THINK LIKE AN ARCHITECT
v i s u a l i z i ng w i t h d r aw i ng s a n d m o d e l s , p e n c i l s a n d c o m p u t e r s
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ROGER FULLINGTON SERIES IN ARCHITECTURE
Production of this book was made possible in part by support from Roger Fullington and a challenge grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities.
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think like an architect
HAL BOX
THINK LIKE AN ARCHITECT
UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS, AUSTIN
v i s u a l i z i ng w i t h d r aw i ng s a n d m o d e l s , p e n c i l s a n d c o m p u t e r s
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Copyright © 2007 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Fourth paperback printing, 2009 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Permissions University of Texas Press P.O. Box 7819 Austin, TX 78713-7819 www.utexas.edu/utpress/about/bpermission.html
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Box, Hal. Think like an architect / Hal Box. — 1st ed. p. cm. — (Roger Fullington series in architecture) Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-292-71635-3 (cloth : alk. paper) isbn 978-0-292-71636-0 (alk. paper) 1. Architecture. I. Title. na2550.b69 2007 720 — dc22 2006038758
∞ The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ansi/niso z39.48-1992 (r1997) (Permanence of Paper).
frontispiece: San Nicolás Tolentino, Nonoalco, Hidalgo, Mexico, sixteenth design and typography by teresa w. wingfield
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century.
to my love, eden
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CONTENTS
Preface ix Acknowledgments PART ONE
xi
The Place
one
Aspirations 3
two
Dreaming and Seeing 11
three four five
PART TWO
six
Finding the Best Buildings 21 Exploring Ideas in Architecture 29 Has Architecture Left the Building? 49
The Ground Floor Making Architecture with an Architect 57
seven
Becoming an Architect 69
eight
Thinking Like an Architect: The Design Process 81
nine ten eleven twelve
Visualizing with Drawings and Models, Pencils and Computers 97 The Critique
105
Building Architecture: An Example 109 Adding Meaning 123
thirteen
Making Design Decisions 133
fourteen
Style, Taste, and Design Theory
151
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PART THREE
The Upper Levels
fifteen
Making Connections 161
sixteen
Finding Possibilities 177 Reading List 187 Seeing List 193 Photo Credits 199 Index
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think like an architect
P R E FA C E
If you want to make architecture rather
again. In response, I’ve written, for this
than just a building, you have three choices:
book, a group of letters to friends, col-
hire an architect, become an architect, or
leagues, and you readers about the process
learn to think like an architect. This book is
of making architecture. The letters describe
about all three; it addresses laypeople as
aspirations for architecture and their fulfill-
well as students, aficionados, builders,
ment. They give a history of how architec-
developers, building committees, educa-
ture became what it is today. They present
tors, and architects—and also those who
ways of understanding and creating archi-
want to become architects. It concerns how
tecture, and methods of arriving at the
successfully one makes investments and
multitude of decisions required to create
how gracefully people can live their lives.
good design.
My purpose is to communicate ways to
This exploration can be extended infi-
give the necessary care to designing build-
nitely from the Reading List and the Seeing
ings that’s needed to enhance the quality of
List provided. Both offer ways to explore
life for the people who live with them as
the intellectual, technical, and artistic
well as the environment around them.
aspects of architecture broadly, in depth,
Through the years, I’ve discussed relevant
and in actual experience—the real joy of
questions about architecture again and
architecture.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My experience in writing this book has
the right track: to Anthony Alofsin for guid-
been a delight because of the many friends
ance and assessment of my view of history;
who helped me. For this I give heartfelt
to Michael Benedikt for years of enlarging
thanks to those who came to San Miguel to
my brain and for encouraging me in the
lead me through this work: to Bill Wittliff
final stages; to Eden Box, my wife of thirty
for his early encouragement and coaching
years and in-house editor who would tell
while sitting on a bench in the JardĂn; to
me when it was rotten or good; and a spe-
John Trimble for his encouragement, his
cial thanks to Joanne and James Pratt for
kind efforts on the Roof Terrace in teach-
their careful reading and wise advice on all
ing me to write, and his dedicated e-mails
manner of detail and philosophy as well as
of multitudes of refinements; to Betty Sue
for the past fifty years of working together.
Flowers for offering her wisdom in the
And for help in the final crafting of the
Portico on how to clarify and put my ran-
book at the School of Architecture, thanks
dom thoughts together; to John McLeod
to Sarah Hill, whose skillful help with the
for marking out the non-sense in my first
illustrations and permissions let me finish,
draft while we were at the beach. Many
and to Raquel Elizondo, who was always on
thanks to my friends in Austin who gave
hand to help, and to Elizabeth Schaub, of
their time and knowledge to keep me on
Visual Resources Collection, Charlotte
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Pickett, photographer, and Nancy Sparrow
Many thanks to the dedicated people
of the Alexander Architectural Archive. I’m
I worked with at the University of Texas
also grateful to those who gave me permis-
Press, including Theresa May, who encour-
sion to use their photographs: Blake Alex-
aged me to submit a proposal; Jim Burr,
ander, Larry Doll, Sinclair Black, Lawrence
who sought to teach me how to put a book
Speck, Bill Cox, Greg Hursley, Baltazar
together; the readers who critiqued my
Korab, the archives of Pratt, Box and Hen-
early manuscript; Lawrence Kenney, who
derson, and especially the Visual Resource
edited and helped me clarify; and Teresa
Center of the School of Architecture, Uni-
Wingfield, who designed the book as you
versity of Texas at Austin.
see it.
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think like an architect
PART ONE
THE PL ACE
aspirations
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CHAPTER ONE
A S P I R AT I O N S
That far land we dream about, Where every man is his own Architect. r o be r t br o w n i ng (1812 –1889)
Dear Martin: When you told us in your drawing class that we had to visit a building to appreciate it, I didn’t realize that it is the actual experiencing of architecture that reveals, personally, in real time, the essence of the art. I learned that even beyond design, construction, intellectual content, and real estate value, your actual experience of the architecture is what affects your senses. And most important, your way of life—for better or worse. True, your quality of life is largely determined by how the art of architecture and city planning have made the physical place you inhabit. The benefits of gracefulness created by design can be priceless. I can’t relay to you the experience of a work of architecture in this letter, but I will describe examples of how I experienced the architecture of two special places. aspirations
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Exploring central Mexico with a client
cessful that when one of the key architects
left: Transparency and
in search of a site for a health spa, my wife
of the last century, Charles Moore, walked
ambiguity of landscape,
and I were invited to see a house that
through the house with an appraising eye,
structure, and glass.
might interest us because of its setting and
he looked back at the ethereal mass of
Casa Pani Cuernavaca,
its newly reduced price. At the end of a
landscape integrated with structured
Mexico, 1986.
long day, we reluctantly turned off the main
spaces and said, “Frank Lloyd Wright, eat
street and drove down a tree-lined drive
your heart out.”
paved with mosaic stones through an
Only from the garden could you see
right: Spatial illusion from inside to outside. Casa Pani
antique gate. It opened to reveal an extra-
the white stucco walls with large planes
ordinary progression of architectural space
of glass dappled with light from mature
made of carefully crafted indoor and out-
flowering trees. Because the house was set
door spaces that melded the building in to,
in a tropical garden of green, with a
and out of, the landscape. Skillfully exe-
sequence of fountains, ponds, and streams,
Plan of Casa Pani house and
cuted in the manner of the great Mexican
it was hard to tell what was outside and
garden. Cuernavaca, Mexico,
modernist Luis Barragán, it was so suc-
what was inside. The transitions between
1986.
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the place
Cuernavaca, Mexico, 1986.
spaces were so subtle and the openings so
wife made a half-price offer to buy the
large that it seemed the house didn’t exist;
house. The seller laughed at the offer, and
the house denied being photographed. It
we went away simply enjoying the deep
was all transparency with a few walls modu-
feeling of having experienced a place of
lating the space. The purity of style in
wonder. A month later, though, our offer
Modernism was finessed with European
was accepted, and a new life in a foreign
antiques of various provenances in a man-
country where we didn’t speak the lan-
ner that seemed just right. The architecture,
guage had just begun.
garden, and interiors were by the noted
Compounding the experience of this
Mexican interior designer Arturo Pani. It
timeless Mesoamerican Spanish-Mexican
was the most beautiful house we had ever
culture, we drove our new Mexican car
Portion of the architectural
seen. It was not large but engaged us more
over the Paso de Cortez between the two
accretion built over four
deeply than the great historical houses—
great volcanoes in search of the sixteenth-
hundred years. El Señor de
a magical place in the world that more than
century churches of the Spanish friars. In
Sacromonte, Amecameca,
fulfilled every aspiration imaginable to us.
the village of Amecameca, where Cortez
Mexico, 1524 onward.
On impulse, my real estate executive
had said a mass for his small army as they moved toward the Aztecs, we sought the pilgrimage chapel of Sacromonte by spiraling up a small hill overlooking the village. This sacred place had been a cave for meditation by Fray Martín de Valencia, who arrived in 1524 as one of the first friars in the New World. As the cave became important, the village built a portico to define the entrance, and over the next three centuries the cave was expanded by sacred spaces of advancing size, chronologically growing through several styles into a hexagonal dome terminating in an unusual nineteenth-century forecourt portico.We were fascinated with this unique assemblage of time and stone. We bought a beer and a taco from a vendor in front of the church. The cold beer and warm blue corn taco filled with sautéed squash blossoms gave me a sensation that anchored me to this place. I identified with the architecture around me with such curiosity that within a few months I had formed a team of Earthwatch volunteers to aspirations
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document the church with measured drawings and photographs—the first of many such places in all parts of Mexico that we documented over the next twelve summers. I had found a new way to appreciate architecture—from earthen caves to Modernism—in a continuum of ageless labors producing architecture that raised questions about what we architects are doing today. Does all architecture have to be by architects? The nonarchitect friars of New Spain and the native Mesoamerican stonecarvers created a dramatically effective piece of
schools of business and of engineering, or
Town of Amecameca and
work that borrowed from the buildings
they were in all walks of life, people who
mountain seen from under
they knew and the materials and technol-
simply built the facilities they needed. The
the sheltering portico. El
ogy available to them at that particular
reality of the other 95 percent was begin-
Señor de Sacromonte, Amec-
place. The buildings of the nearby village
ning to sink in.
ameca, Mexico.
were handsome indigenous buildings of
To improve the built environment, the
distinctive forms and textures that had cer-
nonarchitects who are building now will
tainly been built by nonarchitects—put
have to know more about the making of
together out of the earth with adobe bricks
architecture and actively aspire to it. In the
formed by the same hands that patted out
past, before architecture schools and pro-
their tortillas. The vitality and dignity of
fessional licensing, master builders
those walls were timeless.
received their training through apprentice-
Realizing that the buildings in this vil-
ships in the crafts of building; they gained
lage and most buildings in modern cities
further learning from the examples of
are built by nonarchitects, I became acutely
craftsmen before them, some of which
aware of the plain fact that professional
were the great buildings of the age, made
architects build only about 5 percent of
by builders who traveled across Europe to
what is built.
learn from the masters. Their building
I had been aware of the fact of that 5
crafts were in stone, brick, and wood— ear-
percent, but this scene, which I found so
lier they had used mud and reeds, and later
beautiful, caused me to realize that I had
they used iron, glass, and early forms of
spent most of my career educating young
concrete. Today, the designer’s vocabulary
men and women to be professional archi-
has a multitude of materials with which to
tects, signing hundreds of diplomas, and
work, including inexpensive, imitative,
had not reached the men and women who
ersatz materials. Because of this, the task
would actually be designing 95 percent of
of the nonarchitect builder of today is more
the buildings. They were over in the
complex: new materials, a demand for
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The need to build shelter is primal; building it as architecture endures as a quest for beauty that engages us personally at our core. As I said in the preface, to make architecture rather than just a building, you have three choices: hire an architect, become an architect, or learn to think like an architect as an enthusiastic, informed participant in the design of the places we think of as architecture. When I told my physics professor father, who at the moment was laying brick, that I had decided to become an architect, he looked up from his work and said, “Do you know the Greek orders, their columns: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian?” I said no and walked away to find the encyclopedia. At age fifteen, I had never even seen architecture or met an architect. I just liked to draw and make things. I never looked back, and architecture became my passion. I was hardly alone. A recent survey of fifteen-year-old American boys revealed that fully 25 percent of them wanted to be architects when they grew up. People of all ages tell me that they had once wanted to be an architect but decided otherwise for various reasons.
top: Section through cave,
speed and economy, and the lack of a good
crypt, sanctuary, and portico.
vernacular from which to work. So the dif-
El Señor de Sacromonte,
ference between today’s builders and build-
asked Michael Caine, who had just won an
Amecameca, Mexico.
ers of the past is that in the past there were
Oscar for Best Actor, what he would have
better models that were studied with more
done had he not gone into acting. Caine
Plan, El Señor de Sacra-
care and focus on the quality of the archi-
replied, “I would like to have been an
monte, Amecameca, Mexico.
tecture. I believe that the commercial and
architect.”
residential nonarchitect builder, with an
In a television interview, James Lipton
How do we account for this interest in
aspiration toward architecture and atten-
architecture? Experiencing architecture
tion to detail, will be rewarded with an
gives us thrills—it stirs our emotions
improved product for a better position in
as only works of art can. We love to
the market—an excellent motivation. This
build things. We like to draw too. Lots of
book can be a beginning of that process.
people delight in planning projects and aspirations
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visualizing ways to build them. We love to
The education of architects for the pro-
dream, to fantasize about designing and
fession involved half of my career. It was a
making things. We love to acquire things,
cause that I believed would make for better
to be artists, to put together complex orga-
architecture and better cities. Yet, as I
nizations. There’s a curiosity about archi-
became an emeritus professor and at the
tecture—a desire to experience architec-
same time moved to a 450-year-old moun-
ture, to anticipate it in an exotic setting, to
tain village in Mexico, I had a new look at
understand it as a work of art, to keep it in
the making of architecture.
our memory as a story, or to feel the thrill
My village, a solid mass of architecture-
of making it ourselves. It’s a way of creat-
without-architects, gained its special archi-
ing something from nothing, of bringing
tectural character from its many eigh-
order to things in a satisfying way. It’s a
teenth-century religious and public
way of helping people improve the way
buildings. The indigenous architecture
they live. It’s an art that rewards you and
built in local traditions supported a delight-
the community.
ful lifestyle in a visually satisfying whole.
Should you want to, you can be a profes-
This was a different world. It became
sional architect. The profession is indeed
clear that I had been educating only a small
a thrilling one. You could be an active
fraction of the people who design buildings,
enthusiast—someone with a passion for
because the fact is that nonarchitects, hold-
beautiful architecture but no interest in
ing no professional degree or license, build
designing it yourself. Or perhaps you could
almost all the buildings in the United States
be an architecture scholar—someone who
and probably everywhere else. The magni-
takes to architecture the way Civil War
tude of this fact is rarely acknowledged, but
buffs take to that history—and maybe even
nonarchitects are clearly the major force in
extend that interest into doctoral studies.
the making of buildings and cities. Street space formed by walls of residences and shops at the street edge in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, 2000.
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the place
Houses set on a plane of grass with a street running through it. Residential street in United States.
Some nonarchitects excel at making
ments of thought and the arts come from
architecture, while others seek the benefits
the courage to try something, all sorts of
of a better product to sell. They produce
things, for the first time. An enamored
valuable products and come from many
amateur need not be a genius to stay out
professions, particularly engineering.
of ruts he has never been trained in. . . .
Those who aspire to make architecture
In the long run, the ruts wear away, and
rather than just building have the positive
adventuring amateurs reward us by a
quality of the amateur. I use the word ama-
wonderful vagrancy into the unexpected.”
teur in its original sense. The French word
Helping nonarchitects learn about
amare, meaning “to love,” is a root for the
architecture obviously deserves our atten-
word amateur. The amateur, “one who
tion. In this book I hope to bring knowl-
loves an activity,” will be a focus of this
edge and confidence to discerning non-
book because to do architecture well you
architects and to encourage them to take
have to love it. Amateur is an enthusiasti-
care to enhance the environment. Having
cally positive term; it is not used pejora-
worked with architects most of my life,
tively here. As I see it, the loving spirit of
I intend some of my thoughts to be for
the amateur is essential to good architec-
them as well.
ture, irrespective of professional degrees or licensure. Giving importance to this role of the
I hope to address these topics from a point of view that comes from a life as a practicing architect and dean of an
amateur, Daniel Boorstin, the eminent his-
architecture school, and with a background
torian, spoke eloquently on “the amateur
that begins as one of those fifteen-year-old
spirit.” He said, “The rewards and refresh-
boys who wanted to be an architect. aspirations
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CHAPTER TWO
DREAMING AND SEEING
Your way of life is your ultimate bottom line.
Dear Gregory: When you ask, “How do we experience
overheard on
architecture in our imagination and in real-
th e un i v e r s i t y o f t exas camp us ,
ity?” you point to a fundamental of the dis-
2001
cipline. Of course, it is our senses that are at work, yet before we can appreciate what we see, a fuller experience can be gained from information about the building, its setting, and the designer’s aspirations for the building. Dreaming happens. You dreamed as a child digging in a sandpile or making a fort on the playroom floor out of seat cushions, pillows, and sheets. You were making spaces and forms that you could see, feel, and maybe hear. You may imagine a dream house as you look through books and magazines. Your dreaming imagination is at work as you contemplate any building project. Dreaming is essential. Dreaming about d r e a m i ng a n d s e e i ng
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seeing a place puts you in the action.
like fitness training for an athlete—it
Dreaming of being the architect of some-
determines your level of performance. Find
thing seems to express a deep personal
architecture that is known to be exceptional
desire to make something happen.
or that you personally connect with. Enjoy
Dreaming, in a disciplined sense, is
it by experiencing its spaces and finding its
visualization—the key to design and build-
delights, find its surprises. It may be a real
ing. Between the dream and the building
thriller; or it may be just good. Then, study
there are needs for skill and knowledge,
what you are experiencing by digging
but first and always you must focus on the
deeper: study plans and sections of the
Section cut through the nave
dream. The dream is the most important
building if published. Read about the
of the cathedral at Rheims
part of your effort. Have you ever watched
building’s purposes and how they were
shows the rib vaulting of the
children draw? They will often draw a
fulfilled.
nave and side aisles.
house or a church in simple form with all
For example, in my preparation for
the appropriate iconography in place. Chil-
experiencing my first Gothic cathedral, I
dren have great imaginations; they make
examined the history of Rheims Cathedral
spaces out of cardboard boxes to enclose
in several sources. (Now you can Google
themselves and their friends. I watched in
it.) My reading reminded me that the kings
awe as a nine-year-old girl drew large,
of France had been crowned there, that it
detailed plans of her dream house with
suffered heavy damage in the Great War,
chalk all over her concrete driveway. With
and that it had recently been restored for
great enthusiasm she described all the
the glory of France. I also looked at cross-
rooms of the dream house, drawing furni-
section drawings of the nave to refresh my
ture, stairways, a second floor, and an attic,
mind about how the great weight of the
using considerable powers of visualization
structure could span the nave and be taken
and uninhibited drawing skill to express
to the ground with only stone upon stone.
her dream as a drawing.
The plan was the familiar form, yet it dem-
Seeing takes work. Vision produces over 80 percent of the information coming to us from our five senses— even more when
onstrated the complexity of the structure and the intricacy of the minor spaces. I began my actual seeing when I saw the
we are experiencing architecture. Yet it’s
great mass of medieval stonework gleam-
not automatic; seeing is a skill that
ing in the morning sun on the distant hori-
requires educated vision and perhaps new
zon like a ship. Approaching it, I followed
glasses. I mention that at the beginning of
the movement toward the great mass of
this chapter because poor vision is com-
stone that was growing closer and larger by
mon; I myself first saw clearly only after
standing up in our Volkswagen bus and
Plan of Notre Dame Cathe-
college. Confirming that you see clearly
looking out the sunroof. Arriving at the
dral of Rheims, France,
and distinctly will enhance your perception
site, we saw the façade rising out of a
shows the base of its skele-
and enjoyment.
strong, brightly lit ground plane with peo-
tal structure, ca. 400 –1300.
“Training your eye,” for a designer, is
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the place
ple and color moving through it on a Sun-
left: A Gothic structural
day morning. I insisted we have coffee and
ing, try to learn why it was built and what its
triumph of sculpture and
a croissant within the aura of the façade so
function in the community was and is now, so
enclosure presents itself
I could analyze it before we went in. Mov-
you can understand it socially before you
at Rheims.
ing into the sacred space through the great
begin your physical understanding. Note,
portal amid a miraculous cacophony of
too, how it relates to its neighbors—
center: Significant urban
bells, I walked slowly down the left aisle
the buildings and activities around it.
scale presented by Notre
while the choir’s recessional moved in the
Dame Cathedral of Rheims.
opposite direction up the center nave, sing-
up as you walk around. Much of the archi-
ing a hymn based on Dvorak’s New World.
tect’s effort is above eye level. See how the
right: Spatial progression
Just as I reached the transept and looked
light hits the surfaces. Notice the shape of
of walking through the rib-
up to the glorious bright circle of stained
the shadows. Notice the number of layers
structured nave of the cathe-
glass and stone tracery, the huge chancel
in the façade, starting with the layers of
dral at Rheims.
organ burst forth with Widor’s Toccata. It
mass closest to you and receding to the
was so overwhelming that my knees buck-
window glass. Focus, in turn, on color,
led, and I was brought to tears by the
form, texture, proportion, rhythm, silhou-
beauty. It was far better than the dream—
ette, mass. Look only for form for a bit,
I was almost literally “transported.” That’s
then look only for proportion, then the
experiencing architecture. That’s the way of
other elements of design— each in its own
seeing.
time.
second, raise your normal view and look
How do you learn to see places and
third, sense the space by the size and
sense spaces? Let me suggest ten ways to
shape of the spaces, how they sound as you
explore and understand a building.
speak, and how the light slides in and
first, as you begin to experience a build-
bounces around. Sense the space formed
d r e a m i ng a n d s e e i ng
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far left: Light, shade, and shadow express form, making ornament at the Quadrangle, Dallas, Texas, 1964.
Layers start at the glass and progress forward through each plane and molding edge of the window of Casa Canal, San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, ca. 1850.
by the building outside, and, as you go
sensed to be fully appreciated. You can’t
inside, see also how the spaces relate to
hold architecture like a book in your lap.
each other and transition from one to
You need to experience it full size. But
another. Architecture being the art of
when you can’t travel to the building and
space, it cannot be fully communicated in
must rely on pictures and words, take time
pictures, drawings, or words but must be
to let your imagination make it real to you. far left: A post and lintel structure has columns in compression and beams in bending. Marsh House, by author, Austin, Texas, 1978.
top right: Spaces of Casa Pani progress along the straight line of an enfilade.
Follow gravity as it pulls the weight of the wall above, around the arch, and down the wall and column to the foundation in the earth. Lindos, Greece, 1983.
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the place
working. Are they in compression (pressing down) or tension (pulling apart like cables)? Heavy and massive? Light and airy? Are the materials hard or soft? Rough or smooth? Opaque or transparent? Solid or void? Reflective or dull? Man-made or natural? Warm or cold? Are they local or exotic? What colors are they? What texture? What ideas do they conjure up for you? Are they permanent or transient? Fragile or strong? Common or extraordinary? sixth, determine how the building was constructed. Is it steel frame or concrete frame? Stone masonry laid by hand or precast concrete panels installed by machine? Wood framing with thin masonry veneer or thick, load-bearing masonry? Metal or glass Frank Lloyd Wright’s cantile-
fourth, train your eye to understand the
panels? Exposed structure with curtain
ver is made possible by the
structure of the building you are seeing.
walls or a solid mass? Was the building just
tensile materials of the twen-
How is gravity pulling down on the build-
well built or was it, in fact, exactingly
tieth century at Fallingwater,
ing? How is the structure itself keeping the
crafted—that is, did individual craftsmen
Bear Run, Pennsylvania,
materials in place?
lavish their special art on the building?
1934.
fifth, determine how the materials are
seventh, examine the historical prece-
Tension structure of Santiago Calatrava spans the Guadalquivir River in Seville, Spain, 1992.
d r e a m i ng a n d s e e i ng
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15
dents of the architecture you are seeing.
Francesco Borromini’s
This fascinating question, the subject of
Baroque church St. Ivo is
entire libraries, is the basis of an important
in a long line of prece-
academic discipline in itself. You will find
dents. Rome, 1642.
that history is the source, whether you are going to look only at this century, as is the wont of Modernists, or at the eight thousand years of humans’ efforts at creating habitat. Historic architecture was eliminated from the academic design studio after World War II, but, as you will find, architectural history gives design its direction and meaning—gives us the cultural antecedents of the building’s form, the materials and techniques, as well as the decorative arts. A whole world of architectural history and anthropology is ours to learn from, even though many designers have avoided it. Rhythms of an arcade dominate the composition in the Stockholm City Hall, Ragnar Ostberg, 1911.
16
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the place
Lines of alignment help
eighth, analyze the composition, the
compose and organize
proportions, the rhythms of what you’re see-
special. Beyond seeing and understanding
objects, solids, and voids.
ing. What relates to what? What lines up?
the architecture, visit some construction
Taj Mahal, Agra, India,
What vectors of force do you see in the
sites and see how architecture is built. You
1630 –1653.
composition? Is it a classical composition
will see that it’s a rather primitive opera-
having a well-defined bottom, middle, and
tion, not like a manufacturing plant turn-
top? What are the colors and textures
ing out repetitive products with machines.
doing to each other? What are the qualities
Each building is unique. The joys of con-
of light and shadow? What spaces have
struction are many. One is the thrill of see-
been formed? How do they feel to you as
ing the space you have imagined that’s just
you move through them? Do they give
been created by the structure and how the
delight?
sun hits it. Another is the interaction with
ninth, observe the appropriateness of the
tenth, analyze what makes this building
the many workmen and craftsmen actually
building in terms of its setting. Does it
doing the construction. Fine workmanship
complement that which is around it, be it
may offer the most satisfaction for you, the
natural landscape or urban form? It had to
client, and the craftsman. I once asked an
take the place of something. Is it as good as
elderly carpenter laying a hardwood floor
what was there before? Has it improved the
to help me make the transition between
beauty or meaning of the setting?
two rooms really special and gave him a rather complex integrating pattern of inlays within a rectangle to visually connect the two rooms. He took my drawing home to work on it, and when I saw the design installed I was as thrilled with his execution as he was. It was a handsome addition to the building. Some months later I received a letter from his wife saying that he had died but that he was pleased that he had built one beautiful thing in his life. Each construction site seems to have its own culture. On some jobs there will be a close-knit team that works together from
Intervention of the Modern-
beginning to end. Others will have a num-
ist, Stadthaus, Richard
ber of subcontractors who aren’t connected
Meyer & Partners. Ulm,
except insofar as they are parts of the job
Germany, 1993.
and who arrive in trucks and then depart for lunch and for the evening— each group a specialist. The sound of the job is a mix of rock ’n’ roll for the carpenters, country d r e a m i ng a n d s e e i ng
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17
and western for the masons, and ranchero
masons, and returned to the building in
music for the tile setters. There are no
solemn fashion, where it’s placed in a
hammering sounds anymore; nail guns
prominent spot on top of the ongoing
work on compressed air and sound like
product of their labors. After that, the fami-
chuk. If it is wood-frame construction, the
lies of the workers arrive and a lengthy
smell of freshly cut wood gives a special
party ensues. At my first such party as
aura to the place.
architect-owner, the crew dug a roasting pit
By tradition, when the frame of the
in one corner of the living room, slaugh-
building is “topped out,” workers place a
tered a pig in another corner, and bar-
fir tree on the roof.
bequed the pig all afternoon while enjoying
On a construction site in Mexico, there will be no sound of hammering and sawing
the beer and music. Get permission to go on a construction
because wood is too expensive to use. The
site and take some time to see how things
buildings there are of masonry—brick,
go together, how various construction
stone, concrete, rubble— or some version
trades work, how the craftsmen work their
of adobe. The sound is the chink, chink,
materials; see how all the trades coordinate
chink of hand chiseling on masonry or carv-
the construction of a one-of-a-kind
ing on stone. The smell of the job is the
building.
smell of food cooking for almuerzo, which
My favorite professor, Martin Kermacy,
is cooked and eaten communally around a
once asked us, “How can you design a
charcoal fire that heats each person’s meal.
great building if you’ve never seen one?”
The men often play cards, and lunchtime is
Examine the Reading List I’ve appended to
a precise one-hour recess. The workers are
this book. It’s not an academic list, but
usually the extended family of the maestro,
rather one that I think is useful to anyone
or job superintendent, as was the case on a
who wants to participate in the making of
recent job of mine where the maestro’s
architecture. I have also been bold enough
father drove the truck, his grandparents
to list the architecture that I think is most
were the night watchmen, his brother was a
important both to see and experience in
mason, and his ten-year-old son sold Cokes
real life. You’ll find those buildings in my
and candies on nonschool days. Cousins
Seeing List.
and uncles were also spread out in the job.
Go see the great architecture, and on
The architect, who is usually the contractor,
the way see also the minor architecture you
visits the job daily and personally brings the
admire. For architecture you are unable to
weekly payroll to the job site.
visit, go to the library, bookstore, or the
When a building is “topped out” in
Web, where there is a tremendous amount
Mexico, a handmade cross decorated with
of information. Find well-known examples
ribbons and flowers is taken by the work
and study them in plan, section, and pho-
crew in procession to be blessed in the
tographs. As part of such study, it’s useful
church of Santa Anna, patron saint of
to draw sketches, even to trace a drawing,
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the place
to help you understand the building. This
It gives a building an aura wood can
also helps you learn to draw. Filling your
never do.”
memory with images and ideas of great
The question is, How do you inform
architecture gives you something to work
your dreams, give them rich backgrounds,
from, and like learning a piece of music or
lead them along, and elaborate on them?
a poem, you get to participate in the art.
One answer is to build a memory bank of
Fourteen-year-old Alex Pratt responded to a
architecture through a lot of seeing. The
great building with these lines in her diary:
architect Charles Moore, formerly dean of
“If you ever want to witness what looks like
architecture at Yale, department chair at
a piece of Heaven, or at least something
Berkeley and UCLA, and then professor at
holy-looking, go to the Pantheon on a
the University of Texas, described his
sunny day . . . there is a vastness and great-
approach to architectural education as
ness which you must grasp . . . you must
“taking students to see places and listen
then realize what stone is like. It is cold,
to people.” Seeing and understanding
hard and it makes things very dark. This
through travel, reading, drawing, theoriz-
adds to the grandeur of a building . . . [and
ing, contemplation, and conversation make
to] a building’s sense of timelessness.
the key—but the most important learning
Stone makes everything seem so old.
comes from seeing.
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CHAPTER THREE
FINDING THE BEST BUILDINGS
The surest test of the civilization of a people . . . is to be found in their architecture, which
Dear Mr. Kenneth: I agree that what we call architecture is
presents so noble a field for the display of
rare and that excellent architecture is even
the grand and the beautiful, and . . . is so
rarer. On our tours we had to search for the
intimately connected with the essential
few buildings to admire. A lot of the archi-
comforts of life.
tecture we admire exists because it had a
w i l l i a m h . pr e s co t t
long, productive life, making it also an
(1796 –1859)
excellent investment. Some of the great architecture is in ruins but remains valued because of its history. To experience architecture requires effort, but because the high points of a civilization are often expressed in its architecture, the search for a region’s best buildings is rewarding on many levels, sensual and intellectual. In search of the best buildings, I began the requisite architectural tour of Western civilization, traveling and camping in a Volkswagen bus over two six-month f i n d i ng t h e b e s t b u i l d i ng s
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21
periods in 1964 and 1967. I had been
history until the Renaissance. Professions,
removed from architecture while in the
as we know them, didn’t come into being
Navy and had had a few years as a practic-
until the mid-nineteenth century—well
ing architect. I wanted to experience the
after what I think are the best buildings
new modern buildings we had studied in
had been built.
school and while abroad, look around at
Some say that the essence of wonderful
the old buildings we had read about in our
architecture comes to life in the passion of
architectural history courses. I remember
the architect—amateur or professional.
the shock of discovering that the modern
The “passion to build,” shared with a king,
buildings appeared to be architecturally
emperor, or pope or, now, a corporate, insti-
impoverished compared to the buildings of
tutional, or individual client, is the force
earlier epochs. Basically, I decided they
that creates great architecture. Or maybe
lacked content. After months of exploring
not. Sometimes the passion is only for
Denmark, France, Italy, Spain, Switzer-
building at the least cost and sometimes
land, Germany, and Austria, I felt that I
the professional or amateur, however
had been deceived.
enthusiastic, proves inadequate to the task.
The historic architecture excelled in all
But the building happens anyway, no mat-
categories, as I saw it. I felt compelled to
ter what its objective or the skill level of the
question Modernism; it was simply not
maker, and the world either rejoices or
equal to what was there before. Not even
bows its head in shame— or worse, seems
close. Nothing compared with the Gothic
to be indifferent.
architecture I was experiencing. The Baroque, Renaissance, and Neoclassical architecture that made up the historic cities shone boldly as works of art, while most modern buildings looked starkly inadequate— often cheap and out of place. This all took a while for me to assimilate, but it was clear that the historic buildings had greatness and that many of these buildings had been designed and built by extraordinarily skilled and inspired builders who did not fit our current model of an architect. Clearly, some of the best buildings are by architects without professional degrees or licenses. Designers of the best buildings learned from other buildings and as
Roman Temple of Jupiter in
apprentices; most were never named in
Baalbek, Lebanon, ca. 15 BC.
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the place
teenth-century architect of Turkish mosques, was also given recognition as an individual architect. Nonarchitect building projects today sometimes enjoy the care of an amateur architect and succeed beautifully. Of course, many burst forth thoughtlessly aloof to the idea of architecture, blindly built solely for immediate needs by a default amateur architect (here I’m using the word in its negative sense). Thoughtlessness is the worst sin. If the thoughtless builder became an informed, sensitive amateur, everyone would benefit. Today, laws restrict our use of the title
While most buildings are built without
Filippo Brunelleschi built the
architect, although the great buildings of
the involvement of professional architects,
dome of Santa Maria del
history were designed and built by genius
most never aspire to be architecture—that
Fiore in Florence, Italy,
talents without a license. The title architect
is, artful. Some buildings, perhaps most,
1417–1434.
has been used to connote dignity in many
are conceived as merchandise for sale as
cultures. There have been court architects,
real-estate development or as thoughtless
priest architects, and gentleman architects.
functional buildings pretending to be invis-
These impassioned builders were not
ible, “just happening,” because they are
licensed or certified by academic degrees.
needed immediately for business or hous-
Some Roman and Greek architects had the
ing or government. A very few building
authorship of their work on record. The
projects involve architects, and unfortu-
medieval architects who designed and built
nately not even all of those, or even most,
the great Gothic cathedrals were rarely
are visual assets to the community. In a dif-
known by name. Others were paid for their
ferent business and cultural setting, how-
construction skills rather than their design
ever, there are buildings, like those in pre-
skills, so they fit the positive aspects of
industrial, Third World areas using
“amateur,” which I’ll call them just for the
traditional forms, that can be so sensible,
purposes of this chapter, even though they
strong, and right that they are a visual
built some of history’s greatest architec-
delight—and they exist without the benefit
ture. Beginning again in the fifteenth cen-
of any architect’s involvement and only
tury, with Filippo Brunelleschi and his
through a common knowledge of building
accomplishment in building the extraordi-
(of course when that knowledge was
nary dome of Florence’s landmark cathe-
simpler).
The Renaissance architect
dral (the Duomo), the individual architects were named. Mimar Koca Sinan, a six-
The word amateur, now corrupted by common usage to mean “unprofessional”
f i n d i ng t h e b e s t b u i l d i ng s
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23
or, worse still, a “dabbler,” once conveyed
ency—important values, yes, but easily for-
the same meaning as the Spanish word afi-
gotten by the building’s occupants or pass-
cionado, meaning “someone who has a fer-
ersby, whose quality of life will be either
vent interest in and appreciation of some-
enhanced or diminished by the building
thing.” The spirit of the enthusiast engages
for decades or centuries.
here as well. You’ll notice that my defini-
Envisioning a new house for the family
tion is broad enough to allow even profes-
or working on a committee with profes-
sional architects to qualify as people willing
sional architects planning a school or new
to take risks to satisfy their desire to create
corporate headquarters requires an
something bigger than life, and perhaps
informed, passionate, actively involved cli-
take a larger risk of personally investing in
ent, an aficionado. The old truism “Archi-
it or even living in it. I’m pleased to be an
tecture is no better than its client” pays
amateur flutist and a professional architect
homage to the client’s critical importance.
who performs with amateur and profes-
When that client is an informed amateur,
sional musicians. You may be an amateur
able to communicate and collaborate with
architect and, for instance, a professional
constancy and tenacity, the prospects for
lawyer working on a building.
good architecture soar.
Being an amateur architect who builds
I think the amateur is important to
carries gratifications such as being in love
enhancing the discipline of architecture as
with what you are doing as well as being
well as being a creative leading edge, a crit-
able to work with technology and construc-
ical spokesman, a patron who is more con-
tion, where, in the process, you fulfill your-
cerned about the art of architecture than
self. Effective amateurs improve homes,
some academics and professional archi-
public buildings, neighborhoods, and cities
tects. You may feel unqualified to serve in
by educating themselves, by being involved
any of these roles, most especially that of a
in the design process, and by being respon-
creative leading edge. But I plan to show
sible citizens helping make good design
you that even that role is realistic and criti-
decisions in their community. Being a cor-
cally needed.
porate or politically appointed client for a
Even though every building can be cre-
public building is an opportunity to play a
ated as architecture, some buildings, by
critical role by learning, through reading
their place in the world, have a responsibil-
and travel, how to make intelligent and
ity to be architecture. Public buildings,
sensitive design decisions. There are too
high-visibility buildings, symbolic build-
many accountants, engineers, government
ings—all have a broad influence generated
officials, and executives, on building com-
by the quality of their design. Don’t you
mittees, for example, who have not devel-
think that when more buildings seek to be
oped the architectural literacy to make
architecture, a more beautiful city evolves,
such important decisions. They tend to
our quality of life improves, and values of
use, as their sole guide, cost and expedi-
all sorts soar beyond the ordinary?
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the place
While thrills for the amateur may come from doing something to the best of his or her abilities, the quality of the end result
how your building would fit into the landscape or the streetscape? 7. When you put pencil to paper to de-
will require enough self-criticism to refine
scribe an architectural idea, do you get
and nurture initial conceptions of propor-
excited about getting it down so that
tion, scale, composition, and other elements of the design. This requires that you
you can understand it and explore it? 8. Have you found yourself engaged in
lavish a great deal of time on making
building projects that are so important
thoughtful design decisions. There will, in
to you that they overwhelm you and
fact, be thousands of them. For many of us, refining the design becomes one of the
give you goosebumps? 9. Does your collection of books on archi-
main delights. And it offers the opportu-
tecture, cities, landscape, and interiors
nity for artistic growth for both amateurs
outnumber your other books?
and professionals. I hope I have established the importance of the amateur. I want to offer a test
10. Do you think about what you might have done, or might do, as an architect?
to see if you might be a dedicated amateur. Try these questions:
If these thoughts stir you, particularly the first five questions, you are definitely
1. Do you travel to see the great build-
an aficionado, an amateur. I want to give
ings and cities of the world and enjoy
your role of amateur both dignity and
discovering wonder-filled exotic places
respect, helping fan an enthusiasm into a
where people seem to live in a work of
passion that has the power to make better
art?
architecture as well as better cities and
2. Do you keep a clip file of magazine
neighborhoods. Now, if you responded pos-
photos showing beautiful rooms you
itively to the last five questions as well, you
like and would enjoy incorporating
might consider becoming an architect and
someday in a place of your own
read that chapter carefully.
design? 3. Do you think about ways to make your
Truly grand projects, those magnificent works done for a king, priest, pope, bishop,
city and neighborhood more
or emperor or for a landlord, industrialist,
beautiful?
or philanthropist, were each made by an
4. Do you like to make things?
experienced master builder, an Archi (chief )
5. When you look at a piece of land, do
-tecton (builder), or Architecton, the basis
you sometimes imagine building
for our word architect. The chief, or master,
something on it and imagine what it
builder trained for his work just as an ama-
would be like to be there?
teur would—by working with more experi-
6. Do you get giddy just thinking about what you could see from the rooms or
enced master builders and by traveling, drawing, reading, and gaining knowledge
f i n d i ng t h e b e s t b u i l d i ng s
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25
great volume of building, and new archi-
Master builders designed
tectural theories emerged. Capitalism
and built Gothic cathedrals
looked at capital and returns rather than at
by learning from other mas-
beauty and art. And Modernism offered
ters and their examples.
the new professionals what seemed an
St. Maclou, Rouen, France,
exciting path to a brave new world.
1435 –1521.
Today, only those who are certified by the state can use the title architect. In the United States, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) created a tradition whereby it was deemed unethical for an architect to build the architecture he or she designed, reasoning that it created a conflict of interest in representing the client. That stricture, making it unethical to build what one designed, eliminated the “builder” component of the word architect as chief builder. Other countries, meanwhile, continued the older tradition. Fortuand skill. Until the mid-nineteenth century,
nately, in the late 1970s, the AIA revised its
the “schools” of architecture were the near-
ethics to again allow architects to build
est buildings under construction or the
their own work, provided they sign a thor-
architecture within traveling distance of the
ough non-conflict-of-interest clause. Unfor-
aspiring (amateur) builder-architect.
tunately, the tradition of design-but-not-
The traditional professional, a specialist
build had already been established. With
having skill and experience in a particular
this change the U.S. architect can again be
activity, differed from the amateur only in
a master builder, and the AIA now pro-
that he was paid for his work. Architects,
vides contract documents for such work,
doctors, and lawyers did not come into
although in many building types the tech-
being as professionals certified by the state
nology has become so complex that the
and practicing a profession until the nine-
design process requires the help of a team
teenth century. I find it curious that by that
of professionals.
time most of the great buildings of the
Even without building anything, the
world had already been built, and due to
amateur can get some of the greatest plea-
other circumstances the general quality of
sures of the art by experiencing wonderful
architecture had begun to decline. Forces
architecture—by seeing and by being in a
such as the industrial revolution had
space and moving through it. Experiencing
brought new technology; increasingly,
architecture is one of the major reasons
rapid growth and expansion had caused a
people travel. They want to see the wonders
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the place
A special place to learn
of the world that various cultures have cre-
looking up into the great vertical dome;
ated. It’s also a way of “seeing” the past.
