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏

Ming Burial Rituals The Ming Chinese believed in the afterlife. The rituals surrounding death and the deceased, were influenced by traditions and the three main Chinese beliefs which governed daily life: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. It was thought that the spirit of the deceased remained close and was of great influence on the living, playing a powerful role in the continuous wellbeing of families. One Confucian requirement, was that deceased family members receive an accurate funeral and then offerings on a regular basis. Deceased who were neglected, were thought to become wandering ghosts. It was believed that every person had two souls: the hun-soul, consisting of yang-energy, and the po-soul, consisting of yin-energy. After death, the hun-soul, representing the spiritual and intellectual part of the soul, leaves the body and rises up. Eventually this soul will reside in the ancestor tablets, on the house altar. The po-soul remains in the body, until it is laid to rest according to all proper rituals and sacrifices. If the funeral is not properly performed, or offers arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t given on a regular basis, the hun-soul is unable to rise to the ancestor tablets and the po-soul will not rest. It is therefore of utmost importance for the remaining family members, that the deceased is provided with comfort, nutrition, money and other important objects.

17. duck incense burners of the owner and his friends. Incense burners in the form of birds were first produced in the Han dynasty (207 BCAD 220). These novelty burners in the form of birds saw a revival in the Song dynasty in both bronze and ceramic and continued to be popular in the Yuan, Ming and Qing eras. Ducks in China were regarded as emblems of peace, prosperity and marital felicity, because it is believed they mate for life and that they pine away and die if separated. Together with the lotus, ducks symbolize a harmonious marriage, and when the lotus pods are also depicted it represents an additional wish for many male offspring. Two ducks with the lotus can also be a pun for ‘repeatedly being first’ (lianjia), alluding to success in a scholar’s civil servant examinations.

These incense burners, modelled as mandarin ducks, are made of cast bronze and have a greenish brown patina. They are a true pair, as they mirror each other. Each bird rests on their webbed feet, which are tucked under them. They have short crests and protruding eyes surrounded by feathers. The body-feathers are suggested by chased hatching. Open beaks hold the stems of lotus plants, which stream out over its chest and back. One bunch of lotus leaves, pods and flowers form the round openwork lids. There is a circular cash-shaped aperture under the tail. From the Song dynasty (960 - 1279 AD) onwards, incense culture was common to all classes in China. Along with flower arranging, tea-whisking, and painting, incense burning was also regarded as one of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar. These ducks were probably designed as amusing incense burners for a scholar’s studio. Strongsmelling incense, such as vanilla or aloeswood, was burnt in powdered or pellet form. A small amount of incense would have been placed inside the cavity of the ducks and lit, the lid replaced. The fragrant smoke would escape through the holes underneath the tail, the beak and through the flowers on its back; this much to the delight

A pair of bronze incense burners in the form of Geese are is in the British Museum, London (nr. 1986,0715.4). A related single censer is in the collection of Museu d’ arte Cinese ed Ethnografico dei Missionari Saveriani, Parma. An earlier single one, dating from 12th/13th century, is also in the British Museum.

Literature Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 498, nr. 16:92 Mignini 2003, p. 137 Welch 2008 p. 71-72

Duck Incense Burners China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) Late 16th century H: 21 cm L: 28 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 鴨形香爐一對中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀晚期直徑：28厘米；高：21厘米來源：英國私人收藏

18. wenchang thus a means to gaining power, status, security and a large income. State officials were appointed salaries, which could be further augmented through a proportion of local tax. Wenchang is often depicted as a portly figure, holding his belt. Such figures were made for domestic use in a variety of media – such as ivory, ceramics, bamboo and lacquer, as well as bronze. A Blanc-de-Chine figure of Wencheng is in the Koger Collection, Florida (19.97) and a bamboo version is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Acc.Nr. 65.86.125).

Literature

A fine cast bronze figure of a gentleman, seated on a gnarled wooden chair. He is wearing loosely flowing scholars’ robes, decorated with incised dragons. Two sturdy ornamented belts frame his rotund belly, his left hand resting on the lower one. A voluminous sleeve covers his right hand and his shoes peek out from under the draped hem. He wears a officials hat (futou), with two ribbons hanging down over his shoulders. There are piercings on his upper lip, chin and ears for the insertion of real hair. An incised four-character mark reading Xue Mingyang Zhi (made by Xue Mingyang) is crisply incised on the back of his right shoulder. This figure represents the Daoist Stellar God of literature, Wenchang. This deity began life in Sichuan Province as a local god known as Zitong. His fame and popularity grew steadily and in 1316, he is deified and named patron of literature & scholars. Wenchang’s image was therefore widely worshipped by the literati, particularly for success in the civil service examinations. Success at these state examinations were the path to official preferment and

Ayres 2002, p. 89 nr.40 Chunming 2010, p. 36, 71-73 & 92. Harrison-Hall 2001, p. 444 nr. 14:17 Little 2000, p. 267 Soame Jenyns 1980, p. 69 Welch 2008, p. 161

Wenchang China, Late Ming dynasty (1368-1644), 17th century Wooden seat: 19th century H: 20,5 cm Incised four-character mark Xue Mingyang Zhi (made by Xue Mingyang) on the reverse Provenance: Private Collection, UK 高僧坐像中國明朝（1368-1644），約16至17世紀高：20.5厘米來源：英國私人收藏

19. zhenwu This cast-bronze figure is depicted seated on a stool, dressed in flowing robes. His long hair is combed backwards from his gently smiling face and he has a thin wispy beard. He is barefoot, with in front of him a tortoise with a snake curled round his neck, which reveals him to be the Daoist deity Zhenwu. His face, hands and feet are gilded. Zhenwu, the ‘Dark Warrior’ of the north, was the most important deity in the Ming era. Generally shown barefoot, with loose hair, wispy beard and often in military attire. Before the 10th century, his force was represented only as a snake with a tortoise; after this time he took on a human form. He is often depicted with the two animals he morphed from, which is how he can be easily recognized. Since Neolithic times in China, each of the four directions had been associated with animals - the tortoise with a snake representing the north. Transfiguring from animal to human form over time, Zhenwu was therefore logically also known as the Daoist god of the North. The growing importance of this powerful military representation, in combination with the northerly direction, probably came from the fact that traditionally most of China’s threats came from enemies in the north (i.e. the Mongols), and it was this border that needed the most protection. Emperors Hongwu and Yongle credited all their military successes to Zhenwu. So this deity came to be considered the guardian of the Ming state in general and Imperial household in particular. He had a huge following amongst the people, his image posted to doorways of houses for protection. At this time many Daoist shrines devoted to this god, also sprang up all over China. The cult of Zhenwu, was particularly partronized by Emperor Yongle. In 1412, he ordered 300,000 craftsmen and civil servants to build a special temple on Mount Wudang (Hubei Province), entirely dedicated to this favorite deity. During the building process, Zhenwu himself is said to have manifested himself ; which would have been regarded as

the confirmation of Yongle’s legitimacy as supreme leader. The Mt. Wudang shrine - which still exists today - is a complex of buildings, including the Golden Hall (Jindian) in which the image of Zhenwu was installed. The Forbidden City in Beijing, enlarged and refurbished during the Ming dynasty, also has a hall dedicated to this deity (Hall of Imperial Peace). It was built at the end of the central axis, a prominent location, confirming the importance given to this god at the time. Figures of Zhenwu, were produced in many materials and sizes during the Ming dynasty. A very striking, large bronze figure of Zhenwu (133cm), is in the collection of the British Museum, London. A large standing figure of Zhenwu is in Wudang Museum, Hubei.

Literature Clunas 2007, p. 173 fig. 147 Clunas & Harrison-Hall 2014, p. 116 Soame Jenyns 1980, p. 99 nr. 66. Welch 2008, p. 109 & 148 Zhang 2015, p. 153 nr. 80

Zhenwu China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 16th/17th century H: 25 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 北帝像中國明朝（1368-1644），約16至17世紀高：25厘米來源：英國私人收藏

20. sage on an elephant time there was a great increase in the printing of stories of Daoist immortals and gods, which would have stimulated the use of this imagery in the arts. To the Chinese, the elephant is considered an auspicious animal, because the Chinese character for “elephant” (xiang 象) has the same pronunciation as the Chinese word for “auspicious” or “lucky” (xiang 祥). Elephants also represent great prudence, wisdom and strength. It is also considered a sacred animal in Buddhism, as Buddha himself is said to have entered the right side of his immaculate mother Maya in the form of a white elephant at his conception. In particular the Buddhist Luohan Puxian, bodhisattva of Universal Virtue, is often depicted riding an elephant.