I wanted them to watch as the concentric
By experiencing architecture, I mean
rings of balconies moved to reveal the Lone
using all the senses. Start with looking, of
Star at the top of the dome, and then see it
course, but don’t forget listening, moving,
eclipsed as their motion continued. I also
touching, sometimes even smelling, and if
insisted that students visit Louis I. Kahn’s
there is food, sitting down and enjoying
Kimbell Museum for as many hours and as
both flavors and ambience. Enhancing the
often as they could. A Greek colleague of
enjoyment of the senses, the experience
mine was told by his Athenian teachers to
can be greatly improved by knowing the
spend three hours a week at the Acropolis.
building intellectually, by learning its his-
When I experience a place several times, a
tory and social purpose; and of course, as
kind of cumulative effect happens, just as
an architect would, by studying it in plan
in listening to music or looking at paint-
and section to understand its anatomy.
ings—the senses acquire a familiarity, an
When I was teaching architecture, I
appreciation, a memory of the experience,
architecture is in Louis I.
insisted that my students walk slowly along
a knowing of the art. I like to spend time to
Kahn’s Kimbell Museum in
the main axis of the nineteenth-century
get to know them. During my family’s six-
Fort Worth, Texas, 1973.
Texas state capitol building with their eyes
month architectural tour, we camped for a
f i n d i ng t h e b e s t b u i l d i ng s
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27
week in Florence on a hill overlooking Brunelleschi’s dome. One morning, my twelve-year-old son, Rick, and I walked up the hill to San Miniato al Monte and sat for a long time on a low wall, looking intensely at its magnificent marble façade. I showed him how to analyze the façade’s composition and how to explore its complex interior spaces, an experience that may have contributed to his eventually becoming an architect. Amateurs who love and demand good architecture are sorely needed. We need people who so love good architecture that they will demand it in all buildings, especially the public buildings that give form to our cities. We need amateur architects who
fully, the thoughtless amateur will become
San Miniato al Monte offers
themselves, with help, can create good
aesthetically responsible. The best profes-
basic lessons in composi-
buildings. We want to remember that most
sionals will continue to be “amateurs.” I
tion. Florence, Italy, ca.
of the world’s buildings are still built by
would like to encourage the thoughtful
1000 –1288.
amateurs—both the loving, thoughtful
amateur and help him or her excel and
amateurs and the thoughtless ones. Hope-
succeed through their love of architecture.
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the place
CHAPTER FOUR
EXPLORING IDEAS IN ARCHITECTURE
Dear James,
We all see more of architecture than of any other art. Every street is a gallery of architects’
You’re right. Architecture is not a static
work.
art. It is always changing. And each
c . e . m o n ta gue
designer has his or her individual approach,
(1867–1928)
formed by experience and education. You and I began architecture school at the time of two significant changes. One was the fresh new ideas and objectives that surfaced at the end of World War II, when people were ready for a new start and well-traveled veterans returned to college. The other was the revolutionary ideals of Modernism that were replacing the traditional training of architects—the design styles taught by the influential Ecole des Beaux-Arts. This exciting period in architecture and architectural education would create a new kind of architect and architecture. Every-
e x p l o r i ng i d e a s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e
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29
thing was new. Our professors had been
tecture—and so many opinions about
educated in the Beaux Arts, so they too
architecture held by people who love it—
were new to Modernism. Both professors
that I suggest starting with the common
and students could now happily avoid
definition from Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
teaching and learning the tedious old theo-
Dictionary, Eleventh Edition:
ries, designs, and skills of the various styles and invent something new. I had
1. The art or science of building; Specif. :
started college at age fourteen and was as
the art or practice of designing and
impressionable as one could get in this
building structures and esp. habitable
milieu. But my apprenticeship with O’Neil
ones; 2 a : formation or construction as
Ford, the early definer of Southwest
or as the result of conscious act <The —
Regionalism and explorer of Modernism,
of the garden>; b : a unifying cohesive
helped me find my own path near his. This
form or structure <the novel lacks — >;
experience gave me a Modernist education
3 : architectural product or work; 4 : a
but with a strong feeling for place—leav-
method or style of building.
ing me more a Regionalist than a Modernist. Observing the profession of architec-
My favorite definition of architecture is
ture from a career spanning some fifty
in Nikolaus Pevsner’s introduction to his
years, I see its changes as a continuous
An Outline of European Architecture (1943):
stream of development but moving at glacial speed compared to the technology
A bicycle shed is a building; Lincoln
around us.
Cathedral is a piece of architecture.
What is architecture all about today?
Nearly everything that encloses space
How did most of it get to be so, well, unap-
on a scale sufficient for a human being
pealing? What happened to the kind of
to move in is a building; the term
architecture we value in the historic build-
architecture applies only to buildings
ings we so revere? Where are the orna-
designed with a view to aesthetic appeal.
ment, symbolism, mythology, romance,
Now aesthetic sensations may be caused
human scale, and proportions that we still
by a building in three different ways.
enjoy? Why are so many public and com-
First, they may be produced by the
mercial buildings as well as millions of
treatment of walls, proportions of win-
individual houses so, excuse the expres-
dows, the relation of wall-space to
sion, ugly? Is it really enough for a build-
window-space, of one storey to another,
ing to be only functional, economical, or
of ornamentation such as the tracery of
Green? Fortunately, here and there we can
a fourteenth-century window, or the leaf
still find wonderful new architecture that
and fruit garlands of a Wren porch.
seems just right. So, what is architecture
Secondly, the treatment of the exterior
and what is not?
of a building as a whole is aesthetically
There are so many definitions of archi-
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the place
significant, its contrast of block against
block, the effect of a pitched or flat roof
To those definitions let me add some his-
or a dome, the rhythm of projections
torical perspective to the current scene to
and recessions. Thirdly, there is the
help you appreciate where we are in the
effect on our senses of the treatment of
evolving art of architecture. A dramatic
the interior, the sequence of rooms, the
change of design direction consumed archi-
widening out of a nave at the crossing,
tects at the beginning of the twentieth cen-
the stately movement of a Baroque
tury. The new concepts, which were in full
staircase. The first of these three ways is
force by the time I entered architecture
two-dimensional; it is the painter’s way.
school in 1946, meant that all of the tradi-
The second is the three-dimensional,
tional studies of classical proportions, orna-
and as it treats the building as volume,
ment, and different styles had been aban-
as a plastic unit, it is the sculptor’s way.
doned. We were told that we must create
The third is the three-dimensional too,
our designs with absolutely no preconcep-
but it concerns space; it is the architect’s
tions, to start with a clean piece of paper—
own way more than the others.
innovate. Theoretically it was a clean slate, yet on that slate would be only Modernism
What distinguishes architecture from painting and sculpture is its spatial
in an ideology rarely questioned by archi-
quality. In this, and only in this, no other
tects for almost a hundred years now. But
artist can emulate the architect. Thus
this design freedom proved to be a tall order
the history of architecture is primarily a
for the nongenius 99.99999 percent of us
history of man shaping space, and the
designing the world’s buildings.
historian must keep spatial problems
Using only new ideas obviously left
always in the foreground. This is why
architects without a tradition to work from
no book on architecture, however
and left nonarchitects without a useful
popular its presentation may be, can be
guide. Innovation became the only design
successful without ground plans. But
direction respected or condoned by our
architecture, though primarily spatial, is
teachers, and only innovation was news-
not exclusively spatial. In every building,
worthy in the architectural press. To not
besides enclosing space, the architect
innovate was to be derivative; everything
models volume and plans surface, i.e.,
had to be new, starting from near zero with
designs an exterior and sets out indi-
each project. This conceptual blinder con-
vidual walls. That means that the good
tinues to distort most of today’s architec-
architect requires the sculptor’s and the
ture, subordinating all other aesthetic val-
painter’s modes of vision in addition
ues to the quest for innovation, “the New.”
to his own spatial imagination. Thus architecture is the most comprehensive
Modernism had begun two generations
of all visual arts and has a right to claim
before mine in progressive circles in West-
superiority over the others.
ern Europe. By the end of World War II it had replaced the monolithic doctrines of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts on which much e x p l o r i ng i d e a s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e
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The Neoclassic Battle Hall Architecture and Planning Library by Cass Gilbert was built in the same decade as the Bauhaus by Walter Gropius. Austin, University of Texas, 1917.
Antonio GaudĂâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Casa Mila presented Modernismo in contrast to Modernism, in Barcelona, Spain, 1910.
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Fallingwater was Frank Lloyd Wright’s response to Modernism at Bear Run, Pennsylvania, 1936 –1938.
of academic architectural education had been founded. The great new freedom proved a relief to everyone, students as well as teachers, for architecture felt like a stimulating and open new world to explore. Reinforcing the movement were plenty of new books and magazines full of the new ideas. There were only a few rules to follow, the chief one being “Form follows function.” The previous discipline was thrown out along with the plaster casts of ornament and moldings that students had previously drawn to learn how light defines surfaces. The classical sourcebooks, such as Giacomo da Vignola’s, had been put on the top shelf to gather dust, their place taken by books on the “modern masters.” Ideas and images were changing so fast that some journals and magazines were carrying the message more than
Eliel Saarinen developed
books. The art of architecture had under-
regional expression in the
gone an intellectual makeover. Do we won-
National Museum of Finland
der why we see so much inept detailing
and later came to America to
trying to imitate the classical?
produce a classic learning
Enormous diversity in design was possi-
environment in the Cran-
ble; many divergent philosophies and idi-
brook Schools. Helsinki,
omatic expressions typified the excitement,
1910.
and confusion, as the new era began. The major forces, each of which could have provided the direction for the new era, were, in my mind, these seven legendary figures: Antonio Gaudí (1852 –1926), Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959), Eliel Saarinen (1873– 1950), Gunnar Asplund (1885–1940), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886 –1969), Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, Le Corbusier (1887–1965), and Alvar Aalto (1898 –1976). One could make a case for following the lead of each of these genius architects, and one could even visualize how architecture e x p l o r i ng i d e a s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e
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Gunnar Asplund’s Woodland Chapel shows classic precedents of form and proportion to establish the desired character. Ornamental column capitals were stripped away as in many early examples of Modernism. Stockholm, 1918.
The human scale of Alvar Aalto’s brick forms in the Saynatsalo Town Hall has provided a memorable architectural image for decades. Saynatsalo, Finland, 1949.
The simplicity of the planes in the composition of Mies van der Rohe’s “Barcelona Pavilion,” characterized as one of the two dominant icons of Modernism. Barcelona, Spain, 1929, demolished 1930, shown here as rebuilt in 1959.
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The sculpture on stilts of Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoy was the other dominant icon of Modernism, often emulated. Poissy, France, 1928.
might have proceeded had that architect’s
ism, by definition, is a self-conscious break
influence been dominant.
with the past and a search for new forms of
The groundswell of Modernism covered
expression—an aesthetic introduced as “the
up the spectacular earlier work of other
International Style,” which was the contro-
promising modern movements: the Mod-
versial name given to Modernism by Henry
ernismo of Barcelona, the Secessionist of
Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson.
Vienna, the Art Nouveau and, later, Art
In the midst of these great architects
Deco of Paris, and all the others. Modern-
was Walter Gropius (1883–1969), founder of an influential school that proposed a
The Bauhaus school sought to abandon the influences of history. Dessau, Germany, 1919.
new kind of design education, one that turned its back on history. The Bauhaus in Germany (1919 –1933) began as a design school for industrial production and later included architecture in the new aesthetic of Modernism developing from the de Stijl group of Dutch artists and Russian Constuctivism. Gropius then came to Harvard in 1937 to aid Joseph Hudnut in begetting a new model of architectural education in the United States—a doctrine which other e x p l o r i ng i d e a s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e
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schools either paid close attention to or
At this point I need to introduce another
emulated directly. Gropius urged his stu-
concept, that of Regionalism—a different
dents, “Don’t look back,” and architecture
direction from International Style. Region-
was turned upside down through the edu-
alism challenged the lack of human
cation of young architects who looked to
dimension in Modernism. While keeping
the new heroes of Modernism rather than
up-to-date with technology, Regionalism
to the world before. Harvard’s Graduate
demanded some adjustment of the Inter-
Center, designed by Gropius at that time,
national Style to fit the regional, more
now seems out of place as a building that
localized cultural and environmental char-
didn’t look back.
acteristics that Modernists, in their zeal,
Actually, there was a lot more going on
meant to ignore. Regionalism can be
in the beginnings of Modernism before the
romantic or nostalgic because it doesn’t
dominance of the Bauhaus-Harvard philos-
dogmatically exclude those warm, human
ophies. I urge you to enjoy some of the doc-
emotions. As its very name implies, it
umentation of the era found in my Reading
emphasizes place—the particulars of a geo-
List. Here, though, I hope to explain the
graphic or cultural region. Its determinants
various influences and directions in Mod-
are the particulars of climate, especially
ernism as well as how they affected the
extremes of hot or cold, sunny or cloudy,
education of architects, who have, for the
wet or dry, as well as particular traditions:
past seventy years, led both other architects
social traditions and lifestyles, construction
and nonarchitects to design what makes up
traditions, dwelling types, patterns of
most of what you see in American cities.
urban life, and, of course, available local
With Modernism in total command of
materials and crafts that are both practical
architectural education by the mid-1940s,
and visually appropriate for the region. For
it was exciting for us to think that we were
example, the traditional Swiss chalet works
washing away the past and replacing it with
well in the snow and cold of its region, but
something we would invent on our own
would seem alien on a tropical coast. A
clean piece of paper. It was an ideology
New Mexico adobe pueblo, meanwhile,
impenetrable by any other intellectual or
would seem out of place—in fact, would
artistic force, so strong that it was consid-
melt away—in a South American rain for-
ered a moral imperative rather than a style.
est. When designing university facilities in
Because it was happening all over the
several parts of the United States, I knew
country, schools quickly climbed on the
there would be differences because of the
bandwagon; one school claimed in 1948
regional determinants—all would be con-
that it was the first regional school to
sidered modern, but they would at the
embrace Modernism. But they were wrong,
same time be regional. A university build-
because by 1946, my first year at the Uni-
ing in Oregon was quite different from one
versity of Texas, the students and faculty
in New Mexico. However, many of today’s
had not only embraced Modernism, they
architects were taught to consider invalid
had married her.
any concerns for context, harmony, and
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regionalism. While one could find the rare
far removed from the epicenters of Mod-
exception, a sharp-edged, shiny-white
ernism on the East Coast and Europe, the
International Style building would be inap-
school felt free to consider some of the
propriate in an urban context defined by
other, less dominant directions of the Mod-
regional characteristics.
ernist movement. At this time, the faculty
Thanks to the good sense of Regional-
and students, while aware of the Interna-
ism, there was not a total acceptance of
tional Style, were enthusiastic about the
International Style Modernism in some
work of Wright, Aalto, and Eliel Saarinen as
schools. Most faculties had been educated
well as the regional architectural expres-
in a strong Beaux-Arts tradition, although
sions being developed on the West Coast by
the younger faculty had experienced that
William Wurster and Pietro Belluschi and
tradition on the wane. There were direc-
by two local Regionalist architects, David
tions of Art Modern, Art Deco, Classicism,
Williams (1890 –1962) and O’Neil Ford
Eclecticism, and various revivals, as well as
(1905–1985). These were the forces that
Regionalism, still active in design studios
activated the design studios of the time.
and on construction sites. The most impor-
With a strong interest in Regionalism,
tant architectural critic of the time, Lewis
an acknowledgment of Modernism, and a
Mumford, recognized that Modernism and
respect for Wright, the Texas school went
Regionalism were not necessarily opposed.
in search of a new dean in 1950. They
To illustrate the dilemma, let me use the
chose an influential California architect,
experience at the University of Texas. Being
Harwell Hamilton Harris (1903–1990),
Harwell Hamilton Harris made wood and brick valid in the white stucco and steel aesthetic of Modernism, Eisenberg House, Dallas, Texas, 1961.
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Seeking a regional expression of the Southwest, O’Neil Ford expresses natural materials and simple construction in buildings of the Trinity University Campus, San Antonio, Texas, 1949 –1989.
who was extraordinarily sensitive to all
tional Style. The architect’s ability to create
three design directions in his own highly
and extend the designs of the preceding
admired work. Harris represented a fusion
era had disappeared, while the conceit that
of the three values.
Modernism could solve the ills of the mod-
To explore design under the influences of the International Style, Wright, and Regionalism, Harris, together with a new
ern city drove design and political decisions of the era. The focus moved to two modern mas-
professor, Colin Rowe (1920 –1999), gath-
ters, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe.
ered a bright, energetic, young interna-
Le Corbusier had been a strong force in
tional faculty that would eventually call
initiating Modernism. His early ideas vir-
themselves the Texas Rangers, canonized
tually dominated the minds of architects in
by Alex Caragonne in his book by that name. They had a deep respect for regional design issues and traditional aesthetics. Though they questioned the tenets of Modernism, they were, like everyone else at the time, overwhelmed by the momentum of Modernism in Europe and on the East Coast. In fact, that is where the Texas Rangers moved after a few years, all to create design curricula at architecture schools of importance—Cornell, Syracuse, Cooper Union. An opportunity for fusion of the three design directions pursued in the fifties was lost to the zeitgeist of the Interna-
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Harwell Hamilton Harris and the “Texas Rangers” joining the faculty of the University of Texas School of Architecture in Austin, 1953.
van der Rohe, who invented architecture of such elegance and apparent simplicity that it seemed made to order for modern highrise buildings in the new technology of steel, concrete, and glass. The influence of Mies generated the most popular commercial “style,” mainly because it could be emulated at such low cost. Some architects scoff at the idea that this was a style, but it was. During this time Sigfried Gideon, secretary general of the influential Congrés Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, defined architecture for my generation of students in his seminal work Space, Time, The “Marseilles Block” of Le
the fifties and sixties. He created extraordi-
and Architecture (Harvard University Press,
Corbusier became a social,
nary buildings that we consider heroic
1940). Along with other manifestos, it
structural, and composi-
models: Villa Savoy and the Marseilles
introduced us to a new age and effectively
tional model for buildings of
Unite d’Habitation, and later, toward the
brainwashed us about the past, filling our
medium height. Marseilles,
end of his career, he remained a true
cleansed crania with a singular idea: the
France, 1946 –1952.
visionary in his designs for the Ronchamps
glory of Modernism. Fifty years later, a fel-
Chapel and La Tourette Convent. These
low student and I made a pilgrimage to the
buildings, together with many of his well-
ultimate shrine of our early education, the
published theories, had a huge impact on
great icon of Modernism, Mies van der
both practicing architects and academics.
Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion, 1929 (recon-
Parallel to Corbu, as he was called, there
structed 1985). We found it hollow, soul-
formed a group of devout followers of Mies
less—far from the elegant design state-
The fluid shapes of Le Corbusier’s Notre-Damedu-Haut of Ronchamps, uncontrolled by the usual grid, presaged dynamic sculptural forms for Modernism and created another icon of the era. Ronchamp, France, 1955.
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ment that its singular photographs had conveyed to the world. One could now look back at it and consider it only a stylish new idea—a fashion surrounded by mystic rhetoric. The design “truth” it claimed to represent was artifice; it was in reality another “style.” More than a fallen idol, it was, at this viewing, depressingly comic. Having been involved as an architect and educator for half of the last century, I thought Modernism was exciting, but if you will examine the beginning of this chapter in light of today, you can say that my generation of architects and those to follow were more than excited—we were thoroughly brainwashed. How else could we have so ignored the earlier architecture? Looking for the New, we students of Modernism did not learn the basics of classical proportion and composition as the originators of Modernism had learned in their own education. The architect’s main guide, the architecture of the past, had been denigrated, and the skills involved in its creation, in large part, lost. Had these skills not been lost and had we continued to validate historical examples, the amateur and the nongenius professional would today have better guides from which to
United States. Had the tradition developed
The Seagrams Building of
build.
logically and organically through the years,
Mies van der Rohe was the
Such guides were available to the six-
the derivatives of the traditions would be
exemplar for the modern
teenth-century Spanish friars who brought
more successful than what we have now.
office building. New York,
European architecture to the Americas.
The search for the New was ushered in
The friars knew their art from woodcut
by radical manifestos. Below, with apolo-
prints of architectural elements as well as
gies to all historians, I take a simplified
from their memory of authenticity. The
look at the credos of five architects whose
plan books of the nineteenth century
ideas helped form the modern movement
reached a high degree of success in creat-
in architecture.
ing buildings that we admire today in the
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Adolf Loos (1870 –1933) espoused more
1954.
ideas than he built buildings. He believed
“Less is more.” That dictum spawned such
that reason should determine the way we
reactions as “Less is less,” “Less is more
build, he opposed the decorative Art Nou-
profitable,” and “More is not Enough.”
veau movement, and, in “Ornament and
Walter Gropius championed what he
Crime” and other essays, he described the
called the New Architecture. Sidelining the
suppression of decoration as necessary for
classicist Joseph Hudnut, Gropius created
regulating passion, wherein comes his
a new curriculum for architectural educa-
famous quote, “Ornament is a crime.”
tion based on his watchword, “Don’t look
Actually, he himself used color as dramatic
back.” He banned color from class projects
ornament.
for fifteen years. His polemical teaching
Frank Lloyd Wright, the most famous American architect, built many innovative
had much more influence than his buildings.
buildings in his ninety-one years. He felt
This exciting revolution pressed a
that his organic architecture was the only
“restart button” that had architects—and
valid way to build and ridiculed all others,
in fact, all designers—rethinking the form
as when he accepted the high honor of the
of everything from cities to coffeepots for
AIA Gold Medal only to say, “It’s about
the next four or five generations. The man-
time.” Some called him “the greatest living
ifestos are relearned by each generation
nineteenth-century architect,” but his Uso-
from teachers who still subscribe to the
nian House was the important model for
Modernist manifestos, either because noth-
middle-class housing in the postwar
ing better has come along or, more likely,
period, and his Broadacre City influenced
because of their own brainwashing. Per-
the city planning ideal of sprawling sub-
haps the more important truth is that Mod-
urbs in the United States. (See the Reading
ernism provided a needed cleansing of the
List.)
tired interpretations of building styles. As I
Le Corbusier introduced the influential
mentioned earlier, many architects, stu-
functionalist architectural concept, “A
dents, and teachers of this era looked upon
house is a machine for living.” His extrem-
these new theories and models as moral
ist proposal to raze Paris and replace it
imperatives, using words like honesty, integ-
with modern skyscrapers influenced the
rity, and truth. The aesthetic had been
building of the United States. His Swiss
intellectualized beyond visual sensitivity to
background as a painter led us all into
become in many cases strident and raw.
sharp-edged, white, prismatic forms and
The reaction to relieve this stridency
simplified cubist compositions leading into
came from architects of the generation that
dynamic sculptural form decades later.
followed the original “modern masters”:
(See the Reading List.)
Louis I. Kahn (1902 –1974), in the con-
Mies van der Rohe, an architect much
crete, sculptural expressions of space,
admired as a master of abstraction, simpli-
structure, and functional elements of the
fication, and elegant detail, taught us that
Kimbell Museum and Salk Center; Jørn
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Jørn Utzon’s bold design for the Sydney Opera House became one of the world’s great landmarks. Sidney, Australia, 1957–1993.
Utzon (1918 –), in the magic of the Sydney Opera House; Charles Moore (1925–1993), in the quiet repose of his buildings at Sea Ranch; Robert Venturi (1925–), in his questioning of Modernist form and resurrection of the decorative arts; and I. M. Pei (1917–), in his mastery of technology and form in his many urban building types of the period. This generation continued to refine and enhance the ideals of Modernism, yet found it easier to follow the safe, narrow Modernist views in training the next generation. Following a period that included several really good modern buildings and thousands of not-so-good buildings, there
Louis I. Kahn graced the sea
came some big steps forward. The inven-
with pure sculpture made of
tive California architect Frank Gehry
complex functions in the
(1929 –) made a masterpiece of sculpture
Salk Institute. La Jolla,
and architecture in his Guggenheim
California, 1959 –1966.
Museum in Bilbao, Spain, and followed that with the Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. These buildings had nothing to do with Regionalism, International Style,
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Postmodernism, or Deconstruction, Minimalism, or any other -ism. They represent a personal design evolution in which digital software and innovative technology were employed by an individual genius who had been exposed to all the influbelow: Charles W. Moore, in
ences above but produced something
his Sea Ranch work, found
extraordinary and fundamentally new and
form generated by indige-
beautiful. Architecture critics have named
nous buildings to provide a
this new paradigm the Bilbao Effect. In a
model for a generation of
similar jump ahead, the Spanish archi-
small buildings in the United
tect/engineer Santiago Calatrava (1951â&#x20AC;&#x201C;)
States. Sea Ranch, Califor-
accomplished extraordinary sculptural
nia, 1964.
expression at the scale of architecture in
right: I. M. Pei, the master
his dramatic structural approach to form
of many building types,
in bridges and buildings. The singular
enhanced a mountain land-
sculptural nature of these designs gives
scape in the manner of a
them qualities that might be inserted into
Greek monastery in the
a natural or urban landscape without
Atmospheric Research
compromising the local identity of
Center outside of Boulder,
Regionalism. These examples suggest
Colorado in 1965.
that in the era of globalization, local identity may gain greater value.
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At the same time, examples of Regional-
These new ideas and evolutions are the
ism evolved at a sophisticated level by such
joy of architecture and are producing won-
heim Museum in the Spanish
architects as James Cutler (Seattle), Fay
derful results. Unfortunately, in most cur-
city of Bilbao grandly accom-
Jones (Arkansas), Hugh Newell Jacobson
rent design thinking, Modernism still
plished its task of bringing noto-
(East Coast), David Lake and Ted Flato (San
demands that we erase previous ideas. It’s
riety and visitors to the city,
Antonio), and Rick Joy (Tucson). These
a kind of “Architectural Alzheimer’s
while presenting an architec-
architects work in the realm of Modernism
Effect.” Older architecture became what
tural landmark to the world and
but, in addition, are exploring the path of
educators called “history,” that is, it was not
the history of architecture. Bil-
Regionalism with new ideas and
appropriate for current use in design, only
bao, Spain, 1997.
refinements.
for architectonic and cultural background.
left: Frank Gehry’s Guggen-
Most important and regrettably, many
right: The virtuosity of the
in Mexico and Spain as Modernism, and
“modern” ideas failed to fulfill their early
architect and engineer Santiago
still exudes Regionalism, is the extraordi-
promises: buildings will be better without
Calatrava brought structural
nary architecture of Ricardo Legorreta and
ornament— e.g., new materials will last
technology and artistic finesse
Rafeal Moneo, to mention two of the lead-
longer than traditional materials, life will
to bridges and buildings with
ing figures. This work satisfies both ideolo-
be simpler and better, cities will be more
the use of tensile forces.
gies and adds the dimension of Minimal-
convenient to use, etc. And, worse, because
Quadracci Pavilion of the Mil-
ism, making for an architecture that seems
of the purge of the old ideas and old design
waukee Art Museum, Milwau-
to work in many different contexts.
skills, craftsmanship either faded away or
kee, Wisconsin, begun 1995.
A parallel design universe that thrives
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left: The architects David
was lost through neglect. I would hold that
that I relish the New— certainly in the
Lake and Ted Flato have
to derive from tradition is far better than
genius buildings and also in my own
teamed up to explore, exploit,
having a cold start from zero. Most of Mod-
efforts. Relating to these ideas personally,
and finesse the vernacular
ernism is as derivative of itself as is Neo-
I found that I was not a traditionalist at all
design idioms of Texas and
classicism. How could it not be derivative
because I, too, was a maverick. I’m unable
the latest materials and tech-
of itself after a hundred years?
to reduce my current thinking to a theory,
nology of the Modernist. Lake
The outstanding popular advantage of
Austin Residence and Boat-
Modernism was, and is, this: it can be
house, 1980.
cheap. Cheap proved instantly popular
but I’ll share some thoughts of how I personally relate to these issues. Clearly, I have moved on to a very differ-
simply because one could use the building
ent view of architecture, a viewpoint differ-
right: Fay Jones, a follower of
construction budget for all sorts of things
ent from the intellectual and moral notions
Frank Lloyd Wright, produced
other than buildings. Profits could soar.
of Modernism as well as stylistic exten-
in a forest of the Ozark Moun-
The shorter life of cheaper buildings would
sions into Postmodernism, Deconstruc-
tains the ephemeral glass and
offer more opportunities to build the New.
tion, Minimalism, and such. Of one of the
wood structure Thorncrown
The cheapness of the Modernist idioms
recent design fads, AIA Gold Medalist Fay
Chapel, which has a magic
created a boon to developers, bankers, and
Jones said, “I think I’ll sit this one out.” I
rarely found in man-made
the construction industry, at least in the
agreed. The terms anachronistic and roman-
objects. Eureka Springs,
short term.
tic that once held such negative connota-
Arkansas, 1980.
If I sound reactionary here, please know
tions for us in the era of Sigfried Gideon
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have become terms I’m comfortable with, for I’ve learned to associate them with architecture that has afforded me many delights. My quest for new old ideas led my wife, Eden, and me to move to a storied eighteenth-century town of central Mexico, San Miguel de Allende. Here they still build in the ways of the eighteenth century or earlier, with artful imagination made cohesive by the complete absence of Modernism. Their architectural protection laws, placed
historic center is a light-filled delight of
The architect Ricardo Legor-
on the center of the city in 1927, have
color and texture, unexpected forms and
reta, enhancing the simple
allowed the historic center of San Miguel
silhouettes, personal façade decorations,
native forms and saturated
de Allende to have nothing to do with the
and engaging ground plans, all combined
colors of Mexico, created the
architecture or city planning concepts of
in a heterogeneous mixture that allows
expansive spaces of the
the twentieth century. The town skipped
one to shop for daily needs without a car
Museo de Arte Contemporá-
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
and walk only on stone rather than asphalt
neo (MARCO) in Monterrey,
and continues as a charming, romantic,
or concrete. The buildings are no more
Mexico, in 1991.
picturesque, scenically beautiful, histori-
than two stories and are without side yards
cally textured, timeless town of nearly sev-
or backyards, thus allowing high density.
enty thousand. Almost every view in the
The minimal parking allows it to be a The architect Rick Joy’s Tucson Mountain House fits the land—the slope of the horizon, the verticals of the saguaro cactus, and the building materials that thrive in the desert. West Tucson, Arizona.
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Looking from the zaguán of this “eighteenth-century house” one would not know that it was handmade by artisans in 1997 using traditional tools and materials of the eighteenth century; no power tools were used. Casa Quebrada, San Miguel de Allende, Mexico. By the author, 1997.
right: A block away from Casa Quebrada is Casita Blanco, also by the author, which used the same tools, materials, and artisans, together with the idioms of Modernism. San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, 2003.
pedestrian town. Crowded with cars, yes,
more and more precious because of high
but still pedestrian. This isn’t a place of
demand and limited availability, their
great beauty like Florence. More populist,
example could usefully inspire new towns
it’s content to be charming, a place of
and the rebuilding of old.
delightful everyday architecture and
The quest for an appropriate architec-
intensely human urban form. In addition,
ture begs to be a major public issue
its climate and compactness as a historic
because it affects our quality of life. Fortu-
city allow it to be less energy-dependent.
nately, some key architectural thinkers
San Miguel de Allende and thousands of
today are groping with new forms in thrill-
towns like it challenge us to rethink our
ing ways. Also encouraging is that the stu-
assumptions about appropriate architec-
dents of today are more questioning, and
ture for the future. We shouldn’t need to
because they are very bright—and perhaps
move to a historic town to enjoy a more
also more immune to the brainwashing of
humane lifestyle and rediscover charm.
the two previous generations— design may
While the historic areas are becoming
evolve in fruitful ways.
e x p l o r i ng i d e a s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e
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CHAPTER FIVE
HAS ARCHITECTURE LEFT THE BUILDING?
Form follows function. l o ui s s ul l i va n (1856 –1924)
Dear Richard: You say that “architecture has left the building,” and your letter talks about how fulfilling architectural dreams in a meaningful way involves the deepest aspects of
Form follows finance.
society, far beyond the qualities of the indi-
s te v e r o s s
vidual building. I agree. And you as a fel-
(1957–)
low architect and, further, as a developer have much at stake in the effectiveness of your investment as well as in the public’s reaction to it over time. So if architecture has left the building, how will we get it back? Thinking beyond the functional needs of the building and beyond the current manner of architectural expression involves serious questions. Bright minds continue to search for answers at drawing boards and computers and in articles, h a s a r c h i t e c t u r e l e f t t h e b u i l d i ng ?
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books, seminars, and public forums, far
museum weigh?” No one could answer, but
beyond bricks and mortar. It is a lively dis-
another broad topic had been launched.
cussion to join. Buckminster Fuller epito-
Our breakfast was yet another thrilling
mized such great thinkers and excited
four-hour lecture, this time for just us two,
audiences everywhere.
covering the universe and Fuller’s manner
In one such forum years ago at which
of addressing the challenges. Agog, we put
my partner and I were asked to give a talk,
him on the plane at noon and began to do
we discovered that we would follow Mr.
our best to “think beyond.”
Fuller—about the most humbling experi-
Thinking beyond your own project can
ence that could happen to young architects.
give you rewarding insights. Think about
And this was not only because of his great-
how your project might affect the quality of
ness in conceptual thinking and his inven-
life in your community, how it relates to its
tion of the geodesic dome, but also because
urban setting, its environment, the tradi-
he was known for talking nonstop for three
tions of the place, other architecture, its
or four hours. To everyone’s surprise, that
neighbors, its time, its overall sustainabil-
morning he finished within his allotted
ity. Even if your own architectural project is
hour. After the long applause for his bril-
as simple as a boathouse, you might enjoy
liance subsided, my partner and I took the
contemplating its features more if you
stage to present a live multimedia presenta-
think about what Palladio, Corbu, or Kahn
tion, Space Is an Illusion, using two narra-
might have done with your project. So
tors and two projectors to elaborate on con-
before you start to design, step back and
cepts of space in nature, in architecture,
consider some of the issues involved in
and in urban life. The audience of three
architecture today.
hundred public school art teachers at their
Thinking beyond in the twentieth cen-
1967 state convention in Dallas was atten-
tury resulted in some great architecture:
tive and appreciative. But after we finished,
Kahn’s Kimbell Museum, Gehry’s Bilbao
Fuller came over to the two of us and said,
Guggenheim Museum, Utzon’s Sydney
“You boys are like crustaceans crawling
Opera House, Le Corbusier’s Ronchamps
around on the bottom of the air ocean.
Chapel, and Wright’s Fallingwater. These,
You’ve got to think beyond this. Meet me at
and more, will be known as individual
my hotel tomorrow at eight for breakfast.”
works of major significance as histories are
That evening we heard one of his legendary
written.
four-hour lectures at the Dallas Museum of
Yet, as you look around, you’ll see that
Fine Arts, during which, in the middle of
most of our urban environment is unat-
his talk about energy for movement and
tractive and not at all exemplary of the high
lightweight structures for shelter, he asked,
level of civilization we otherwise enjoy. Our
“Who is the director of this museum?”
suburban and rural settings are polluted by
When Director Jerry Bywaters stood up,
the thoughtlessness of indiscriminate
Fuller said, “Sir, how much does your
buildings in the vast areas between the
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the place
well-designed architecture. To understand
architecture schools get beyond function
the magnitude of the challenges, consider
and reason to even mention the concept of
that the total number of buildings we’ve
beauty. Architects have seemed embar-
built is the gross physical product of our era,
rassed to use the word beauty. What’s
and consider the good architecture to be
wrong with beauty? It’s certainly some-
our net. Clearly, our net-to-gross ratio is
thing amateurs understand. We love beauty
infinitesimal. Surely we can do better.
in people, we love it in nature, so why not
Please understand, my concern is the scar-
in buildings and cities? Similarly, the
city of good architecture, not the scarcity of
words graceful, charming, comfort, and har-
great architecture. Great architecture has
mony are rarely heard. Instead, one will
always been scarce.
hear social purpose, intervention, function,
We live in the most advanced civiliza-
workable, style, and sustainability, along with
tion in history. Why, then, is most of what
many esoteric concepts and just plain jar-
we see being built so unsatisfying and
gon. Eventually the intellectualization
inadequate, visually and socially? Devel-
becomes expressed in concrete.
oped nations like ours have the technology,
It would help the amateur and the non-
the wealth, and the governmental and busi-
great architect (yes, there are many of us)
ness mechanisms to build great places to
if we knew how to achieve those time-
live, work, and play. Why can’t our everyday
honored attributes. We need to know how
streets and buildings be beautiful? A big
to make beauty, charm, grace, and comfort
reason, beyond cost, is that beauty is out of
for our lives with appropriate architec-
fashion—we seem to no longer seek it.
ture—to improve the thousands of build-
Why? Only recently did conversations in
ings that lie in the large distances between the rare great buildings.
Graceful, charming, com-
What’s happening? The public streets
fortable, and harmonious,
are scenes used by designers to “make a
this seating area could be
statement,” “make it new,” “innovate,” and
called anastilo, without style,
“intervene.” These objectives, encouraged
and more or less without
in schools of architecture, are inherently
time. Casita Blanco, by the
different from a harmonious streetscape—
author, 2003.
cacophonous to the minds of some, glorious in-your-face moral interventions in the eyes of others. To consider this propensity to stand out, I suggest the analogy of the music school. Music students are taught to stand up like a soloist when they play, even though, once out of school, most will sit in the orchestra rather than stand up as soloists. Shouldn’t architects, while being
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taught to be soloists, also learn how to sit
serves a clientele that builds large commer-
down and be part of the orchestra? Let’s
cial buildings, high-rise buildings, and
face it, of the thousands of architecture stu-
institutional buildings, but very few resi-
dents in schools today, will we get one great
dences. The profession is rarely asked to
soloist architect per year, or even per
participate in the design of ordinary build-
decade? Maybe not, so why not focus on
ings, commercial strips, big-box retail, or
the nongreat and the nonarchitect and
any kind of housing, regardless of price.
insist that they learn to sit down and be
Even multimillion-dollar residences built
part of the ensemble, the orchestra?
for the speculative market are usually built
Ensemble or not, the buildings pro-
without the aid of an architect— or with
duced in our economy are cheap buildings
the aid of a licensed architect only to “draw
with short lives. We are in a culture con-
it up” for building permit purposes. What
cerned mainly with business. Private enter-
are our aspirations?
prise, which builds most of our buildings,
Why is the use of the profession so lim-
naturally must make a good return on its
ited in these buildings? One reason is that
investment or it’s not an investment worth
the cost of professional architectural ser-
making. The market tends to create many
vices is one item that can be omitted from
disposable, throwaway buildings. Cities are
the building costs; construction drawings
choked with obsolete buildings that are
can be made somewhere in the building
underutilized, left behind by new buildings
industry where architecture isn’t an objec-
seeking to replace them with a more com-
tive. Another reason is the profession’s
petitive design and a better market position.
isolation from the rest of the building
Are investors expecting too much, too
industry. Design services can be offered
soon? Compared to today, pre–World War
through the building contractor at a finan-
II building investments had lower returns,
cial advantage. Our tradition of profes-
in the short term, from more-expensive,
sional service doesn’t like the idea of pack-
better-built buildings, having put more
aging services with the contractor, citing
resources into quality design and construc-
the obvious conflict of interest in manag-
tion. This raises questions like: Can build-
ing the construction. Yet what we give up
ing budgets include quality-of-life issues
in so doing is the opportunity to put a
and still be profitable enough to merit
higher value on architectural services when
investment? Does “beauty”— or, if you like,
we join a team with contractors to produce
“high visual quality”—subtract from or add
a well-designed and well-constructed prod-
to profitable returns? If good architecture
uct. Many countries place the design and
isn’t valued in the marketplace, is the mar-
construction tasks in the same organiza-
ketplace the absolute arbiter for the quality
tion. Both building contractors and archi-
of our lives? The dilemma is that we want
tects could benefit from this manner of
both a good market and good architecture.
doing business.
Most of the architectural profession
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the place
Though it’s often not realized, the cost
of design is almost insignificant compared
with public and private dollars as well as by
to the cost of construction, furnishings,
investing their attention as individuals.
debt service, taxes, operating budgets,
Proposed new public buildings deserve
building maintenance, and utility costs
massive input from concerned citizens.
over the years. If beauty is so cheap, why
New public buildings are an expression of
do most building developers abandon it to
the community, so the selection of the
save an infinitesimal amount of cost by not
architect requires its input and oversight.
engaging architects? Is it arrogance or
Excellence in design is a matter of pride, a
ignorance? We notice that highly success-
matter of aesthetic responsibility, that
ful developers like Gerald Hines of Hous-
shares importance with our social and
ton are wise enough to hire the world’s
political responsibilities. To assist the
best architects to design large speculative
objective of aesthetic responsibility, the
buildings that receive a market advantage
reintroduction of art programs in the ele-
by being of good design. Such developers
mentary and secondary schools could help,
benefit the community as well as their own
and—more radical still—we could include
profit line.
exposure to the art of architecture in public
The barriers to good design go beyond cost and are seemingly infinite: the regulatory challenges, the financial challenges,
schools if we think that is an important part of our lives. The architecture where people live,
the societal challenges, the engineering
work, or just hang out comprises an art
challenges, the sustainability challenges,
form in which I like to walk around: the
and the multitude of other design chal-
architecture of the city, a college campus, a
lenges. The game is to win one challenge
sixteenth-century village, and any place that
at a time.
has been made wonderful by design. My
Amateurs (remember, amateurs are
thinking beyond doesn’t reach as far as
those who love) can encourage investment
Buckminster Fuller’s; he was probably
in good building and good community
thinking beyond Mars.
Communal open spaces offer a place to walk, meet friends, and have events. West Mall, University of Texas at Austin.