This large and sturdily cast bronze incense burner, depicts a male figure astride an elephant. He has a bald head with a high forehead and elongated earlobes, which symbolize great age and wisdom. He is sitting crossed-legged and has a gentle expression. The loose flowing robes, which fall open at the chest, are incised on the back with cranes, small clouds and lingzhi fungus. In the crook of his left arm, he holds a rolled up scroll, the other arm rests gently on his knee. There are two cloud-shaped apertures on his back for releasing incense smoke from the hollow inside cavity. The elephant appears to be striding forward and has its head turned to the left. It is embellished in relief with elaborate trappings and a saddlecloth with three stylized Chinese Shou 壽 (Long Life) characters. It has old inventory numbers painted on to the underside (M.83) on the back of the saddlecloth (M.1529). The many auspicious Daoist longevity symbols, such as the cranes and shou characters, could indicate that this figure represents a Daoist sage, possibly the Tang poet Hanshan. Images of a Daoist nature, had a resurgence in the middle of the Ming dynasty under Emperor Jiajing (1522-66), who had an avid interest in alchemy and his longevity. At this

It is obvious, that the maker had difficulty in accurately depicting the elephant, as he had probably never actually seen one. He had to base his version on what he gleaned from books or saw on paintings. The proportions are slightly odd, with and elongated neck of a buffalo and clawed feet of a tiger.

Literature Bartholomew 2006, p. 179 & 237 Rawson 2007, p. 164 Welch 2008, p. 128-130 & 189

Sage on an Elephant China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644), 16th century H: 46 cm L: 34 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 騎象聖人中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀高：46厘米；長：34厘米來源：英國私人收藏

21. seated fo dog

A cast iron figure of a Fo-Dog seated on a square base. It has a lionesque head, with short ears folded backwards and a wavy mane. The eyes are deeply recessed under bushy eyebrows, its open mouth fiercely displaying its teeth. A low hanging collar, with bells and tassels, rests on its chest. The right paw is slightly raised and rests on a broccade ball. A series of small round holes, run either side of knobly back bone, on its head and chest. This could indicate that this was possibly used in combination with incense smoke. In the Ming dynasty, the Fo Dogs were depicted as a cross between lions and dogs. Allegedly at time, even the Pekinese pugs were also bred to look just like them. According to legend, Buddha once entered a temple and instructed his two accompanying lions to wait outside, which they did dutifully. This is said to be the reason that these Buddhist lion dogs are often found at the gates of temples and entrances of sacred halls, symbolizing guardianship and wisdom. They are usually portrayed seated in pairs - a male and female. They can be easily distinguished, as the female is always portrayed protecting her cub and the male standing on a ball. This figure is therefore of the male dog.

Amongst the well-known inventions in China - such as paper, gun powder, porcelain and the compass – iron casting is a less publicized one. Cast iron was an important part of Chinese life, long before it was produced in Europe. In about 300 BC, Chinese ironworkers discovered that when burning iron-ore mixed with charcoal, it produced a thick metallic liquid instead of a bloom. We now know that carbon from the charcoal, mixes with the iron to produce an iron alloy with a low melting point (1130°C). This hot liquid can be poured into a mould, where it cools into hard and durable (but brittle) cast iron. The Chinese quickly appreciated the advantages of cast iron over wrought iron. The ability to cast it, meant that all of the techniques previously developed for casting bronze or gold could be adapted. They could easily mass-produce strong and durable artefacts at a lower cost than with bronze. The casting technique also allowed for the addition of intricate ornamentations and complex shapes. Practical and utilitarian objects were produced such as ploughshares, swords, bells and water vessels. But also artefacts for the decoration of the home and temples. The British Museum London, has several cast iron animals from the Ming dynasty in the collection including a horse and a cat.