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PART TWO
THE GROUND FLOOR
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CHAPTER SIX
MAKING ARCHITECTURE WITH AN ARCHITECT
The bitterness of poor quality is remembered long after the sweetness of the cheapest price
Dear Thomas, Of the three choices you have in making
is forgotten.
architecture—hire an architect, become an
anon.
architect, or learn to think like an architect—the most assured choice is working with an architect. As chairman of the building committee you described, you have, I’m sure, many questions. How do you choose an architect? What does it cost? What services are provided? How do you work with an architect? What do you gain? Choosing an architect is in many ways the same as choosing other professionals, such as your doctor, lawyer, or accountant. You have seen or heard that their work is of the quality you seek, that they have a good reputation, or that there is an individual in the firm that you would trust with your project. m a k i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e w i t h a n a r c h i t e c t
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In other ways, though, the selection of an
ent. I had an agenda of seven proposals,
architect is quite different. This relationship
each listing one or more ways in which I
is personal and often intense. You will share
was prepared to give ground and let the
your dreams and hopes for the building that
building function a bit better even though
will ultimately emerge; you will share how
it would compromise the architecture. But
you live and want to live (if this is a house
the client smilingly dismissed each of my
for yourself ), or how to achieve your partic-
seven proposals, proclaiming, “Client, 7;
ular goals in an institutional or commercial
Architect, 0!”, allowing it to be a much bet-
building. You are also looking for a person-
ter building—based, in this instance, on
ality that would work well with yours.
subordinating Vitruvian commodity to
The professional and artistic quality you
delight. The client was smart enough to see
seek has the capability to bring to your
that he was sacrificing only a minor func-
project the commodity, firmness, and delight
tionality but gaining a major delight. This
of the Vitruvian triad—that is, functional
was yet another proof of the axiom, “The
workability, structural and mechanical
architecture is only as good as the client.”
soundness, and delight of the senses. Plus,
Another reason the selection of an
you want it completed it on schedule and
architect requires care is that your relation-
within your budget. The choice of architect
ship may last for years. You will probably
will come with investigating, assessing,
spend more time with your architect than
and reaching a consensus on the decision
you will ever spend with your doctor, law-
with your partner, committee members, or
yer, or accountant. As an architect, I have
board members. You want an architect who is a good listener and pays attention to the details of
worked with some clients as long as fifteen years through many projects. From the architect’s perspective, I tried
your needs and desires. But because you
to become known to clients with whom I
want the architect to make architecture, not
wanted to work, knowing likewise that
just build at your direction like some
those prospective clients were looking for
draftsman, he or she must have the design
architects with whom they would like to
latitude that is essential to the project’s
work. Toward that end, in the early days,
architectural success. The client and archi-
my partner and I would go to a concert
tect work together.
and, at intermission, race down four floors
To illustrate, let me share a story. Once
from cheap balcony seats to say hello to
when working on a house with an experi-
prospective clients in the main lobby. We
enced and architecturally astute client, I
saw the clients we sought regularly, and it
designed what seemed like a wonderful
eventually worked.
abstraction of geometric form in an ideal
Most selection decisions involve inter-
landscape. It was so perfect that I worried
views, which are often competitive and
about my being overbearing in forcing
intense because the client is seeking some-
functions into this idealized architectural
one to trust with spending sometimes mil-
form, so I asked for a meeting with the cli-
lions of dollars and the architect is trying
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the ground floor
no less seriously to get the commission.
In the case of an income-producing project,
Both parties seek a good fit through being
programming will work with a business
open about needs, qualifications, and
pro-forma. The architect will work through
budgets.
the program in more detail and elaborate
Before starting the selection process,
on the specifics. The objective is to make
you will have formed a general idea of what
major decisions before construction begins
you want to build, its purpose, and where
rather than after.
you want to build it. You will be well
An individual designing a house or
advised to keep an open mind rather than
an entrepreneur planning a commercial
be too specific because, as you progress,
project is far different from a board of
you will be getting new information about
directors of an institution seeking to build
the sort of building you are doing and the
a museum or hospital with public funds.
nature of its construction. The architect
Yet in all cases there will be a personal rela-
will have the education and, usually, broad
tionship between architect and client. As
experience upon which to base artistic and
projects get more complex, the makeup of
professional opinions. At the same time,
the architect’s organization and his or her
your role as client comes from a different
team of consultants must be defined, as
set of experiences and is equally critical to
well as the complexities of the client’s
the quality and effectiveness of the build-
building committee and staff, and perhaps
ing. Both roles will set the “chemistry” of
adjusted for an effective working
the relationship, and you will become part-
arrangement.
ners in the realization of the project. The
The actual selection process takes sev-
construction contractor, the third major
eral forms. The simplest is to select three
member of the team, usually comes later.
to five architects with the best information
Forming your general ideas into specific
you can find and begin talking with them
requirements is the predesign process of
about your project. Ask those architects
programming—perhaps the most important
who still interest you to take you on a tour
set of decisions you will make. In a com-
of their projects and introduce you to their
plex building, programming can be done
clients. Look for how they actually solved a
either by the architect or by a separate pro-
particular client’s building program, how
fessional. Either one will help you decide
successful the client thinks it was, and how
what kind of space is actually needed, how
comfortable you yourself feel with the final
the parts relate to each other, and what the
product. Find out how well it fit the budget
mission of the facility should be, and will
and the time schedule. Ask yourself if you
thereby define the project before beginning
would be enthusiastic about going through
the design. In a complex institutional or
this long process with this particular archi-
business facility, the program often bene-
tect. Talk about fee arrangements. Make
fits from the services of a professional pro-
sure that you have looked at enough archi-
grammer working with your staff and lead-
tects to feel that you can make a good deci-
ership to assess your needs and intentions.
sion. Then get started.
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In a large public project, about the same
member ranks a firm, and the group
thing happens as with a board of directors
decides how to arrive at a list of ten or
but with a more inclusive search, more
twelve for further discussion. Firms are
transparency, and more attention to the
eliminated one by one in this discussion,
public responsibility. The first step is to
and a group of three to five is decided upon
appoint a selection committee whose task
for further review. Those three or five are
will be to interview and recommend to the
often invited to come to the committee and
board a first, second, and third choice. The
the site and present themselves along with
selection committee might include major
their objectives in the project, their ideas
donors, political representatives, building
about the project, and their team of consul-
professionals, and knowledgeable archi-
tants. It is unwise to ask the architects for
tects who will not be considered for the
other than verbal ideas at this time because
job, or a hired architectural consultant who
they will not know enough about your proj-
can recommend candidates and comment
ect to present a well-informed sketch or a
on those being considered. The consultant
modeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;that would be premature, before
might be a respected retired architect or a
they have an understanding of the project,
local architecture professor who is knowl-
the site, and your intentions. A further
edgeable about the particular kind of
committee deliberation may lead to two or
project.
three architects whose offices as well as
If you are selecting an architect when
some of their most recent projects and cli-
public funds are involved, you must send
ents should be visited. A detailed review of
out a Request for Qualifications (RFQ) to
exactly who in their office will be working
the profession at large in an appropriate
on the project, the fee arrangements, the
publication so that all interested and quali-
actual consulting firms and their qualifica-
fied architects will have a chance to be con-
tions, time schedules, and details of com-
sidered. The committee or its consultant
munication can then be discussed before
will recommend a broad list of architects to
making a final decision and signing an
be contacted and sent an RFQ. Because the
agreement.
most respected architects get many RFQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
The simplest way is for an individual
and their response can cost thousands of
entrepreneur to decide on an architect and
dollars, the most desired architects may
simply get to work. And thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the way most
have to be courted by the committee to
of my own projects began.
encourage their response; personal con-
The most complex way involves a design
tacts may be necessary in order to get them
competition, which is open to all architects
sufficiently interested in the project to sub-
and which follows specific AIA procedures.
mit an RFQ. The architects who respond to
The competition is conducted under the
the RFQ and appear qualified are then
auspices of a professional advisor, who will
reviewed. The review, best done by the
(1) lay out the procedures for the competi-
entire committee, may involve a hundred
tion, including the design program, (2)
portfolios on an important project. Each
select the jury who will evaluate the
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the ground floor
designs submitted, (3) address questions,
1957, it was one of the first postwar design
and (4) receive final proposals. The jury,
competitions circulated in the United
not the client, determines the winning
States. The Enrico Fermi Memorial Plaza
design, though the jury might include a
in Chicago was to be judged by a jury of
representative of the client. The architect
significant figures of the twentieth century:
of the chosen design is awarded a cash
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Gordon Bun-
prize or the commission to do the project
shaft, Jose Luis Sert, Pier Luigi Nervi, and
or both. Some competitions are open to all
Lancelot White. We entered the competi-
and some to invited architects only. An
tion because we were eager to know what
International Design Com-
expensive process, the design competition
these great men thought of what we might
petition for the design of an
is more popular in Europe than in the
do. Joining with Joanne Pratt as sculptor,
urban plaza commemorat-
United States. The risk is that the winning
we managed to win the second prize and
ing Enrico Fermi, Nobel Lau-
architect may not be the best one to serve
Recognition of the Jury, among 355 entries
reate, who developed the
the client; the advantage is that young, as
from 25 countries—with publication to fol-
first nuclear reactor. Chi-
well as established, architects may present
low in important journals. It was a thrilling
cago, Illinois, Second Place
concepts exceeding all expectations.
win and also a huge encouragement to
Entry of James Pratt, Joanne Pratt, and Hal Box, 1957.
When my partner and I entered our first international design competition in
think that we might be going places. Soon we entered another competition, this one to design a neighborhood, the Better Living for Middle Income Families Design Competition, sponsored by Matico, Inc., in 1959; the chairman of the jury was the distinguished architect and dean of MIT, Pietro Belluschi. We won the Grand Prize of $10,000, considerable recognition, and commissions to plan neighborhoods in Virginia and Kentucky. When, a decade later, we felt that the Downtown St. Louis Urban Design Competition was right up our alley, we spent months working on designing the progression from the Gateway Arch at the Mississippi River through downtown to Union Station and the Carl Miles Sculpture Garden. All three of us partners went to St. Louis for several days to study the place. The competition, which, alas, we didn’t win, cost us each at least a month’s salary, proof that such competitions can be expensive for all parties. Another consideration in complex
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building projects is that they involve a team
and the architect were required to repeat
of specialists, sometimes in-house within
phases that had already been completed.
the architect’s office, but more often inde-
The fees vary. For institutional work, the
pendent consultants working within a spe-
typical fee is 6 percent of the construction
cialty with many different architects. The
cost up to 10 percent for technical projects
consultants may include specialists in
like hospitals or the intricacies of remodel-
urban design, traffic, site design, founda-
ing. Fees for commercial work are much
tion, structure, energy and water conserva-
less and vary with the building type. Fees
tion, plumbing, lighting, acoustics, food
for full services on a residence will be at
service, elevators, building code, fire pro-
least 12 percent of construction cost, and
tection, security, interior design, landscape,
some of the better architects will require
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
an 18 percent fee. Lump-sum contracts for
(HVAC), as well as building-type specialists
the architect’s services are sometimes used
for hospitals, sports facilities, and airports.
when the project is well defined. The most
It should be clear in your agreement when
common form of contract is the most
and if these services will be needed and
recent edition of the appropriate contract
who will pay for them.
in the American Institute of Architects’
What will your architect’s services cost? The extent of the service, the building type,
series of contracts. The owner usually has the responsibil-
and the fees of individual firms will be the
ity of providing the technical information
key determinants. The simplest fee basis is
on the site: a legal description of the site
a cost plus a multiple of direct expense agree-
with boundary stakes in the ground; a top-
ment whereby the principals of the firm
ographic site plan showing the location of
and its employees are billed to the client at
trees and other features, including utility
cost plus a multiplier—2.0 to 3.0 times
entry points; and a subsurface soils and
being typical. This kind of agreement can
foundation survey.
be for a few hours of consultation or an on-
The work progresses in phases. The
going open-ended agreement that is billed
Predesign Phase may include the program-
monthly. I’ve had some such arrangements
ming mentioned above as well as visiting
last for years through many projects with-
similar building types around the country
out negotiating a new contract for each
to inform client and architect. When
service.
designing a hotel, I was privileged to
A fee based on a percentage of construc-
explore with my client some of the best
tion cost is the traditional basis for full ser-
hotels and restaurants in the United States.
vice, beginning with the initial predesign
When selecting a museum architect, our
phase through the final construction
committee traveled around the country to
phase, with monthly statements upon the
learn about museums, their architects, and
completion of each phase of work. Percent-
the opinions of clients. In some situations
age fees are definite; the only change
architects travel abroad with their clients,
would be if the scope of the work changed
both of them seeking knowledge and inspi-
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the ground floor
ration from the great architecture. The
but it should be a design that will ensure
architect you select should be well traveled
a wonderful design in the next phase.
and be able to tell you of the important
Schematic Design comprises 15 percent
precedents that can inform the design of
or sometimes more of the design team’s
your project. Once a good understanding
work and compensation. When the client
of the program and intentions has been
decides that the architect’s schematic
reached, the formal phases of the work
design is what is to be built, and prelimi-
proceed, after Predesign and Program-
nary cost estimates are made and
ming, in this order: Schematic Design,
approved, the design can proceed to the
Design Development, Construction
next phase for further development.
Documentation, Bidding and Negotiating
The Design Development Phase is
of Construction Contracts, and Con-
exactly what it says: it’s the development of
struction Administration.
the design in all its detail, in every room
In the Schematic Design Phase, the
and every exterior surface. Design deci-
architect outlines the parameters of the
sions will have been made on all spaces—
project while working with consultants on
their materials, lighting, heating and air
structure, mechanical, landscape, interiors,
conditioning, sound, energy consumption,
and with other specialists. He or she brings
and other building systems. The consul-
the functional elements into an efficient
tants are all reinvolved in the design team
arrangement and begins to determine the
to confirm and adjust the many systems
character of the spaces and the relationship
involved in the building. This phase of the
to the site. The basic organizational and
work is mainly internal to the architect’s
architectural decisions will be made in this
design team because this is where they
phase. Sometimes it will take many trials;
hammer out the intricacies of the building
sometimes it will happen on the first try.
systems. Design studies of all parts of the
The process should not be rushed because
building will be made, examined, and tied
both architect and client need to be satis-
together into a whole. The client will want
fied before proceeding, and to achieve this,
to check the progress; the architect will
the architect may want to make several
want to get detailed questions answered by
other trial designs to ensure that the best
the client. There may be preliminary view-
one is developed. At this stage the architect
ing of the design as it is taking place. At
can usually work as fast as the client can
the end of this phase, about 35 percent of
make decisions. The schematic design
the design team’s work has been com-
determines how big the building will be,
pleted. When the client approves the
what its arrangement of functions will be,
Design Development documents and the
and how it will relate to the site; it will give
preliminary estimate of cost, signing off on
an idea of what its spaces and character
both, the project can proceed into the next
will be and a preliminary estimate of cost
phase: preparation of detailed designs,
based on square footage and type of con-
drawings, and specifications for use in esti-
struction. It is only a schematic design,
mating, bidding, and construction.
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The Construction Documents Phase describes the design in terms that can be understood by the contractors and subcontractors who will be building the building. These drawings and specifications define precise forms and proportions, materials and methods of construction, individual pieces of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing equipment and their systems. These documents form the basis for the contract between the owner-client and the general contractor. At this point, about 80 percent of the architect’s work is completed. In the Bidding and Negotiating Phase the most appropriate general contractor is selected, and costs and conditions are agreed upon in legal documents: the plans, specifications, general conditions, and contract between owner and contractor being the four elements of the contract to be agreed upon. The general contractor may
willing to go forward by talking to previous
Brick, concrete, and wood
be selected by putting the project out for
owners and architects for whom the con-
construction in progress.
competitive bids either to a selected group
tractor has worked and by examining the
Marsh House, by author,
of contractors or to all contractors, as
contractor’s financial condition. Actual con-
1978.
would be the case in a public project. The
struction costs can be determined only by
lowest qualified bidder is carefully consid-
the contractor agreeing to build the build-
ered along with other low bidders. (A small
ing for a specific cost; architects, engineers,
spread between the high bid and the low
and estimators obviously cannot guarantee
bid indicates the contractors’ thoroughness
a price. The construction cost will vary
in preparation of the bids that have been
according to what is happening in the
assimilated from many suppliers and sub-
economy, the variable cost in labor and
contractors. It also measures the clarity of
material, and the local competition in
the architect’s documents that are bid
building activity at the time of bidding.
upon.) In a public job, the contract will go
Another arrangement for selecting a
to the low bidder unless there is good
contractor is to make the selection early in
cause for change. Before an award is made,
the project, based on the merits of the con-
the owners will want to investigate the con-
tractor. The advantage here is that you can
tractor, satisfying themselves that they are
get his or her expert opinions and cost esti-
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the ground floor
mates during the design phases, then
respond in a way that improves the design
negotiate a price when the documents are
of the building rather than detracts from it.
completed.
This is why it’s good to have the architect
The contracts for construction can be a
on hand during construction. Example: I
lump-sum “turnkey” price for the work
once worked with a contractor who told me
described in the documents, where the
that he would do anything to save the client
contractor takes the risk and changes are
money, irrespective of my design. I agreed,
handled by change order. Or the agreement
with the proviso that he let me work on the
can be the actual cost plus a fee, preferably
problem before making the change. He
fixed rather than a percentage, so that the
agreed, and an excellent working relation-
fee doesn’t escalate with the construction
ship lasted through five large building proj-
cost. I have had good experience with both
ects, because when he presented me with
types of selection and both types of con-
an opportunity to save money, I improved
tracts because of the care taken in qualify-
it from a design point of view and usually
ing the contractors who might be inter-
saved more than he had expected. This is
ested in doing the job. All communities
the way architect and contractor can have
have some contractors that are better than
a beneficial relationship rather than an
others, and to get those contractors some-
adversarial one, for both their own inter-
times requires lobbying them and fitting
ests and the owner’s. The client-owner will
into their work schedule. Taking a low bid
also be involved in those decisions and
from a marginal contractor and expecting
always when there is a change in cost
that you can simply require that the work
requiring a change order.
be done right and in accord with the plans
Taking shape on the ground and in the
can lead to big frustrations and expense.
sky, the spaces of the building and its views
Low bidders can be what we call “change-
will come into a much clearer reality than
order artists,” who make up for their low
on plans or models. It will be exciting. Rare
bid with change orders.
is the project that will go straight through
In making decisions on cost, know that
without changes. Changes offer an oppor-
the most expensive thing you can buy is
tunity to make small adjustments that
something you don’t want.
make it better. When such adjustments
The construction phase is messy,
appear to be beneficial, ask the contractor
changeable, dangerous, complex, and excit-
to give you a proposal for the cost of such a
ing. Anything can happen, beginning with
change. The contractor’s saying “It’s too
the excavations and foundations, where
much” is not really an answer because the
one might unexpectedly find hard rock,
contractor doesn’t know how much you
soft soil, historic artifacts, or water, any of
think would be “too much” for this particu-
which will often require revisions and con-
lar improvement. Get the numbers and
sume time. And all the way through the job
then make a decision. There will be thou-
one can expect the unexpected and can also
sands of these decisions to be handled by
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you or your representative, so my advice is
confused, but it turned out beautifully.
to enjoy them.
John Smith was the best superintendent I
To enjoy the construction process more,
ever knew—a true miracle worker. He had
you can ease the financial stress by having
been an Army Corps of Engineers master
personal or corporate contingency funds in
sergeant and ran the construction in that
addition to the contingencies that might be
manner, treating me as his commanding
in the contract. In that way, you can take
officer. He went on to become a general
advantage of opportunities that arise or
contractor of large commercial projects
resolve problems that are encountered.
around the United States. When he unex-
Five percent of the construction cost is
pectedly appeared at my university office
appropriate for that extra contingency.
ten years later in a handsome suit, he had
There is much to admire on a construc-
become a vice president and member of
tion job. Compliments encourage the good
the board of one of the nation’s largest cor-
workmanship you seek. Building architec-
porations! So much for first impressions.
ture in a personal way means making
Change orders will be requested by the
many visits to the site. When finish work is
owner, architect, or contractor, priced by
being done, whether in wood, stone, tile, or
the contractor for cost and time delay, then
glass, watching the individual craftsmen
reviewed by the architect and presented to
can ensure the quality of finish. When a
the owner for approval. Contractors will
new craftsman comes on the job, watch his
need to make a monthly or weekly draw on
work for a day or two, and if it isn’t good
the construction account in order to meet
enough, dismiss him. On only three occa-
their payroll and their subcontractors’
sions have I had to have a workman
charges. Your important hold on this opera-
replaced, but the big one was when I
tion is that you stipulate, and AIA contracts
removed an inept superintendent of con-
do stipulate, that the owner retains 10 per-
struction on a five-building school com-
cent of each payment until the satisfactory
plex. His replacement arrived the next
completion of the project. It’s important to
morning—red-faced, late, and hungover. I
have a signed release from all the subcon-
asked his name, and he said, “John Smith.”
tractors before final payment.
What was your last job? He said, “I just got
Ensure that the general contractor also
out of the army.” Had I made a big mis-
retains 10 percent from all of the subcon-
take? I couldn’t visit the job until two days
tractors. This 10 percent will be their moti-
later, but when I did, I saw a new small
vation for finishing the job satisfactorily.
building that had nothing to do with the
The retainage helps you get your project to
plans. I yelled, “What’s that?” He said,
final completion with good craftsmanship
“That’s my office.” It was complete with
and on time.
phones, electricity, and air conditioning, all
Completion requires that all of the con-
built in two days, and it even included a
ditions of the contract be met. This one-of-
place for me. I was both impressed and
a-kind project, with lots of variables, using
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many building crafts, is nothing like Dell
coming in to finish its work. When the con-
making you a perfect computer within
tract is complete, the general contractor
hours of your order.
turns the project over to the owner. With
There are shortcuts to this process,
the construction crews off of the site, the
such as going to a design-build company
landscape and interior furnishings and
and telling them what you want and how
equipment installation can begin.
much you want to spend. This kind of ser-
The landscape and interior designers
vice has extreme variations in quality of
have been working during the construc-
design and construction. Most popular are
tion, usually under separate contracts, and
the quick and cheap alternatives that have
have been involved with the architect in the
nothing to do with architecture. In the case
design process from the beginning. The
of a residence, a home builder might mod-
client will have been working closely with
ify a standard plan and call it “custom.”
these specialists as the building finally
This is, in fact, the way most buildings
comes together and is ready to function.
happen. However, a design-build process
At this point, the furnishings become more
can be in the time-honored manner of
important than the building. Then it’s all
building in which the architect builds what
integrated when each space is comfortable
he or she has designed and produces
for each user. Installation of electronic
extraordinary results for the client. This
equipment, art, special facilities, and such
kind of professional service is standard in
may take weeks—with even more deci-
other countries. Recent AIA contracts have
sions to be made by the client-owner.
been refined to make clear distinctions in
After the building is completed and
roles that eliminate conflicts of interest
shaped into its best form, you should have
between the architect-builder and the cli-
architectural photographs made of both
ent-owner, making this an attractive and
exteriors and interiors. There are two
efficient method of making architecture.
reasons: first, the client and the architect
The many specific details to be com-
can offer them for publication if desired;
pleted, or redone, before the project is
and second, the architect needs a record
complete are noted in a “punch list,” the
of the work because it will change over
device that owners, architects, and contrac-
time through remodeling and will no lon-
tors use to complete all the details of the
ger represent his or her work. The archi-
project before final payment is made and
tecture will simply become real estate
the retainer is paid to the contractor and
on the market, to be remodeled in unex-
subcontractors. Making punch lists and
pected ways, and the only record may
crossing off the completed items marks the
be in photographs.
final stage of the project—painters are
One last suggestion: have a grand open-
touching up; electricians are checking out
ing event to celebrate everyone’s accom-
lighting; in fact, almost every trade will be
plishment and enjoy your new building!
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CHAPTER SEVEN
BECOMING AN ARCHITECT
This generation should prepare broadly— for more than one career, perhaps as many as four. henry cisneros (1947–)
Dear Amelia, “What’s it like to be an architect?” you ask. Your entry into architecture school is part of your dream and you have chosen a great school. For others who are about to build, becoming an architect is the second and most dramatic choice in their effort to make architecture rather than just a building. The sheer joy of being an architect comes from the way you feel in your head and gut when you are being creative, when you solve a complex problem with clarity, making something happen that’s better than you thought it could be. Or when you feel yourself applying hard-earned knowledge from study, travel, and experience to the creative process and you approach the b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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69
edge of beauty. Or when you arrive at your
have degree programs in these specialties
construction site early in the morning and
without the long training required to
feel goosebumps.
become a practicing architect. For example,
The dream of becoming an architect
you will find that some universities now
seems to be deep-seated. Mine was realized
offer undergraduate and graduate degrees
with an early decision. Most people don’t let
in Architectural Studies in which limited
themselves even consider becoming an
amounts of technology, drawing, and
architect because they imagine such a
design are required. These programs focus
career to be unrealistic for them. They tell
on architectural history and theory, special-
me, “I’m bad at math” or “I can’t draw” or
ized issues, and two or three years of
“It would take too long” or “I wouldn’t make
design study. Because these students are
enough money.” I’d answer with the follow-
smart and come from varying back-
ing, in order: “There’s actually little math
grounds, they help create an exciting intel-
involved”; “You can be taught how to draw”;
lectual milieu in the school. In the field,
“The formal schooling is five to seven
they create a better architecture by preserv-
years”; “The financial rewards vary signifi-
ing good architecture of the past and help-
cantly—some architects drive Porsches,
ing to design more humane cities while
some drive pickups. I’ve driven both.”
working in roles as consultants or as com-
Others think about the long education
munity leaders and in public office. Being
and never do it. Still others start architec-
passionate and educated, they can be
ture school in their thirties or forties.
extremely effective.
Philip Johnson, one of the legendary archi-
To explore a career change or choice,
tects of the twentieth century, was a suc-
consider enrolling in such programs as the
cessful museum curator before setting off
Career Discovery Program at Harvard, or
for architecture school in his midthirties.
the Summer Academy at the University of
Andrea Paladio, perhaps the most copied
Texas, or others listed at www.aia.org. If you
architect in history, was a stonemason
are making a career change, look for the
until, at age forty-two, he called himself an
program that best fits your needs in a city
architect. Filippo Brunelleschi, who led
where you would like to live for a while.
architecture into the Renaissance, had been a goldsmith. Some of the best students I can remem-
The probability of success in architecture school is not easy to measure because architecture requires so many aptitudes
ber started in their late thirties. Some who
and talents. And after exploring the field,
make a career change want to be profes-
many students decide to seek another
sionals; others want an education in archi-
career instead. For instance, among
tecture to pursue careers in historic
famous actors there is Jimmy Stewart, who
preservation, urban design, sustainable
graduated from the architecture school at
development, or environmental issues—
Princeton, James Mason, who studied
or perhaps even doctoral studies in archi-
architecture at Cambridge, and John Den-
tectural history and theory. Many schools
ver, who studied architecture at Texas Tech.
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Architecture, being the domain of the
one-man office after heading a large firm
generalist, doesn’t have a special entrance
where others drew for me, and the last
exam like the LSAT or GMAT, which sup-
time, when my design students felt so inse-
posedly gauges an applicant’s likely success
cure in their drawing skills that they
in law or business school. Only one defi-
insisted I learn to draw again so I could
ciency completely inhibits a person from
teach them! However, drawing improves
understanding architecture: poor spatial
seeing, and drawing in the form of sketch-
perception. The three-dimensional aspects
ing is the key to visualization. The more
of architecture are the heart of the matter,
facile one is in such sketching, the better.
and if abstract space cannot be perceived,
Parents ask me how their aspiring high
architecture cannot be conceived. Math is
school student might best prepare for
used mainly to understand physical princi-
architecture school. I suggest a good gen-
ples and for its elegant lessons in logic. You
eral education; a start in a second language
don’t have to be good at drawing because
so as to explore other cultures, enough
architecture school will teach you how to
high school math and physics to handle
draw adequately if not beautifully. I’ve
introductory college courses, experiences
learned how to draw four times—first in
in freehand drawing, and, most important,
architecture school, then again when start-
extensive travel. It helps to visit with sev-
ing a practice, then again when starting my
eral architects you know or can be introduced to, to see what their lives are like, what they do in their offices, and, if possible, to follow them around for a day or so to learn what their world is like. If you are really lucky, you may find a mentor who will guide you in school and beyond. Almost everyone enjoys architecture school even though it’s known to be a strenuous course of study. The two most important ingredients for success in school seem to be high intelligence and enthusiasm for the crushing thrill of the work involved. Fortunately, it’s fun; if it’s not fun for you, don’t do it. Students practically live in the studios— drawing, building models, and learning from each other while making
North portal of the School of
lasting friendships. It’s seductive and con-
Architecture, University of
suming. Those who don’t feel jazzed by it
Texas at Austin. Paul Cret,
feel distinctly out of place and drop out
1936.
quickly. My first impression of architecture b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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71
school was shock upon seeing the lobby of
never thought of being an academic—I
the architecture building filled with huge
didn’t even have a graduate degree. He asked
watercolor drawings of beautiful buildings
me to think about it. But at the time, I was
by the year’s top students. I had no idea
three years deep into the most exciting proj-
that architects did that, and I was sure that
ect of my life, so I called back after a week to
I couldn’t do anything like that. But when I
say that I appreciated the opportunity but I
visited the school soon after graduation, I
couldn’t do it. A few weeks after that, my cli-
saw my thesis in the same lobby.
ents unexpectedly sold the big project and I was up in the air. When Dean Green called
In choosing an architecture school, look at
again with the same question, I said that I
the student work, the backgrounds of the
would come out and talk about it.
faculty, the studio and support facilities,
Thus I entered academe as a tenured
the library, the administration, the curricu-
professor and dean of what would become
lum of the particular degree you want, and
a new architecture school. I was on an
the city, since you’ll be living there for a
exciting but steep learning curve, writing
while. Explore CollegeBoard.com for infor-
course descriptions, the curricula for archi-
mation. It seems that every school, even
tecture and four other environmental
the less prominent ones, have a few really
design degrees, hiring the faculty and
good students. Because a school is only as
staff, remodeling buildings for space, and
good as its students, one gauge of a school
starting a library. Five years later, with a
is “How good is the weakest student, and
great deal of help from local architects
how fantastic is the best student?”
and engineers, we had produced an accred-
There are now 114 architecture schools in the United States. But back in 1971, Dallas/Fort Worth was the largest urban
ited school of architecture and our first graduates. Having completed that mission, I was
area in the United States without a school
then asked to be dean of architecture at my
of architecture. That soon changed. In an
alma mater, the University of Texas at Aus-
unexpected telephone call I received one
tin, in 1976 and assigned the charge of
evening, Dean Charles Green of the Uni-
rebuilding the school. I made a full com-
versity of Texas at Arlington asked, “Would
mitment there and enjoyed the next
you consider coming out here and starting
twenty-two years amid an extraordinary
an architecture school?” I asked him to say
group of colleagues, students, and ideas.
that again because I thought he must think
Degree programs in architecture started
he’s talking to someone else. After he
at universities in the United States in the
assured me that I’d heard him correctly, I
late nineteenth century: MIT in 1866, Har-
asked, “Why me?” He said, “We’ve read
vard in 1895, the University of Texas in
your comments in the news about the need
1909. Some architecture schools started
for a school. You have a good reputation as
within a college of Engineering, some in a
an architect, and we think you can make an
college of Fine Arts, and some in graduate
architecture school here.” I told him I’d
schools; most programs evolved eventually
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the ground floor
into independent schools within their uni-
ture can plunge right into architecture
versities, many also offering education in
school with enthusiasm, but many fresh-
the related disciplines of city planning,
men take a little longer to decide, so they
landscape architecture, interior design,
start out in liberal arts and benefit from a
other design specializations, and
broader education and more campus life
construction.
before committing to a professional
Degree programs are structured in several ways. If you also have a degree in
program. Students from all disciplines can suc-
another area, you typically start in a gradu-
ceed in architecture school. Musicians and
ate program that could be completed in
literature majors stand out as some of the
about three years. If you’re just starting
biggest stars that I remember. Science and
college, the odds are you will do a four-year
engineering majors, though seemingly well
undergraduate degree followed by a two-
prepared for architecture, often require an
year graduate degree. But you may get a
adjustment to a teaching method that is far
baccalaureate degree in another area first
more subjective than their familiar objec-
and then go to a graduate architecture pro-
tive processes. Students with a mechanical
gram. Or another choice is the long-stand-
drawing background or digital expertise
ing five-year undergraduate professional
can often draw faster than they can design
degree that could be followed by a graduate
well.
degree. Course work includes Design,
The teaching method for design and
Drawing, Architectural History and The-
drawing differs from most disciplines. We
ory, Structures, Environmental Controls,
use a one-on-one discussion of the stu-
Construction, and Professional Practice,
dent’s work, similar to teaching in a music
plus a thorough liberal arts experience.
or art school. One who has difficulty with
Around 60 percent of the students are
the process of criticism may experience
Design studio in the School
men and 40 percent are women—up from
limited progress in the study of design. It’s
of Architecture, University of
just 3 percent women in the 1940s. A col-
the special and personal way we teach and
Texas at Austin.
lege freshman anxious to get into architec-
learn, which is of course rare in the large universities of today. Small classes and daily personal contact with the professor in the studio and on field trips create a healthy learning environment. On one such field trip to see the work of a famous architect, a student asked, “Can you teach me to think like that?” Life revolves around the design studio, where about fifteen students each have their own workspace, usually with computers. Because studio classes last fifteen hours a week all semester, studio life b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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becomes the ecosystem of the school. Stu-
know how she got into graduate school, but
dents live in the studios literally day and
when I met Anna in her first week, strug-
night when a project nears completion. I
gling at her drawing board, and asked if I
would sometimes go by the school to find
could help, she said, “I do need help! Until
my entire class working in the studio at
last week I was an emergency room nurse.”
midnight, high on the intensity and endur-
I noticed that her drawings were scratches,
ance of the “charrette,” smelling of pizza,
clearly her first try—and also that she was
and having a good time.
pregnant. How could she handle these
The phenomenon of the charrette
classes? Young Professor Refuerzo
comes from the tradition of the Ecole des
demanded that every student in Anna’s
Beaux-Arts in Paris, the most important
class make an A—and insisted that they
architecture school of the early twentieth
earn it, too! So, somehow, by semester’s
century, where students lived and did their
end Anna had learned to draw, and by her
work in little apartments all over Paris. As
third semester she had become so skillful
the story goes, a horse-drawn cart—in
that I had her teach a drawing class. Being
French charrette—was used to go around to
a single parent, Anna brought her baby boy
the students’ residences and pick up their
to the studio, where he took his naps in a
drawings. The drawings had to be quickly
neat little bed made between the rungs
put on the charrette, and if the project
under her drawing table. After six semes-
wasn’t finished, the student would jump on
ters, when Anna had become one of the
the cart and try to finish the project while
best designers in the entire school, I
wobbling down the cobblestone streets to
proudly brought our guest, the famous
the waiting jury of professors. Charrette
architect Bill Caudill, to see her work after
has thus come to mean an intense effort
his all-school lecture. Her design studio
over a period of time, like twenty-four to
was a grand room designed in 1916 by
forty-eight hours, during which one goes
Cass Gilbert, the architect of the Supreme
without sleeping and one’s mental and
Court Building in Washington, D.C. It was
artistic abilities are concentrated into a cre-
around 10 p.m. We found the great room
ativity machine more effective than one
full of students, cardboard models, stacks
ever could imagine. It is a great “high,” a
of tracing paper, coffee, and rock ’n’ roll.
great feeling— one that my partners and I
They were clearly embarked on an all-night
continued to experience as professionals,
charrette. As Caudill and I were admiring
when, in an overnight charrettte, it was the
the imaginative drawings on Anna’s table,
only time that we played music—usually
a smiling little face looked up from his bed
Verdi’s gorgeous Requiem, over and over—
and said, “Hi!” Her son, now age three, got
until the project was finished and we had
a big hug from us, then walked around the
given Verdi a cha-cha beat. You can tell that
studio to kiss all the students in the class
most architects enjoy studio life and the
goodnight, as he had done for as long as he
charrette.
could remember.
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Even life outside the studio is intense
nium, they enjoyed so many opportunities that recruiters were offering hiring bonuses. Because the architecture profession plans new construction, it has been a bellwether of the nation’s economy. It’s one of the first indicators of decline in business activity at the beginning of a major recession and also one of the first indicators of an economic upturn. The awkward gap between school and practice—the ideal and the real—is often bridged by the opportunity to work in an architect’s office while in school. My first Students present their proj-
because architecture dominates so many
such opportunity came in 1948, when I
ects to faculty and visiting
discussions. Most schools have a lecture
had decided to skip summer school for a
critics for review.
series of visiting architects and scholars
job as a musician. Instead, I received one
several times a month; a vital school will
of those life-changing phone calls. The
have several each week. An ad hoc noon-
caller said his name was O’Neil Ford, that
time forum in a packed seminar room may
he needed someone who could draw, and
become the hottest venue for discussion.
would I like to come work for him. I had
One forum may invite faculty and guests
never heard of Ford, but he was an archi-
to explain their formal work. Another
tect and that’s what I wanted to be, so off I
forum may invite a scholar to present a
went to his office in San Antonio. But this
topic they are working on but haven’t yet
was no ordinary office. This was a large
resolved. (These are often the best forums
spread on the San Antonio River next to
and can go on for hours.) A variety of
the historic eighteenth-century San Jose
architectural exhibitions and guest lectur-
Mission, with a group of old stone houses,
ers offer new ideas and create vitality
workshops, and barns forming a large
around the school.
courtyard. Outside were peacocks, guinea
Eventually, graduation happens!
hens, chickens, dogs, and little children
Whether it’s a boom or bust economy, or
along with a collection of period automo-
even if the world is at war, students gradu-
biles in various states of repair. It was the
ate and expect to enter their profession. My
magical world of Willow Way, where Neil
early mentors graduated into the Depres-
and his family lived and worked and also
sion or into World War II. I myself gradu-
where we draftsmen lived, next door to the
ated into the Korean War; others after me
drafting room. We were being shaped in
graduated into Vietnam or into economic
quite a different way than we would have
booms or recessions. A placement director
been in a corporate office in Manhattan.
I once knew called it “graduation bingo.”
My next training came in the last two
As students graduated around the millen-
years of school with another of the region’s b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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first Modernist architects, Charles Granger,
complete. While you will be registered in
who had trained with both Richard Neutra
only one state, this exam gives reciprocity
and Eero Saarinen. This kind of preprofes-
possibility in other states.
sional experience is available in schools
Alternatively, it’s significant that some
with professional residency programs
of our best architects, past and present,
offering academic credit within the
have no professional architecture degrees.
curriculum.
Three giants of the twentieth century,
A professional degree is just the begin-
Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and
ning. Even with a degree that has taken
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, were not grad-
five, six, or even more years to earn, you
uates of an architecture school, nor was
must become registered by a state before
Harwell Hamilton Harris. In the South-
you can call yourself an architect. To be
west, for example, the foremost regional
registered, you must complete a three-year
architects have done beautifully without
internship with a registered architect,
professional degrees in architecture. (David
although in reality it’s a normal employ-
Williams lacked one course and as a mav-
ment without the regimen that accompa-
erick refused to complete his degree.
nies a medical internship. Extensive experi-
O’Neil Ford took some courses with the
ence in the office of a registered architect
International Correspondence School.
can no longer be substituted for a profes-
David Lake and Ted Flato completed four-
sional degree for registration in most
year preprofessional degree programs and
states. After internship, you can qualify to take the Architectural Registration Exam (ARE) given by the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards. The exam is in nine parts: Predesign, General Structures, Lateral Forces, Mechanical and Electrical Equipment, Building Design/Materials and Construction, Construction Documents and Services, Site Planning, Building Planning, and Building Technology. Each part requires three to seven hours on a computer in a test room. Any parts failed may be retaken in six months. The pass rate is around 80 percent, and some of the best architects I know failed at least one
The geometric structure of
part and had to wait six months to retake it.
the Wilson House was of
Nowadays, good preparation courses make
solid mahogany. Dallas,
it just another hurdle, but it does require
Pratt, Box and Henderson,
intensive preparation and at least a week to
1959.
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finished with an intensive apprenticeship
organized, possessing both business skills
with Ford.) All of them became registered
and people skills, having a flair for entre-
when experience was an alternative to a
preneurship, and getting some good
professional degree. It’s notable that each
breaks. If you want to open your own
of these men excelled as an architect, mak-
office, your questions will be: Should I
ing extraordinary architecture on the cut-
open first, or should I cultivate potential
ting edge, often published, and broadly
clients first and get “known”? And how
admired.
does it happen? In my case, my partner,
When I took the four-day registration
James Pratt, and I had the good fortune to
exam in New Orleans at Tulane’s Architec-
be known first—and in an unusual way.
ture Building in 1955, I was a navy lieuten-
We had the audacity to do a study of down-
ant about to be able to return to my career
town Dallas, using the occasion to promote
and needing to pass. Fortunately I did,
some new urban design principles—new
whereupon I took my passing exam report
ideas for that time, anyway—that seemed
to the Orleans Parish Courthouse to have
to deserve vital discussion. After three
my architect’s registration recorded. There,
years of work, we caught the attention of
a kindly gentleman climbed a ladder to the
the national architectural journals. We had
top of a bookcase and brought down a
also won an international design competi-
handsome red-leather volume with gold
tion and received a lot of press even though
lettering that read Registry of Midwives and
we were still young associates in other
Architects. I think I was number 445, but I
firms. Then our first client called, the one
doubt that registry survived Hurricane
who asked us to tell him what he should do
Katrina.
with his 6.2 acres of downtown Dallas. We
Fulfilling oneself as a professional
negotiated a contract to design a high-den-
architect requires one to operate with three
sity, mixed-use development, printed a let-
distinct personalities, each having its own
terhead, and opened our office with more
separate value system. The architect is (1)
courage than business plan. It grew to
an artist, (2) a technician, and (3) a busi-
become known as Pratt, Box and Hender-
nessperson. The values involved invariably
son for the next thirty-five years.
conflict and must somehow be reconciled,
Being an architect is more difficult than
however uneasily. A practicing architect
becoming one. Our firm’s interest in the
spends more time in technical and busi-
design of places and things at every scale
ness matters than in design matters.
involved us in urban design, business and
Isn’t it amazing that we have symmetrical
institutional buildings, houses, landscape,
architectural trinities: Commodity—
interiors, and furnishings. These were
Firmness—Delight, and its parallel,
exciting times. Unbelievably, we worked
Business—Technology—Art!
even harder than we had in school. After
The practice of architecture is quite dif-
that first big commission, we designed a
ferent from school. Success in practice has
small, one-story office building that sorely
additional demands. It involves being well
tested our knowledge and experience, b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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because we had each been working only in firms that were doing skyscrapers. Our experience had also not prepared us for designing a large house for an old Dallas family. My being from a little town in East Texas, and my partner from a little town in West Texas, we didn’t know how to design a fine home because we had rarely been in one. As luck had it, though, our client was patient and instructive. We lavished time on the design and construction. All of us were delighted with the result—in fact, in 1990 it was named one of the fifty best houses ever built in Dallas, still extant. Next came a private school for mentally retarded children, two exciting churches, and a large market building—projects that would put us in the magazines and even a few books. We stayed involved locally with community service and internationally with design competitions, through which we could see how our ideas compared with those of other architects. We took time for travel to see the great architecture of the world. (How can you design a great building if you’ve never seen one?) Our small firm
large residence where we had designed a
top: Interior of St. Stephen
conceived a plan whereby the three part-
complex roof geometry of exposed wood
United Methodist Church
ners would each take a three-month trip
structure, for which we planned to use the
with walls of Archilithics.
every three years at the firm’s expense. We
most economical cedar available. A former
Mesquite, Texas, Pratt, Box
traveled on shoestring budgets, but among
client, himself in search of a good buy on
and Henderson, 1961.
the three of us we saw most of the great
cedar, alerted us to a boxcar of dense furni-
architecture of the world.
ture-grade Honduras mahogany that had to
bottom: Plan of St. Stephen
be sold at a big discount. So we made the
United Methodist Church,
is to work with new or unusual materials
house as a piece of mahogany furniture
conceived to serve the litur-
coming either from advancing technology
within the original budget! The geometry of
gical processions of the con-
or from extraordinary natural materials
the three parts of the residence came
gregation at worship, sat
found at an affordable price, such as a par-
together in a way that I could not draw well
freely on a prairie in Mes-
ticular brick or stone or just the right type
enough to explain to the carpenters how to
quite, Texas, Pratt, Box and
of glass. One such example for me was in a
build it, so I had to climb up on the second-
Henderson, 1961.
One of the excitements of construction
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floor roof and piece out the rafters at the
tectural fantasy. Unfortunately, because of
correct angle.
legal problems with patents and owner-
Once, while looking for new materials
ship, the material was not used again,
on the edge of technology, we got ourselves
much to our loss, but it was a forerunner of
invited to watch a contractor’s experiment
the fiberglass-reinforced stucco now in
with a new material composed of Portland
common use on buildings of many types.
cement, fiberglass roving, and a secret
Practice has many surprises, such as
admixture for a material eventually called
when the American Institute of Architects
Archilithics. The cement mixture and the
asked me to write a book on the architec-
fiberglass roving were to be shot separately
ture in and around Dallas. Having avoided
out of a two-nozzle gun onto a steel arma-
history and English in both high school
ture to make economical thin-shell con-
and college, I found this a task that re-
crete structures and other fluid shapes. At
quired help from every friend I had.
the end of the demonstration, the remain-
We produced the first credible book on
ing concrete mixture was shot onto a row
the subject, The Prairie’s Yield: Forces
of concrete blocks about four feet tall by six
Shaping Dallas 1842 –1962 (New York:
feet wide. Several days later, we returned to
Reinhold, 1962)—and I had my first
see the dome experiment. For some rea-
glimpse of another facet of the discipline
son, someone happened to kick over the
of architecture.
wall of concrete blocks, and it stayed
Our firm eventually grew to employ over
together like a solid wall. The cement with
thirty architects and handled large projects,
the admixture had bonded to the block
such as college dormitories, office build-
while the fiberglass roving for reinforce-
ings, wholesale markets, apartment build-
ment held the blocks together. Eureka! We
ings, schools, churches, a community col-
suddenly had ourselves an inexpensive wall
lege campus, and several urban design
that could be shaped in curves without
projects, specialty shopping centers, and
formwork by common labor rather than by
even an amusement park. We wanted the
masons! We asked a testing service to set
large office because it provided us with a
up a strength test on a ten-foot-high wall
base for doing significant projects, but it
sample, one-third of which had no founda-
was a big risk; we have since learned better
tion under it. Weight was applied to the
ways to do significant large-scale work
cantilevered end of the wall, stressing it to
(chiefly by associating with other firms).
failure. This yielded evidence of a very high
We won a number of design awards for our
stress resistance on the strain gauge. Our
work, and all three partners, along with
design was the answer to how we would
most of the long-term members of the
build a church we were then designing that
firm, were honored by election to the AIA
was composed of continuously fluid
College of Fellows. A career high came in
shapes. It was quite successful. It won sev-
1968, when we began design on a thirty-
eral design awards and was published here
two-acre mixed-use project in downtown
and in Europe— even in a book on archi-
Dallas with a flagship building that would b e c o m i ng a n a r c h i t e c t
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Model of Griffin Square and Tower with I. M. Pei City Hall in foreground. Pratt, Box and Henderson. Dallas, Texas, unbuilt, 1961.
be both the tallest concrete building in the
imagined. An empty building is just a
world and the tallest building of any kind
piece of real estate, but when it is given a
west of the Mississippi. The thrill of that
place in the community and when land-
dream kept me awake at night and
scape, furnishings, art, books, music, and
intensely engaged during the day, working
food are added, or when a business or edu-
sixty billable hours a week with a large
cational enterprise flourishes, it provides a
design team for three years. Lots of flatter-
satisfaction far stronger than seeing oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
ing press came out of it, even a front-page
building in a magazine or receiving a
story in the business section of the New
design award. It gives meaning to the work
York Times and articles in several European
beyond its architectural aspirations and
journals.Our New York partners ultimately
makes a contribution to the community.
changed, however, and our grand project
On a personal level, being an architect
stopped. But for three years I had the fun
allows you to acquire and enjoy many
of thinking I was actually designing one of
skills. It provides a rich sense of accom-
the tallest buildings in the world, exploring
plishment. It allows a growing intellectual
leading-edge technologies, and helping
understanding of how and why architec-
shape a city.
ture evolved as it did, together with a sense
As an architect I have found the design
of participation in it. If youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re fortunate,
process thrilling and the construction pro-
your works will live in their communities,
cess challenging, but the lasting joy comes
in books, journals, and the ephemera of
when the client loves the building and uses
scholarsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; or at least in the memories of
it in beautiful ways that I had not even
you and your colleagues.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
THINKING LIKE AN ARCHITECT: THE DESIGN PROCESS
When I am working on a problem I never think about beauty. I only think about how
Dear Ms. Van Zandt: The alternative to hiring an architect or
to solve the problem. But when I have
becoming one is learning to think like an
finished, if the solution is not beautiful,
architect and getting the help needed to
I know it is wrong.
make architecture. You have said that you
buc km i n s te r ful l er
want to build on your own account.
(1895 –1983)
Assuming that you wish to invest yourself in the process, I should first say that thinking like an architect differs from thinking like most other professionals because the architect is a generalist seeking to produce an art that is in service of people’s needs. Its range of activity is broad. The first time I thought like an architect was probably in Miss Klimer’s first-grade class when she had us build a house—a real, full-size house with a roof and stucco walls—in an oversized classroom at East Texas State Teacher’s College Training t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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School. The three small rooms were made
and methods of design process vary, I’ll
of orange crates covered with chicken wire
describe the way I think about it and the
and plastered by the hands of seven-year-
way I have taught it.
olds. Miss Klimer taught us to grow vegeta-
Making shelter for people, things, and
bles in a garden out back, then take turns
tasks is a basic human need; architecture is
cooking lunch and living in the “house.”
in the service of those essentials as a ser-
That project was so successful that she had
vant art. Building designs can be scratched
us build a barn out of cardboard carpet
in the sand or sketched on the back of an
rolls, like a log cabin, and bring in pets
envelope in minutes or formatted from
from the farm. The thinking I remember
available sources and printed within hours.
was the awe of seeing that big shape appear
But the design of true architecture takes
from the stuff we had had on the floor and
time, patience, knowledge, skill, and a will
how good it felt to press plaster into steel
to make it happen.
mesh. That teacher and those two build-
You begin the design process by explor-
ings plus her stories of Mexico must have
ing three worlds that are about to meet:
set my future.
One world is the site, a place in the com-
If you draw to think or if you build use-
munity or landscape; another world is the
ful things from your thinking, you have a
program, the owner’s list of needs and
core of architect-like thinking at work. John
desires; and the third world is the budget.
Ruskin described architecture as, “An art to
The site will be visited, explored, walked
learn because we are all concerned with it.”
over, driven around, flown over, read about,
The readers I hope to address here
and studied in maps of topography, geol-
design large and small buildings. These
ogy, traffic, and weather. The geography,
people are developers, engineers, building
urban planning issues, building codes,
contractors, professional homebuilders,
zoning codes, and subdivision restrictions
and active architecture aficionados. Large
that are the physical and legal realities of
buildings require the seal of an architect or
the particular piece of property—all these
engineer to protect health, safety, and wel-
need to be absorbed. Learn the site; have a
fare in most communities. Small buildings
picnic on it.
and personal residences don’t require a professional seal.
The program is a statement of what the building is expected to do, what it will con-
Thinking like an architect suggests that
tain, how it will function, for what group of
some kind of magic will happen. True, the
people, what role the building seeks to play
design process is the magic, fundamental
in the community, and how it can relate to
to the architect’s work—a straightforward,
the urban fabric. If it is to be an income-
logical quest for information, inspiration,
producing building, its financial pro forma
artful resolution, and a means of expres-
becomes part of the program.
sion. You can think of it as creative problem
The budget is a prime reality of the
solving made into art—art contained and
project. It controls. It is value. When your
defined by functions. While approaches
project is finished, no matter how good the
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architecture, it will be only real estate to
ables—and, tougher still, they all seek to
much of the world. I’ve never known of a
be reconciled simultaneously and artfully.
budget that was too large. Yet a wonderful
Mathematical formulae or computers can’t
client for whom I designed a large house
make these kinds of decisions because
with solid brick walls, solid walnut cabi-
each variable has a value judgment placed
nets, marble floors, and nothing ersatz
on it by each individual designer.
anywhere, said at the end of the project,
The challenge can best be handled with
“Hal Box is the only architect in the coun-
visual problem solving, in which diagrams
try that can exceed an unlimited budget.” A
of program requirements are made and
great quip, yet within a year he asked me to
solutions are tried. You make “bubble” dia-
add to the house a twenty-five-meter indoor
grams of various functional parts of the
swimming pool. Budgets must be realistic
building to organize relationships, func-
for the proposed undertaking. They can
tions, and proximities; then you begin to
change as objectives and resources change,
set limits and work with the messy body of
so they are not fixed—they’re just a fact.
information intuitively, by trial and error, to
Programming in the 1970s became an
find workable relationships of progressions
art form in itself with intricate procedures.
from one function to another as well as an
William Pena, in his book Problem Solving,
organization of the whole. Some variables
Program Making, described an excellent
have a higher value and get priority consid-
procedure that could be used by large firms
eration. It’s like solving a puzzle.
working with complex corporate organiza-
Eventually a possible organization for all
tions to come to an understanding of the
these variables becomes apparent. As you
client’s needs, record them accurately, and
work with the diagrams you can see rela-
agree jointly that the decisions made in the
tionships emerge and patterns form into a
programming phase represent what it is
composite that can be made into a build-
that is to be built. As you can see, such a
ing. In a complex building type or unusual
process is very reassuring. Since that time,
site, early discussions with consultants may
special consultants provide programming
suggest that some organizations are better
services sometimes even before an archi-
than others and may even be controlling
tect is hired. Although the program is an
factors because of cost.
essential beginning to the design process,
With site, program, and budget in
it is not the final arbiter. During the design
mind, you can begin to place each part of
process new factors will be discovered, pri-
the project in a hierarchy and give it prefer-
orities may change, and the program will
ence in size, orientation preferences, loca-
be refined.
tion, and functional proximity. Soon you
While the program presents the reasons
will begin to see possibilities for actual
why you build the building, many restric-
physical form and develop a progression of
tions and ordinances will tell you how.
spaces. This is visual problem solving.
Design of architecture is complex because
From the sketch diagram in plan form,
there are always so many competing vari-
visualize moving through the spaces; find t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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axes that can help you organize spaces.
resolved in a preliminary way as you begin
Find a long wall that might become a refer-
to create forms of the building in your
ence plane to help organize the spaces
head. The architectural concept will help
around it. If it’s dull, twist it, overlay it,
you to define the form, the spaces, the
reverse it, manipulate it. Find progressions
light, the movement, and such, and it will
through the spaces. Look for ways to create
become a schematic design that you can
mystery and surprise on discovery. Begin
develop and refine.
to visualize roof shapes and sculptural
Students ask many questions before
form, but don’t be too quick to adapt a roof
finally understanding what defines a con-
form.
cept. It’s your visualization of what the
After you get a schematic diagram that
building seeks to be. It can be a sketch of
seems to work, see if you can do a better
the floor plan idea, or a small sketch
one by starting all over, adding new consid-
model, or a sketch of the building sitting
erations such as thinking about how the
on the site, or any other means of describ-
building might be organized in cross sec-
ing the building in your mind— even a
tion (a cutaway view through the building)
written description of the concept.
and in elevation (a straight-on view of one
With thousands of variables to be recon-
side of the building or room). Think about
ciled in the design of a building, and with
how you will put a roof on it.
each variable susceptible to a broad range
Because each design problem is differ-
of values, the magic of visual problem solv-
ent, it’s reasonable that you might do it bet-
ing will surpass the ability of today’s com-
ter the second or third time. Yet we are told
puter. The computer can hardly be
by Malcolm Gladwell in his book Blink
expected to create art out of a building pro-
(New York: Little, Brown, 2005) that our
gram. The computer simply cannot make
first idea is likely to be the best, even
aesthetic decisions or creatively manipulate
before we go through a lot of reasoning.
functional aspects, yet it can compute
An experienced client once told me at the
many alternatives for you to pass judgment
beginning of the project, “I don’t want to
upon. For now, the task of conceptualizing
see a lot of sketches or process, I just want
a design remains in the mind of the
to see what you propose.” Luckily my first
designer.
schematic design was on target, was built,
It’s the architect’s responsibility to
and was successful on all counts. On the
develop an architectural concept that will
other hand, I think it’s good to check your-
satisfy the client’s program of need, desire,
self by trying several schemes. Design
and budget in a way that will enhance
problems differ from mathematical prob-
rather than damage the surroundings—
lems in that they don’t have one right
and do so in a way that will make the client,
solution.
user, and public grin with pure pleasure.
What you are working toward in this
My mentor, O’Neil Ford, said, “It’s not
phase of the process is an architectural
enough to make a client happy; you must
concept in which functions and budget are
make them ecstatic.”
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Sketch of an architectural concept.
In the design process, my first rule is
cept is your most important design deci-
the same as the doctor’s injunction from
sion. Make it. Test it. Pin it on the wall in
Hippocrates: “First, do no harm.” In other
front of you and work toward it. Verbalize it
words, don’t damage the neighborhood,
if you can and write about it under the con-
the streetscape, the natural environment,
cept sketch—a simple list of adjectives can
or the budget.
give direction. Let it set for a while.
Test the concept to see that it satisfies
If you find that your architectural con-
the client’s program, that it can be built
cept is inadequate, restart the process and
within the budget, and that it meets the
develop one that’s better. Keep the old one
requirements of the regulatory agencies
pinned up because you may go back to it.
involved. Then, you want to see if it pro-
As you work on the design and make
vides the maximum delight to the users
decisions about it, keep the chosen concept
and people around it. That last test will
in front of you and in your mind. It will
require a number of trial designs to see if
help you make coherent decisions. Visual-
you have chosen the best. You will want to
ize it as a completed building rather than a
look at other buildings of similar criteria,
design on paper.
either in person or in the library. You will
An element of design to be balanced
want to visualize the completed and occu-
and adjusted about here in your process is
pied building to see if you wish to proceed
the matter of scale. Scale is the relationship
with this design or seek another. The con-
of the building to the human body or to the t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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size and scale of the buildings nearby. Is it
cal aspects of the site, are assimilated into
too big or too small or just right? For exam-
your concept. These realities are expressed
ple, a tall doorway that dwarfs a person
in lists or narratives, or as you begin to get
near it is out of scale. A McMansion next to
visual in your process, these facts can
a small cottage is out of scale on the street.
become diagrams that might relate well to
Scale can make a setting be monumental
your physical planning. When all this
or cozy. A client once requested that a sin-
comes together, it is like a big pot of stew
gle person or couple feel comfortable and
which you stir up and boil in your head,
at ease in a room that seated two thousand
draw out portions of it periodically and test
for dinner; for this we designed protected
it—testing it in a sketch, a drawing, a card-
niches around the perimeter of the room
board model, or a computer model.
that could be intimate spaces within the larger space. A second matter of relative size is that
The building’s complexity will determine the specialized knowledge needed from consultants, who will form a team
of massing, the proportional relationship
with the architect to work on foundations,
of one mass of the building to another and
structure, heating and air conditioning,
to the whole building. Complex masses
plumbing, electrical, lighting, interiors,
become the solids and voids of sculptural
landscape, and perhaps much more. The
form. This is where an accurate three-
primary consultants will be major partici-
dimensional model is needed. A virtual
pants in the early development of the con-
model that can be rotated on a computer
cept, working with the architect, who is a
screen is a useful substitute.
generalist— one of the last in this world of
Remember, most buildings are inher-
specialists—with training to work cre-
ently ugly— often not as attractive as the
atively with many specialists. The early
natural landscape or old buildings they are
phases of design require the generalist to
to replace. So, unless great care is taken in
make many overarching subjective judg-
design, a new building is apt to actually
ments using incomplete information that
diminish the quality of the landscape or
is awaiting refinement by the specialists.
streetscape. Hence this axiom, which I
The untrained designer will make even
either heard or made up: “Make sure that
larger leaps that will need adjustment.
what you build is better than what you’re replacing.” Zoning ordinances, building codes, fire
The basic tool in design thinking is the pencil. I use a pencil because it allows me to change my mind and my drawing
codes, environmental standards, insurance
easily—I erase almost as much as I draw.
requirements, and other legalities tell you
Others use ink and draw definite ideas;
the minimum requirements of how to
my ideas are usually too tentative to be
design the building and must be learned
recorded in ink. I admire those who can
and recorded in your drawings as well. The
think so clearly, but I tend to suspect they
realities of structural systems, mechanical
may be arriving at form too quickly and
and electrical systems, as well as the physi-
missing the subtleties. More and more
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designers use only computers and have
creativity in anything else, can be honed by
a computer skill that is as miraculous as
working through a cycle that I paraphrase
a fine drawing skill, to which is added
from the highly regarded poet and plan-
the advantage of the computer’s memory.
ning futurist Betty Sue Flowers.
Today’s students are extremely facile in computer graphics and use it as a basic
Prepare with a thorough investigation.
design tool. Digital drawings look so per-
Focus intensely, obsessively, passion-
fect that you may not bother to think of the
ately, as an eccentric genius.
reality of the actual full-size building. A
Dream and play, release cherished
freshman design class can now produce
notions, and explore new ideas.
what look like wonderful designs for build-
Seek a “flash of insight” by visiting the
ings, yet when you take the time to visual-
site, discussing ideas, assessing
ize the reality, it may be an unfortunate or inadequate design decided upon too early because the graphics looked good. I admire those who use the computer with such fluidity that you think they used
precedents. Work effectively to develop the ideas into a design that solves the problem. Assess your work; if it’s not wonderful,
a free-flowing medium like vine charcoal.
repeat the cycle, perhaps from a dif-
In discussing the medium used in design,
ferent point of view, until you reach
Bill Caudill, the distinguished architect and
the result you seek.
educator who spanned the era from watercolor renderings to digital design, claimed
The architecture you create must be
to be able to discern from looking at a
expressed in drawings, models, or images,
building which medium was used in its
not fantasies in your mind. Yet drawings
design: charcoal, pencil, ink, chipboard
can deceive you; you can fall in love too
model, foam-core model, clay model, or
soon with your own drawing. The architect
computer. Sometimes the medium used
Edmund Bacon, an exemplar of a twenti-
for design is readily apparent as you drive
eth-century city planner, cautions that
down the street.
“architects are often too quick to form.” Be
In whatever medium, find the form that
cautious. First of all, drawings must be to
might be developed architecturally. The
scale for reality to be visualized and
technique of laying a piece of cheap tracing
assessed. A scale like 1/4-inch equals 1 foot
paper over your previous drawing to refine
gives an accurate representation for visual-
your sketch again and again, or emulating
ization—smaller scales are used for con-
that process on the computer, can lead to a
cepts. A drawing not to scale will lie to you,
magic synthesis of your objectives. Think
leading you to wishful thinking and
of personally occupying the design, feeling
unworkable decisions. When possible, I
the presence as intimately as you would in
like to draw the basic plan full-size on the
your own home.
site with stakes and colored tape. When
Creativity in the design process, like
you draw to scale on paper or computer, t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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remember to visualize the full-size reality. Avoid the architect’s trap of making “paper architecture,” something that looks good on paper but is not right for the project. As you put design ideas on paper, the visual problem-solving process prompts one image to lead to another, as ideas feed off of themselves, enabling you to create something more complex and satisfying than the idea you first conceived. This process repeated again and again, as you trace freehand over each idea to improve it, makes the design process work. As you are developing plan concepts, you must be looking at the building in section and elevation so that you understand it three-
Complexity is not to be confused with com-
Cardboard study models of
dimensionally and are adjusting to how the
plication. Confusion signals that you
masses and spaces are
building will look and feel.
should go back and readdress the basic
thinking tools— easy to
problem, find a better solution by examin-
modify and refine.
If your design is not working as well as you would like, remember that you are not
ing the elements and putting them in
alone with that piece of paper; its lines are
another order, reexamine the program. Try
not set in concrete and it will take sugges-
eliminating a variable. Seek complexity;
tions from anywhere. There is wisdom in
avoid complication.
Emerson’s words, “Every man is a borrower
Models help you visualize and record
and a mimic,” so admit it, look around,
design ideas sometimes even better than
inform yourself, get inspiration, and work
drawings do and are useful for people who
from there. In beginning design studios,
lack drawing skills. The limitation of care-
some teachers will have students select an
ful models is that they are time consuming
architect they admire and have the students
to make and to revise and improve, so use
emulate that architect’s work in a design
something easy like cheap cardboard and
project. Mimicking good design informs us
Scotch tape to do rough models that show
and enhances our own design.
the masses, spaces, and light— don’t try to
Complexity enhances design by relating
make them look great; they are for you to
many disparate parts to one another and to
study so that you can refine the design by
the whole. Seek to form many interlocking
making informed decisions. To view a
relationships among parts of the building
model, put your eye at the eye level of the
in its spatial organization. Manipulate the
scale building and visualize it, as you
geometry and the interlocking proportions
would see it on the ground—that’s much
of the parts of a façade to make it visually
better than looking at a model from above,
richer in unexpected layers of delight.
as only birds would see it. The internation-
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Excavators, form builders, steel men, carpenters, masons, plumbers, electricians, painters, foremen, and inspectors descend on your site with nothing to guide them but a set of plans, their estimate of material, labor, overhead, and profit, and a few kind words from you. The plans, together with the written specifications of materials and methods, and a contractual agreement are the instructions on how you want to have the building built and how it will be paid for. The architect is much like a teacher. The architect’s drawings seek to teach the builders how this particular building is to be built. This is an essential Clay modeling is like sculpt-
ally acclaimed architect Charles Moore
process of communication because, obvi-
ing space. You concentrate
would give a building committee a site
ously, the architect can’t build the building
on the space rather than on
plan and a pallet of model-building materi-
alone. Construction requires people with
the walls.
als— colored paper, Scotch tape, cello-
different skills—it takes a team. The clas-
phane, soda straws, wire, candy Lifesavers,
sic example, Thoreau’s cabin, is an excep-
Fruit Loops, and rocks and vegetation from
tion worth considering, and that is why his
the site—and ask them to build a model of
Walden is on my Reading List. Wittold Ryb-
the building they envisioned. The commit-
czynski’s The Most Beautiful Building in the
tee would create models expressing what
World offers another sensitive insight into a
they wanted in the building. Moore would
person’s intimate relationship with design
elaborate on the ideas in their Scotch tape
and construction.
model and create from it the sophisticated
Conceiving a design requires both con-
forms that expressed the clients’ aspira-
ceptual skills and basic knowledge. For
tions for the building. The design process
example, I need to organize the site in my
absorbs all the knowledge and skill you can
mind and begin to orient the building. For
muster. And design doesn’t stop when the
me this involves many considerations:
drawings are finished. Design values are
knowing exactly where the sun is at differ-
important in the bidding process, as you
ent times of the day and the season; under-
decide on what to take out or add in, and
standing the direction of rain and wind
design continues throughout the construc-
(both the good directions and the bad
tion as details are being built.
ones); understanding the effects of cold,
Your design will be constantly up for
heat, and shade, all of which affect comfort
grabs on the construction site as a lot of
and energy consumption; finding the pos-
people you never met before come to the
sibilities for vistas, axes, and spatial pro-
job site to do something to your building.
gressions; exploring the requirements for t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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both privacy and community; and under-
ingredients needed for success, either
standing the relationship with surrounding
financially, socially, or aesthetically. Zoning
buildings and landscape so as to appropri-
and building codes may need to be chal-
ately marry this new object with its envi-
lenged. The budget and the financial objec-
ronment. Notwithstanding this long list of
tives are principal elements of the design
considerations, one must keep primary the
to be managed and will control some aes-
reason for the building in the first place: to
thetic issues. Moreover, in any income-
satisfy the client’s program within the budget
producing project, profit too is a matter of
in a timely manner. This is all exciting stuff.
design. For example, in designing private
The thrills of the art come from know-
dormitories at colleges, I discovered that
ing how to manipulate the elements of
part of the profitability of the project was in
design: space, light, progression, move-
design issues under my control and that
ment, proportion, scale, rhythm, and color.
with a detailed pro forma in hand, I could
Thrills also come from determining the
find revenue-producing space, improving
influences of the site (the qualities of a city
profit centers to provide either a lower
fabric or a natural setting), mastering the
building cost, a larger profit, or a bit of
nuances of the location and “lay of the
both.
land,” understanding the social purpose of
As the design process goes back and
the building and its symbolism. The con-
forth among functional issues, building
tinuing quest of the design process is to
systems, and aesthetic issues, it can be
find the appropriate relationships, the
effectively guided by formal design theo-
economy of means, the expression of pur-
ries—many of which are overwhelmingly
pose—all the while seeking an aesthetic
dense. But it is clear what Moore meant
that bespeaks beauty, charm, and comfort,
when he described how he used a theory
a mellow background, an inspirational
he called “the Goldilocks Theory,” in which
space or exciting place, or combinations of
Goldilocks would find something too large,
the above. This involves experimenting
too small, or just right; too high, too low, or
with different ideas and choosing one with
just right; too bright, too dark, or just right;
the confidence that it’s the best.
and so on. The design quest, the theory, is
Needless to say, the budget and the constraints of zoning and building codes quickly become basic controls of this pro-
simply to make things “just right.” And that’s one way to make art. Regarding what’s just right, Mark Twain
cess. Because ignoring any of these reali-
said, “The difference between the right
ties imperils the project, you must be clear-
word and the almost right word is the dif-
headed about what can be done. Yet you
ference between lightning and a lightning
must examine the opportunities. It may be
bug.” One will ask, “How do we know
that not enough money or land was allo-
when it’s ‘just right’?” Well, it’s for the
cated to the project; or it may be that the
trained eye to know that it’s “just right,” in
project is actually on an inappropriate site
the same way that the ear of a violinist
or doesn’t have all of the programmatic
knows that she has the sound “just right.”
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Of course it’s subjective. All difficult deci-
of composition, dramatic events, stimulat-
sions are subjective—formulae or com-
ing color, and delight in the fine details of
puter code can handle the others. How
the building. Louis Kahn said, “God is in
does a court know whether to say “guilty”
the Details.” Other senses thrive on delight:
or “not guilty”? It’s by the same kind of
the sounds of the building: water, wind,
process. The best design theory I know is
footsteps, and the quality of voices; the
to keep thinking about how to make some-
touch of a building’s handrail or doorknob
thing that is “just right.”
and the texture of a wall or a floor; scents,
The next most simple and complete
both pleasant and unpleasant, also have
design theory is the classic that demands
effects. Moreover, anticipated delights of
that buildings have “Commodity, Firm-
the tastes to be sensed in the building add
ness, and Delight.” We would have much
to our overall perception. The design pro-
better buildings if everyone would use this
cess includes everything you can imagine
basic architectural test first established by
that will delight all the senses.
Vitruvius, the first-century BC Roman
Much of the satisfaction during the
architect and theorist. Here, “commodity”
design process comes in creating a design
concerns a building’s functional aspects
idiom for a building. The design idiom is
(how it satisfies its program); “firmness”
developed in the synthesis of ideas for the
concerns its vital properties (structure,
form, materials, and particulars of purpose
drainage, mechanical, electrical, plumbing,
placed into a style or manner of artistic
energy use, and such); “delight” concerns
expression that the designer uses in
our perception of the building’s aesthetic
manipulating the design elements. The
qualities. Achieving delight is normally
design idiom will show itself to the
the most difficult of the three and the one
observer in myriad ways—for example, in
that most demands the architect’s talents.
the way windows and doors are detailed,
Accountants and planners can ensure the
the way intersections happen, the way
Design projects can be as
commodity of the building, and engineers
handrails and grills and columns are
large as city blocks or as
can ensure its firmness, but the delight is
small as doorknobs;
the special effort of the architect—when
this one in bronze is by
achieved, it sometimes rises to the level
James Pratt.
of art. Delight enters the design process in many ways. The strongest delights, of course, come from our perception of space, light, proportion, and form—the basic art form of architecture. Yet there is much
The Villa Rotunda, one of
more. Delight continues with seeing the
many villas designed and
architect’s skillful manipulation of design
built near Venice by Andrea
elements: handsome proportions, rhyth-
Palladio from 1540 to 1580.
mic sequences, richness of form, balance t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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Wright’s Prairie School houses used a consistent design idiom with slight modifications.
detailed, in the use of materials, and in
master of his idiom of white rectilinear
hundreds of thousands of detailed design
forms and their layering. Harwell Hamil-
decisions.
ton Harris, O’Neil Ford, Frank Welch, and
Some architects, like the Italian Renais-
Lake and Flato created regional design idi-
sance master Andrea Palladio, formed con-
oms that continue to influence buildings in
sistent design idioms that influenced cen-
their regions. Some idioms are based in
turies of architecture around the world.
technology, some in craft, some in geome-
On the other hand, Frank Lloyd Wright,
try, some in traditional design, some in
a genius of invention, created a new, con-
invented form; all are a part of one’s indi-
sistent, integrated architecture composed
vidual creativity.
of many original design idioms—such a
An exciting way for an observer to
comprehensive set of idioms that it formed
understand an architectural work is to be
a design philosophy for the last century
able to “read” the building, and in so doing
and affected the way almost everyone
discover and enjoy the idiomatic aspects of
lived. Other important architects like Eero
the design. Design idioms can be found
Saarinen sought to develop a new design
and savored by the knowing eye just as the
idiom for each building; his inventiveness
ear savors classical music, its motifs and
was responsible for much of the refine-
variations evolving during their exposition,
ment of the Modernist movement. Some of
development, and recapitulation. These
today’s architects have been successful in
motifs or design idioms are at the heart
creating a consistent idiom that becomes
of both music and architecture.
inherent in all their work. The architect Richard Meier is an internationally known 92
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Reading an existing building’s design idioms can be a rewarding experience and
The consistently elegant and crisp details of Richard Meier articulate the surfaces of the Rachofsky House, Dallas, 1995 –1996.
Eero Saarinen developed a
useful in developing your own design idi-
new design idiom for each
oms. Start by looking at a window. How
project.
you look in or look out are major events in experiencing the building and an essential part of the architecture as seen from the outside: the façade. Notice the edges of the window. How are they made and of what? How deep is the reveal, i.e., how far is it set back from the wall? What surrounds the window? How is the window divided? What are its proportions? How does the designer relate it to the other windows? Is there something special about this window? Is it the right height when you look out of it? What supports the weight above it, an arch, a lintel, something invisible? That specialness may indicate the design idiom. Look at the doors in the same way to see how they relate. Look at the roof and the cornice. Is the edge thick or thin? Is it flat, sloped, or shaped? What’s the roof made of ? How is the roof held up? By walls, beams, arches, or does it appear to t h i n k i ng l i k e a n a r c h i t e c t
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hover? Look at the walls and see if there is
unusual work available in the magazine’s
something special about them. What mate-
office at the time of publication. A richer
rials? How many different materials? How
collection of good examples may be found
does the mass meet the ground, meet the
in your bookstores and libraries, where the
roof ? Is it a load-bearing wall or a visible
editors, the designers, and the public have
structural frame with infill? Is it a local
had more time for assessment. Aside from
material or exotic? What is the color pal-
the inspiration your search will give you
ette? Look at the massing of the build-
insight on how other designers solved
ing—have the parts been articulated or
problems like yours.
expressed as a single mass? How do you
When you decide that your schematic
perceive from the outside what is going on
design has resolved all the major decisions
inside? How does the building address the
regarding architectural concept, size, cost,
street, the sky? Does it have authenticity—
and construction type and that this is what
does it look real? Is it derivative or innova-
you wish to build, you are ready to be spe-
tive or both? Does it have classical propor-
cific by refining all of this in the design
tions and composition? Is the composition
development drawings.
random, symmetrical, or asymmetrical?
The design development drawings, as
These observations can help you know how
the words imply, will develop all the archi-
the designer developed various idioms to
tectural aspects of the building—the struc-
solve design issues. In designing, when I
tural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing,
can find the right idiom for a particular
communications, and other specialties,
building, I feel that I have a way to solve
including interiors and landscape. These
most of the design issues without reexam-
drawings will be the basis for the detailed
ining every condition—let the idiom help
preparation of the technical construction
you work through the building in the
documents.
design process. Place examples of your
You have several ways to go with the
design idiom next to your concept sketch
design development and construction doc-
and it will guide you. Getting the right
uments and the actual construction,
design idiom is almost as comforting as
depending on how involved you wish to be.
getting the right concept. It’s like Gold-
It will depend on your skills and on the
ilocks finding the right chair.
level of design you want in your building.
What if you don’t like what you’ve done?
One, you can take the results of your
It’s not right. Take action, seek inspiration,
design process to an architect and work
go to books and journals that you respect,
with him or her to review, refine, and fin-
and explore new ones. Look for ideas that
ish the job, carrying out a full or partial
might improve your almost right design.
professional service. You may want the
Scan architectural journals to assess the
architect to begin at the beginning, using
current design directions. That architecture
your work as input to the program, or sim-
is not necessarily good; it’s simply the edi-
ply to complete the technical aspects of
tor’s choice of the newest and most
your design. While many architects are
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unwilling to do the latter, there are con-
cessful developers with various combina-
tinuing relationships of architects with
tions of “design-build” that can produce
nonarchitect clients that produce good
good buildings. This works best, from a
results time after time.
design point of view, in building cultures in
With varying objectives, building contractors often have their own in-house people who will “draw up” your design. Hand
which architecturally viable building traditions are still in place. When you think of the skills involved in
your drawings to a contractor or builder,
the design process, the difference between
make a written contractual arrangement,
professional architects and nonarchitects is
and start construction with a general idea
large. The professional has the advantage
of what to build and realizing that most of
from university-level design studio courses
the decisions will be made by the contrac-
of over two thousand classroom hours of
tor on the job. The risk here is obvious. In
instruction. He or she will have studied in
this scenario, the assurance you need can
a succession of design studios for five of six
be gained by looking at previous work of
years, five hours a day, three days a week,
the contractor or builder and understand-
and have taken a lot of technical courses.
ing the level of design, materials, and
So, lacking the professional training, the
details you can expect.
nonarchitect must be patient— explore and
Another bold choice is to work through
refine, don’t be daunted by your lack of
it yourself, getting the help you need in
experience; you are gaining experience rap-
various stages and working with a contrac-
idly when you take the time and get tute-
tor that you trust to realize the project.
lage throughout your project. To design is
Reading construction documents is less
to redesign. There are hundreds of thou-
difficult than reading some books. These
sands of design decisions to be made.
are the drawings used by the architect to
We’ve just begun our work on the
communicate to the building contractor
design process, but for now, know that your
exactly what is to be built. You can under-
aspiration for good architecture needs your
stand what is intended when you focus
audacity and dedication: the audacity to
your mind and vision, starting by locating
find the best solution and do it, the dedica-
the outlines of the walls and, by looking at
tion to get it right. Make it a well-behaved
the dimensions, visualizing yourself there.
building, courteous to the street and to its
Buildings are designed and built by suc-
neighbors.
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CHAPTER NINE
V I S U A L I Z I N G W I T H D R AW I N G S A N D M O D E L S , PENCILS AND COMPUTERS
If we are to devote our lives to making buildings, we have to believe that they are worth it,
Dear Haley: Visualizing and drawing are the keys to
that they live and speak and can receive
the architect’s work—as important to the
investments of energy and care from their
quality of the work as its construction. You
makers and their inhabitants, and can store
ask, “How does one visualize a design and
those investments, and return them aug-
capture it in a drawing or model?” Visual-
mented. Bread cast on the water comes back
ization is at the heart of creativity; it’s the
club sandwiches.
mechanism that enables your imagination
c h a r l e s w. m o ore
to focus. It is an essential tool.
(1925 –1993)
I was first able to visualize a building full-size in my mind late one evening while working on a second-year studio project to design a small museum. I had sketched several perspectives of the building and realized I couldn’t visualize from my sketch what the building would actually be like. So I built a small cardboard sketch model. That helped a bit. Then my roommate said, “Be real! Go out in the street and try to see
v i s u a l i z i ng w i t h d r aw i ng s a n d m o d e l s , p e n c i l s a n d c o m p u t e r s
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it in your mind full-size.” The Austin street outside our place was quiet and empty, but contained lots of trees, streetlights, wires, and such, so that I could use them in visualizing roofs, walls, and parts of the building full-size. My imagination formed an image in my head of a real, full-size building that made it real enough to allow me to make design decisions with some confidence. This image was then easily transferred to a drawing—in this case, a perspective drawing of what I had visualized in the street. From there the plans and elevations developed. The final project earned my first commendation from a design jury. Visualization had really proved its value. Visualization tools were also needed in the design of the Great Hall of the Dallas Apparel Mart for Trammell Crow in 1964.
The Great Hall of the Dallas
As big as a football field—sixty feet high
Apparel Mart required a
and programmed to seat two thousand for
twelve-foot-long model to
luncheon fashion shows—it was sur-
design the 300' x 120' space.
rounded by one million square feet of
Pratt, Box and Henderson,
showrooms. One end of the space could
1964.
hold every building my partner and I had ever built. We couldn’t visualize the reality
Plan of the space shown
of such a huge space, so we built a model
above.
at the scale of 1 inch = 1 foot, large enough for two people to stick their heads through holes in the model floor and look around so that we could sculpt the space from inside. To visualize dimensions full-size— for instance, the size of a cornice sixty feet in the air—we measured comparable features in the only room we could find that size, which was Grand Central Station. When the building was completed, we found the visualizations accurate except for one dimension. When the scaffolding was finally removed to reveal the finished 98
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space, and we walked into it, it appeared
Try some more, until you get a drawing
much wider. I had not realized that my
that begins to communicate your idea.”
head had taken up twenty-four feet in the model. My point, though, is that you need to do
Computer programs do a great job, too, provided you have good computer skills or the time to learn them. I suggest you start
whatever you can to invent devices that will
off with a simple beginner’s program. A
help you visualize so as to get a realistic
professional program like Auto-Cad may
image of your project.
require far more time than you want to
Visualize and draw. Draw and visualize.
give to become facile enough to design.
Saul Steinberg, of New Yorker drawing
While most architects’ offices use Auto-
fame, said, “Drawing is a way of reasoning
Cad extensively, it demands much training
on paper.”
and regular practice. Follow the instruc-
I want to empower you with the knowl-
tions with the software or take a class, but
edge of how to realize your design on
keep in mind the design process I suggest
paper by offering some simple directions
here. When using the simple “Build a
on how to get started. Drawing is really not
House” programs, ignore the unfortunate
complicated. Dispel the fear that you can-
architectural realizations they show. It’s
not draw. You can, I assure you!
easy for the computer to give you a false
Design starts with a thumbnail sketch
sense of security because it draws without
or a “napkin sketch”—that is, a sketch on
thinking and it draws very well. Most archi-
whatever’s handy. With a scrap of paper, an
tects I know agree that it’s best to begin
idea, and a pencil, you can do wonders. In
your designing with a pencil. Some archi-
fact, you may do the most important draw-
tects, however, don’t use a drawing board at
ing of the entire project at this stage, since
all, opting instead for Auto-Cad. After years
it may help you capture a seminal concept.
of practice they can do subtle, fluid, lyrical
Find something to draw on as soon as you
work on a machine that one would think
have a good idea. On an airplane, for exam-
would make it rigid. Today’s students,
ple, airsickness bags have proved better
who’ve grown up with computers, defi-
than napkins and far more durable. The
nitely have a head start when it comes to
important thing is to start drawing your
developing excellent design skills on the
ideas.
computer. Computers are already shaping
One of my freehand drawing teachers offered this simple but very useful tip:
advanced architecture in ways that would be impossible without them.