Literature Jenyns 1980, p. 69-70 Rawson 2007, p. 31 Needham & Wagner 2008, p. 326-346 Watson 2000, p. 126-129 fig. 196-198 Welch 2008, p. 118-120

Seated Fo Dog China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 16th century H: 43 cm L: 20 cm W: 23 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 石獅子（坐）中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀高：43厘米；長：20厘米；寬：23厘米來源：英國私人收藏

22. recumbent dog A cast iron figure of a dog, lying down at ease on a rectangular base. Its head is turned to the right, with the front paws stretched forwards. It has a friendly expression, with slightly bulging eyes, pricked ears and open mouth. Around its neck is a collar with three bells. The whole was once brightly polychromed, as some of the colouring still visible on its body and the base. The sides of the base are decorated in relief with a lozenge pattern, a small stylized flower in the middle of each one. The dog is an integral part of Chinese imagery and culture. It was domesticated in very early Chinese society, and archaeological finds have shown this to be as early as Neolithic times. Dogs were ideal guardians, assisted in the hunt and were very good to eat as well. Historians have found that they were often used in rituals, also occasionally buried with its owner in a hole under the coffin. Dogs’ remains have also been found, together with other offer animals, beneath the foundations of city walls and buildings. Dogs feature often in written texts, dating from as early as the the Warring States (475-221 BC) and Han periods (206BC-220AD). It was praised for its bond with humans and for its role as guardian and protector of family, house and possessions. It would keep thieves and evil spirits at bay; the dog is therefore a symbol of fidelity and guardian of the household. They were also seen as the embodiment of the connection between humans and animals. Canines were associated with not only the threshold of the house, but also that of life and death. As a symbol of the grey area dividing man and animal, life and death, he is attributed with demonic characteristics. In this role, it also becomes an intermediary and was also used in animal sacrifices in exorcist rituals. To the Chinese, the coming of a dog indicates future prosperity; many believing that when a strange dog comes and remains, good things will happen.

Literature Watson 2000, p. 126-129 fig. 196-198 Welch 2008, p. 118-120

Recumbent Dog China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644), 16th century H: 19 cm L: 21 cm W: 14 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK Private Collection, USA 石獅子（臥）中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀高：19厘米；長：21厘米；寬：14厘米來源：英國私人收藏；美國私人收藏

23. bixie water dropper This light-green jade water dropper, is in the form of a crouching mythological animal. The facial features and body patterns are carved in round relief. It has a wide friendly face with bushy eyebrows, a furry mane and a split tail. There is a hole in its back, where it could be filled with water. Water droppers are typical objects found on a Chinese scholars desk. They were used for releasing small amounts of water onto an ink stone, to dissolve it for use. Other writing tools found on a scholars desk would include a brush, ink-stone and paper. Further typical scholar’s accoutrements included objects such as brush pots, brush rests, seals and seal paste boxes. Water droppers came in a myriad of forms, but finely made jade ones were rare and would have been highly prized. Placed on the scholars desk it would have brought great pleasure and good fortune to the owner, as well as serving as an inspiration for poetry or calligraphy. The two horns reveal this creature is a bixie. This auspicious lion-like beast, which first appeared in Chinese imagery in the Han dynasty (206BC-220AD), was viewed as a protective talisman. The bixie, along with other mythological animals, became popular subjects for craftsmen during the Ming dynasty. At the time there was a particular fascination with archaic forms and decoration. This renewed interest in ancient forms and decorations, was fueled by the publication of antiquities books. Artisans, including the jade carvers, made extensive use of these block-printed manuals as sources of inspiration. A similar water dropper is in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London (c144-1913).

Literature Knight, Li & Bartholomew 2007, p. 69 Rawson 1995, p. 91-97 & 357, 26:7 Rawson & Ayres 1975, p. 103 nr.338 Rinaldi 1993, p. 59 Wilson 2004, p. 63 & pl. 65

Bixie Water Dropper China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 16th - 17th century L: 11 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 貔貅硯滴中國明朝（1368-1644），約16至17世紀長：11厘米來源：英國私人收藏

24. jade pendants heavens, picking fragrant dew of flowers and sending the sweet fragrance and flowers into the world, bringing good luck to humans. The duck sits on a lotus pad, the stem of the plant dangling from its beak. The long lotus-shoot curls around the duck; the open flower itself floating at the end of it. The stylised wings are curved upwards, the feathers incised. It is said that male and female mandarin ducks are inseparable, therefore they are a symbol of marital happiness in China. This toggle, would probably have been worn by a woman, the motif expressing her wish to retain her husband’s affection forever.