“Start with a dot.” By that she meant, “Put
To give you some insight into how draw-
the dot of a pen or pencil anywhere on the
ing is an essential tool of design, I will spell
paper other than the center, and start draw-
out how to get started.
ing either what you are looking at (say, a
I love the pencil, and no pen or com-
still life) or what you have in your head,
puter will ever come between us. I myself
recording as best you can your vision. So
favor the 2B for sketching and the HB for
what if it’s awful? You have a wastebasket.
hard-line drawings, but your first step in
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drawing can be with whatever tools you
become full-size. Keep these in your pocket
have at hand. As you get caught up in the
or purse and you will be surprised how
process and as you need to get specific
often you will use them around a construc-
about your building, you will probably
tion site.
require a few special tools. If you intend to get into the design pro-
When you are all set up, think again about what it is you want to design. Can
cess, rest assured that you can get the basic
you state it simply? You’ll need to. I used to
tools for under three hundred dollars. Go
come up to my draftsmen or students, all
to an architect’s supply store or blueprint
hunched over their drawing boards, and
shop and buy some simple equipment.
ask, “What are you doing?” They’d typically
Here’s my shopping list: buy a 24" x 36"
give me a rambling, unfocused reply. I’d
or 20" x 30" drawing board with a built-in
come back with, “OK, tell me what you’re
parallel bar. (The Mayline brand is best
doing in one sentence, in the English lan-
because it has a reliable bar, and the fold-
guage.” This magically focused both of us
ing feet are handy when setting the board
on the most important task at hand. (You’ll
on your desk or dining table.) Also buy a
see an example of this when I describe the
45° triangle and a 30°– 60° triangle about
concept for the hilltop house discussed in
10" long. Buy two mechanical pencils
Chapter 11.) So I urge you to challenge
(Mars brand) with HB and 2B lead and a
yourself to put your intention into one sen-
pencil-sharpening grinder. Your constant
tence. Actually write it down! Now, if what
companion will be an architect’s scale—
you’ve expressed is what you really want to
use either 1/8"=1'– 0" or 1/4"=1'– 0" for
do, you have made a big decision and are
plans, elevations, and sections. Buy two
ready to start.
kinds of tracing paper: a roll of cheap trac-
If you have a piece of property to build it
ing paper 12" wide, to sketch on, and about
on, you will want to get specific. Not so
ten large sheets of 1000h Clearprint or
much as to encumber your vision, mind
K&E Vellum (expensive stuff, but you can
you, but enough that you can get all the
draw and erase on it forever). Also get a
qualities of your site into your vision with-
pack of drafting dots for sticking the cor-
out misleading yourself. So, without losing
ners of your paper to the board. Finally,
any of your fantasies, stick the plot plan of
buy a good white eraser in a plastic tube,
your property onto your drawing board,
like the Pentel Clic Eraser, plus a kneaded
overlay a piece of the expensive tracing
eraser and an erasing shield. I myself erase
paper, and start putting on that paper the
so much that I use an electric eraser.
critical information that you know. Of
While you’re out shopping, I suggest
course, you will do most of this by draw-
you purchase two tools of a different
ing—tracing the outline of the property,
nature: a small ten-foot tape measure and a
for instance. You may need to have the plot
Swiss army knife— one with a corkscrew.
plan photocopied to change it into an archi-
These are tools of reality that will remind
tect’s scale. Don’t let the expensive paper
you that what you are drawing wants to
intimidate you; draw and change—that’s
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A compass rose showing
what your eraser is for. (I’ve drawn, erased,
angles of sun, solstice,
and redrawn so much on one sheet of good
breeze, and views.
paper that my first drawing ended up being used in the final construction drawing after months of work.) Use pencil, never ink, because the pencil drawing is so easy to change when you spot an improvement you can make. Isn’t this simple? Here you are learning about your most important asset, the site, as you learn how to draw! Your inexpensive sketch tracing paper, meanwhile, is for trying out ideas. You will use a lot of it, maybe fifty feet on a good day. The expensive paper is for recording facts and decisions; the cheap paper is for exploring new ideas. First, trace the boundaries accurately, draw a precise north arrow, then add any
sion of facts for a while and can begin to
site features that must be kept (like trees)
consider subjective issues. Heed this cru-
or avoided (like cliffs or boulders), as well
cial maxim: “Decide first where not to
as the directions toward attractive vistas
build.” Draw lines to define those places
you wish to see and any unattractive ones
where you will not or cannot build. Now
you want to hide. Draw the surrounding
you have drawn a base site plan depicting a
buildings so that you can relate form to
true representation of the facts of the site.
them and know what you see of them;
Keep it handy—it is the representation of
know what sun they may block. Draw the
your property.
all-important building setback lines (your
Next, before making any assumptions
city building inspector will help you deter-
about the plan of the building, draw several
mine these along with any parking require-
sections through the site, looking both
ments, maximum lot coverage, and maxi-
crossways and long-ways, if the building is
mum building height) and any other
on a hill. If these will fit on the edge of
information you consider important. Trace
your plan drawing, put them there, for it’s
the topographic contours (your survey
convenient; if not, put them on a new sheet
should already show them) with a light
of good paper with enough room above the
dotted line. Then embellish the north
ground line to draw the building. Now you
arrow into a compass circle (called a com-
have two base drawings: a site plan and a
pass rose) and draw arrows toward the
drawing of two site sections. Keep them,
views, as well as the solstice angles to help
understand them, and experiment with
you visualize the sun’s path as it rises and
both of them together so that you under-
sets. Now you are through with the preci-
stand the three-dimensionality of the site.
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You should also consider building a
it and manipulating it on the drawing from
topographic model of the site. It will defi-
the vision in your mind. (See Chapter 11,
nitely help you visualize it. There is a sim-
“Building Architecture: An Example,” to
ple way to make such a model: use layers of
see how you lay out full-size rooms on a
cardboard cut to the outline of each con-
site with stakes and colored tape—remem-
tour, then glued into position to match the
bering that those stakes can easily change
contour map. Use a cardboard thickness
as well.) To bring your mind, your drawing,
that is the same scale as the map.
and your site into reality in three dimen-
You are now beginning to get this spe-
sions, also draw the room into your site
cial place, your parcel of land, in your mind
section drawing. Keep that visualization of
as well as on paper. You have converted
your concept and the reality working as
your eyeball perspective of the land from
you progress.
the street into a perfect and usable abstrac-
After doing the careful factual drawing,
tion of the land—in a drawn orthographic
assess it and play with it to see what can be
projection. That architect’s term, by the way,
done creatively. Give yourself permission to
describes three types of drawings: plans,
cut loose. You have the facts on paper, so
sections, and elevations. A plan is a bird’s-
now you can explore any fantasy you want.
eye view, looking straight down on the
Do some freehand drawing to loosen up.
building. A section is a drawing that
Maybe try drawing a bowl of fruit or part of
depicts what you’d see if you were to slice
a garden. Start with a dot near but not on
right through the site or building. An ele-
center and go from there. You may want to
vation depicts the sides of the building—
take a life drawing class at a local museum
in this case, the exterior sides—when
or gallery. The famed Spanish architect
viewed horizontally and without perspec-
Antonio Gaudí is said to have taken a life
tive. There are typically four exterior eleva-
drawing class every week, even into his
tions, one for each wall surface.
mature years!
Third, just for starters, make some
Now go to the cheap paper, overlay the
assumptions about the best site orientation
base drawing you made, and make some
for your building relative to the informa-
trial diagrams of how other rooms relate to
tion on the compass rose you drew show-
the most important room you have already
ing sun angles, prevailing breeze, views to
located. You may already have a start on
enjoy, and views to hide. Then draw, always
these, but try them with this new informa-
to scale, the single most important room of
tion on the base drawings. As these spaces
the building, putting it just where you
and relationships become more and more
think you want it on the site. It may be
realistic and workable, you can add them to
wrong in size, proportion, and location, but
the base plan drawing and the section
it’s a place to start. You are now using your
drawing.
mind to connect the drawing of the site to
As images of the organization of upper
your vision of the building. This is the way
floors evolve, see how walls line up with
to visualize: full-size on the site, recording
those below, as well as where stairs might
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go, and begin to think about structure. The
to place the windows, doors, roof, and
most important thing to know about struc-
other features you have tentatively placed
ture is that everything has weight, which
in your plan. It may not be very good, so
goes straight down to the foundation in the
lay over it with cheap tracing paper and
ground through walls and columns. Load-
work on the proportions and composition
bearing walls—typically the exterior walls
until you have an understanding of the
and walls of major rooms— carry most of
physical reality of your building. Because it
the loads. Be aware that rooms over four-
won’t be wonderful on the first try, even for
teen feet wide require some extra structure
a professional, think about how to improve
like deeper joists and beams or trusses.
it. Do you have an idea of how you want it
Openings more than six feet require some
to look? Go to some of your favorite prece-
special beams. There are always excep-
dents and see if you can get an idea that
tions, so you will want someone to confirm
will help. You will want to draw and com-
your structure and modify it, if necessary,
pose an elevation of every surface of the
to work properly.
exterior as well as every wall of every room
You can learn a lot by mimicking a good
of the building to know that every view has
model, so I suggest you find some architec-
been designed visually. But for now, simply
tural drawings of a building by an architect
know that you can draw and that skill will
you relate to and study them. This may be
come with repetition. You may later want to
the time to start buying some basic archi-
have someone redraw and refine what you
tecture books or exploring the holdings of
have begun. At every step you will want to
your local library. (Later, you can learn a lot
stop, look at the design in front of you, and
by studying and mimicking actual working
criticize it. See how you can improve it. See
drawings, as I did.) They’ll help you under-
how it relates to the other parts of the
stand the fascinating symbols and the lan-
design. Pin up several trial drawings on the
guage and conventions that architects use
wall and ask others what they think, then
to efficiently describe construction details
select the best. You also want to make sure
to the builders. These details are commu-
it fits with your original concept and bud-
nicated through what are called working
get, or maybe you’ll want to redefine your
drawings or construction documents, but
concept. In fact, you may want to start over.
that is more technical than what you need
It will take time.
right now. Eventually, you will study the elevations
Conceptual models can help you visualize spaces and masses. They give you a
critically. Start by drawing a section or two
small-scale abstraction in three dimensions
through the building. This is where every-
rather than the two dimensions of draw-
one, amateur or professional, has work to
ings. Models come in all sizes. I say, the
do, because this is where designers are on
bigger, the better. But you can start with a
their own, determining what the building
real miniature no bigger than your thumb.
will look like. Be patient and forgiving of
Believe it or not, I’ve seen students start
yourself as you draw the outlines and begin
with a model that small and present their
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entire concept with it. Use whatever mate-
by putting it at eye level. This gives you a
rials are available— cardboard, modeling
far more realistic view of your creation than
clay, balsa wood, thin pieces of metal, even
you’d get from a bird’s-eye view that no one
toothpicks. The miniature model, only a
will ever have. Show it to others; change it.
few inches long, can help you find an
How can you make it better?
image for the building that fits in the
You will probably have noticed that it is hard to put a roof on it. Roofs are such a
landscape. Of course, you also need a little model
difficult design problem that you may want
of the landscape to fit it in. You could then
to start over and consider the roof first. I
photograph it and make a montage with a
always keep the roof shape in mind as I am
photo of the site, by cut and paste, or by
designing, and sometimes I’ll even start
computer with Photoshop or some other
with the roof shape and work everything in
software program. The miniature model
relation to it as a sculptural mass. Here you
presents ideas of mass or image. But the
see one of the big advantages of the model:
most helpful model is one that is large
it demands a complete shape, a roof.
enough to visualize interior spaces. Modeling of space is best done with
Having a 3-D model you are pleased with, go back to the drawings and incorpo-
cheap cardboard and Scotch tape—some-
rate the changes. Don’t fall in love with
thing easy to work with and easy to cut up
your drawing or your model until you have
and change as your ideas evolve. Under-
tried another design of the same program
stand, this is not a presentation model
for the same site—it may be better. It can
made by a professional model builder; it’s a
be a new path to follow in design or it will
study model—a really rough draft or rough
simply confirm your first idea, which is
3-D sketch. I like to use white cardboard
often the best. I normally try out several
because it renders light well—light and
ideas before I decide to put all my money
space being the ingredients with which you
on one. When several people are involved
are working. Use scissors or a metal ruler
in the decision making, it may help to have
and an Exacto knife to make the floor plan
alternatives to discuss, such as: What are
just like your drawing (maybe a photocopy),
the merits of Scheme A versus Scheme B?
and paste it on cardboard. Cut the walls and
Usually new ideas will be generated, but
tape it all together. Then take it outside into
compare them to your first concept to see
the sun, or else put it under a single light
which is best. You have to prove to yourself
bulb in a dark room to simulate the sun in
that the concepts you have chosen are
the proper directions for different times of
really sound. There’s no better test than
day; start noticing the effects of shade and
through a critique. We’ll explore this phase
shadow. Visualize yourself inside the model
of the design process next.
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CHAPTER TEN
THE CRITIQUE
Architects should learn to study not merely minimum requirements, but maximum possi-
Dear Hannah: How do I know when my design is “just
bilities; to learn not only how to economize
right”? you ask. You say you are designing
space but how to be extravagant with it; to
a small but elegant studio in which to dis-
learn not only to use space but play with
play your work and need to make some
space.
important design decisions. No matter
j o h n s um m e r s o n
what your background or experience in
(1904 –1992)
architecture might be, you want to know, Is this design exciting architecturally, tastefully boring, or plain awkward? Is this really the best I can do? Does the plan work? How about the section, and the elevations? Are the composition and proportion right? How am I doing? These are all good questions. You’re ready for a critique! Deciding design issues requires a generous conversation between yourself and others. You want deep testing of your design before you commit to it with time the critique
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and mortgage. You want to bombard your
an effective way to explore alternatives and
design with different scenarios, making
make the subjective decisions—that are
reality checks such as, Does it work for a
always more difficult than the objective
group of two hundred? or What if we
decisions of calculation. Clearly, this is not a
expand? or Is there a better structural sys-
time to be defensive; it’s a time to grow.
tem? Such questions, and thousands more
In architecture school, a critique hap-
like them, indicate that you could use help.
pens either at the student’s desk or via a
Even though you have already done a lot
formal design jury composed of faculty,
of self-criticizing as you developed your
students, and professionals to whom the
design, you will benefit greatly from a criti-
student presents his or her design in draw-
cal review by those knowledgeable about
ings and models in a crowded exhibition
the project. The professional architect as
room. Each jury member discusses the
well as the student uses the critique as a
design’s attributes and its unresolved prob-
basic process to test, to vet, to evaluate, to
lems, perhaps makes suggestions, and
gather new ideas, to confirm thinking, to
offers an overall assessment with a
call into question, or to propose a new
response from the student. It’s much the
direction. The critique is not an exercise in
same in professional practice except that it
negativity or a review by an art critic.
is in the form of a conference in which sev-
Rather, it is a way of assessing and review-
eral specialties present their points. Each
ing the design, its effectiveness, and the
critique, properly taken, helps you reach a
quality of what is proposed. For example,
new plateau of refinement. The critique is
when my partners and I reviewed each oth-
your friend.
er’s designs with respect to visual concerns
Client conferences resemble jury cri-
such as composition, proportion, and
tiques in that you present to a client, they
form, we would pin up the drawings on the
respond to you, and then you go back and
wall and evaluate. Often we would pin up
forth to find the right answer. When you’re
three or four variations and discuss which
both the client and the designer, take the
was best and what could be done to
client’s role and look objectively at the
improve it, then take the best, draw it up,
designer’s work and make notes.
and try to improve on it. The eyes make
Design conferences with consultants are
this kind of choice; there are no numbers.
a sort of collaborating critique in which a
The one-on-one critique is the basic
mutual solution that’s better than either
method of teaching design. It’s also the
individual solution evolves. A favorite pro-
basic method of teaching music, painting,
cess of mine is to work creatively with an
sculpture, and most of the arts; it’s even
imaginative structural engineer, who is
used in business schools on business plans.
dealing with hard facts, and together come
In acting or sports it’s called coaching; in
up with something both exciting and
writing it’s called a critical reading. Yet in
sound.
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Quite different from the design conference and critique are the many reviews by
public agencies demanding your compli-
and money on the approval process than
ance with local, state, and federal laws, or
on the design process. There is rarely an
by financial institutions loaning money for
architectural review of design quality,
the project or insurance. Such a review can
though. That’s up to you.
be a prolonged and controlling process.
Hard-won knowledge of the codes, plus
But it’s an essential process, or at least an
early reviews by specialists, will inform the
inevitable one, so my advice is, work cre-
creative process. Indeed, the codes are a set
atively with it rather than grudgingly
of realities, similar to your budget, that
against it. Often the reviews—for zoning,
contain and define the project. Join them
building codes, fire department regula-
to the design process creatively and they
tions, environmental regulations, historic
will simply become another part of the
preservation laws, disabled access, traffic,
equation to be solved.
sustainability, and such—are so technical
Before going forward, consider this
and time consuming that consultants have
checkpoint: If you don’t love it, don’t build it.
to be brought in as facilitators and expedit-
The most expensive mistake is to build
ers. This is true for professionals and non-
something you don’t like. I also like this
professionals. Unfortunately, in some cities
advice from the great Winston Churchill:
this process has become so labyrinthine
“When you get a thing the way you want it,
that you might spend more energy, time,
leave it alone.”
the critique
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
BUILDING ARCHITECTURE: AN EXAMPLE
It is something to be able to paint a particular picture or to carve a statue, and so to make a
Dear Jim and Betsy: In your last letter you said that you
few objects beautiful, but it is far more glori-
wanted to know what to expect in the
ous to carve and paint the very atmosphere
design and construction of your house
and medium through which we look. . . .
on the hill, as you think about whether
To affect the quality of the day—that is the
to do it yourselves.
highest of arts.
My purpose here is not to tell you “how
h e n r y d av i d th o reau
to do it.” It’s more “how to think about
(1812 –1862)
doing it.” No one knows a perfect way to design architecture—that’s why the profession is called a practice!—but it helps to have a reliable map to guide your way. As an example of a guide, I’ll try to tell you how I myself design as an architect—the kinds of things I think about during the process, and why. My colleagues, of course, have their own variations of this process, and many think in different directions. And you yourselves will surely have your b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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own, too. I am simply offering you one
breathtaking. This particular piece of land,
Distant view of skyline from
way. A house makes an excellent vehicle for
basically a hunk of limestone, poor in top-
the site for the Nob Hill
describing design, in part because we all
soil yet rich in native flora, had never been
House. Austin, Texas.
know about houses. After all, we live in
built on—it’s a great place to design a
them! Since you’re going to be building a
house.
house on a hill, I’ll walk you through my
My wife, Eden, and I began to have the
own experience designing a hilltop house
kinds of fantasies one has when making a
overlooking the Austin skyline and the sil-
place to live. We spent hours thinking
very strip of river that runs through that
about how we wanted to live at this time in
city of evergreen oaks.
our lives, now that the children were
The site is on the very top of Nob Hill,
grown; retirement was nearing for me,
the first hill of the fabled Texas hill country
although Eden was still an active executive.
as you come up from the coastal plain
For starters, being a classical music lover,
along the Gulf of Mexico. These uplands
I wanted some room that would be large
help distinguish Austin from its flatland
enough to accommodate chamber music
neighbors. The Balcones Fault that formed
concerts. Eden, meanwhile, yearned for a
all these rolling hills and the river below
bath and dressing room that together could
has been inactive for thousands of years,
function like a morning office so she could
leaving a tranquil setting for chickadees,
begin her day on the phone while dressing
cardinals, mockingbirds, doves, and herds
for work. We also each wanted a room of
of whitetail deer. Covered with live oak,
our own for a studio/office. Plus we wanted
mountain laurel, and ash juniper, the site
space to entertain large groups, even
slopes up from the southeast and faces
though it needed to be a small house. Of
both the prevailing breeze and the view, a
course we had hundreds of minor require-
fortunate synchronicity which is pretty
ments, too, that would emerge more insis-
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tently in the course of design and construc-
rethinking the design, again and again and
tion. Deciding on how you want to live
again, until it feels “just right.” I hope I
leads you to entertain ideas outside the
have persuaded you that good design is
ordinary, where you can create your own
labor-intensive—successful only when a
special world in your very specific place.
clear, appropriate, and exciting concept can
Keep in mind, your house need not resem-
be developed.
ble anyone else’s house—and probably shouldn’t! Being both the architect and half of the
My approach to developing the architectural concept for this program and place seems simple on the surface. On the half-
client at Nob Hill, I can make the descrip-
acre Nob Hill site, there’s a grove of live
tion of my design process simpler than it
oaks and a heart-filling view southeast,
would otherwise be. For here I’m free to
showcasing the shining Colorado River and
use an open, ad hoc process, workable only
the city skyline set in a sea of green trees.
for small buildings that don’t involve a lot
It’s obvious that the grand view will be
of clients, users, and consultants. It
dominant in any concept and that the
involves simply thinking through all of the
drama in the place will come from celebrat-
functional factors and design variables,
ing the view. Once I arrive at a promising
Topographic plot and site
using what I imagine to be common sense
concept, I make a sketch that depicts it, as
plan of the Nob Hill House,
along with experienced aesthetic judgment
I understand it, and pin it up on the wall in
by author, Austin, Texas,
after inserting the realities discussed in the
front of my desk. I then work toward that
1992.
preceding chapter. Then it involves
concept as the objective. If I change the
b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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concept for what I think is a better one, I
too. To get to know the lay of the land, I use
change the sketch in front of me. It’s the
some simple surveying instruments—a
target at which I’m aiming.
hand level and a Brunton sighting compass
When you think about how to develop
on a tripod. They help me understand the
an architectural concept, know that it may
engineer’s plat and also give me an accu-
take days of study, reading about the place,
rate bearing on the objects I might wish to
exploring its physical and cultural history,
screen out, as well as those I want to fea-
and of course, pondering the way you want
ture as views from the house.
to live there. I build the visual informa-
To make the most of the view from the
tion in my head using all kinds of visu-
various rooms, I map and imagine how to
als— contour maps, aerial photos, photos
view the dome of the State Capitol, the
of the surroundings, and photos with the
Tower of the University of Texas, an extinct
new building mass sketched in or simply
volcano on the horizon, and the foreground
with a drawing glued onto the photo. Pho-
profile of the live oaks, knowing, after
toshop makes images that can do wonders
hours of observation, just as in my first
to help you visualize and assess outcomes.
look, that the primary object in the view—
Color copies, cut and pasted, also help in
the centerpiece of it all—is the path of the
visualization, both for you and anyone
curving Colorado River and its reflections
else involved in the project. Conceptual
of light. The only bad view is really bad: a
ideas expressed in words help capture the
huge water treatment plant that mars the
idea, too. I try to abstract the major ele-
peripheral vision and must be masked by a
ments to find an obvious concept so fit-
part of the new building plus trees that
ting that it seems inevitable. I go to the
could block the view. Additionally, I want to
library to look at my favorite buildings and
find the most advantageous way to look at
seek out the latest ideas in journals to look
the close-in landscape. I note a few intru-
for precedents that will inspire me—the
sive views of neighboring houses that I’ll
opposite approach from the way I was
want to hide. But the site itself has never
taught as a Modernist (“Begin with no
been built upon, so there are no unattract-
preconceptions”).
ive or damaged parts that need to be healed
With these thoughts in mind, I walk the
or built over. I know, of course, that there
site slowly to assimilate the place, to dis-
will have to be a treeless area for the septic
cover and to map all the assets of this spe-
drainage field, but wildflowers should grow
cial piece of the world. It’s fun and infor-
well there.
mative to have an afternoon picnic on the
Obviously, building on the part of a site
site and then a morning coffee to see the
that’s damaged is a good place to build. But
site in different light; a visit at midday, the
more than once I have seen people buy a
most unattractive part of the day with its
site that they considered beautiful because
harsh glare and dark contrasts, is also
of its great trees and then, finding it diffi-
instructive. Seeing the site in the rain and
cult to work around or with the trees, cut
during other extremes of weather helps
them down to build their building. They
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the ground floor
ignored the Hippocratic injunction; they
up with the cardinal points, or the diago-
did harm.
nals, but don’t compromise the desirable
You will want to be alert to your build-
sun orientation or views.
ing’s orientation. It is critically important
Back to Nob Hill. I next make a few tri-
to comfort, energy conservation, and the
als, on the site, of a possible ground plan,
drama of natural light in the building. For
using yellow ribbon and wire pegs and a
energy conservation and comfort in warm
sharp machete to find the best envelope for
climates such as Austin’s, you’ll want to
the building, particularly the major room.
face the long dimension of the building to
I make these observations and initial deci-
the south and avoid windows on the west.
sions about the “site’s sights” before I do
In cold climates, open up to the west, so
more than a quick sketch. I don’t like fall-
you can warm up the building in prepara-
ing in love with a drawing before I have a
tion for the nighttime cold. These orienta-
good idea of what all the design issues are.
tions need not be precise, though. Staying
Then and only then can I seek a concept
within five or ten degrees will suffice for
that will solve all the design criteria.
this purpose.
Next, on a drawing board, just as I sug-
If you enjoy astronomy, as I do, you may
gested earlier, I lay a sheet of tracing paper
want to get some accuracy in orientation to
over the carefully detailed surveyor’s draw-
the sky. I take an accurate compass, the
ing, which shows all the boundaries, set-
bearings on the survey, and (best yet) accu-
backs, easements, and trees and significant
rate alignment with the north star to locate
plants, along with any other special fea-
true north and lay out some stakes to visu-
tures of the site, such as interesting rock
alize the sun angles. This lets me deter-
outcroppings or evidence of ancient habita-
mine the location of the sun’s light and the
tion that I’ll want to preserve. Deciding
shadows it will create. I visualize the morn-
where not to build will be clear. I note on
ing, noon, and evening sun on the days of
my drawing all of the initial observations
the solstices of summer and winter and the
and decisions I made while on the site. I
equinoxes of spring and fall; using these as
draw arrows indicating good and bad views
guides, other days can be imagined. This
and circle areas that offer special opportu-
allows me to understand what the light will
nities. In short, I make a preliminary
be in the rooms, terraces, and patios on
sketch full of information that will help me
those days of the year and to consider the
design—this being all part of what archi-
effects of solar heat gain. My interest in
tects call visual problem solving. The brain
astronomy and cosmology—an outgrowth,
can somehow synthesize the information
I suppose, of wanting to know where I am
on the drawing and direct us toward forms
in the world—leads me to align the build-
that solve all the design problems simulta-
ing precisely on the cardinal points of the
neously. If it doesn’t, it’s back to the draw-
compass so I can enjoy predicting and see-
ing board.
ing the paths of the sun, moon, and stars. If such things interest you, consider lining
You may think this prep work is tedious, but it’s actually fun. I now take my prelimib u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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nary site drawing and a mental construct of the concept back to the site and visualize in more detail where to place various functions of the building. In a dense urban site with party walls there will be fewer choices, but the steps remain pretty much the same. At this point in the design process, I am also being a bit of an amateur landscape architect and interior designer, since Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;m not calling in these professionals for early collaboration the way I would on larger projects. Later, though, I will want consultation on plant materials, garden plants, and garden organization and on specific interior colors, furniture, and fabrics that will enhance the concept. These specialists in interiors and landscape are essential for design refinements, and on most projects they are just as important for concept development. My next step on the drawing board, after understanding the features, light, and
sions, and forms. Like painters, we must
Concept sketch of the Nob
views of the site, is to loosen up after
design two-dimensional surfaces of walls,
Hill House, landscape, and
assessing all those facts. I find a soft pencil
floors, and ceilings; like sculptors, we have
views sketched on the back
and get creative. Now I want to accomplish
three-dimensional masses of the exterior;
of a meeting agenda. By
two things at once: (1) find the best places
yet the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dominant medium, the
author, Austin, Texas, 1991.
for the functions, and (2) begin visualizing
three-dimensional space formed inside
the spatial-design possibilities that will
and around the masses, is our own special
make this a true piece of architecture.
challenge. We see most buildings from the
Materials, structure, and character, so far,
outside, but that is not how we experience
are considered only subliminally.
a building. To experience it, we must use
Architecture being a functional art,
and explore the building just as we would
unlike painting, sculpture, and music, we
take time to appreciate a painting or a
must include many issues beyond the aes-
symphony or a book that we may think
thetic, like the forces of gravity, of rain,
looks good on the outside but inside
building codes, sustainability, program,
loses us in a labyrinth of confusion and
and budget â&#x20AC;&#x201D; all while trying to make art.
dulls our interest. So you will want to
The poetry can still come in, though, in
design movement and spaces from the
the artful creation of the spaces, progres-
inside out.
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the ground floor
Soon the concept emerges in my mind
giving helpful critiques as we go along. On
and on the drawing board clearly enough to
the site and on the paper plan, I locate the
abstract in words: “A stone wall on the
main seating group of the living room to
street with a thick portal through which
maximize the views in two directions and
you can see, past a garden, all the way to
place the dining table for similar views. I
the distant river, horizon, and skyline by
also locate the bed of the master bedroom,
looking through a central space formed by
the breakfast area, and the kitchen sink
two stone masses under a broad pyramidal
and bathroom sinks so as to optimize their
roof.” There, I’ve managed to get it all into
views, too. These are all places where peo-
one sentence! Everything else will work to
ple will spend at least some time gazing
serve that concept. The space between the
out the window. By the way, that awareness
two walls is the 22' x 36' main living space
of interior space dominates my thinking. I
of the house, with a 14' ceiling and sky-
learned early in my practice the importance
lights lighting the stone masses; within the
of drawing an elevation of every wall,
two stone masses flanking it are, on one
inside and out, so that I could know what it
side, the master bedroom suite and, on the
would look like and prevent any surprises.
other, the kitchen complex and garage. In
The only times I have been surprised
reality the concept evolved into a Texas Dog
occurred when I forgot to draw an interior
Run House by serendipity rather than by
wall elevation.
following a precedent. I decide to place both the guest room
(Let me confess something here: You may think it overkill, and it was, but I
and the studio in a tower detached a few
developed seven trial concepts to a quarter-
yards from the main house. Like Carl
inch scale, my reason being that we
Jung’s symbolic tower, ours will have three
expected to live in this house a long time.
levels: a lower level to promote deep cre-
One concept was developed into a set of
ativity (my studio); a middle level—level
working drawings before I found a better
with the main house—to serve as an
one. In these trial concepts, all the furni-
earthly plane (the guest suite); and, on
ture remained in the same location relative
top, a lovely roof terrace for entering the
to the views. On one attractive and complex
celestial plane—a great place to stargaze
scheme, I employed a colleague to build a
from a hammock on a summer evening.
large-scale model about six feet long, show-
Such symbolisms add personal mean-
ing all the interior spaces with a multifac-
ing—and I like them. As the design pro-
eted removable roof. It was a beautiful
gresses, I expect to add still other mean-
model and an exciting example of decon-
ings and mythic elements when I see the
struction, a buzzword in everyone’s
opportunity.
thoughts at that time. But as my wife and
In a simple building like this, I design
I brought reality into its visualization, we
the furniture placement before settling on
decided to go back to basics, agreeing with
the locations of the walls, confirming all
the architectural gold medalist Fay Jones,
this with my beloved client Eden, who is
who once said about a new design trend, b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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“I think I’ll sit this one out.” After the
house, as in a restaurant, dining happens
Plan of second design for
seven iterations, the one we decided to go
at specific times of the day, when natural
the Nob Hill House devel-
ahead with looked very similar to the first
light can be predicted, just as church ser-
oped in construction draw-
trial. What had we gained? Conviction: the
vices happen at particular times, allowing
ings but not built. By author,
sure knowledge that we had explored at
the space to be designed for the light at just
1991.
least six other ways and chosen the best.
those times.
There’s likely not another scheme out there that we would rather have built.) Designing the building inside while
Personal spaces of modest size benefit any habitable building. Such spaces, to which Virginia Woolf gave a resonant
looking out, I give first priority to places to
name with her novel A Room of One’s Own,
eat, because when dining, one has the time,
can be minimal, including only a desk and
several times a day, to really see and think
chair in a niche with or without doors. As
and chat. Working, meeting, and sleeping
you continue to develop the design, seek
places are second in line for good relation-
intangibles that give meaning, or give per-
ships to the outdoors and the prime view.
sonal or corporate expression, making each
If one has a special private place to medi-
room— each room!—a special place.
tate—a place I like to call a “bliss station,”
One of the most important functional
as in Joseph Campbell’s “Follow your
and spatial decisions, for me, is how to
bliss”—it might get the prime view. In a
approach the building—the entrance
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the ground floor
Construction drawing of the
sequenceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;as well as the subsequent
Nob Hill House. By author,
movement through the spaces inside and
Mediterranean approach through a patio
1991.
outside. Christopher Alexanderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classic
surrounded by tall walls instead of the
architectural manual A Pattern Language
more conventional American or English
describes this sequence beautifully in
approach, where you come directly off of
many details and concludes with the fol-
the street or front yard down a walk
lowing advice:
through a grass lawn. (The tall walls were
In the Nob Hill House, I employ a
against the zoning ordinance, but we felt Make a transition space between the
them so important that we sought, and for-
street and the front door. Bring the path
tunately got, a variance.)
which connects street and entrance
It should be easy to understand that
through this transition space, and mark
space formed by walls, structure, and land-
it with a change of light, a change of
scape is the driving force in the search for
sound, a change of direction, a change
spatial form. I begin here by considering
of surface, a change of level, perhaps by
how spaces and light will occur on this par-
gateways which make a change of enclo-
ticular site. Of course, if the site involves
sure, and above all with a change of
difficult terrain, or if there are other special
view.
considerations, one will have to think of structure first, yet the structure is easier to b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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manipulate than many aspects of the build-
You can be sure that I visualize the
ing and consumes a small percentage of
environmental systems, heating, air condi-
the budget compared to finish materials,
tioning, and lighting by drawing overlays
mechanical/electrical systems, and equip-
several times during the project because
ment. Even so, if designed with appropri-
they can get out of control visually as well
ate simplicity and clarity, structure deter-
as out of budget, accounting for 20 – 30
mines much of the architectural quality of
percent of total building costs. A reflected
a building, helps provide an elegant spatial
ceiling plan is a good way to understand
solution, and usually costs less. I enjoy
what is going on with lighting and air con-
using here an elegantly simple, barnlike
ditioning and also a good way to control
structural solution that enhances the
their appearance. You draw a reflected ceil-
spaces and their architectonic aspects. This
ing plan by laying a sheet of tracing paper
will be a simple masonry-and-frame house
over the plan and drawing the ceiling as if
organized within the mass of a square
you’re looking into a mirror on the floor,
pyramidal roof. The pyramid is a strong
and you design the ceiling just as you
sculptural and symbolic image. And thanks
would every other surface. I insist on
to its simplicity (no corners or valleys), it
drawing all of the surfaces because the
sheds water well.
pain of drawing something ill-composed
Whatever building we make, comfort
or poorly proportioned will cause you to
and security are always our highest func-
revise your drawing. AutoCad and other
tional priorities. The reason we build shel-
software create these elevations and plans
ter at all is to make a secure and comfort-
readily so that you can examine and refine
able place—safe, dry, and neither too hot
them; your eye will instinctively catch awk-
nor too cold. We require quality drinking
ward composition and proportion or plain
water and sanitation. We also want a choice
error. It’s better to see it first on the paper
of light or darkness and all of the conve-
than in the building, when it’s too late or
nience and entertainment that technology
too expensive to change.
(and our budget) can afford. These support
Finding a way to hide every air condi-
systems should be civilized, arriving and
tioning supply and return grill makes an
leaving the building without visible wires
interesting game well worth pursuing. The
and meters. Some architects really like the
toe space under cabinets and bookcases, for
industrial aesthetic. I enjoy it myself but
example, is a perfect place to hide air condi-
only in an industrial setting, unless it is
tioning outlets. I also ask experts to look at
immaculately and artfully crafted. The dis-
these things with me. Architecture school
tribution of services, particularly hot and
doesn’t try to teach the novice architect how
cold air, requires a lot of space both in plan
to do all of the engineering; instead, it
and section; supply and return air grills
teaches just enough technical knowledge
can be intrusive, so all are best hidden
that the architect knows how to work intelli-
from view.
gently with consultants and to challenge
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the ground floor
Back porch of the Nob Hill
them in a collaborative effort. Good engi-
House. By author, 1992.
neers are exciting to work with creatively. At Nob Hill, I base the design on design traditions of the region, just as my mentor O’Neil Ford had taught me, and use those design idioms with full confidence in their value: a big, simple roof that gives generous shade to all the walls as well as the porches; the local stone—Austin limestone—for walls and floors; natural wood for doors, windows, and cabinets; thick walls with lots of insulation; deep windows; tall 8' doors; niches cut into the masonry; and high ceilings (mostly 11' high) with light coming from above in all major rooms. In the plan, I devise special sight lines for distant vistas and interior enfilades. (“Enfilade” is a concept borrowed from artillery; it’s a sight line through several
The fireplace, the hearth, is typically
spaces down which one can shoot— or, in
used to center a seating group for conver-
this case, see.) The plan is organized for
sation, yet much of a family’s normal activ-
communal spaces with long views and
ity in this part of the world is around the
private spaces with intimacy and sound-
television, so a conflict is created between
proofing.
hearth and TV; a group cannot face both.
The main living space, the traditional
Here, in place of a log fire, I decide to
“dog run,” is given much of the area bud-
install a large TV behind an ornamental
get at the expense of other rooms, so that it
fire screen. (The TV turned out to be
can make a significant-sized space in a
unused except for special events.)
smallish house. (I think the failing of many
Our most used room, I anticipate, will
buildings is that there is not one large
be the covered porch. It will provide a
room in which to gather.) The nine-foot
sense of being in nature, as it faces south-
dining table will get a place of honor in the
east toward the river and city. Eighteen feet
main room at the prime position for the
wide and sixty feet long, it will be big
view. The fountain that starts in the front
enough to accommodate a seating group at
courtyard will come through the living
one end, a six-foot diameter dining table
room symbolically as a dark green slate
for twelve at the other end, and a long,
inlaid in the limestone floor to emerge on
irregular-shaped fountain and fishpond in
the porch as a fountain into a fishpond.
between. Texas weather will allow the
b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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porch to be used at least once a day except
mirrors and track lighting so that it will look
on the few days that prove too cold.
more like a stylish dress shop than a closet.
To give the kitchen special character, I
I don’t avoid idiosyncrasies that I believe
seek the look of a “cantina,” an informal
will enhance the architecture. Some people
Mexican bar with barstools where men go
will advise you to build the typical, most
to drink and sing. The working part of the
common house plan in order to ensure the
kitchen—shallow and splendidly compact,
best resale value, but I believe that if the
everything reachable in three steps—will
idiosyncrasies are good design, they will
go behind a long, thick wood bar, the coun-
only enhance the value. At least that has
ter of which I plan to construct out of a
been my experience when houses of my
great, glossy slab of local ash juniper. The
design have sold. So I let in the idiosyncra-
lucky person behind the bar will get to
sies. The main atypical elements of this
enjoy facing not only his guests, but also,
house will be the 8' wall, creating a court-
beyond them, a broad skyline view. Warm
yard, rather than a front yard, as a central
colors, hardwood floors, and unexpected
part of the concept, and the separate three-
ornament such as a zinc, copper, and brass
story tower outside of the pyramid, requir-
image of the hill as the vent hood will give
ing one to leave the main house via a large
a nonkitchen look to this space so that it
back porch. Walking outside before enter-
can be used inconspicuously during par-
ing the tower, though, will provide a sepa-
ties; a large preparation area will get tucked
ration, both real and psychological, for my
right around the corner from it, out of
studio; it will also provide more privacy for
sight but readily at hand. Also off to the
the guest room and the roof deck, the latter
side I will have a cozy breakfast alcove—a
being a place where one can literally get
very special place. It will feature banquette
away and enjoy a 360-degree view.
seating for six and a severely dropped ceil-
In an earlier, more idiosyncratic house
ing sloping to 6' at the several small square
that I designed in town, I had separated the
windows on its two sides.
master bedroom from the master bath,
As for the master bath, I aim to make it
requiring one to cross the library that was
more of a real room by giving it a look of
open to the living room. It sounds bizarre,
spaciousness (actually 11' x 15'), comfortable
but my aim was to capitalize on the drama
seating, and a hardwood floor, set off with
of a Palladian plan that created a large cen-
an Oriental rug. Matching doors for the
tral living space with a dome 38' high. In
water closet compartment and the shower
that house, as in the Nob Hill House, the
compartment and windows with views in
idiosyncratic design proved effective. When
each of them will lend the bathroom sym-
sold, each house brought the highest dollar
metry and make it feel more like other
per square foot that a house had sold for in
rooms in the house. The clothes closet,
that city at that time.
meanwhile, I design as a large (11' x 14'), tall, walk-in dressing room with wall-sized
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the ground floor
Building your design can give you even more goosebumps than designing it— or
maybe even than living in it. During con-
months of construction went apace in a
struction I went by Nob Hill almost every
pleasant and logical sequence.
morning because I enjoyed the workmen
The typical sequence of design and con-
asking me to help make decisions in their
struction goes through several phases. The
work. My attitude was that I wanted to be
program described why you would make
there to answer questions, and the workers
this architecture. The site selection deter-
seemed glad to see me because I was try-
mined where you would build it. The
ing to help them. Some architects will
design process defined what you would
come on a site and begin telling everyone
build. The work then progresses in this
what to do, triggering quick resentment. I
order: The construction documents will
did this only once. On my first visit to a big
describe in precise detail what and how
job as an architect, I tried to tell a brick
you wish to build. (The nonarchitect will
mason how to lay brick. I learned quickly
need help here.) The bidding and negotia-
that I didn’t know how to lay brick, but I
tion will decide who will build it, when it
found enough resilience to get across to
will be finished, and at what cost. The
him my idea of how I would like the brick
selected contractor and subcontractors,
laid if it couldn’t be done the way I had
together with the owner and the architect,
drawn it. Together we came up with a bet-
will make it happen. There are a lot of vari-
ter detail than either of us had in mind.
ations, but this is a typical progression.
You cannot build the building by your-
I would like to add two comments that
self. You don’t have the time, and you don’t
have to do with money. The better the
have the skills. The contractor is potentially
quality of the contract documents and the
your best friend, although many young
more carefully thought out the drawings
architects think he’s the enemy. He can
and specifications, the more they can min-
make a beautiful building, if you have
imize costly changes. I always use AIA
designed one— or he can make a mess,
contract documents for general conditions
run up the cost, delay completion, or all
of the contract and the actual contract
three. What you can do is describe to all
between owner and contractor because
involved how you would like it built
they have stood the test of time and are
through plans, specifications, shop draw-
updated annually. Changes during con-
ings, and on-site conferences. Then focus
struction are disproportionately expensive
on working creatively with everyone. My
and time consuming for everyone
test of whether I’m doing a good job on the
involved. Minor changes can happen with-
construction site is if the contractor is
out cost and improve the final result, often
happy to see me and has the problems
saving money. It’s important to know that
ready for me rather than solving them in
should you ask the contractor, “How much
his way. The general contractor selected for
will this change cost?” and he answers,
Nob Hill was a man I had worked with
“Too much,” that is not a valid answer —
before on several jobs, and the nine
you need to know how much so that you
b u i l d i ng a r c h i t e c t u r e
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can decide how much is too much. The
surprises when we moved in. An architect
change may be minor, but it may make a
friend once asked me if, after living in the
great improvement over what you had
house, I’d have made any changes. “Yes,”
visualized in the drawings. The second
I told him, “I would have added twelve
money matter that can make for a happy
inches behind the dining table, and I’d like
job is for the owner to hold back a secret
to have afforded a standing-seam metal
10 percent of the building budget beyond
roof.” But the house proved to be a joy in
the contingencies that might be available
which to live and entertain. Magazines
in the contract.
published it, garden clubs from miles away
The finished house at Nob Hill, com-
came to visit it, chamber music ensembles
pleted more or less on budget, had such a
played in it, and it was used for museum,
strong visual form that it could be seen fit-
symphony, university, and political
ting into its hillside from five miles away.
events— even though it was only a thirty-
Because we had placed all of the furniture
six-hundred-square-foot house on a barely
during the design process, there were few
accessible hilltop.
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the ground floor
C H A P T E R T W E LV E
ADDING MEANING
Better the rudest work that tells a story or records a fact, than the richest without mean-
Dear Gail: Designers are always looking for ways
ing. There should not be a single ornament
to help determine the form of their work,
put upon great civic buildings, without some
be it a function, a style, a theory, a struc-
intellectual intention.
ture, a precedent, a geometry, a sustainabil-
j o h n r us ki n
ity issue, a moral imperative—anything,
(1819 –1900)
really, that helps create form. We seek to validate our newly created forms visually, intellectually, and emotionally. We want them to be stamped “special.” We want people noticing them and admiring them and being eager to inhabit them. So your concern about wanting to make your compound “more than just bricks and mortar” is a valid one. So many buildings seem forgettable, even soulless. A few, though, somehow manage to feel alive and “just right.” They have the magic of true architecture. a d d i ng m e a n i ng
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top left: “Pyramid of the Magician.” Unknown. Uxmal, near Merida, Yucatán, Mexico, AD 700.