Literature

Three small figurative jade carvings. They all have apertures, or holes, through which they could have been suspended. This indicates that they could well have been pendants of some kind. Pendants were worn by men as well as women as part of official dress, but also because they were thought to bring good fortune. The ram (yang), carved from a fine translucent jade, crouches with its fore and rear legs drawn under it. Its head is turned over its shoulder, looking backwards. The two curved horns, carved in relief, are free of its head creating a hole from which it may have been suspended.. Its eyes and mouth are lightly etched into the stone. Rams are linked with peace, prosperity and filial piety. The floating female figure, in a loose gown is known as an apsara (feitan). She is carved from a light green jade with on the reverse rusty-brown inclusions. She seemingly drifts along elegantly, head turned to the viewer, loose scarves wafting around her. An apsara is a Buddhist celestial being, much like a western angel. They were the musicians of the

Bartholomew 2006, p. 53 Forsyth & McElney 1994, nr. 277 & 304 Keverne 2010, p. 139, fig. 27 Knight, Li & Bartholomew 2007, p. 69, nr. 278 Rawson & Ayres 1975, p. 110 & nr. 361 Rawson 1995, nr. 25:6, 25:8 & 26:11, Welch 2008, p. 197, fig. 460 Wilson 2004, p. 26-29, fig. 24

Jade Pendants China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 16th – 17th century Provenance: Private Collection, UK Ram L: 6 cm H: 4,5 cm Apsara H: 6 cm L: 9 cm Duck L: 6 cm H: 4 cm 中國明朝（1368-1644），約16至17世紀來源：英國私人收藏玉臥羊長：6厘米；高：4.5厘米玉鴛鴦長：6厘米；高：4厘米玉飛天高：4厘米；長：9厘米配木底座

25. plum blossom cup This delicately and elaborately carved cup, is made of translucent light green jade. It is in the shape of a large plum blossom, surrounded by gnarly branches with smaller blossoms. The centre of the large cup-flower, is raised and is etched with hatching. There are Ming dynasty novels which refer to flower-cups, this could be an example of such cup. Jade eating and drinking vessels, were symbols of great affluence and privilege, as only an elite few could afford them. Unwieldly shapes such as this one, could suggest that they were not actually made for use, as they would have been very uncomfortable to use. It is recorded that one corrupt minister Yan Song (1480-1565) owned than 857 jade vessels, of which no less 311 were jade cups. They were all confiscated when he fell from power. This unusually large volume of cups, could lead us to believe they were merely a form of portable wealth, used as currency instead of gold or silver. Jade is a difficult medium to work with, due to its extreme hardness. It took a great deal of skill and patience to work this very hard stone, which could only be achieved with abrasives and plenty of time. The more detailed the work, the more impressive it was. Creating an intricate design, such as with the open work and detailing on this cup, would take much skill.. Two related flower-cups are in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London (1552-1882 &635-1875) and in the Palace Museum, Beijing.

Literature Gu & Li 2009, p. 114-115 Kerr 1991, p. 179, nr. 81 Keverne 2010, p. 136 fig. 19 Wilson 2004, p. 42 & fig. 42

Plum Blossom Cup China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 16th – 17th century L: 12 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 梅花杯中國明朝（1368-1644），約16至17世紀長：12厘米來源：英國私人收藏

jade eating and drinking vessels, were symbols of great affluence and privilege, as only an elite few could afford them

26. jade ring This large high-sided ring is made of semi-translucent light olive green jade, with russet flecks. It is carved on the outside with a broad band with a raised archaic linked c-scroll motif. This decorative pattern is clearly derived from Spring & Autumn period (770-476 BC) jades and bronzes. The inside is smooth, the edges slightly rounded. This ring could have been used as a personal ornament, such as for in the hair, or possibly just for display in the scholars studio. After a period of Mongol rule, the new Ming emperors rebuilt the governmental systems and rituals, using the much admired Song dynasty (960-1279 AD) as a model. The arts, therefore also followed the Song dynasty tradition of imitating ancient styles. The Ming period, saw a great increase in the general welfare and an ever-growing middle class. This increased wealth, ensured that not only the court, but also the educated scholar class became avid patrons of the arts. As such, they also came to influence styles and fashions of the time. Throughout the Ming dynasty there was a great interest in archaism (fanggu), so antiques collecting became all the rage. For much of this time the term Gu (ancient) was used when referring to two categories of objects: bronzes and jades. Not only were real antique jades acquired, but art was also ordered in the ancient styles. Books reflecting the tastes and philosophies of the time were also broadly distributed, as they became widely available through woodblock printing. The stories and images, would have inspired patrons and craftsmen all over China. Generally speaking the Ming jade carvers, did not follow one particular style or period, but were imitating various styles simultaneously.