In many cultures of the past as well as
top right: Greek temple at
in some present ones, myths, particularly
Paestum, Italy, ca. 500 BC.
those of a spiritual nature, have been the dominant form-giver. Architecture is
Mexican church interior,
intrinsically romantic. Myths of a spiritual
unknown, sixteenth century.
tradition were expressed in architecture through the use of special progressions of spaces, by specific forms, by light, by the arts of sculpture, painting, and music. These forms begot cultural traditions and symbols. Thus, many of the great buildings have a spiritual content. Of course, in Rheims Cathedral, spirituality is the whole
You may wonder about how this will be
purpose, yet nonreligious buildings can
of value to you. But follow me, if you will,
have qualities beyond the aesthetic that
as I describe this experiment with the idea
affect the spirit. This is true even of a
that buildings can tell the commonly held
house. So, being aware of this dimension,
stories we call myths. The hypothesis is
I experimented with the Nob Hill House to
that a connection can be made between the
see if I could create a level of extra mean-
architecture and the person experiencing
ing that would enrich the experience of liv-
it, provided they are open to it. Architec-
ing in the house as well as help me give
ture’s form, space, and iconography can
form to the design.
communicate ideas, tell histories, evoke
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the ground floor
emotions, enhance spirituality, and create a
is built upon stories that have become pop-
sense of place. The stories have begin-
ular myths.
nings, middles, and ends. They help give
Myths embedded in architecture give
form to the building. Think of these myths
information, communicate ideas, explore
as metaphysics (i.e., going beyond physics),
mysteries, provide guidance, imply mean-
going beyond architectonics.
ing, and provoke thought, even awe. The
Some buildings are dumb, with nothing
architectural iconography of some civiliza-
to say, without voice—simple physics; oth-
tions is the only evidence left to tell us their
ers just make noise; still others may tell a
story. Buildings can represent a history of
fool’s story of pretension and ostentation.
human events that took place within them.
Architecture, once considered the Mother of
What speaks to us skips nostalgia and goes
the Arts, integrated painting, sculpture,
directly to the vitality of the human spirit.
music, and drama into the whole—a con-
Monuments communicate and perpetuate
cept that generated great ritual art and archi-
the myths. Simple everyday nonmonumen-
tecture through the collaboration of the art-
tal buildings can also express myths.
ists. The Beaux-Arts architect, who was
Some of today’s architecture seems
arguably more of an artist than today’s typi-
bound up in the search for form following
cal architect, collaborated with painters and
fashion, becoming empty once the fashion
sculptors to present an iconographic pro-
passes. It’s said that early Modernists
gram in the building, where artists would
searched for basic spiritual expression in
bring in sketches and plaster maquettes to
their abstractions, although the Modernist
the architect for possible inclusion. After
movement later gave little notice to expres-
centuries of successful integration of art and
sions of myths and meanings that a build-
architecture, the iconographic program dis-
ing might communicate. Is it true that
appeared with the onset of Modernism.
users and clients, finding little mythic con-
Should it be brought back?
tent in the new architecture, have found
The ancient myths of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Maya, as well as those of
less need for architects? Architecture determined by function,
medieval times, the Renaissance, the
structure, and theory leaves a blank page
Enlightenment, and even the 1930s indus-
rather than a story. This blank page can
trial period gave form to the art and archi-
invite many abstract ideas; yet missing is
tecture of their time. In some cases, the
the dialogue with the user about spiritual
myths were the sole reason for building, as
or mythical aspects of his or her time in the
in a monument or religious building. King-
building, leaving us with only the design-
doms like the Maya had much of their
er’s stylistic and personal expression.
power embedded in buildings that symbol-
Architecture wants to be more.
ized a connection with the sun and stars.
Should one wish to explore this, know
Myths were dramatized, empowered, and
that myth telling in architecture can enter
perpetuated by architecture and art. Much
the design process at each of its phases. In
of the popularity of Disney’s theme parks
conceptualization, one can think about cosa d d i ng m e a n i ng
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mology, orientation, directional elements (fire-water-earth-air), iconography, symbolism, place, or a specific story. Painting, sculpture, and the decorative arts and crafts have always been the most direct way of telling a myth, as they are integrated with the architecture. Some of the architectural devices include spatial progressions of high and low, wide or narrow, light or dark, color and texture, quiet or reverberant, hot or cold, events along the way. Design devices of the architect’s craft can work to dramatize a story. Designing for the rituals of everyday use and special festive ceremonies gives cause to elaborate on the myths. The myth becomes stronger with each experiencing, each telling. Celebrations of a birth, a wedding, an anniversary, an Easter, a Passover, a birthday, a Christmas, a Hanukah, a christening, a reunion, and a graduation are the kinds of continuing events that extend the myth. Myths explore such questions as, Where am I? Who am I? Why am I here? What is my journey? What is my place in my
embedded in them that made them more
The architect Cass Gilbert
world? These are timeless, universal ques-
than just functional buildings. After World
used hundreds of icons on
tions incapable of precise answers; they
War II such iconography became rare.
the exterior and interior of
engage body, mind, and soul. For those
To explore this additional layer of
the Woolworth Building in
who believe there is no soul, please read
design, let me lead you through the design
New York City, built as the
on. There’s probably another name for it.
of a simple building. The design of the Nob
tallest building in the world
Hill House involved intangibles that I
in 1911.
Recent history, up until World War II, saw iconographic programs in post offices,
didn’t mention in Chapter 11 because doing
courthouses, stock markets, banks, utility
so would have confused the other issues.
companies, and office buildings. The icono-
Indeed, I believe these second thoughts of
graphic art gave meaning to many of the
intangibles add something of value to the
major buildings of New York City. Visualize
experience of the building.
the Woolworth Building, Rockefeller Center,
The iconographic program here is the
the Metropolitan Museum, the New York
Journey. It will have several stories within
Public Library, the Chrysler Building, the
it. The first story comes in defining the
Empire State Building—they all have icons
place, the location uniquely yours in ways
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the ground floor
that own the place beyond the legalities of
you start? When possible, I like to start
the deed. On a typical street pattern, in a
with the concept of a clearing, a contained
row of buildings, this requires both imagi-
space under the sky, sheltered by simple
nation and invention. However, in this
roofs. It seemed perfect here to start by
example, the mythic journey begins thus:
placing a square, pyramidal roof facing
A road spirals up around the hill to the
southeast, the diagonals of the square on
place, the genus loci, the axis mundi, the
the cardinal points of the compass; and to
center of this particular world—visible
angle the ridge of the roof so that one can
from miles away near the top of a hill.
sight up the roof ridge to see Polaris, the
Looking out, one senses this place as the
North Star. This mythic locking-on to the
beginning of the Texas hill country, with
cosmos makes this roof seem “just right”
the Colorado River flowing toward the Gulf
intellectually. I thought about what was
of Mexico connecting us by water with the
built in simpler times, when one related to
rest of the world. I know exactly where I
the land and the climate before air condi-
am: Earth, Latitude 30° 17' 50", Longitude
tioning allowed overwhelming architec-
at 97° 47' 55", altitude 922.2 feet above sea
tural pretense, and I thought of how I
level, a physical place that I want to make
might articulate the space under that roof
also a metaphysical place.
as a “dog run,” the space in between the
The historical and geological story of
stone masses and under the apex of the
this place on a hill extends into the human
pyramid. That reinforced the architectural
story viewed in the skyline of the modern
concept; in the Beaux-Arts era it would
city: the dome of the Capitol of Texas, the
have been called the parti.
towers of the universities, the tall buildings
With this parti anchoring the pyramidal
of known and unknown enterprises. Vitru-
roof on the side of the hill, enclosing a cen-
vius tells us to locate the building on high
tral space, a clearing, I have a concept that
ground with salubrious breezes; Frank
can be metaphysical as well as physical. I
Lloyd Wright tells us to locate it near the
can use the historical vernacular forms of
brow of the hill rather than on the top. I
the region to help the myths unfold and
had to go with Vitruvius because of the
develop a clear, specific sense of place, a
small site. Any primitive builder seeking to
place in the cosmos and the topos—it
build a ceremonial site would relate to the
connected.
hills, orient to the stars, perhaps the cardi-
With place established, other myths can
nal compass points, and focus toward an
be engaged: myths about time, life’s jour-
important distant object to give meaning to
ney through time, the future, spirituality,
the place. In this case, facing due southeast
sense of self, and many levels of meaning
would relate to the cardinal points, the
and celebration beyond that of comfortable
direction of prevailing breezes, and the
shelter. The myth of a Texas hill country
view down the glistening Colorado River.
architectural idiom is expressed in lime-
One objective here is to make this place the center of a personal world. Where do
stone, metal roofs, broad overhangs with thin roof edges, porches, small openings a d d i ng m e a n i ng
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against the west sun, and a clear search for shade and breeze. These are icons that enhance the myths of central Texas buildings. A steamship company pamphlet given to nineteenth-century German immigrants bound for Texas gave instructions on how to build a shelter in the harsh Texas climate: “Face into the southeastern breeze. Build a basic cabin, later a second cabin, one for cooking and eating, one for sleeping; separate the cabins by 10 to 20 feet to form a roofed breezeway (dog-
even in harsh temperature regions. The
top left: The front gate is a
run) and add a porch to shelter the house
stone walls and floors, sheltered by a thin-
portal into the personal
from the sun.” This is the parti of the Nob
edged metal roof, made people ask, “Is this
world of Nob Hill, where
Hill House described here — to which I
an old house?” That’s evidence that this
crossing the threshold
added glass walls at each end of the dog
parti possessed authenticity.
begins a journey toward the
run to allow for air conditioning. The
A clearing in the wilderness creates a
distant horizon as part of
myth of the harsh Texas summer is
place. In a forest, the clearing would be an
responded to by the maxim, “Find a breeze
enclosed space, a place of light. Primitive
and get in the shade.” Make shade with
tribes would mark the center of their world
top right: Rather than a
porches and overhangs; orient for shade
by making a hearth of three stones or a
front yard, it is a Mediterra-
and breeze. Air conditioning makes this
mound of five stones. Other cultures would
nean patio, an atrio of a six-
irrelevant today in Texas unless one
place a pole as the axis mundi—their world
teenth-century church, a
delights in natural settings, feeling
center. The Maya created a sacred clearing
clearing in the woods, a
breezes, and sensing weather’s variants
by building a group of three pyramids to
Maya primordial sea, or sim-
before it gets too hot or too cold —five
form a ceremonial space. This clearing
ply an enclosed garden.
good months a year. One can celebrate at
becomes the central space. In every build-
least one meal on the porch on most days,
ing I have designed I have made a central
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the ground floor
the iconic program.
The snake looks toward a view of the remaining journey.
View from the house back to
clearing in the form of a patio or a large
the front gate looks through
central space.
the patio garden.
Joseph Campbell, an authority on myths, advises that they “help us experience the rapture of being alive.” One’s own personal myth becomes one’s largest mystery, more important than goals or plans or possessions. Imbedding this myth in a building can help one understand the journey. “Journey” and “time” can be sensed in linear progression through spaces. A circular path of spaces gives unending repetitions. The linear mythic journey expresses a beginning, middle, and end or extension to infinity. In the Nob Hill experiment, the journey
The cross axis as a transept
is a story that begins as one spirals up to
with the dining table as the
the top of the hill, where a small plaza is
alter.
edged on two sides by stone walls. A portal in the stone wall opens with a thick wooden gate to make the threshold into the private world marked by a walled garden
opposite page bottom:The
courtyard, expressing in a mythic sense the
view and path continue
beginning. The courtyard is the beginning
through the house, as does
of the journey—as in the Garden of Eden
the slate image of the watery
with its biblical icons. In a different mythic
snake, symbol of the journey,
system, the space formed by temple-moun-
heading toward the distance.
tains in the Maya creation myth represents a d d i ng m e a n i ng
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the primordial sea, the underworld, where
here by the seating at the center of the
the Maya gods and ancestors live. The
clearing under the apex of the pyramid. The
Maya ceremonial space represented by this
fifth chakra represents the mouth and
garden advances historically to represent a
throat, in this case the dining table. The
third mythic system, the sixteenth-century
sixth chakra represents the eyes and the
Spanish/Mesoamerican ceremonial space
other senses, represented here by the dis-
of the Atrio (churchyard) with Posa Cha-
tant view. The seventh and final chakra,
pels in the corners, a Via Sacra walk
called “spiritual energy beyond,” is the view
around the garden-atrio, a Tree of Life con-
of the sky and clouds, the river, the skyline,
necting the underworld with the heavens,
sometimes a rainbow. I have used chakras
and a representation of the gathered faith-
to articulate events along a progression and
ful by post oaks and cedars in the center of
help form an idea of what should go on at
the garden-atrio.
each place to reinforce the experience.
The Nob Hill interior can be read as a
One has to include Feng Shui because it
sanctuary nave with cross axes arranged
can be another form-giver or modifier
like a church transept leading to the Green
when you take time to understand it or
Chapel (master bedroom) and the Red
work with a Feng Shui master as a consul-
Chapel (the kitchen). Fireplaces anchor
tant. I’ve found Feng Shui ideas to be help-
each end of the transept. The altar of the
ful. See the Reading List.
nave serves as the dining table; the view
It’s the historic myths of a building that
through the glass is the retabla. The jour-
are easiest to understand— connections to
ney ends in infinity.
one’s past as giving value to one’s experi-
Sighting up the roof ridge to Polaris sets
ence of a place. Things remembered, such
the scene to watch the constellations circle
as ideas of the clearing, the frontier cabin,
the house through the night.
the plaza, atrio, nave, transept, cloister, rec-
You can enhance the experience of pro-
ollections of architectural typology, diverse
gression through a building by using the
cultures, hero myths, and natural land-
idea of chakras, the mythic Oriental mean-
scapes—all give meaning and involve
ings related to seven areas of the human
myths. Add to the house or building the
body. Thinking through the chakras can
family stories or institutional history, and
give a particular focus to each event along a
there is a recollection of myths of the place
linear progression through the body of the
expressed in the iconography of objects,
building. The first chakra roots the building
paintings, photographs, favorite things,
to the rest of the world. The second chakra
heirlooms, and spaces.
represents the beginning, the entrance. The third chakra represents the navel as the
Bernard Berenson in Definition of Culture asserts,
connection to the world of energy and knowledge, symbolized here by a round
The effort to build a House of Life
reading table laden with books. The fourth
where man will be able to attain the
chakra represents the heart, symbolized
highest development that his animal
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the ground floor
nature will permit, taking him ever fur-
architect and author Christopher Alexan-
ther away from the jungle and the cave,
der visited the house. I was intrigued to see
and bringing him nearer and nearer to
how he would perceive the house and what
that humanistic society which under the
he might say because I had followed his
name of Paradise, Elysium, Heaven,
advice in A Pattern Language. He wandered
City of God, Millennium, has been the
in through the gate, then through the
craving of all good men these last four
courtyard, looking down, seeing only the
thousand years and more.
paving. But as he approached the front door, he stopped and said, “What’s going
In building such a “House of Life,”
on here?” I told him that I was trying to tell
many things or places have commonly
a story through the spatial progressions
understood symbolic meanings as icons:
and icons along the way. He looked around,
the hearth, the bed, the stove, the table, the
perceived a bit of what I was trying to do,
reading place, the listening place, the view-
and excitedly said, “Have you written any-
ing place, the talking place, the thinking
thing about this?” When I said no, he
place, the workplace, the cozy place, the
asked, “Have you not had the time or have
public place, the cleansing place, the dress-
you not had the courage?” We spent the
ing place, the attic, the basement, the sun-
rest of the evening talking about how
rise place, the sunset place, the lunch
buildings could, and perhaps should, tell
place, the winter place, the summer place,
stories. We recalled that important archi-
the other-world place, the underworld
tecture used to have an iconographic pro-
place, the earthly world place, the celestial
gram as well as a functional program and
world place. All are places, objects, and
thought that it might again. His challenge
times to be celebrated. These are more
caused me to go into such detail here.
than functions for form to follow; these are
To summarize, my objective in these
the stuff from which the myths of Paradise
experiments was to find ways to design that
are made.
enhance a sense of place and purpose, but
In the Nob Hill experiment, I tried to
this only scratches the surface. In reaching
see if I could tell a story that would com-
beyond function, style, theory, and per-
municate the journey. But who would read
sonal preference, I found the myths to be
the several mythic themes and progres-
determinants of form that add intrinsic
sions? For me, it completed my conscious-
value to the architectural experience.
ness of the house. I thought I might be the
Absence of mythic content in architec-
only person who could read the iconogra-
ture is a missed opportunity. Of course, all
phy. But when the poet Betty Sue Flowers
the myths and meanings could be ignored
and, later, the Maya anthropologist Linda
in this experiment and one could simply
Schele visited, they found the meanings
describe this house as real estate in a clas-
instantly.
sified ad: “Charming 3 bedroom, 3 1/2 bath,
While the experiment was still new,
stone house on a hill with a view.”
another reading came when the noted a d d i ng m e a n i ng
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
MAKING DESIGN DECISIONS
Always design a thing by considering it in its next larger context—a chair in a room, a
Dear John: Your project for a lakeside resort sounds
room in a house, a house in an environment,
exciting and sounds like a welcome addi-
an environment in a city plan.
tion to the coast. As a developer/builder
eliel saarinen
you already know how to approach the
(1873 –1950)
design process, so I want to offer a handful of practical guidelines that I’ve found useful in making the myriad design decisions involved in a building. Whether dogma or personal preference or style, they will give you a point from which to begin. Some of these guidelines I describe here are broad and conceptual; others address the hundreds of thousands of design details encountered in building. It is important to know that every guideline is subject to question, because the exception often proves to be the best solution.
m a k i ng d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s
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co n cep tua l
spaces that can create a courtyard, a plaza, a campus, street, or, in the absence of
1. “Decide first where not to build.”
design, a wasteland. Inside the building,
This injunction came from one of my men-
the three-dimensional space is designed to
tors, the city planner Sam Zisman; it’s sim-
form rooms, interlocking spaces, and con-
ilar to “First, do no harm,” and it’s the key
nectors, held together in movement as a
to intelligent site planning because if you
spatial progression. The art of space is the
decide first where not to build, the choices
substance of architecture. It is to be
of places to build will reveal themselves.
shaped, related to other spaces, and assem-
Evaluate your site so as to respect the best
bled in progressions.
part of it by not building on that part. Instead, consider building on the worst
4. Locate for the senses.
part to cover it up. The same applies at
Consider each of the five senses in locating
other scales: for instance, in a room decide
the spaces of the building.
where not to place furniture, and in a garden decide where not to place plants— these places are the best spaces for people.
1. Consider what your eyes see: the light, the views of near and distant points of interest, and the visual rela-
2. Make a place.
tionship to neighboring buildings,
Places are spaces that get fixed in your
spaces, and landscape. Focus on views
memory and become part of your life. Life
of a distant object, a mountain, a river,
takes place. We cherish memories of the
or a tower, if you are so fortunate, or
sensations of place and seek the discovery
gaze at an urban or natural landscape.
of new places. A place can be a city, a
2. Orient the spaces so you will feel
neighborhood, a park, a lake, a street, a
the breeze and sense the heat of the sun
garden, a house, a room, a chair, or a para-
or cool of shade trees or nearby water.
graph in a book. All form a personal hier-
When possible I orient the longest or
archy of places that exist—in fact or illu-
most inhabited side of the building fac-
sion—in your memory.
ing south because that light is the most available and the most controllable,
3. Form a space.
whereas east and west sun that penetrate
Planes—the floors, walls, and ceilings of
the building at low angles can be harsh
buildings—form architectural space and
and difficult to manage. North light is
give it shape. On a larger scale space is cre-
less intense, cooler in color and diffused,
ated between buildings. Space and area dif-
desirable for some conditions. When you
fer. Area is flat and two-dimensional. Space
want sunlight to enter all rooms, con-
is the three-dimensional substance in
sider orienting the building on the diago-
which we live. Spaces leading up to and
nal of the cardinal points, with the prin-
around the building create the presence of
cipal spaces facing southeast. Outside
a building. Groups of buildings form
spaces, gardens, patios, and spaces
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the ground floor
between buildings are an integral part of
tainability are terms given to a broad range
the whole. The outside space formed by
of concerns in the building and its opera-
the buildings may be the most important
tion, efficient energy and water use being
room in which to be.
the most critical. In cold climates, consider
3. Screen and protect from sounds
an orientation for light and heat in a sort of
that bother, such as sounds of traffic
square plan oriented forty-five degrees off
and noise from the neighborhood. Find
the cardinal points because all of the rooms
or create delight from sounds like
will receive sunshine at some time during
splashing waterâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;it can also screen
the day. The many issues involved in orien-
unwanted sounds.
tation and sustainability can be explored in
4. Avoid the fumes from traffic,
the Reading List.
industry, and nature that smell bad. (Offensive sounds and smells are often
6. In a hot climate, make shade. In a cold
uncontrollable and may be such an irri-
climate, bring sunshine.
tation that a different site should be
This may seem self-evident, but keep it pri-
found.)
mary in your thoughts. This alone will
5. For the sense of taste, just find the most desirable location for meals and
bring you better comfort and lower energy bills.
snacks. 7. Trees are great assets. I enjoy orienting spaces to precise cardi-
Trees shade the building from the sun and
nal points of the compass to help me know
screen unwanted views, offer a sense of
where the sun will enter rooms, to predict
shelter, and provide texture, color, and
where to see sunrise and sunset at equinox
mass, as well as being one of natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s great
and solstice, and to follow the stars.
delights. A mature tree cools the air around its base by eight to ten degrees dur-
5. Orient for energy conservation.
ing the summer months. Designing
An aspect ratio of length to width of 2 to 1,
around existing trees and placing new ones
with the long dimension facing south, lim-
can create a special setting for the building.
its exposure to the sun on the harsh east
Trees can extend or shelter the building,
and west sides of the building while still
screen unattractive views, and create out-
having a good area-to-perimeter ratio. Sun
door spaces related to the building. Do
on south exposures is easier to predict and
every thing in your power to avoid cutting
control with overhangs. North provides a
down trees; add as many as you can. In
diffused light and puts no direct light or
most cases itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s more pleasant to see a tree
radiant heat into the building. Exceptions
than a building.
to this rule are when the topography or view dictates, or when you need to protect
8. Organize the plan to give rooms a lively
from excessive sunlight architecturally or
natural light.
with landscape. Green architecture and sus-
Southern exposure is generally the most m a k i ng d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s
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preferred for all rooms. North is desirable
the urban design scale and the private gar-
for diffused light in galleries or work
den scale. These shapes become the sculp-
spaces. East is good for spaces used mainly
tural forms of the buildings and spacesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;
in the morning and for shady terraces in
the solids and voids. Yes, voids have
the afternoon. West is an undesirable ori-
sculptural form too.
entation in hot climates, desirable in cold climates. West exposures are best used for
10. Shape the building by organizing
windowless rooms such as storerooms and
functional spaces.
garages in hot climates, or, in cold cli-
Organize functional spaces in a two-
mates, for rooms used mainly in the late
dimensional floor plan, working back and
afternoon or evening.
forth with your spatial objectives. Controlling this effort will be the detailed func-
9. Shape the building by considering the
tional elements of the building, so start
organization of inside spaces as they create
with the functional plan diagrams. I find it
outside spaces.
useful to think of the simple geometric
Conceptually, begin by shaping the plan of
forms that yield desirable spaces and natu-
the building in relationship to its sur-
ral light. Consider the possibilities of these
roundings, buildings, trees, and land-
abstract plan forms.
forms, seeking to shape both inside and outside space. Manipulate the shape of the
11. Plan forms.
Most plans that are rectilin-
organized inside spaces to form the out-
The simple rectangle is the most economi-
ear fit one of these footprints
side spaces and bring light and air into the
cal shape, as demonstrated by the archetyp-
or can be rotated to make
building. Shaping the three-dimensional
ical cabin in the woods and the archetypi-
angles as well as intersec-
open space gives particular form at both
cal commercial office building cereal-box
tions and combinations.
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the ground floor
form. It is an object on a ground plane or
in the façade, such as the height of the
an object connected to an urban mass. It
entrance. Character is expressed by the use
has a limited capacity to form outside
of scale, form, materials, icons, and nuances
spaces or to provide spatial progressions or
reached by design study. Your eye and your
desirable orientations.
critical faculties will be your guide.
12. Design what the eye will see. Visualize walking through the site and the
14. Design a roof that makes shelter and shade: it forms the shape of building.
building by mentally walking through the
Sometimes itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s good to design the roof of a
floor plan, visualizing exactly what some-
building first, and then get under it. Make
one will see on a path through the build-
sure that flat roofs are not flatâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a slope of
ing. That is how we sense the spaces, sur-
at least 1/4" to a foot is needed along with
faces, and vistas in a building. Concentrate
plenty of routes for the water to get off the
on the design of the views of what you
roof without damaging anything. Roofs can
want to see and minimize the rest. There is
get complicated; keep them simple,
a theory that the Greeks designed their
because each change of material or inter-
visually rich panoramas in such a way that
section with another roof plane or wall
from your viewpoint you will see an object
invites a leak.
or a building corner at each fifteen-degree increment as you view the scene. I found it satisfying to see from my favorite spot in
15. Make your building look like gravity is working with it rather than against it.
the garden at about fifteen-degree intervals,
Dramatic exceptions of the Modernist
starting with a framed mirror, then a large
movement defy gravity with extraordinary
pot of bamboo, and on around to a bed of
grace, using the structural finesse available
flowers, a garden gate, a bench, and a foun-
to our era, and can create the illusion that
tain. Try this and see how it works for you
a building is hovering or cantilevering over
from your favorite viewpoints.
empty space. For this, use caution; gravity is the Great Resolver in aesthetics as well as
13. Express the character and scale of the
in engineering. I find as much or more
building in a way that communicates its
comfort in seeing gravity calmly at work
intentions.
than seeing the modern expression of a
Is the building to be monumental, intimate
cantilever demonstrating great stress to
and cozy, or something in between? Does
hold itself off the ground.
the scale communicate monument, religious aspiration, prestigious corporation,
16. Express the structure.
effective government, substantial school, or
Let materials do what they are meant to do.
comfortable, secure homestead? Each will
Structures have four kinds of forces: com-
have a different proportional relationship
pression, tension, and their combination in
with the size of the human body that will be
bending and torsion. Stone and brick work
indicated by the size of spaces and elements
in compression in walls, arches, and m a k i ng d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s
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domes, where the stones or bricks are held
seum director, “How much does your
together by gravity to support the load
building weigh?” Lightness is a fascination
above it; stone will span small openings as
of our time—to leave the earth, become
a lintel. Wood and steel work with all
suspended, fly. On the other hand, heavi-
forces, usually as linear elements in a
ness has its reasons as well: permanence,
frame or truss. Steel works well in tension,
stability, security, compression, and identi-
as in cable structures. Steel-reinforced con-
fication with Earth. That’s what seduced
crete can do most anything, including col-
me in Mexico, where the timeless technol-
umns, beams, slabs, rigid frames, and
ogy depended on heavy walls with simple
many sculptural shapes. Metals and carbon
arches and domes—all in compression.
fiber plastics can carry all forces within
You can go light or heavy, or juxtapose their
stressed skin construction used in air-
contrasts. Of course, both of the systems
planes and cars, and more recently in
are hard to imitate in wood frame, sheet-
sculptural architectural forms. Because
rock, veneers, and ersatz materials of the
most of today’s buildings are concrete or
kinds now generally used.
steel frames covered with a thin veneer, expressing the structure may not be neces-
18. Walls do most of the work.
sary, but our eye still wants to see what is
Use walls to form space, to define, to give
holding up the building. The exceptions
security and shelter, to enclose, to screen, to
are seen in the new architecture of blobs
divide, to give privacy, and to sit on as low
and wobbly buildings, whose legitimacy is
benches. Give them color, texture, thick-
in the fantasy they can evoke.
ness, and proportion. Make them high enough to contain more than an area but
17. Manipulate the structural system. This can create unique spaces and complex
to contain, visually, a three-dimensional space.
sculptural form. In addition, it can express ephemeral lightness of high technology or
19. Foundations come first.
the eternal mass of earthy solidity. The
Foundations are invisible, and while one
extremes are dramatic: Calatrava bridges
may not want to spend money where it
versus Romanesque churches and stone
doesn’t show, the investment is essential to
fortresses. In my year in jet aircraft struc-
structural integrity. Test holes by qualified
tural design we sought to make the struc-
laboratories and foundation specialists can
ture as light as possible so as to use less
assure the client and the designer that the
fuel, carry more payload, need less aerody-
investment in the building will be secure
namic lift, and fly faster. A team called
structurally. Because the substrate of a site
Weights and Measures would come by
is not seen, several test holes are needed.
each designer’s desk and ask, “How much
On a site in Oregon near a millrace, there
weight do you have in your assembly?”—
had been a single test hole made that
like Buckminster Fuller asking the mu-
showed good bedrock at five feet, so we
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the ground floor
scheduled another series of test holes closer
per foot, or 1/8" per foot if on smooth pav-
to the millrace, but we were on a fast track
ing—that includes little things like cop-
to finish the five-story college dormitory
ings, ledges, and windowsills.
before school started, so we were well along in design when the soils report came in. Bad news: the test showed that the bedrock
co mp o s it io n and p ro p o r t io n
fell off toward the millrace to a depth over
h av e s imp l e ancient rul es t hat
ninety feet. Our brilliant engineer rede-
o ur eyes f ind s at is f ying .
signed the foundation to put half of the building on piers to bedrock and the other
1. Compose objects in groups of three
half on pilings that would hold the building
rather than groups of two or four.
up by friction on the silt, both sides bal-
Two objects can present a dichotomy,
anced by measuring the weight of each half
opposing elements that may or may not be
so that each would subside at the same rate
the desirable message.
along an expansion joint through the building. The floors are still level at the joint.
2. Columns are best in pairs, rather than threes.
20. In selection of materials, consider first
Always have an even number of columns
the natural materials indigenous to the
making an odd number of spaces in
region.
between. Ever see a Greek temple with
Compare these with the new processed
three columns? A column in the middle is
synthetics or materials from other regions.
to be avoided. A lovely exception is a
The natural indigenous materials may last
Gothic entrance or a Moorish window with
longer, be cheaper, and use less energy to
double arches.
manufacture and transport. On the other hand, look at the latest technology to find
3. Avoid putting objects in the middle
the best possible material choice for the
of a space.
particular situation; just be cautious of new
This restricts movement and can make the
materials. I’ve made this comparison ever
space static rather than dynamic. Remem-
since the failure of a new material that I
ber that the space not consumed with
used caused a lawsuit.
objects is the place where people can be.
21. Water goes downhill. Water runs either into your building or
4. Compose an arbitrary division of a line or plane at its “third point” or “center.”
away from it; owners do not tolerate water
This is a good place to start for a quick
running into their building from the
eyeball judgment. It may be either dull or
ground or the roof—and shouldn’t. Every
powerful; for proportion, you must decide
exterior surface, no matter how small,
and adjust to what seems like the inevita-
should slope away from the building at 1/4"
ble location based on your eye.
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5. Symmetry brings order.
slide or a 3 x 5 card. To use this proportion,
Symmetry can be strong and assertive,
simply multiply the width of the rectangle
even monumental, and it seems like an
by 1.618 to get the dimension of the length
easy way to compose. It presents the famil-
or height. For example, a window 1 meter
iar and pleasing kind of balance you see in
by 1.618 meters is found in many cultures.
the human body. But the limitations of
Use this for windows, doors, sizes of
symmetry are that visually, it may make
rooms, façades, anything—it may not work
the composition static and uninteresting,
but it’s a good place to start. (Notice that
and functionally, it often doesn’t work well.
this is the first mention of math, and this is
Asymmetry is a useful composition tool
no more math than you would use in the
and can be dynamic or balanced, giving
grocery store.)
emphasis to a particular element of the design. Your eye must work out the
8. Another useful proportion is the “square
balance.
root of 2,” the ratio of 1 to 1.414. This ancient proportion was easily con-
6. Once symmetry enters a composition,
structed in primitive cultures by using a
it demands to be continued.
rope to measure the diagonal of a square
So, continue the symmetry or go into
and rotating that length to become one of
dynamic symmetry, where things are visu-
the sides of the resulting rectangle. Use the
ally balanced but are unequal.
proportion ratios in both plan and section.
7. The best-known proportion is the Golden
9. The simplest proportion is the square.
Rectangle, a ratio of width to length of
And a very powerful one—a square room,
The most used proportions:
1 to 1.618.
a square wall, a square window are used to
square, square root of 2,
This historically satisfying proportion
make something special. A cube is super
Golden Rectangle, double
approximates the proportion of a 35 mm
strong. Again, as with symmetry in a
square.
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the ground floor
façade, when you start it, your eye may
13. Color can make or break a design.
insist that you continue it as a design
It amazes me to see how colors affect the
idiom.
appearance, the size, and the ambience of a building or room, and how an expert can
10. The double square and the double cube
manipulate the infinite number of colors
are useful proportions and also good orga-
in the visual light spectrum. A color has a
nizers of space.
hue that can be changed by mixing several
They are less overwhelming than the
colors and can be made lighter or darker by
square or cube.
adding white or dark. Color is perceived through three variables: the actual color on
11. Use the circle as an organizing device.
the wall, the color of the light that illumi-
The circle has the magic of containing the
nates the color, and the receptive character-
most area with the least perimeter. It has
istics of each person’s particular eye sensi-
so many symbolic and geometric complica-
tivity. See the Reading List.
tions when used in walls of a building that one must use it thoughtfully because it is one of the most demanding forms. It is
us ef ul g uidel ines f o r ref inin g
useful as an invisible tool for composition.
t h e des ig n o f a wal l o r a façade
12. The 3-4-5 triangle can be used to make a right angle.
1. Façade studies require many trials before finding the one that is “just right.”
It’s a useful tool of ancient geometry. This
Review that procedure in the chapter on
The 3 – 4 –5 triangle made
is what Antonio Gaudí, the famous archi-
design process. This is a good place to
with cords has been used
tect of Barcelona, was speaking of when he
remember that a little knowledge is a dan-
since primitive times to
said, “With two rulers and a cord one gen-
gerous thing—get critiques.
determine 90 degree angles.
erates all architecture.”
The cord is also used to
2. Determine the geometric composition
determine a vertical line
of parts of a wall.
or plumb line, the force of
This is determined by how they relate to
gravity pulling at the end
each other and the whole, as described in
of the cord.
Jonathan Hale’s “The Old Way of Seeing” (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994). 3. Visualize how sunlight will fall on the surfaces of your building. Light and shadow create patterns as strong as fixed elements of the surface and cause the surface to have varying patterns.
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4. In the design of a wall, draw absolutely
Designers using traditional
everything that you will see and compose it
forms and details need to
as a whole.
use proper sources, such as
Look for those things that you do not want
this example in works by
to see, such as electrical switches, trans-
Giacomo Barozzi da
formers, trash containers, electrical wires
Vignola.
and entries, meters, scuppers, and vents. 5. A garage door hurts any street façade. There’s no place to hide it. Find another place for the car. 6. Glass is rarely transparent. When one looks at a façade from the outside in daylight, glass more often reflects surroundings, makes glare, or appears as a dark hole. Glass becomes transparent only when the light is brighter on the side opposite the viewer, as when one is inside look-
8. The use of columns and moldings has
ing out on a sunny day or looking through
very specific precedents.
glass into a lighted interior space at night.
Columns and moldings can guide you if you will take the time to really study them
7. Windows happen.
or take extra care in their invention. If you
Windows are major elements in design;
can’t do moldings or any other period orna-
they are the difference between a building
ment correctly, don’t do them at all. There
and a solid sculpture. We can hide the win-
are thousands of excellent historic examples
dows behind a glass skin, part transparent
to copy.
and part opaque, as in a glass-box office building or a sophisticated sculptural
9. Should you wish to design a façade
geometry of glass skin. But for the most
around classical or traditional details, go to
part, we must deal with the composition
a good firsthand source in a proper book.
and detail of windows as major elements of
This is preferable to casually looking at an
the design. The size and shape of the win-
example and trying to approximate it. From
dow expresses what’s going on behind it.
the proper source, copy or have someone
Vertical windows suggest people are in a
copy it precisely with only minor modifica-
room standing up; horizontal windows
tions for your design. Build it carefully. The
suggest that the people are lying down or
suburbs are full of unfortunate, thought-
in motion; a large central window suggests
less, inaccurate borrowings such as the
the major space or function of the
front door as tall as a Triumphal Arch that
building.
shouts its ignorance in a McMansion.
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the ground floor
10. The entrance makes a statement about
curves, trusses, sloped rafters, and beams
the character of the building—the intro-
shape a space. Treat the ceiling as a vital
duction to this particular building—where
element of the space. Great rooms have dis-
the spatial progression begins.
tinctive ceilings. People who enjoy architec-
The entrance can be dominant in the
ture always look up.
façade, minor, or even hidden, but you usually want to make its location obvious.
3. Create lines of movement or axes that
Sounds easy, but on many student proj-
start and end.
ects— oftenbeautifullysophisticateddesigns—
Have the axes pass through openings in
I have to ask, “Where’s the front door?”
layers of walls along the way. A long axis or enfilade can increase the apparent size of the spaces. Design the walk through your
s pa c e a n d l i g ht (t h e arch it ect ’s
building as if you were doing a movie and
r aw m ate r i a l s )
the camera is the walking observer.
1. Ceiling heights are best when higher
4. Establish one wall of a space as the refer-
than ten feet, preferably eleven feet in nor-
ence plane, then organize space and objects
mal rooms.
in relation to it.
And to be commodious— or for acoustical
A reference plane can help compose spaces.
reasons when music is played— ceilings
It can define a limit or suggest movement.
should be at least fourteen feet to eighteen feet, determined by design in section draw-
5. Dimensions that seem spacious are use-
ings. (Builders’ houses became standard-
ful to know as you go about laying out
ized by the postwar FHA minimum
rooms.
requirement of eight-foot ceilings, which
My rule is that a room needs to be at least
instantly became the dimension of manu-
thirteen feet wide, but sixteen feet is better,
factured wallboard and the ceiling height
and the major room needs to be at least
of most U.S. homes.) Another way to deter-
twenty-one feet wide. (It’s amazing how
mine height is to set it at three-fourths of
many English country houses and French
the smallest dimension of the room. The
chateaus are about twenty-one feet wide. A
ceiling height is not necessarily propor-
generous outdoor terrace or porch needs to
tioned to the size of the room; it is propor-
be at least fifteen feet wide. Major corridors
tioned for its effect on the feeling of space.
are best at least seven feet wide—furniture
Consider variations in ceiling height along
can be accommodated, and they will seem
the progression of spaces.
like more than passageways.)
A reference plane, a wall,
2. The shape of ceilings and volume of the
can help organize the com-
room define the space and the way we
position of objects and
sense it.
masses.
For example, barrel vaults, domes, exotic m a k i ng d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s
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6. Hide light sources.
of the room or balanced with light from
You should never see a light bulb. Lighting
above. Windows that let light shine on
only the paintings or objects will probably
adjacent planes, like deep window reveals
light the entire room without any additions
or on ceilings or walls, spread and diffuse
except for task lighting. Supplements will
their light around the edges, reducing the
be needed to add an overall incident light
brightness ratio. Curtains and blinds can
and to vary the mood or setting of the
mediate brightness. Because lamps or ceil-
space. Glare is the enemy.
ing fixtures may also be too bright, important spaces should have their lights on dim-
7. Natural light makes spaces come alive. Balance the light in a room with light on
mers. When needed, a high brightness ratio, like a spotlight, gives drama.
two sides, three if you can; four is better. A colleague once described his ideal light for
10. Use mirrors to expand space.
a room to be like what one sees while sit-
A mirror on the full face of a door or win-
ting under a large spreading tree on a
dow or an entire wall can give desirable
sunny day, with light all around and dap-
effects. Mirrors in frames appear a bit like
pled light coming from above through the
holes in a wall, which may be desirable for
leaves. Consider using skylights to give an
expanding the space but works against con-
effect of light sliding down a wall, or a sky-
taining the space. A mirror placed so that a
light in the middle of the space like an ocu-
person cannot see himself but sees instead
lus to give a centering light. This kind of
another scene from an angle is a playful
natural light often distinguishes a work of
trick in a garden.
architecture from a building. 11. Sound can be as important as light in 8. In the absence of natural light, the
some spaces.
“three-lamp rule” provides a good bal-
The sounds one hears in a room indicate
anced light for the average room or office.
the size of the space. Acoustics can make
The lamps should be arranged in a triangle
or break a building. The sounds of a beau-
around the perimeter of the room. Often
tiful concert may be lifeless if there is a
this provides enough light to both light the
short reverberation time, or chaotic if
room and light reading tasks in a residen-
there is too long a reverberation time. The
tial size room.
noises that can’t be isolated and are so loud that they cannot be tolerated must be
9. Keep the light balanced with a low
silenced, or the room should be relocated;
brightness ratio (the ratio of the brightest
the space where music is performed is a
area to the darkest area).
musical instrument itself that brings
It’s more comfortable on the eyes. A bright
music to the listener. There was an acous-
window on one side of a room needs to be
tical challenge in designing for the sound
balanced by a window on the opposite side
of the Great Hall of the Apparel Mart that
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the ground floor
was to seat two thousand people. We
used three: stone, glass, and lead). Use a
sought excellent acoustics for concert qual-
lot of materials to loosen up (the Bilbao
ity music even though it was not a require-
Guggenheim used many).
ment of the program. The forms of the walls were shaped for live acoustical rein-
3. Two materials meeting in exactly the
forcement. A well-known acoustician was
same plane tend to create a messy joint.
employed to advise us, yet we felt that his
When changing materials in a wall, con-
recommendations would make the rever-
sider a reveal or break of 1/2 inch to 3
beration time too short for music. The
feetâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;whatever seems right. Moldings can
acoustical consultant proposed hanging
also be used at the juncture of two materi-
huge loudspeaker boxes from the sixty-
als to mediate the intersection. The excep-
foot-tall ceiling to alleviate the concern
tions to this rule are beautiful, especially in
that performers would be bothered by the
marble, in Italy.
echo of their own sounds. To test our design against that of the acoustician, we
4. Create wall thickness.
had a loudspeaker suspended on a crane
This refers both to real thickness and the
sixty feet above a vacant lot. My partner
illusion thereof. It makes the building seem
and I then sang an aria and discovered
more substantial on the interior and exterior
that no echo could be perceived. Because
and can hold a lot of insulation. Wall thick-
of its acoustics, the Great Hall was a good
ness can be created by the placement of
venue for concerts; the Dallas Symphony
bookcases and closets near major doors and
played their summer series there.
windows. Deep reveals at windows help mediate the brightness of the incoming light by reflecting light on the side walls.
d e ta i l s
The current preference for superthin walls can be appealing in a well-crafted work.
God is in the details. m i e s va n d e r ro h e
5. Deep reveals at windows and doors serve several purposes.
1. Use natural local materials.
They give a sense of substance, provide a
This will give authenticity, compatibility,
layering effect with more shadow, and help
and a sense of belonging and will probably
keep out driving rain.
save money and energy. Transporting materials can be costly.
6. Doors are better when they are solid and substantial.
2. The number of building materials used
Interior doors are best as inch-and-three-
can have an important effect.
quarter solid core, which adds an unex-
Use only a few building materials to give
pected sense of solidity, much preferred
solidity and formality (a Gothic cathedral
over conventional doors that are thinner
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and hollow. Think also of the possible need
tread and 5" riser is max, and 4" is better.
for wheelchair access by widening the
In an elegant hotel, I was surprised when I
doorways—required in public buildings
walked up two stories without noticing it—
and advantageous in residences.
the stair had a slow and graceful ratio of 13.5" to 5". When you feel comfortable or
7. Using double doors that swing onto thick
uncomfortable on a stair, check the ratio of
wall openings allows the door to be out of
tread to riser and make note of it.
the way when open. When a door is needed but a large swing-
11. Moldings can be key ingredients
ing door would not work, use double doors.
of a design. Most designers today have had no training
8. The height of the windowsill affects the
in moldings and often make awkward use
feeling and visual experience of the space
of them, yet moldings can provide impor-
inside.
tant transitions between walls and ceilings
There are several choices: at the height of
and around certain doors and windows. I
a table or a desk, about thirty inches above
remember seeing Michelangelo’s moldings
the floor, or at the floor where the floor
in Rome at the Campidoglio for the first
plane extends to the outdoors. To give a
time. I was amazed at how they caught the
sense of the outdoors but more sense of
light with such grace and balance, and
security, use a sill height of sixteen inches.
when I felt them with my hands it was an emotional experience—this was genius.
9. Consider the window treatment when
Moldings are sculpture, so think of them
designing the window.
as such rather than as pieces of trim.
Visualize the need and possibility for drapery, shutters, or blinds to control light and
12. Place light switches on the wall level
privacy—this is critical to the success of
with the doorknobs, at thirty-six to
the room. Window treatments are better
thirty-nine inches above the floor.
not left to chance.
Why? Because this is where the resting hand will be, and it’s out of our field of
10. Stairs must be generous, unless they’re
vision, so a wall switch won’t distract from
only service or fire stairs.
a nearby painting. Also, the switch plate
A generous stair has a shallow slope, long
lining up with the doorknob gives a small
treads, and short risers that give dignity to
degree of order. (Switches are placed high
movement— ease and safety too. Mini-
simply for the convenience of the electri-
mum dimensions are 9" tread and 7.5"
cian who is installing them.)
riser; an often-used ratio is 10.5" tread and 7.25" riser. Grand stairs will use a longer
13. Plan the furniture arrangements before
tread and shorter riser, such as 6" and 12".
planning the walls.
For outside stairs be more generous: a 14"
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the ground floor
Figure out where and how you want things
to happen by placing the primary func-
and packages, a place for mail and mes-
tional furniture groups before placing
sages, art, and flowers. The space can be
walls. You can even mock this out on the
intimate or grand, making a contrast with
site. Figure out where you want to be at
the ceiling height, sound, and light of
various times of the day, what you want to
adjoining rooms. In Mexico, this kind of
see, where you want to eat, and where you
space between street and courtyard is
would like to read, play games, watch tele-
called a zaguán.
vision, and such. Example: When I was designing a lake house, the clients showed
2. The kitchen is the center of many
me where they always had their picnics on
homes.
the unbuilt site and said they spent a lot of
The kitchen is not only the place where we
time at the breakfast table, so I made a
cook, eat, and read the paper and some-
dining alcove on the special picnic spot
times watch television; it is also the place
that became the most important room of
where the children gather and play and
their house. Another example: In a house
where guests gather informally. It is often
I visited, there was not a comfortable, well-
the actual living room. It can be designed
lit place to read, watch television, or work
as a large room with a couch and arm-
on a computer; the house was wonderful
chairs and a fireplace, or it can be a small,
for entertaining a hundred people, yet it
functional unit related discretely to a living
worked poorly for the activities of one or
or gathering room. Hide appliances like
two people. Not placing the furniture in
the fridge by placing them around a corner,
the plan of the room will cause some
or disguise them by special doors. A U-
disappointing surprises when the room
shaped plan is the most efficient arrange-
is built.
ment for a kitchen because it can place the sink-dishwasher-stove-refrigerator ensemble close together. I like to use the three-
r o o m s i n r e s i dences
step rule, which states that you can get to everything within three steps. My favorite
1. The entrance is the transition between
arrangement allows one to plant one foot
inside and outside, public and private, bad
and reach sink, stove, dishwasher, and
weather and shelter; it introduces the
fridge without moving the foot, and still
building to the visitor, receives coats and
have a large room.
packages, is a place to exchange greetings. The part of the entrance that’s outside
3. “A living room confronts each visitor
needs shelter from the rain, a place to sit
with a style, a secular faith; he compares
and wait, a place to wipe feet, and it must
its dogmas with his, and decides whether
be of a size that accommodates several peo-
he would like to see more of us” (W. H.
ple standing at the door. The part inside
Auden, “The Common Life,” a poem from
needs a place to sit and wait or hold coats
About the House, p. 107).
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Most buildings have what one could call a
5. A bathroom is best when it doesn’t look
living room, whether it is a reception room,
like one.
meeting room, sales floor, or other space
The combination of dressing room/bath-
where people congregate. The residential
room/closet is very much a social part of
living room has a long history and some-
the house. It is where couples visit while
times has been called a parlor, sometimes a
getting dressed for the day or preparing for
drawing room, and recently a family room.
an event—important opportunities for
Lifestyles cause many choices, yet to me the
communication. Add a chair. Put a window
most important thing is that there is one
in the shower. Put the water closet in a sep-
large room that can be used to gather one’s
arate room about 3 by 4.5 feet with natural
entire extended family or friends or organi-
light or a view, and add a few books.
zation, be it formal or informal. The living room needs to be of appropriate size, have
6. Use alcoves in rooms to bring a personal
light on several sides, and have seating
scale to the room.
groups, a view or at least a focal point,
This is important for every room in a resi-
books, places for conversation, eating,
dence, but I found that alcoves are impor-
meeting, and all the other things one would
tant in giving a personal scale to parts of a
like to do in a group. Other rooms can be
large public room. Once a client said, “I
made smaller so that this main room can
want this room to seat two thousand peo-
be large. This budgeting of space is useful
ple for dinner but be comfortable for only
in every building or suite of rooms because
one person.” The room was the size of a
it builds a sense of place for a home, a busi-
football field and had sixty-foot ceilings,
ness, or an institution. On a larger scale,
but several alcoves made those places
urban living rooms are the special places in
pleasant for one or two people.
cities where people gather—an Italian piazza, a Mexican plaza, or a village square.
7. The fireplace has become a symbol more than a source of heat.
4. The bedroom can be a personal sanctu-
In buildings with central heating, a fire-
ary for a couple or individual.
place draws heat out of the building for a
The bedroom has a wide range of expres-
negative effect on energy use. Yet our liter-
sions, from monastic cell to a small living
ature and our memory make the symbolic
room with a couch, fireplace, books, per-
hearth a place, a social center, a visual
haps television, a writing desk, and a read-
focus, and an anchor signaling this is a
ing chair or two, in addition to a bed. Clus-
place of power, security, and domesticity.
ter the bathroom/closet/dressing room so
Effective heating with a fireplace can best
that they are a unit apart from the bed-
be accomplished by using a Count Rum-
room, through a single door. Feng Shui
ford firebox design with effective damper
suggests no television in the bedroom.
control.
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8. A wall of photographs describing a cor-
composition of places” in their extraordi-
poration or a family helps make a signifi-
nary book Chambers for a Memory Palace
cant place in a building.
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994). Their
It tells a story. It provides depth and sub-
themes are so well stated that, when teach-
stance to the experience of the building.
ing, I give a copy of the table of contents to each of my design students to pin up at
9. The outdoor room can be the most-used
their board. I want them to read it when
room in the house at some times of the
they’re confused or wondering what to do
year, be it called a porch, a loggia, a por-
next. I use the ideas to help me enrich my
tico, a terrace, a patio, or a sale al aire
design process, as a sort of checklist to help
libre. Make it useful for conversation,
me go further, to make things “just right.”
eating, games, and parties— even cook-
Take a few minutes to think through each
ing in a fireplace grill. It can be no less
one of the chapter ideas and imagine the
than ten feet deep, good at fifteen feet,
pictures. Here they are:
and best at twenty-one feet, like a major room in the house.
Axes that Reach/Paths that Wander Orchards that Measure/Pilasters that
A list of this sort could be endless, and if it’s useful to you, look at two important
Temper Platforms that Separate/Slopes that
“lists” from two very different architects
Join/Stairs that Climb and Pause
that offer wonderfully insightful design
Borders that Control/Walls that Layer/
paths that can inspire and guide you. Christopher Alexander, in his widely acclaimed book Pattern Language (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), codified many of the simple, traditional, appropriate design issues in the making of buildings, neighborhoods, and cities. He offers a thorough understanding of many typical design issues, each of which is an excellent starting point for solving your particular design problem. Alexander’s landmark book does not enjoy the wholehearted endorsement of Modernists. In fact, I heard a Cornell architecture professor say, “Whatever you do, keep the students out of Alexander’s book.” Nonsense. I say it is a great place to start. Charles Moore and Donlyn Lyndon “assemble a set of observations on the
Pockets that Offer Choice and Change Openings that Frame/Portals that Bespeak Roofs that Encompass/Canopies that Center Markers that Command/Allies that Inhabit Light that Plays/Shadow that Haunts/ Shade that Lulls Rooms that Define/Space that Leaks Up Into the Light Types that Recur/Order that Comes and Goes Shapes that Remind/Ornament that Transmits, Transforms, and Encodes Gardens that Civilize/Water that Pools and Connects Images that Motivate m a k i ng d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s
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As the authors say, “The Chambers
Remember, the exceptions to these
are meant to help assemble thoughts
guidelines could be the best, so keep your
about places . . . to nurture sparks in the
mind open for a better idea. When you dis-
designer’s consciousness . . . starting
cover more guidelines, add them to your
points, aids to the imagination.” I suggest
personal list. May it be long and useful. But
you find the book, read it, copy the con-
we’re just getting started— design, in con-
tents page, and pin it up where it may help
cept and in detail, comes from a rich set of
you design.
ideas on style, taste, and design theory.
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
S T Y L E , TA S T E , A N D D E S I G N T H E O R Y
If you foolishly ignore beauty, you’ll soon find
Dear Oliver: You expressed wonder at the influence
yourself without it. Your life will be impoverished. But if you wisely invest in beauty, it will
of style and taste on design. You had not
remain with you all the days of your life.
considered it, as an engineer of large con-
f r a n k l l o y d w rig h t
struction, but you say you are now consid-
(1886 –1995)
ering putting up a small office building in a residential neighborhood and need to take a closer look at design. Design inevitably brings up the sticky matter of preferences. People’s preferences—some would call them our prejudices!—have a huge effect on design and decision making in making architecture. Even close friends can have spectacularly different ideas about what’s attractive, can’t they? For example, several years ago, while having lunch in the dappled light of a giant willow tree in a Mexican garden ripe
st yle, taste, and design t heory
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with lilies, bougainvillea, scents of flowers,
become involved in matters of style, taste,
food, and wine, a friend and I sat at a table
design theory, and concepts of beauty. Let’s
next to a dismal shack soon to be replaced
start with beauty. What will you mean by
by a house of my design. The friend,
that word beauty? And what will your archi-
Latané Temple, my midlife mentor, took in
tect mean by it?
the lush, colorful scene and remarked, with
You might be surprised to learn that it’s
his typical frankness, “Were it not for your
a word I rarely heard around architecture
vanity, you could be very happy here.”
schools. It wasn’t out of mind, no, but it
It was true. Latané was a poet and
was almost unmentionable there. Even
painter. From his viewpoint, the place was
though we invoke the idea of beauty daily
charming—beautiful even— despite the
to describe people, nature, music, and
rustic shack, or maybe even because of it.
objects—and even though we live in a cul-
But from my own viewpoint, the shack was
ture virtually obsessed with beauty—it’s
ugly, the product of no design, and it fit
rarely discussed in architecture circles,
none of my aesthetic preferences, so it
even today. Why? I think one reason is that
marred the entire scene for me. If this was
the heavy intellectualizing and moralizing
vanity, so be it.
of Modernism overwhelmed the values
We’re all concerned about what we see
that, to my mind, make up beauty. In the
around us. When we are planning some-
early years of Modernism, beauty was
thing new, we have questions like, How
superceded by function and a rhetoric that
will it look? and How would I love it to
didn’t include it.
look? Even if you are unaware of it, what
Beauty excites sensuous aesthetic plea-
you design or choose will exhibit your own
sure; it stirs emotions; it is an aggregate of
sense of style, your own taste, your own
qualities in something that gives delight or
notion of enlightened design theory, and
exalts the mind and spirit. It applies to all
something of your own time and place, too,
aspects of life. But somehow it lost its rele-
plus your measure of the result on some
vance in the Brave New World of twentieth-
ultimate scale of beauty, however vague.
century architecture. Some critics even
And, if you’re attentive, you will doubtless
used it contemptuously, as a nasty word, a
discern these omnipresent qualities
word signifying an obsession with superfi-
embedded in every building or object you
cial values. Yet even when form is following
behold. Volumes of scholarship have been
function, it surely can be argued that one
written on these qualities, and some of my
function of architecture—in fact, a vital
own colleagues are prominent authors of
function—is to provide beauty for the
them. I hope they will forgive me as I offer
human spirit.
you some of my own possibly heretical
Can beauty be pinned down, or is it
thoughts about these design qualities.
ineffable? Is one person’s beauty ever any
As you work through your design project, with or without an architect, you will
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better than another person’s? We’ve all heard that beauty is in the eye of the
beholder, and who can deny it? But it
liberal or conservative, nostalgic or futuris-
seems pertinent to ask, How well educated
tic, high tech or low tech, Ford or Honda.
is that eye? There is no absolute here, of
Some of these prejudices are well-
course. But I believe a case can be made
informed, carefully positioned points of
for the value of sensitizing the eye to com-
view, and others are simply personal prefer-
positional elements through education and
ences that have more to do with familiarity
ultra-attentive observation. Compositional
or ignorance than with careful thought. As
elements, such as symmetry, proportion,
we like to say, they’re a matter of taste. Speaking of taste, here is another con-
rhythm, and unity, not to mention the materials and colors one has chosen,
cept that bears discussion, even though
strongly affect people’s sense of what is sat-
such a discussion would be even more
isfying. So the better we understand them,
rarely heard in architecture schools and
the better we can manipulate them and
offices. In business, in writing, in painting,
adjust them to achieve a “just right” appeal
in any creative endeavor, a person’s taste
to the discerning eye. Our understanding
determines myriad decisions, large and
of them comes partly from good theory
small. You may find that if you say to an
(i.e., plausible explanations) and partly
architect, “Such-and-such building is in
through very attentive looking. Studying
bad taste,” he or she might well reply,
images from architectural history in books,
“There’s really no such thing as taste.”
museums, and travel trains the eye. Every-
How would you respond? I would respond,
thing around us— everything!—affords us
“Do you like escargot?” Taste, as I see it, is
lessons, positive or negative, in what
an amalgam of individual preference, criti-
makes for satisfying compositions. And
cal judgment, discernment, and apprecia-
often the best lessons come from nature
tion; in art circles it could perhaps more
itself.
accurately be called design judgment. But
The “good eye,” innate in some, defi-
taste is the common term. Taste also may
nitely can be trained in others. Many who,
be innate in some people, whereas in oth-
like me, grew up with little beauty around
ers it’s a result, once again, of education
them except in people and nature have
and attentiveness. Taste is akin to connois-
developed their eye and mind to appreciate
seurship—a skill that is developed over a
beauty and have made it a major quest to
long period of study and experience. Some
be more sensitive beholders.
people are widely considered to have good
Our beholding, our personal prefer-
taste or a good eye for design. Others have
ences, influence our every decision. One of
no eye for design and may cheerfully admit
my college roommates, a brilliant man,
it. Still others are said to have poor taste or
once remarked, “We build our lives on a
bad taste and are mentally sent off to the
set of well-honed prejudices.” By which he
corner. The whole question of taste is one
meant that we learn to appreciate certain
that is good not to get defensive about;
things and depreciate others. We become
taste develops at different rates for different
st yle, taste, and design t heory
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people. I’ve found it useful to be quiet and
aesthetics, won’t it? It is a basic criterion
learn.
for solving design problems, as when we
We have to know that the dictum “I don’t know much about art, but I know what I like” can trump the opinion of the
must decide if some element feels wrong, almost right, or just right. Unlike the education of architects, the
most highly acclaimed connoisseur or pro-
formal training of engineers seems to
fessional. Also, we know that a person with
ignore aesthetic values as forming no part
strong convictions about art— or architec-
of their responsibility. Yet engineers are
ture— can overcome any sensibility and
responsible for many of the structures we
walk around with blinders on, seeing only
see in the public landscape. And many of
their convictions. Prejudices can be invio-
those structures damage the landscape and
late. So what do you do? To reach the high-
affect the quality of life for all that see
est degree of lasting satisfaction, you
them. On the other hand, some of the most
acquire knowledge and experiences in art
appropriate civic design of the early 1900s
and architecture—you read, see, discuss,
was by civil engineers. And today some of
learn.
the most exciting physical design has been
The difference between “good” and
the work of engineers. Foremost at this
“bad” taste is set by how well considered
time is the work of Santiago Calatrava, the
one’s point of view is, how experienced one
Spanish architect/engineer who creates, in
is, and how aware one is of elements of
his structures, a high art form near a peak
design. Some fortunate people simply are
experience. So it’s partially a matter of
gifted at birth with the good eye or ear, just
intentions.
as others are incurably tone deaf, while
Let me explain by telling you a story. A
some others are, shall we say, taste
common excuse for inept design is cost,
impaired, even though they might be
and sometimes aesthetic considerations
highly intelligent. In architecture, one con-
will indeed cost more; one has to decide for
sideration is, How much true architecture
one’s self and one’s community, Is it worth
has a person seen? Also, how carefully
it? What are the intentions? Some years
have they assessed it? Are they a connois-
ago, when a bridge over the river that
seur or simply opinionated? Some think
forms Lake Austin was proposed as an
the difference between good and bad is
ordinary highway bridge, a group of us
ambiguous. In fact, though, it’s not only
went to talk to the people in charge at the
palpable, it’s almost measurable—by
Texas Department of Transportation. We
awards, publications, and the writings of
were led by Ann Richards, then a county
distinguished critics.
commissioner (later, governor of Texas),
Aesthetics, of course, is finally subjec-
and voiced a plea for a special and signifi-
tive, not a value to fit into mathematical
cant design for this important, perhaps
equations. But the design problem to be
even symbolic, bridge. The engineers in
solved in architecture will always include
charge said, “Anything other than the least
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possible cost is a waste of taxpayers’
bad taste as a starting point (as in
money. It would be irresponsible.” They
“grunge”) to manipulate it as something
wouldn’t budge. But we pointed out that
comical or cynical and bring it into high
their typical bridge design would create a
fashion; it signals a pride of ignorance, or
public-safety hazard because it would put
anti-art, and is anti-intellectual. But most people prefer good taste rather
pylons in the river into which pleasure boats might crash, especially at night. See-
than bad—good manners rather than bad.
ing an opening, I sketched, on the back of
I like for buildings to be what I call well
a road map, a long-span bridge with a
behaved, that is, to respect their neighbor-
unique character that eliminated the haz-
hoods and landscape by fitting in, perform-
ardous pylons. And that is more or less
ing their function, conserving energy with-
what was built. Fortunately, the redesign
out pollution, and enriching the lives of
considered the aesthetics after all, but the
people in and around them. Poorly behaved
engineers’ decision had been on a safety
buildings, like poorly behaved people,
criterion and perhaps a newly felt responsi-
become victims of their own bad taste.
bility for a larger social need. Because of its
“Well-behaved” doesn’t mean boring, by
aesthetics, though, the bridge has become
the way. Well-behaved buildings have char-
an almost sacred place for Austinites, cele-
acter, but they don’t scream for attention;
brated as a symbol of the city to be seen on
they’re not aggressive even if they’re mon-
billboards, postcards, advertisements, and
umental—they’re willing to be buildings
letterheads—all because a small percent-
we like to be with. Today, the architectural
age of total cost went to aesthetics for the
object that stands out as new and different
human spirit.
may be highly valued by architects and crit-
The concept of taste separates the aesthete from the clod, but one can find sev-
ics but cause the public to shudder. You may be aware that some architec-
eral comfortable levels between those two
ture is considered by its author to be an
extremes. Clearly there are opportunities
intervention, a word that certainly sets me
for learning fresh preferences. Preference,
to shuddering. An intervention, by my
or taste, is readily apparent, especially in a
lights, is an expression of a designer’s ego
building, where one sees it in everyday life,
placed inappropriately into an otherwise
inhabits it, or just walks through it. There,
good streetscape. Such ego displays, aka
someone’s design preferences are in our
“statements,” rarely succeed unless the
face; we either like them, dislike them, or
rare, true genius is involved. We are inter-
try not to care.
ested in the whole and what a designer
Grossness, bad taste, and the blatantly
might thoughtfully add to it, not blatantly
ugly have from time to time become popu-
defy. Whether in a landscape or an urban
lar models in fashion design, and they
setting, it seems extremely arrogant for a
inevitably find their way into architectural
designer to intervene. But it does make
design, too. Some fashion designers use
news. Journalists and critics love to call our
st yle, taste, and design t heory
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155
attention to the offbeat, the bizarre; and of
currently popular or fashionable; this also
course the latest dramatic architectural
has been denied by many Modernists
intervention fills that bill. It will get bally-
because it’s morally impure. That’s unreal-
hooed for its novelty and then dignified for
istic—things are popular and current or
how it “expresses the chaotic times we live
they’re not. The adjective “stylish” can’t be
in.” But why exacerbate the negative
denied. So I hereby give permission to you,
aspects of how we live? Shouldn’t we seek
and to the hundreds of architects whose
to tame the negatives and contribute some-
diplomas I have signed, to use freely the
thing positive? There are great exceptions,
terms beauty, taste, and style.
to be sure, such as the intervention of the
By definition, style is a distinctive man-
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao or the
ner of expression or custom—a distinctive
Seagrams Building in New York. These are
quality or type. It’s from the Greek word
genius buildings, both over the top and
stylus, meaning “column,” back when vari-
beautiful at the same time, contributing
ous styles were named after the particular
enormously to the world around them.
capital (i.e., head or top section) of the col-
You and I both might think it important
umn—Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian, names
for an artist, sculptor, or poet to express the
taken from those same geographic regions
world’s chaotic condition in their work. But
where they originated. Today, there are dis-
their work won’t be lived in. Buildings, on
tinctive styles for different people, places,
the other hand, are ever-present, all day
and things: Asian, English, Chinese,
every day, and can give comfort rather than
French, Mexican, Moroccan, Southwestern,
exacerbate the chaos. Architecture can
Southern, Californian, Italian, Interna-
offer shelter from the harshness of today’s
tional, and on and on. Clearly, each of these
complex life, as well as shelter from the
implies different customs and preferences.
rain and cold.
You could easily add “-style” after each cate-
Style is another word that bears comment. Style is the manner in which you do the thing you are doing; style is the way
gory above and find such titles in your local bookstore. The beginning of the twentieth century
you present the content. Curiously, it too is
saw many vigorous stylistic directions as
a word, like “beauty,” that many architects
adaptations of the architecture of the past:
still get huffy over. When my friend Profes-
Romanesque, Gothic, Classical, Colonial,
sor Kevin Alter organized a major sympo-
Beaux Arts, as well as the beginning of new
sium on style in 1998, involving such nota-
directions by Frank Lloyd Wright, the Arts
bles as Tom Ford and Stanley Marcus,
and Crafts Movement, the Modernismo of
some of his academic colleagues wrote let-
Barcelona, the Secessionist of Vienna, and
ters insisting that there is no such thing as
stirrings of something new in Scandinavia.
style in architecture. Heresy, they called it.
Style is changed by new technology, new
It’s suggested by journalists and advertisers
ideals, wars, and economics as well as by
that “such-and-such is in style,” meaning
two other forceful engines of change. The
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most obvious are the ideas and images pub-
and Louis Kahn can create a National
lished in professional journals and popular
Assembly Building in Bangladesh, and
magazines, in which fashions, trends, and
Balkrishna Doshi of India can build any-
styles are studied in order that both the
where in the world as well.
designer and the consumer can keep cur-
Theory and history give us an intellec-
rent. Equally influential are the crosscur-
tual basis for design. Architectural theo-
rents made possible by our exploration of
rists give designers guidance and new chal-
different cultures. Perhaps the grandest
lenges. Philosophers, as well, have given
example is when Europeans discovered the
designers a lot to think about. All of this is
New World, where, within a few years, the
in support of the creativity and sensitivities
Franciscan and Dominican friars were
of pure art. When students and faculty as
building, as nonarchitects, the hundreds of
well as leading-edge architects began work-
handsome sixteenth-century churches in
ing with such notions as deconstruction, it
New Spain. Describing this particular Span-
was clear to us at the University of Texas
ish phenomenon, Elizabeth Wilder Weis-
that we needed a philosopher on our fac-
mann writes, in her Art and Time in Mexico
ulty for both architects and city planners,
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985),
so we added Bob Mugerauer. His doctorate
“When you . . . use amateur designers and
had dealt with Martin Heidegger, and he
builders who are more or less familiar with
often spoke of Jacques Derrida and decon-
Classical, Romanesque, Gothic, Renais-
struction. He helped us learn from the sci-
sance, Mudejar, Isabeline, Manueline, and
ence of the mind during the 1990s as
the earliest Baroque styles in half a dozen
architects struggled to learn a new path.
countries—working with craftsmen trained
As useful as this was, though, I myself
in alien and exotic forms—it is obvious
prefer to see more simple design theories
that the resulting artifact cannot be
discussed in the design process—theories
described by any of these names.” Contem-
like Vitruvius’s “Commodity, Firmness,
porary Mexicans have a word for that which
and Delight,” or Charles Moore’s “Gold-
fits no orthodox style; the word is anastilo,
ilocks Principle,” which preaches the
meaning “without a style.” Anastilo might
importance of getting things “just right.”
also apply to a straightforward design
These simple theories I recommend as a
within a vernacular.
primary basis for design, no matter how sophisticated one’s abstract theories might
Changing much faster now are an art and technology greatly enhanced by digiti-
eventually become. The discipline of architecture is so rich,
zation and fiber-optic cables, whereby designers and their works are readily trans-
so well documented and discussed, that
ferred to other parts of the world. It’s hap-
you can spend much of your life traveling
pening when Tadao Ando of Japan, can
to places where you can experience the
create a museum in Texas next to a
architecture, and you can spend all the
museum by Louis Kahn of Pennsylvania,
time you want enjoying volumes of descrip-
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The designer and observer interact; the designer works to transmit an idea or image to the observer, while the observer can receive only as much information as his or her background will enable him or her to appreciate.
tion and discourse about the art.
observer and the designer must both bring
We all look at things differently, yet
into play education, background, erudition,
there is a lot of commonality. Knowledge
and, yes, taste. Is it good, bad, or mediocre?
and sensitivity are enhanced by the exem-
Do I like it or not like it, or do I try to
plary cases found in books on architec-
ignore it? Was the project â&#x20AC;&#x153;well designedâ&#x20AC;??
tural history, in monographs on architects,
Is it innovative? Is it an asset to the com-
and in significant buildings and by travel-
munity? Does it fit in? Does it add value to
ing to look and experience the best
our lives? Everyone is a valid player in this
architecture.
drama of experiencing architecture.
In experiencing architecture, the
Develop it by study, travel, and participation in the design process.
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PART THREE
THE UPPER LEVELS
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CHAPTER FIF TEEN
MAKING CONNECTIONS
We shape our buildings; thereafter they shape us.
Dear William: As a real estate broker, you know that
w i n s to n c h ur c h il l
where you build can be as important as
(1874 –1965)
how you build. Your project’s success will turn on how well it connects with the organism of the city. That organism of transportation systems, markets, services, shopping, schools, neighborhoods, arts and entertainment, and utilities is the realm of city planning. You remember my telling you about my first course on city planning with Hugo Leipziger-Pearce. It was so dull that I often slipped out the back door. Why learn about city planning when I wanted to do architecture? I just didn’t get it. But in his design studio on neighborhood planning, I got it. I became convinced that city planning could vigorously extend architecture into m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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an exciting realm of ideas on a larger scale. The city planner’s realm connects architecture with the neighborhood, the city, and the land. It holds the answers, along with land cost, to the question of where to build, but you won’t find it in a tidy package of plans. It’s a cliché but no exaggeration that the three most important real estate values are location, location, and location. Obviously, the most uncorrectable building mistake is to build in the wrong place. The right place is where the connections work for you. These connections are basic matters of city planning. Some are as subtle as sidewalks. Master plans, current plans, and analyses of planning issues provide a base of information developed by professional planners, administrators, and political processes. I think of a city as a large work of architecture. In this large-scale architecture, streets are corridors; open spaces are rooms; plazas and parks are courtyards and landscapes; buildings make the walls. The forms of buildings and spaces you see as you move along a street, walkway, or freeway determine how you feel about a city.
Location questions other than costs and
top: The Baroque plan for
You will see the inside of only a few build-
restrictions are numerous. Some examples:
Washington, D.C., by Pierre
ings, but you will move through and see
What’s the best situation for a particular
L’Enfant in 1792.
many streets. You will see undesigned
building’s purpose—the center of town, the
wastelands and look forward to seeing
suburbs, or the fringe? Where should the
The freeway loop of Dallas,
thoughtful urban streetscapes.
site be located for the best connections to
Texas, is typical of the free-
systems of transportation, retail traffic, and
way systems in most cities
maps and plans of the city is the product of
schools? What is the right neighborhood?
in the United States.
changes in long-term formative forces: the
What is the right market area? What is the
economic engines, transportation systems,
growth pattern? And, more important than
utilities systems, populations, political
you may think, can I walk to shops, ser-
dynamics, and design attitudes that are
vices, schools, and transportation? These
constantly forming the physical city. It can
questions call for a discussion of what
grow by design or by nondesign.
architects and planners call urban form.
What you see in the street and on the
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lives. Even more dramatic changes came as high-speed highways and off-ramps impacted the growing city by increasing the distance and the speed of travel available. Alex Marshall, in his book How Cities Work (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000), describes how cities adapted to all forms of transportation until the advent of freeways and exit ramps. Concurrently, new planning concepts separated land uses in a way that caused The plazas and fabric of
A look at the shapes of the city will help
long distances between housing, shopping,
Savannah, Georgia, designed
you visualize the kind of evolution that
school, and work. Corporations began mov-
in 1733 by General James
happens over time. Visualize an Old World
ing their headquarters out of the downtown
Oglethorpe.
city that began as a feudal village and grew
and to the fringe of the city at the same
in ways determined by commerce, trans-
time that retail shopping was moving from
portation, religious ritual, defense, or all of
downtown to the suburbs. Distances
the above. Formed physically by its hierar-
became greater, speed faster, walking more
chy of power, circulation, and defensive
unrealistic, and downtowns were left to
walls, the village realizes a particular form.
struggle for new life. In addition, real
As the city grows, it will be remodeled: a
estate development became a major eco-
larger public square for the church, new
nomic engine in the city, as it provided
streets for newer transportation, and new
needed services and facilities. Yet develop-
public buildings. Remodeling is continu-
ers are sometimes at odds with planning
ous as it accommodates changing transpor-
because if the money is there, they will
tation, commerce, and population. The rate
build—and build not to the market but
of change in the growth of cities greatly
build until the money runs out. It’s like
accelerated in the nineteenth and twentieth
sourdough bread rising: you have to use
centuries all over the world. Consider the
the yeast or it will die. The oversupply of
dramatic change to medieval Paris when it
buildings spreads distances further.
was remodeled by Baron Georges-Eugène
As Marshall observes, the new high-
Haussmann into a Grand Design that
speed, controlled-access freeways facilitated
reshaped winding medieval streets into
the new centers of activity and required a
broad, tree-lined boulevards and spaces
dramatic readjustment in people’s lives
shaped by the walls of buildings with spe-
because of a basic fault: no one could walk
cial places for architectural landmarks. The
to work, to shop, or to play. The distances
city was transformed.
involved were so great that they had to go
During the twentieth century, cities in
on wheels even if they were too young or
the United States saw dramatic changes as
too old to drive. That change in transporta-
the automobile began dominating our
tion affected everyone’s lifestyle as well as m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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the physical form of the city. It also facili-
we balance individual rights and the free-
tated new large-scale developments as des-
enterprise system, on the one hand, and
tinations: regional shopping centers,
the quality of the community on the other?
megastores, industrial parks, and “edge
Can a city, historically laid out to sell real
city” communities at the ends of the
estate as a laissez-faire enterprise, pull
off-ramps.
itself together into an urban form that facil-
Accommodating the new scale of freeways, off-ramps, and parking lots is a major part of the intellectual and artistic
itates wonderful places to live and work? Consider some familiar examples. Visualize some of the fortunate cities
struggle to create desirable urban form for
that had urban design aspirations in their
this phenomenon. The objective is to find a
beginning: Washington, D.C.; Philadelphia,
way that gives us the modern benefits with-
Pennsylvania; Savannah, Georgia; the
out taking away values of neighborhood,
French Quarter of New Orleans. Started in
sense of place, and community. How can
simpler times, these communities were
we avoid the loss of personal time to travel
more coherent because they could be
long distances, the loss of fossil fuel
guided politically by a strong design idea.
resources, the cost of massive concrete
Transportation systems shaped the devel-
constructions, and the large amount of real
opment of the city. But it was the urban
estate used for moving and parking cars,
form generated by architectural geometries
all of which increased through the separa-
and hierarchies that shaped the streets and
tion of land uses called zoning?
communal open spaces—plazas, piazzas,
Speaking of zoning, why did it get to be
squares—formed by the walls of the
so popular? It was originally meant to keep
streets. Conscious design helped make the
polluting industries in appropriate places.
town more livable and usually made of it
But zoning was extended into everything
an attractive, coherent urban fabric, some-
in the city. It made it easy to sell real estate
times beautiful, in which people could walk
and do mortgage packages in bulk at low
to the stores and services they needed.
rates. It made it easier to build freeways
Some of these cities were also fortunate in
and major arteries around areas separated
being able to accommodate the new scale
by zoning. It’s now known that these sys-
of the freeway without destroying their ear-
tems choke traffic by clogging the few
lier urban qualities.
arteries available and make a worse traffic
We have all kinds of cities in the United
problem than the old gridiron plans that
States. We have designed cities like Wash-
allowed more options for movement. And
ington, D.C., and early Philadelphia and
zoning practically eliminated walking.
Savannah, rationally laid out cities like Salt
Knowing that a city’s form comes from
Lake City, undesigned cities like Dallas,
its economic drivers, politics, nature, den-
and historic cities like New Orleans. We
sity, and its access to transportation, one
have complex, dense cities like New York
might ask, What influences will cause the
and sprawling cities like Los Angeles. More
coming changes to be positive? How will
often than not, in the absence of a grand
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between functions because of its concept of separation of uses (zoning.) The Historic City has a compact, economical infrastructure; the Modern City extends its expensive infrastructure exponentially, both in distance and cost. The Historic City has a density of population that can support retail services within walkable distances; the Modern City has low density and separated functions that require everyone to The geometry of nine
design, our cities are large areas of nonde-
drive a car. In the past several decades the
squares within a square
sign with a future foretold by signs that
car has sped up to interstate highway scale
explains the use of land in a
read “Pad Sites Available.”
even within the city, where off-ramps lead
typical detached house with
We usually see a modern city made up
to vast areas of parking and superstores.
yards all around and in a
not of architecture but of everyday build-
Accretion of larger and fewer facilities
house with common walls
ings. One will drive for many miles before
(Wal-Mart versus the corner store) requires
and an open patio in the cen-
finding something that would be consid-
extensive driving at high speeds. One’s
ter, which can increase den-
ered architecture. Yet, when we go to older
style of life is completely different—as dif-
sity for walkability and
cities, we see a coherent, everyday architec-
ferent as New York is from Los Angeles, or
shorten infrastructure and
ture. What’s the difference? Both cities
Rome from Houston.
time for travel.
have cars, people, thriving businesses, and
The form of the Historic City, such as
some good architecture. What happened in
the French Quarter in New Orleans, makes
the United States, the richest, most power-
the lesser architecture and everyday build-
ful country in the world? I will tell the story
ings more attractive because of the street
as I understand it.
form. The buildings are right on the street,
The Modern City differs from the His-
giving the street space its enclosing walls.
toric City in ways that we should consider
The continuous walls make the street a
at the outset because of the effects on life-
space, a communal open space for people
style and infrastructure. Colin Rowe, in his
as well as cars. The street space can curve
As I Was Saying (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), observes that the Historic City form is a solid with voids in it—the buildings are solids, the streets and plazas are voids—whereas the Modern City is a void with solids in it for buildings—the voids Historic cities tend to be
being the streets, parks, parking lots, and
walkable, as is the French
all the landscape area surrounding the
Quarter of New Orleans,
buildings. The Historic City has walkable
designed on the Spanish
dimensions between functions; the Mod-
model.
ern City has only drivable dimensions m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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and vary in width to make it visually special. Trees can be added for shade and ornament, softening the hard urban edges, making it a more pleasant place to walk. Everyday architecture is possible because the buildings are less dominant than the street that holds them all together. Because only the façade of the building is visible and attached to its neighbor, the architectures tend to respect each other. Most important, the building is not exposing itself to vacant spaces around it—it only shows its face to shape the street; its open space is the generous private courtyard or patio within, which forms the center of the
now replicated and placed in a kind of
The high density of cities like
building. When the density requires that
museum, like Disneyland, where we pay
Boston can provide a walk-
cars be parked, parking facilities can be
admission to enjoy it as an entertainment
able neighborhood because
behind the buildings or under them rather
event rather than enjoy it in everyday life.
of the proximity of a popula-
than in front, so that the spatial aspect of
I live in the mountains of central Mexico
the street maintains its integrity. As mer-
in San Miguel de Allende, a charming his-
chandising evolves, much of the retail and
toric village with street spaces formed by
service stores may be replaced by Web-
gently curving building walls, a traditional
based purchases delivered to home and
everyday architecture, and a heterogeneous
office by truck.
neighborhood without zoning. Every build-
Consistent, everyday architecture as
ing comes to the street to form the wall of
well as architectural high points are much
the street space. I enjoy walking to almost
easier to accomplish when the culture has
everything and seeing ordinary architec-
a tradition of community rather than a tra-
ture of graceful heterogeneity. These build-
dition of independence—i.e., individual
ings are individualized at every doorway,
rights above all else, including the commu-
with no two alike because they’re built by
nity’s. It is also improved when there are
hand, paid for in cash, with no mortgage,
traditional building forms rather than a
no zoning controls, and only architectural
complete individual freedom to build what-
controls. These qualities were begun in
ever. The U.S. city is shaped more by the
1542 in San Miguel, now a town of ninety
entrepreneur than by a grand design for
thousand. The architectural controls came
urban life; more by profit than for public
in 1927, about the same time that zoning
good. It’s a choice to make. The Modern
came to the United States.
City does not have the charm of the Old
That human dimension of walking is
World or Third World that we enjoy seeing
possible in fortunate modern cities, where
on vacations. That kind of environment is
one can live near the center of a million-
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tion that can support the services needed.
person city but within walking distance of
There are ways of increasing housing
Main Street, schools, restaurants, and ser-
density and heterogeneity that produce
vices without using the high-speed free-
many of the assets of living in the city
ways, off-ramps, or car parks. My other
rather than driving from and back to its
home, in Austin, Texas, has such opportu-
edges. One of the best ways is the secret of
nities for walking to the grocer, coffee
Colin Rowe’s Historic City—the patio
shop, restaurant, cleaner, and to homes of
house, the Mediterranean house, the house
friends. Proximity makes life so much sim-
with the courtyard in the middle. Its form
pler. It also dramatically increases real
can be useful in almost any building type.
estate costs, as many are finding when they
In Historic Cities the same plan form is
seek to move from suburbs to center.
used for offices, schools, hospitals, hotels,
Should there be a change of intentions in
and shops; in San Miguel, even the down-
how we live in cities, the change will
town bullring has a street façade and portal
require changing the zoning requirements
on a narrow, walled residential street with
for separate land uses, mixed-use neigh-
small stores and an elementary school on
borhoods with higher housing density, and
the street. This building form—the patio
rail transit systems.
in the middle and as many floors as are
San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, Mexico.
m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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neededâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;allows disparate buildings to be
Where land is better utilized and neigh-
close together, giving many types of ser-
borhoods are made possible by being
vices to the neighborhood. In an extreme
dense enough to enable residents to walk
example of mixed use, the San Miguel bull-
to parks, services, schools, and friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
ring, loud as it may be on certain days, has
homes, there could be land remaining for
some of the best houses in town sharing
communal open spaces, like plazas,
common walls with it. Compare the advan-
becoming loci of the neighborhood activi-
tages of the geometry: the Mediterranean
ties in a nexus of social, residential, and
house form surrounds the open space, giv-
business uses. These old ideas of the patio
ing privacy and security; in the U.S. house
house and heterogeneous neighborhoods
form, the open space surrounds the build-
with plazas for people to gather would offer
ing, giving most of the land to front yards,
better lifestyle choices in the United States,
backyards, and side yards on almost all
except that such ideas are against the law
building typesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;residential, institutional,
in most cases. Architectural enthusiasts
and commercial. Similarly, the model of
who travel and who have experienced
the New England village clustered densely
urban forms might be the ones who will
around a common offers advantages in a
make such a change.
less formal pattern. The accretion of such
Even though cities in the past could
villages, as the city grows to a large popula-
adapt to carriages, trains, streetcars, and
tion, can be seen in Greater London.
even automobiles, cities cannot handle well
Importantly, the historic forms use less
the speed and distances of the modern free-
land and offer greater density so as to let
way connecting distant zoning-separated
families and services be close enough to
functions. Many Historic Cities lost their
reach on foot. The infrastructure, thus
vitality when faced with the freeway; the
shortened, yields a great economy in utility
time-distance geometry overwhelmed it.
distribution and street pavement because
People no longer had to live where they
the distances are only a fraction of those in
worked or where they shopped or played; all
the Modern City. Certainly, the best part is
were connected by car except in the few
the proximity of people and services that
special older areas that still functioned as
generate the activities of a neighborhood.
pedestrian neighborhoods. This is the con-
The building with a patio can be used in many forms and for purposes as diverse as a house or a general hospital.