Jade Ring China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) H: 4,8 cm Ø: 5 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK K.D. Baron van Oertzen Collection, Germany

Literature

玉扳指

Forsyth & McElney 1994, nr. 113 Keverne 2010, p. 142 Knight, Li & Bartholomew 2007, p. 141-153 Rawson 1995, nr. 25:37 Wilson 2004, p. 22

中國明朝（1368-1644）

直徑：5厘米；高：4.8厘米來源：英國私人收藏；德國馮奧爾岑家族收藏

27. gold-mounted agate ewer An exquisite delicately carved ewer, with a gold covered stopper, is made from a translucent purple brown agate, with some darker speckles. It has an ovoid body narrowing at the neck and foot, with cloud lappets carved in low relief around the neck. The curved spout and loop handle are both decorated with leaf scrolling at their bases. On the handle a stem sprouts from the leaves, ending in a bud carved from the natural inclusion of the stone. The agate stopper is covered in delicately worked repoussé gold comprising lotus petals and ruyi lappets, with a lotus bud as a finial. Two twisted strands of fine gold thread surround the edge of the rim. The first Ming emperor, started the tradition of sending his sons away from the courts at Nanjing and Beijing, to set up their own regional satellite courts. This was a clever system, as the emperors could exert their influence in even the remotest regions of the vast empire. Along with the princelings, the fashions and tastes of the Ming imperial court were also exported to the other regions of the country. We can get a glimpse of how these princes lived, from the royal tomb excavations which have taken place in the various regions in China. Some of them have revealed exceptional riches, such as that of the Prince of Liang (d.1441) and his second wife Lady Wei (d.1451) in Hubei Province. This particularly lavish tomb contained a 5,100 objects including 120 gold vessels and 330 golden hair and hat ornaments. These precious objects give us an insight into the tastes and craftsmanship of the time. One excavated hat-top ornament, show similar workmanship and design as the gold cover of this agate ewer. Agate was known to the Chinese as ‘horse brain’, (manao) as traverse pattern resembled the brain of a horse. It had been worked in China since the 4th century BC, along with other semi-precious stones such as turquoise and malachite. It was particularly treasured for its beautiful colour and patterning. The raw agate probably came from the same area as the jade: the river valleys of Khotan, but it was also mined in present day Henan province. The stone

was worked in much the same way as jade, using simple rotary tools, craftsmen often skillfully using the natural inclusions in the stone in the overall design.

Literature Clunas 2013, p. 139-164 Jenyns & Watson 1981, p. 185 Wilson 2004, p. 96-103, nr. 94&95 Zhang 2015, p. 24 & p. 114 nr. 46

Gold-Mounted Agate Ewer China, Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644) 15th century H: 13,5 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 鑲金瑪瑙壺中國明朝（1368-1644），約15世紀高：13.5厘米來源：英國私人收藏配盒

28. lacquer libation cups Two deeply carved cinnabar lacquer cups, modelled after an archaic bronze pouring vessel (yi), a shape which dates from the Zhou period (1045-221 BC). They have a broad oval body, with a wide everted lip opposite a loop handle. Both stand on a stepped foot ring. One cup is decorated with lychee fruit and leaves on a diaper ground, with around the foot a row of lotus lappets. On top of the handle is a rectangular thumb-rest incised with a diaper pattern. The inside and base are lined with silvered copper sheet. The other cup has black lacquer on the inside and base. It is deeply carved with a scene with two birds perched on branches, one on a flowering plum tree, the other on a blossoming camellia bush. The background has a diaper pattern, each lozenge filled with a star shape. Along the top rim is a band of key-fret and around the foot one with overlapping lotus leaves. The handle emerges from a taotie mask carved in relief.

Literature Lacquer is produced from the resin of a lac tree (rhus verniciflua), commonly found in central and southern China. This amazing material, hardens when exposed to oxygen and becomes a natural plastic, that is resistant to water and can withstand heat and certain acids. It is naturally clear, but pigments give it the desired colour. The typical red lacquer was made using cinnabar, a mineral that appears near volcanoes or hot springs. Rich in mercury, it produces the deep red tint. The production of a lacquered object, is a fascinating and time consuming process. In the case of carved lacquer, multiple layers (often thirty or thirty-five, but can be up to two hundred) are applied onto a wooden substructure. Each layer would have to dry before a new one was applied, resulting in a process which could take almost half a year to prepare – some larger pieces could take years.

Clifford 1992, p. 22 pl. 9 Frick 2012, p. 55 nr. 24 Kopplin & Frick 2006, p. 144, nr. 63

Lacquer Libation Cups China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644), early 16th century H: 6,5 cm L: 11,5 cm Provenance: M. Doullens Collection, Belgium With Galerie Delplace, Brussels, 1941 耳杯一對中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀

Similar cups can be found in the Linden-Museum, Stuttgart and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (acc Nr 1986.642). The Victoria & Albert Museum, London, has one of a similar shape without a handle (FE.11-1974).

高：6.5厘米；長：11.5厘米來源：比利時杜朗家族收藏：比利時布魯塞爾Delplace藝廊（1941）

29. tianqi lacquer box A rectangular lacquer box, with indented corners, the whole worked with incised and filled in decoration in various colours on a a reddidsh-brown ground. The lid with two five claw-dragons, one red the other black, face a flaming pearl. They are depicted amongst clouds against a diaper ground Around the edge is a key-fret border. The sides of the box and lid, both have the same decoration of two panels with scrolling lotus flowers alternated with panels filled with a diaper pattern. The inside and bottom are lacquered in plain black. During the Wanli period, the filled-in technique known as tianqi (or diaotian) became very popular. It is a much more delicate decoration, in a lower relief, than the deeply carved cinnabar pieces (cat. nr. 28). In this practice, a piece is first lacquered, then carved and filled in with various other coloured lacquers. This procedure was also used in conjunction with the qiangjin method, where the lacquer was incised with thin lines, then filling the grooves with gold powder or foil. Boxes of this type, became particularly popular during the Wanli reign, several similar boxes which are dated are known. They would have been used as presentation boxes holding important gifts or documents. A similar shaped box with dragon, is in the Florence & Herbert Irving Collection in The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, (acc.nr.2015.5001.43a,b). A tray decorated with a very similar dragon design is in the same collection.

Literature Honolulu 2003, p. 82 nr. 30 King Tsi & Shih Chang 1990, p. 190 nr. 82 Lam 2010, p. 60 nr. 20 Riddel 1979, pl. 174, 176 & 179 Watt 1991, nr. 37 & 51

Tianqi Lacquer Box China, Wanli period 1573 - 1620 L: 17,5 cm W: 8,5 cm H: 6 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 填漆盒中國明朝萬曆（1573-1620）長：17.5厘米；寬：8.5厘米；高：6厘米來源：英國私人收藏

30. round cloisonné box A large and shallow cylindrical box and cover, decorated with cloisonné enamels. In the centre of the lid, is a roundel with a blue stylized Buddhist syllable on a yellow ground. The central medallion is surrounded by the Eight Buddhist symbols (bajixiang), amongst scrolling lotus flowers. The straight side of the lid has scrolling ruyiheads; the outside of the box, has scrolls with blossoms. The colour palette is mainly turquoise, with detailing in red, yellow, dark blue, green and white. Cloisonné, falang in Chinese, is a technique for decorating metalwork objects, using vitreous enamel. The pattern is formed by making compartments (cloisons in French) on a metal body by soldering or adhering metal wires or strips. The formed compartments are then filled with enamel powder, made into a paste, in the desired colours. The object is then fired in a kiln to fuse the enamel with the metal. The art of cloisonné evolved in the Middle East, reaching China through trade routes in the 14th century. Bronze and enameling techniques were already highly developed, so the addition of the cloisonné procedure was a natural evolvement. The first written reference on Chinese Cloisonné is in a book from 1388, where it is referred to as “Dashi ware”, but no examples are actually known. The earliest datable piece is from the Xuande period (1425–35). A more rounded box is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, (Acc. nr. 29.110.90a,b). A similar shape and colour palette, but smaller is in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris (23.634).

Literature Avitabile 1981, p. 52 Bartholomew 2006, p. 185 Brinker & Lutz 1985, nr. 72 Jenyns & Watson 1980, fig. 87 McElney 1993, nr. 308 Quette 2011, p. 37 fig. 3.12, p. 106 fig. 6.3, nr. 9 & 25

Round Cloisonné Box China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) mid-16th century H: 3,8 cm Ø: 20,5 cm Provenance: Private Collection, UK 景泰藍大圓盒中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀中期高：3.8厘米；直徑：20.5厘米來源：英國私人收藏

31. cloisonné cup and stand

This small cup with its stand, is enamelled with scrolling coloured flowers on a turquoise blue ground. The bowl has a gilt-metal lining, a foot rim with a band of narrow leaves in red, the underside a single stylized white flower. The saucer is raised in the middle with a metal rim, to hold the cup in place. The central roundel has a single red flower and is surrounded by white wavy lappets, the raised side has a band coloured clouds and a broad flat rim with ruyiheads. The underside of the saucer is also enamelled with large scrolling chrysanthemum flowers. In the recessed centre is a European red-lacquer collectors’ seal. This type of cup-stand, is a shape which also appears in porcelain in the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, but not so often found in cloisonné. It probably had a ceremonial function, possibly in the setting of a temple. Early Ming cloisonné objects were primarily intended for the furnishing of temples and palaces, because their flamboyant colouring was considered appropriate to the function of these buildings. Author Cao Zhao mentions cloisonné in his influential Gegu Yaolun (Guide to the Study of Antiquities published in 1388), as being only suitable for the women’s apartments and less well suited to the more restrained atmosphere, of a scholar’s studio

or home. Despite his opinion, large amounts of Cloisonné were manufactured for elite patrons and the Ming courts, indicating a substantial contemporary appreciation of these wares. An early cup-stand is in the collection of the British Museum, London (1972,0411.1).

Literature Avitabile 1981, p. 40 Brinker & Lutz 1985, p. 93 fig. 56 & 57 & nr. 6 & 26 Quette 2011, nr. 19 & 25

Cloisonné Cup and Stand China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644) mid-16th century Ø: 15,4 cm H: 4,8 cm Provenance: Private Collection, The Netherlands 2014 With Spink & Son London, UK 1990 景泰藍杯及杯托中國明朝（1368-1644），約16世紀中期寬：16厘米；直徑：20.5厘米；高：4厘米來源：荷蘭私人收藏（2014）；英國倫敦斯賓克拍賣行（1990）

ming emperors

1368-1398 • Hongwu 1398-1402 • Jianwen 1402-1424 • Yongle 1424-1425 • Hongxi 1425-1435 • Xuande 1435-1449 • Zhengtong 1449-1457 • Jingtai 1457-1464 • Tianshun 1464-1487 • Chenghua 1487-1505 • Hongzhi 1505-1521 • Zhengde 1521-1566 • Jiajing 1566-1572 • Longqing 1572-1620 • Wanli 1620-1620 • Taichang 1620-1627 • Tianqi 1627-1644 • Chongzhen

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vanderven oriental art floris van der ven nachtega alsla antje 1 5211 le ’s-hertogenbosch the netherlands tel: 0031 (0)73 614 62 51 info@vanderven.com www.vanderven.com www.vanderven.cn editor, text & research nynke van der ven-van wijnga arden ma essay prof. dr. anne t. gerritsen translations tang hui, phd candidate warwick university (essay summary) min chen phd (captions) dating, sourcing & pricing floris van der ven conservation & logistics floris bouwman photography leo hol , amsterdam (objects) nine creative agency, breda (gallery) concept & design oranje boven, ’s-hertogenbosch print deckers snoeck nv, gent paper cover: curious metallics red lacquer 300 gr/m 2 fly-leaf & endpaper: curious translucents red lacquer 100 gr/m 2 inside: phoenix motion xenon 150 gr/m 2 typefaces blair itc & trinité chinese: adobe kaiti std © 2016 vanderven oriental art, the netherlands