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dition in which the Modern City finds
same time, other relocation forces were at
itself, where there is little opportunity for
work in city centers. Urban renewal legisla-
the face-to-face meeting in a communal
tion and land acquisition for high-speed
open space of some kind. Such pedestrian
freeways set a lot of people and patterns in
places can still exist if they are protected. To
motion. These dynamic migrations fueled
achieve these urban concepts that support
the changes.
heterogeneous pedestrian neighborhoods,
The second concept, the one that facili-
we would have to subsidize them, just as
tated the other concepts, was a powerful
freeways are subsidized at a much greater
new economic engine. The home mort-
cost than neighborhood modifications.
gage programs of the Federal Housing
What happened to the city planners
Administration (FHA) set in place a
whom we might expect to give form to our
machinery that would shape almost every
cities? Once the activity of kings, emper-
life in the United States, and change the
ors, popes, and then architects, planning as
cityscape forever. It allowed the many to
a profession is even newer than architec-
build and own their own home—but in a
ture. And it’s a profession that has, in the
very rigid, separated, single-family
past two or three generations, become
detached house. The FHA also set mini-
devoted almost exclusively to policy plan-
mum property requirements that became
ning, systems, and two-dimensional orga-
the pattern for making housing subdivi-
nization rather than involving the physical,
sions. Zoning and the FHA helped weaken
three-dimensional forms of cities that we
older neighborhoods and created the new
experience with our senses. There is a gap
homogeneous suburbs without retail stores
between the disciplines, and it shows in
or restaurants that could make possible the
our cities.
social structure of a true neighborhood.
The gap developed at an unfortunate
The two physical-planning concepts forced
time. Major changes were occurring in
change: The physical-planning policy of
U.S. cities in the early twentieth century.
zoning, which separated functions, exacer-
The growth and change were accommo-
bated the need for transportation. And the
dated, as I view it, by six idealistic concepts:
easy facility of the FHA allowed rapid real
two were competing architectural manifes-
estate development.
tos, three were public policies, and one was social change. The first new concept was a set of
The third concept was a prevailing vision of the form these changes would take. Primary among these were the plan-
dynamics that caused relocation. The city
ning concepts of Le Corbusier’s La Ville
was considered the magnet for farmers
Radieuse Plan (1931), a plan to raze Paris
and African Americans from the South.
and replace it with vast open spaces sepa-
Moving in the opposite direction were cor-
rating skyscrapers that would contain the
porations that sought to get out of the cen-
functions of the city in a world of the
ter city to build their headquarters in a
future. Variations of that Modernist theme
parklike setting on the city’s edge. At the
were expressed in the Century of Progress m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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World’s Fair in 1934, the Futurama of the
infrastructure. Offices and houses were
World’s Fair of 1939, and in the magazines
required to be in separate zones. Restau-
and movies of the time. The single-mind-
rants could not be close to houses. Parks
edness of the ideas gave them extreme
were made so large that they became iso-
power. This became a seductive concept, a
lated from most residents. Corporate-scale
zeitgeist as strong as the Nazi movement
development used large tracts of land for
among planners, architects, and develop-
housing and shopping, placing them far
ers. They shaped the thinking on the Mod-
apart. Stores could not be close to where
ern City more than any other model. The
people live, so they had to be grouped into
newer downtown area of Los Angeles is a
separate zones. In the prezoning world,
partially realized example. Every city has its
such amenities and conveniences were
labyrinths of thoughtlessness.
common rather than in violation of zoning
The fourth concept was the vision of
law. For example, when I walk on my
Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City.
errands in my eighteenth-century town, I
Unveiled in 1932, it was a plan that would
will pass, on the same short street, houses
decentralize urban areas into a social ideal
of minimum living conditions alongside
with no center—putting every home on a
four-million-dollar houses, a small grocery,
self-sufficient plot of land, spreading over
a shoe repair shop, a blacksmith, and a
the landscape to infinity without hierarchy.
bakery. You cannot see the different uses
Luckily, the English New Towns and the
from the street because they are all behind
Garden City planning of Radburn, New
doors in the walls of the street. Further on,
Jersey, by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright
I will walk through the town square, down
moderated the two “ideal cities.”
a street that contains, in the same block,
The fifth concept was a policy, not a
behind high walls, a church, a shoe shop, a
plan. In 1929, new laws were enacted to
furniture store, houses of both the rich and
separate land uses by zoning, the original
poor, a fine restaurant, and, of all things,
intent being to keep smoke-producing
behind simple doors on this same street,
industry in the town of Euclid, Ohio, away
an elementary school just before reaching
from other parts of town. But zoning laws
the doors of the bullring. From there it’s
spread and began isolating every other
just a short walk to the park. Compare.
urban use into discrete areas as well. What
The sixth new concept made the other
started as a protective isolation of smoke-
concepts physically possible. The Interstate
stacks soon isolated every use into its own
Highway Act of 1955, which establised the
separate area. It sounds good until you
high-speed freeway system of interstate,
analyze the results. Zoning destroyed any
intercity, and intracity transportation, was a
possibility of walkable neighborhoods by
result of the private car and truck. The
requiring certain zones to be purely resi-
facility of the car has already eliminated
dential, without any commercial services.
streetcars and passenger trains, leaving
Setbacks and side yards extended the walk-
cars, trucks, and buses as the only form of
ing distances and exacerbated the cost of
ground transportation. These architecture
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A landscape of what is known in the market as vertical product.
and planning visions of the future and the
geometry that compromised or eliminated
other new zoning laws required thousands
the pedestrian and the human dimension.
of new automobiles and freeways for us to
With these separations into large-scale
drive to and from all the separate uses. The
single-purpose developments, the low-
idea seduced everyone and thrilled Detroit.
income population was left out. Concur-
What were lost in these visions of zoning
rent with these visions were the careful
and freeways were neighborhood grocers,
analysis and thoughtful commentary of
small shops, cafes, offices, housing
the planner and social critic Lewis Mum-
choices, and the critical ingredient of cities:
ford (1895–1990), who prophesied dire
the neighborhood.
changes in the Modern City, with decen-
These six formative ideas—migration
tralization resulting in inner-city neglect.
in and out, FHA financing and standards,
Did architects and planners help fulfill his
Corbusier’s vision, Wright’s vision, zoned
prophecy? Had everyone listened more
separation of functions, and high-speed
closely to Mumford, we would not have
freeway systems—resulted in spaced-apart
abandoned trains and streetcars for depen-
buildings, separate home plots, separate
dence on freeways and fuels.
stores, restaurants, recreation, and offices
Sprawling is spoiling. With sprawl,
and utterly changed our way of life. Our
speed is essential to span the distances that
concept of urban form has become so
have been so extended by low-density
vague that we now need Global Positioning
development that they require high-speed
System navigation aids in our cars to find
freeways and arteries over long distances,
out where we are and where we are going.
requiring driving time and fossil fuels.
The seemingly logical separations of zon-
This condition causes communication to
ing ordinances had wide-ranging conse-
be more cell phone to cell phone than face
Walking distances from
quences: they encouraged sprawl and sub-
to face. Getting there became more impor-
home to stores and schools
urbs; they concentrated cars on collector
tant than being there. Gertrude Stein’s
help define a neighborhood.
streets and created freeways, making a
witty description of sprawling Oakland, m a k i ng c o n n e c t i o n s
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“There is no there there,” applies to most
old; they’re not carved in stone. We have
U.S. cities. Disenfranchised are those with-
stronger traditions to follow than zoning
out a car: children, elders, and disadvan-
laws. This is another role for the architec-
taged people. Walking is now something
tural enthusiast—to become an activist
we schedule for personal fitness on a tread-
and help communities address these
mill or a running track rather than for get-
issues, not for the sake of nostalgia but for
ting from place to place. Typical zoning
the sake of quality of life.
and planning policies work against pedes-
What would happen if we have a fossil
trian scale and the neighborhood. In partic-
fuel crisis so devastating that we cannot
ular, zoning does not physically accommo-
economically drive our cars for miles from
date low-income families, who walk rather
home to get a loaf of bread? The suburb
than drive cars.
might naturally bring in a few stores for
As suburbs replaced neighborhoods,
their convenience, and that might grow
there was a myth that the suburbs were
into a neighborhood center, bringing in a
good for families and children. Instead, the
walkable scale that would create neighbor-
child’s world simply shrank into the size of
hoods as they respond to market forces.
a backyard with only other houses to walk
The new homogeneous residential neigh-
to—no stores, parks, or schools because
borhoods are less than one hundred years
they became big and far away. Zoning as
old, and, as history goes, they may be
well as mortgage banking had separated
remodeled many times. Creative planning
land uses too far away from each other for
and entrepreneurship could make hetero-
people to walk in between; a car was
geneous neighborhoods, if that became our
required because all other transportation
intention.
systems had been abandoned. About that
Now let’s look again at those early twen-
time, Jane Jacobs, in The Life and Death of
tieth-century influences and consider that
the American City (New York: Vintage
the reasons that nineteenth-century city
Books, 1961), admonished us, as a basic
planners created some beautiful cities were
tenet of community and security, to be
that they had different models. They
aware of our neighborhoods and our neigh-
worked within a tradition of design. The
bors by “keeping eyes on the street,” where
nineteenth-century civil engineers
people met people face to face in their
designed public works with humanity and
neighborhoods, if only from their front
architectural finesse, often retaining archi-
porch. Losing these qualities affected our
tects to assist them in design. The changes
quality of life, our security, how we use our
in city-planning objectives over the past
time, and the quality of our community
century can be followed in four stages.
assets. Think about the attitudes and laws
First were the urban concepts described by
that have to change before heterogeneous
Camillo Sitte in his book City Planning
pedestrian neighborhoods could exist
According to Artistic Principles (Vienna,
again. The zoning laws are only sixty years
1889). Then Daniel Burnham solidified the
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The design for a suburban micro-neighborhood that allows walking to the center for services and connects to a hierarchy of similar micro-neighborhoods that can provide schools and services for a large, walkable neighborhood. Pratt and Box with Howard Meyer, 1959.
City Beautiful Movement in the United
separate real estate market miles away.
States at the Columbian Exposition of
What an awkward human condition—what
1893. Within a few decades, Modernism
could have made a neighborhood became a
overwhelmed this movement with “City
homogeneous “pod” of housing product
Planning According to Efficient Princi-
with a separate shopping center reachable
ples.” Then, all was overwhelmed by the
only by car. In one century our model for
concept of “City Planning According to
urban life went from artistic principles to
Marketing Principals” (described by Philip
marketing principles.
Langdon in his book A Better Place to Live
I believe we are victims of some bad sto-
[New York: Harper, 1994]), wherein the
ries—myths—that we have come to
rise of marketing and the decline of plan-
believe to be our objectives: our twentieth-
ning caused new housing to be considered
century tradition based on the six planning
simply “pods of vertical product” for the
concepts described above. Our current
marketplace rather than homes and neigh-
communal myths tell us that we must live
borhoods. Shops and services were in a
in a single-family house; we must have
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yards full of grass all around us; we must not have retail shops near us, only other houses; everyone in the family must drive a car when going beyond the house; and there must be a lot of distance between your home and any place to buy a loaf of bread or a bottle of milk. That set of myths goes back to the individual’s “frontier cabin in the woods.” This, of course, is not the common myth in other parts of the world. The cities of Europe, the Mediterranean, the Far East, and Latin America have very different myths, many of which are directed toward community rather than individuality. We must examine our old myths and come up with new ones—new
three-dimensional design for a place to live
The architect Camillo Sitte
story lines and new policies—that support
or perhaps a grand design. Design was
studied and documented the
community rather than deny it. We may
ignored by the three most recent genera-
urban spaces of European
need a new public policy, one strong
tions of planners; they were policy plan-
towns in the late nineteenth
enough to affect the marketplace, on plan-
ners, not physical planners. The academic
century.
ning, zoning, and intracity transportation
training of planners is only just beginning
that would force a way to provide new
to change.
forms. Because real estate development is
Just as an architect cannot design a
undeniably market driven, public policy by
beautiful building without first seeing one,
governments may be required to make the
how can a planner design a beautiful city if
necessary adjustments that can create the
he or she has never seen one? Today, we
kind of sustainable physical community
only talk about workable cities and their
that is currently missing.
growth. As dean of a school of architecture
In the face of the real estate develop-
that included a planning program, I walked
ment formula provided by zoning and
down the hall one day and realized, “We’re
finance, plus the Corbusian ideal of huge
the problem.” In trying to change the
voids with skyscrapers, the Wrightian ideal
direction, I said in the introduction to my
of decentralization into suburbia, and the
town-planning course, “Most of what we
model of the English New Towns, our cha-
will study about designing livable cities is
otic twentieth-century U.S. city was inevita-
currently against the law.” I contend that
ble. City planning became solely a two-
staying within the current laws, ordi-
dimensional diagram of separated
nances, and planning policies will continue
functions and connecting vehicular arter-
to lessen livability, sense of community,
ies, drainage, and utilities, rather than a
and quality of life, as well as exhaust fossil
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fuel resources, damage the environment,
to live where things are happening and ser-
and ignore beauty.
vices are convenient. Apply the rule to
An old axiom of planning said, “Each
almost any new large real estate develop-
child should be able to walk safely to school
ment, and it will be improved by allowing
and each adult should be able to walk to
people to walk rather than drive. Only in
basic services within fifteen minutes.” That
the areas of polluting industry would one
axiom was abandoned after World War II,
want to keep separation from other human
yet it’s still a valuable objective. I like to use
uses—that was the original purpose of
the “Five-Minute Popsicle Rule,” which
zoning before it got out of hand. In all
says, “A child must be able to walk safely
other cases, people should be able to walk.
from home to buy a Popsicle within five
A device to augment the five-minute
minutes.” This freedom was lost, of course,
walk in a pleasant way is the linear park, a
when zoning separated uses, and freeways
park that is long and narrow and that con-
were built to serve them.
nects different uses and different neighbor-
The Five-Minute Popsicle Rule evolved
hoods with footpaths. The linear park can
from a discussion with the planning pro-
bring nature within five minutes of each
fessor Terry Kahn as we were preparing to
person. The park can be only one hundred
teach a class for planning students. It’s
feet wide, and, when possible, follow drain-
now an often-heard axiom. I believe this
age along a creek. These opportunities
one simple rule can reverse many of the
were often lost when parks were made
damaging effects of the past generations of
large, broad areas for recreation facilities
planners. The Five-Minute Popsicle Rule, if
and when creeks were covered up and
applied to all new planning decisions,
storm sewers put in. Some cities are resus-
would restore a humane environment to
citating their creeks by pulling out the sew-
our towns and cities in several ways. Apply
ers and reestablishing a natural setting
the rule to a suburban subdivision, and it
used as a linear park.
would not only give children a place to
Another simple requirement can
walk to before they’re allowed to drive a
change the look of the city: require that
car, but would also give adults something
streets be designed with lines of trees,
to do besides drive their children every-
landscape, and walks as an integrated road-
where and drive themselves between work
way. Because we sense the city by our travel
and home. Apply the rule to a regional
through the streets, we can affect the
shopping center, and housing would have
appearance greatly by lining almost every
to be part of the development, so that peo-
street with trees in a variety of street
ple would have housing and street patterns
designs. This is design that does more
that would allow them to walk to shops and
than handle automobile traffic. Yes, it’s sec-
services as in a traditional neighborhood.
ondary to the basic function, but we should
Apply it to the center of cities by adding
be civilized enough to do more than just
housing, and people would have an option
get from place to place with speed. Why
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not design all aspects of the streets and
incurable disease, a gender, an age
freeways? Federal and state legislation
bracket, a waiting room, owners of silver
requiring landscape architects’ participa-
BMW’s, organized crime, everyone who
tion along with that of the engineers could
swears by a particular brand of painkiller
go a long way toward giving our streets and
and a two-block stretch of Manhattan on a
freeways delight.
weekday at lunch hour.” He’s right. Each
Changes in transportation and commu-
of us has many “communities.” The Net,
nications in the past fifty years have
e-mail, iChat community is truly global,
spawned a different context for commu-
yet it’s different from a physical commu-
nity. Herbert Muschamp of the New York
nity, where one can walk the streets and
Times asks, “What is a community at the
enjoy the plazas, do errands on foot, meet
end of the twentieth century? A focus
accidentally, and just look around and
group, a concentration camp, a chat room
enjoy. I think the desire for a physical
on the Internet, an address book, a dance
community with a sense of place is here
club, all of those afflicted with a particular
to stay.
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN
FINDING POSSIBILITIES
In any evolutionary process, even in the arts, the search
Dear Arquitecta Gutierrez: My friend, I do respect your grumblings
for novelty becomes corrupting.
about the current state of design. Architec-
ke n n e th bo ul ding
ture would seem to have left the building,
(1910 –1993)
wouldn’t it? The big questions, for me, are, How do we get it back? and What might it look like at its next stage of evolution? These are hard questions, but let me start with your own: “Isn’t it time for a wholesale change in the direction of design?” I say yes. The tenets of Modernism that we architects learned in school, and the buildings that express those tenets, have been receiving serious criticism now for forty years, well after Modernism accomplished its chief goal, which was to clean house following the excesses of late nineteenth-century design. While Modernf i n d i ng p o s s i b i l i t i e s
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ism evolved to produce some great build-
both academically and professionally. Yet
ings, it also produced a huge number of
most of the issues here are just as relevant
aloof, unpleasant ones—sometimes whole
for nonarchitects, since everyone is finally
cities of them. Paul Goldberger of the New
involved, one way or another, in buildings,
York Times said it well: “Modern architec-
aren’t they? So that is why I will speak here
ture has been too cerebral, too rational, too
not about design theory per se but about
concerned with appearing beautiful in an
four overarching design issues that might
intellectual way rather than comfortable in
inform the possibilities.
a sensuous or physical way.” James Pratt,
The first issue is the presumed moral
meanwhile, has noted how Modernism, in
imperative that architects ascribe to Mod-
promoting the Global Village, has actually
ernism—that it’s the only legitimate way to
promoted a place-destroying sameness:
build, and that aggressive, noncontextual,
“From a distance, Nairobi looks much like
urban “interventions” are a victory for the
Midland, Texas.” But the architect Philip
imperative.
Johnson delivered what may be the most
The second issue is the need for useful
pungent verdict: “Modern architecture is a
vernaculars, or some kind of guide for use
flop. . . . There is no question that our cit-
in the design of buildings built without
ies are uglier today than they were fifty
architects.
years ago.” Inept examples of Modernism have
The third issue is the need for architects to offer a better product, so that they might
invaded almost every city in every develop-
be asked to design more of the world’s
ing country. The examples, with few excep-
buildings.
tions, tend to be aggressively brutal, stri-
The fourth issue is the millions of
dent, and visually out of place. Take the
ineptly designed private dwellings pro-
ancient Sicilian city of Siracusa. It had
duced without architectural merit. Even
withstood invasion from at least ten diverse
though houses, large and small, are prod-
cultures over its twenty-six centuries of his-
ucts of good value from home-building cor-
tory, yet none has been as damaging as
porations, their design is visually so illiter-
Modernism, at least visually. But even with
ate as to embarrass a knowledgeable owner.
such a rich historic fabric, where Greek
Compare the new McMansions with the
architecture was added to by Roman archi-
Newport mansions of the nineteenth cen-
tecture, Moorish architecture, and by Span-
tury. Or compare the design of the com-
ish Baroque, I feel confident that the New
mon Prairie School houses and shingled
could still be absorbed there, provided a
bungalows of a hundred years ago with the
thoughtful, respectful architecture were
builders’ houses of today.
inserted with great care. Reconsidering and reshaping Modern-
To address the first of these four issues, let’s examine two hypothetical scenarios. In
ism, as we know it in everyday buildings,
Scenario A, Modernists continue to ignore
will involve the discipline of architecture
previous architecture, as well as today’s
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marketplace, coherent urban form, and
tues of Modernism enough that they will
ordinary human desires, and continue to
accept, and even promote, greater experi-
create intellectualized innovations in the
mentation toward a more sensitive, contex-
Modernist dogma. The esoteric poetry of
tually appropriate architecture. The contin-
today’s Modernism, enjoyed by the indoc-
uum of architectural evolution, including
trinated, will eventually grow ever more
but not limited to Modernism, will then
intense and obscure, becoming less and
ease the violence to cities, making design
less accessible to the public while becom-
better, not just new.
ing still more sublime to insiders. (Some
Scenario B would be rather scary to
will say, “Yeah, right on!”) Meanwhile, the
many. Leaving the comforts of dogma to
only vernacular guide for ordinary building
look back, be inclusive, and move forward,
will continue to be the old International
all at the same time, will take courage.
Style, producing the same architecture
There would be a period of confusion as
around the world and placing higher value
different design directions are developed,
on being Modern than on the geography
but this is nothing new. Just a century ago
and culture of place and people. A few of
we were actively building in many vernacu-
the buildings in this scenario will be won-
lars and many different styles: Neoclassical,
derful and make a contribution, but most
Beaux Arts Modern, Colonial, Collegiate
will ape the current fashion and be less
Gothic, Richardson Romanesque, Arts and
than good. That’s a lot of buildings less
Crafts, the new forms of Modernism devel-
than good.
oping in Europe, and later, the new Mod-
In Scenario B, the knowledge and the
ernism in the United States. In that era, an
aesthetic of Modernism get assimilated
architect might choose the appropriate
into the mainstream of architectural his-
style for each new building commission. Is
tory to create a continuum of architectural
there anything really wrong about doing
design that evolves into forms we recog-
that today—if we only knew how to do it
nize as a healthy direction to move in. The
well?
poetry so painstakingly developed over the
After a whole century of Modernism,
past one hundred years is used to promote
with its successes and failures, wouldn’t a
harmony rather than disharmony, just as
substantial change be a blessing to ordi-
modern music advanced beyond its early
nary architecture and urban form? The
dissonances to return to sophisticated
architecture of special buildings would con-
harmonies.
tinue developing in ways that genius cre-
The goal in this second scenario is to
ates, while everyday architecture would
open up the current mind-set and examine
provide harmony, comfort, delight, and a
ideas outside of and beyond the current
coherent streetscape in a humane city.
Modernist dogmas. Or, to put it another
How different an attitude this would be
way, the goal is to loosen architects’ black-
from Le Corbusier’s proposal to rebuild his-
or-white fundamentalist beliefs in the vir-
toric Paris as a Modernist city! Such vio-
f i n d i ng p o s s i b i l i t i e s
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lence has abated and a peace has been
two directions. Either we find solutions in
made, so that meritorious “old” architec-
traditional building materials, techniques,
ture is preserved with dignity. Paris was
and local forms responding to the specifics
not razed. Yet parts of U.S. cities were razed
of that local climate, history, and technol-
in the mid-twentieth century, as urban
ogy, or we look beyond our current materi-
renewal legislation destroyed thousands of
als and techniques to find new methods of
acres of urban fabric to make way for new
construction with a new kind of integrity
buildings, new real estate values, and new
and authenticity. Frank Gehry has said,
social problems. In this era, the Design
“Architecture should speak of its time and
Award–winning modern high-rise housing
place, but yearn for timelessness.” A build-
of St. Louis’s Pruitt-Igoe was imploded,
ing of its time and place would logically
making it a symbol of architectural and
have much in common with those that
social failure. Because most architects, fac-
were intelligently built before in that
ulty, and students are in the third or fourth
place—recognizable design idioms and
generation of Modernist education, the
similar materials. The time would be
dogmas are now as fixed as in a fundamen-
shown in noticeable design decisions that
talist religion. When you think that the
reflect the architecture of today.
movement started with issues of workers’
The third issue is that of architects
housing, doesn’t it seem that a radical reex-
needing a better product for the public so
amination of Modernism’s implacable ide-
as to better serve communities and individ-
ology is in order?
uals. To be more in demand requires a
Second, the idea of a useful vernacular
change. If 95 percent of our buildings are
or guide for design has intrigued me since
designed without architects, most people
my school days. Educated to be aloof to the
must think that architects are not worth the
past, I have to confess that my discovery of
money, time, and effort. The market-driven
the premodern world confounded me
economy is real and constant for new
when I first saw that it had produced archi-
buildings, so if designers wish to be
tecture of great significance along with
involved, they must adjust to the market-
ordinary buildings that were elegantly con-
place with new attitudes about services and
ceived and executed. Granted, we architects
the public’s desires. Architecture, the enno-
have a responsibility to explore the new
bler of buildings, must be of enough value
ideas, materials, and techniques that have
for the client to pay for the architect’s effort.
become available to us because, most
Leading architects receive good fees for
importantly, we must innovate to design
their services, yet the average architects’
the demanding newer building types
fees indicate a low value placed on their
where advanced technology is required: tall
product. The fact of those low fees is rea-
buildings, airport terminals, hospitals,
son enough for architects and educators to
sports arenas, and other special facilities.
reexamine their current direction. It’s not
To find the appropriate vernacular for
only that the clients are undereducated; it’s
smaller buildings, though, there are at least
that architects aren’t producing a product
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that the client wants enough to pay for.
for inventing new ways to build every new
Deterrents to producing a desirable
building requires making, for each build-
product are, first, the architects’ massive
ing, a thorough set of instructions on how
time cost in providing their services, which
this particular “new” building is to be built.
earn unreasonably low financial rewards.
Is innovation for the sake of innovation
The second reason is the proliferation of
worth it? I used to thoroughly enjoy this
federal, state, county, and city bureaucra-
process, but really, aren’t we spending our
cies and regulations that sap the architect’s
time in the wrong place?
time and resources. Architects spend an enormous amount
A building tradition requiring fewer details from the architect could also relieve
of time designing the technical construc-
the architect of some direct responsibility
tion details of a building that would not
and thus reduce lawsuits where lawyers get
require such effort if they were designing
into the thick of some very thin things,
within a traditional vernacular that work-
quickly earning larger fees than the archi-
men knew how to build and so would need
tects’ own. Some lawsuits might be avoided
less direction from the architect. In earlier
if a building tradition were understood as it
eras, for example, the much-admired Palla-
was in previous eras. We architects enjoy
dio did very few drawings, yet workmen
being inventive, of course, and are good at
knew how to build his buildings because
it, but is that the most important objective?
the techniques weren’t trying to be new
True, God is in the details, but we might
each time. A simple Palladian building
refine them rather than invent new ones
today would require well over one hundred
for every building.
sheets of drawings. Palladio would have
As for the growing regulatory controls
used fewer than ten. Recently, when I
and permissions, their cost could easily
designed a traditional load-bearing
exceed the cost of design and construction
masonry building in a Mexican village, the
administration on a particular project.
only drawings I needed were plans, eleva-
Some of these services should be outside
tions, and sections of all the interior and
of the architect’s costs. The time spent in
exterior surfaces of the building drawn to a
following the minute detail of the regula-
large scale; the workmen already knew how
tions is burdensome as it is. What a change
to build it. The only thing they needed to
from fifty years ago, when the city’s head
know was what I wanted and what all its
building inspector said to me, “Because
parts should look like; they knew how to do
you are an architect, we don’t need to look
the rest. Detailed construction drawings
at your plans. They’re approved.” In addi-
would have been confusing for the work-
tion to those bureaucracies, the litigious
men and expensive for the architect to pro-
society and the protective liability-insur-
duce. The manpower involved in produc-
ance costs add another large burden for the
ing voluminous construction drawings
architect.
would be better spent in improving the design of the product. Architects’ proclivity
The fourth major issue is that the design of the dominant form of housing, f i n d i ng p o s s i b i l i t i e s
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the spec builder’s house in which most
ing ways to exploit space and light. It has
people live, is ignored in architectural edu-
opened up new frontiers. The absence of
cation. On the other hand, the spec house
ornament (the crime) has been partially
is a product that usually offers the buyer
compensated for by its use of new materi-
good value. Rarely are these houses
als in unexpected ways, such as special
designed by architects, not just to save time
glass, enameled metal, copper, titanium,
and a fee, but because the architects’
and concrete textures, and sometimes that
designs are not in demand. Builders’
is enough.
houses, you’ll notice, are almost exclusively
Yet consider the possibilities we have for
exercises in nostalgia. That is, they look
reshaping architecture by comparing the
backward, seeking to evoke some tradition
beginning of this century with the revolu-
or well-known style rather than what my
tionary beginning of the last century. Do
generation of architects and the one follow-
you think everyday Modernism is as tired
ing imagined people would want and
now as Neoclassicism was a hundred years
should have: a Modern house. It hasn’t
ago?
happened, although the ideology and
Several modifications are in order:
forms of the 1950s are reappearing as the “Mid-century Modern,” or MCM. Look
• Redirect attitudes to promote har-
through any twenty popular shelter maga-
mony rather than discord in the
zines on the newsstand and you can see
streets.
what the consumer wants. The houses
• Value composition and proportion,
aren’t those designed by architects as archi-
rather than celebrate shock, novelty,
tecture but are designed as products that
and stridency.
buyers find pleasant and affordable. All
• Champion the decorative arts and
that being said, the current level of their
landscaped gardens rather than over-
design remains extremely low because the
ride or compete with them— or even
designers are trying to design in traditional
scoff at them, as I sometimes hear in
styles without the knowledge or skills of
school lectures.
how to design in that manner, even in their
• Act locally in a global way—adopt or
most expensive houses. In sum, what
adapt usable regional traditions and
might be called affordable houses are not
vernaculars, rather than celebrate
being taught in architecture schools, even
innovation for its own sake.
though they dominate the housing market. While accepted in commercial and institu-
While digital globalization of industries
tional buildings, Modernism is rarely in
and ideas can justify the International
demand in a home. And that’s a large
Style, it can’t satisfy our human dimen-
rejection of today’s architecture.
sions that still require us to have special
On a more positive note, Modernism
places and keep the identity of our individ-
continues to innovate, and for all its
ual environments. Making it new is, well,
excesses, it’s discovered many fresh, excit-
getting old.
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We might evolve architecture in positive
name a few. Some are finding a wonderful
ways by engaging more in the intricacies of
new world in architecture made available
its construction. Considering construction
by digital design and new high-strength,
systems as form determinants has been a
lightweight materials. Unfortunately, this
goal for decades, yet it seems to always get
world is not available to most of those who
tied up in an advanced technology that
build.
doesn’t exist. One of the excitements of
In an attempt to visualize how modern
design and construction is to work with
architecture might evolve into a building
new or unusual materials coming either
tradition strong enough to become an
from advancing technology or from
exemplary guide for everyone, I recently
extraordinary natural materials found at an
made a list of my favorite architects in his-
affordable price, such as a particular stone,
tory, arranged as chronological steps on a
the right type of glass, or new construction
stair leading up to Tomorrow. We might all
techniques such as the new efforts in man-
choose a different lineage of architects for a
ufactured prefabricated buildings.
desirable continuum, but the architects I
Architects seek to be on the leading
would select for such a lineage would start
edge—that’s where, as designers, they can
with the great Classical architects, the
have the most fun. Some are constantly
Romanesque and Gothic master builders.
seeking a new revolution; some are seek-
Then on to Brunelleschi, Michelangelo, and
ing an evolution. Both directions are valid
Palladio. Then Bernini and Boromini, Balta-
if they’re not boring; both can be on the
zar Neumann, Thomas Jefferson, and Sir
leading edge.
John Soane. Then there’d be a big progres-
There is nothing wrong with being off
sion—H. H. Richardson, Louis Sullivan,
the leading edge by doing the obvious. You
Cass Gilbert, Eliel Saarinen, Eero Saarinen,
just need to do it better than anyone else!
Charles Eames, Gunar Asplund, Alvar
That also is ego-satisfying.
Aalto, Louis Kahn, Luis Barragán, Jørn
In Mexico, the lineage of vernacular
Utzon, Charles Moore, Ricardo Legorreta,
buildings is given finesse by the masters
and Renzo Piano. To that list I would add
Luis Barragán and Ricardo Legorreta. Both
architects significant in their particular
architects are highly respected yet off the
regions. For instance, in the Southwest, I
mainstream, even though Legorreta is an
would continue with Harwell Hamilton
AIA Gold Medalist and Barragán is a Pritz-
Harris, O’Neil Ford, Frank Welch, David
ker Prize Laureate revered by all. I wonder
Lake, and Ted Flato. Note that I omitted
why most schools of architecture in the
Wright, Le Corbusier, and Mies, so as to
United States are almost exclusively Euro-
visualize architecture without them, just to
centric, with their design values focused
see what kind of image would be made. I
there.
feel comfortable continuing that lineage of
Currently, many leading-edgers are at
design ideas. Perhaps it would make the
work—Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Renzo
appropriate design guide from which any-
Piano, Rick Joy, and Santiago Calatrava, to
one could work. f i n d i ng p o s s i b i l i t i e s
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For the aficionado and student, an
and traditional styles, as well as Modernist
examination of such a lineage might pro-
design methodologies. The architecture we
vide a worthwhile outline for study of these
are seeking will come as an evolution of
architects and project the lineage into the
Modernism that brings in historical aes-
future. It would be a useful learning expe-
thetic values along with a new edge that
rience to study individual architects, evalu-
gives it excitement. A new paradigm will
ate them as models, and decide which
provide guidance-by-example for nonarchi-
architects should be included in this
tects eager to improve the design of their
selected history. Examining the design phi-
many buildings. Perhaps someone will pro-
losophies you choose might help you dis-
duce plan books as effective architecturally
cover the paradigm to provide the guide we
as those used early in the last century.
seek. Would 95 percent of the buildings be much different? The architect William Turnbull gave us
Success will depend on our attitudes on how each individual building relates to everything else within the complex struc-
wisdom on this subject in a remark he
tures of city planning. If architecture can
made about two of the architects in my
leave the building to continue out into the
regional list: “Lake/Flato’s architecture can
street with thoughtful design of the com-
serve as a lesson for us all: how a building
munal open spaces, cities will be more
stands to the sun, how it welcomes the
habitable.
cooling breeze, how it partners with plant
Perhaps most important is a new curric-
materials. Nothing sensational or exotic,
ulum for architectural education that will
no visual fireworks of fashion, just archi-
not only study architectural history, but
tecture that intrigues the mind, delights
also begin design studio instruction in his-
the soul, and refreshes the eye with its ele-
toric styles. This has not happened in sev-
gant detail and simplicity. Timeless archi-
eral generations of architects; however,
tecture needn’t shout.”
many of today’s great musicians were clas-
Any new paradigm will want to be plu-
sically trained, even the top jazz musicians.
ralistic—inclusive and tolerant of all except
Classical training might be considered her-
ineptness. For me, a guiding example, or
esy, but read on. In a conversation with one
exemplar, would contain many conflicting
of my eminent colleagues, Michael Bene-
attributes: simplicity and complexity, ele-
dikt, I proposed an architecture curriculum
gance and whimsy, romance and utility,
that would start with classical training,
authenticity and irony, timeless and new,
similar to the Beaux Arts training that early
gravity-defying form and earthy solidity,
Modernists experienced— one that would
natural materials and ersatz materials, old
provide basic training in proportion, com-
forms and new forms, indigenous materi-
position, form, ornament, and the rigors of
als and forms and international materials
classicism. “I agree, that’s essential,”
and forms. The art made of these ingredi-
Michael said, then added, “but I’d do you
ents will have benefited from the design
one better and start the design studio
studio study of primitive, classic, historic,
sequence with studies of the primitive
184
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the upper levels
unstylized building methods of prehistory
able. In the United States, the newly
and indigenous examples and hybrid ver-
formed Institute for Classical Architecture,
naculars.” Great idea! I thought. After all,
with National Endowment for the Arts
the primal building qualities of the Third
funding and fifteen hundred members, is
World, which still rely on simple materials
offering courses in Classicism as well as
and basic construction, offer unexpected
Georgian and Greek Revival, Arts and
delights in space and light, openings and
Crafts, Gothic Revival, and Shingle Style.
roof shapes, textures and forms, as well as
And again, expanding our study of archi-
expressive ornament.
tecture on the other side of the world
In addition, I thought, we should care-
would enhance our thinking. With univer-
fully fill the void we have in the study of
sity curricula always in flux, more schools
the architectural traditions of Asia. Japa-
might consider broadening their approach
nese, Chinese, Indian, Persian, and Turk-
to train architects in the historic styles that
ish architecture have been inadequately
are ineptly done today because of voids in
studied. The three backgrounds— classical,
training.
primitive, and Asian—which are narrowly
The study of architecture often isolates
studied, at best, in architectural education
the building from it surroundings—that
could be a way to begin a reevaluation of
is, it looks at the architecture as an art
our current design direction. This curricu-
object independent of its setting and its
lum would help designers work more intel-
furnishings. This narrow view is found in
ligently and artistically in the historic styles
schools, boardrooms, and publications.
that architects are attempting today with
While the architectural object may be the
rare success because of their lack of train-
dominant part, the reality, surely, is the
ing. It could improve the quality of the
landscape, the urban setting, and the func-
everyday buildings filling the streets—and
tioning interiors that make up the whole. A
not hamper the design of significant new
new curriculum would include integrated
architecture to dot future history books.
studies of these disciplines as a basis for
Some architecture schools, acknowledging the need to broaden their approach,
collaboration between them. The arts and sciences must always
address Classicism in addition to Modern-
advance to be beneficial. To advance is the
ism; some even teach Classicism exclu-
only way the intellect can acknowledge posi-
sively. The University of Dublin has a full
tive change. If we believe the architecture of
year of classical design in its regular curric-
other eras is superior to the architecture of
ulum. The University of Notre Dame pri-
today, we might be right, but we couldn’t
marily teaches traditional and classical
move backward with any kind of integrity.
architecture in its design studios, with a
Returning to the past isn’t an option. So
year at their Rome campus. In the United
how will our art advance? A Renaissance,
Kingdom, Prince Phillip formed an archi-
an Enlightenment, or a new Manifesto
tecture program to teach classical architec-
might work, of course, but while we’re wait-
ture because of the dearth of training avail-
ing, we might rethink our design values. f i n d i ng p o s s i b i l i t i e s
|
185
Michelangelo, Piazza del Campadoglio, Rome. Begun 1538.
The teacher by example, of many archi-
produces an extraordinarily wonderful and
tects, O’Neil Ford once asked, “When will
appropriate architecture in a building that
some teacher in some school learn that he
many of us fall in love with, one that will
must teach the whole of architecture as it
become the icon of a new direction.
has grown, bloomed, and decayed, the
Thoughtful architects, informed nonar-
results having been sometimes humble
chitects, and well-intentioned clients can
and beautiful, sometimes pompous and
cause a wide range of architecture to flour-
beautiful, sometimes brilliantly and even
ish again. Making architecture a more
laboriously devised— or sometimes, in the
desirable product will elevate it in the arts
indigenous vernacular—just grown?”
and in the marketplace. Success in the
Sitting in the library of a house we’ve
marketplace will cause more architecture
just built in San Miguel, I am looking
to be built. The possibilities for a nonarchi-
at familiar indigenous forms, Spanish-
tect to make architecture will grow as he or
Moorish-Mexican influences, and Modern-
she becomes informed. The making of
ist sensibilities everywhere; and it seems
architecture will be greatly improved when
almost just right.
those who build seek to make architecture
The right design direction, one that will
rather than just buildings, committing them-
put architecture in the forefront as a desir-
selves to doing what it takes to make that
able product, will come when someone
architecture succeed.
186
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the upper levels
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
READING LIST
The more that you read, the more things you
books
will know. The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go. d r. th e o d o r e seus s g eis el (1904 –1991)
Ackerman, James. Palladio. New York: Penguin Books, 1966. Alberti, Leon Battista. The Ten Books of Architecture. The 1755 Leoni edition. New York: Dover, 1986. Alexander, Christopher. Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. ———. The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Alofsin, Anthony. The Struggle for Modernism. New York: W. W. Norton, 2002. ———. Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994. Andrews, Peter, et al. The House Book. New York: Phaidon Press, 2001. Andrews, Wayne. Architecture, Ambition
r e a d i ng l i s t
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187
and Americans. New York: Free Press,
Metropolis. New York: Princeton Architec-
1964.
tural Press, 1993.
Arendt, Randall. Rural by Design. Chicago: American Planning Association, 1994. Attoe, Wayne, et al. The Architecture of Ricardo Legorreta. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space: The Classic Look at How We Experience Intimate Places. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964. Bacon, Edmond N. Design of Cities. Revised
Cambell, Joseph, with Bill Moyers. The Power of Myth. Edited by Betty Sue Flowers. New York: Doubleday, 1988. Caragonne, Alexander. The Texas Rangers: Notes from an Architectural Education. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995. Carter, Peter. Mies van der Rohe at Work. New York: Prager, 1973. Caudill, William Wayne. The TIBS of Bill
edition. New York: Viking Press, 1967.
Caudill. Houston: Cathers Press, 1984.
Baker, Geoffrey. Le Corbusier—The Creative
———, with W. M. Pena and Paul Kennon.
Search: The Formative Years of Charles-
Architecture and You: How to Experience
Edouard Jeanneret. New York: Van Nos-
and Enjoy Buildings. New York: Whitney
trand Reinhold, 1996.
Library of Design and Watson-Guptill,
Benedikt, Michael. For an Architecture of Reality. New York: Lumen Books, 1987. ———. Deconstructing the Kimbell. New York: Lumen Books, 1991. Blake, Peter. The Master Builders. New York: Norton, 1996. ———. Form Follows Fiasco: Why Modern
1978. Chuen, Lam Kam. Feng Shui Handbook. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Collins, George R., and Christiane Collins. Camillo Sitte: The Birth of Modern City Planning. New York: Rizzoli, 1986. Dean, Andrea Oppenheimer. Rural Studio:
Architecture Hasn’t Worked. Boston: Little,
Samuel Mockbee and an Architecture of
Brown, 1974.
Decency. New York: Princeton University
Blumenson, John J. G. Identifying American Architecture:A Pictorial Guide to Styles and Terms, 1600–1945. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1990. Box, John Harold, et al. Prairie’s Yield: Forces Shaping Dallas Architecture 1840– 1962. New York: Reinhold, 1962. Busch, Akiko. Geography of Home: Writings on Where We Live. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. Brunskill, R. W. Illustrated Handbook of Ver-
Press, 2002. Dillon, David. O’Neil Ford: Celebrating Place. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999. Drexler, Arthur. Mies van der Rohe. New York: G. Braziller, 1960. Easterling, Keller. American Town Plans. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993. Edwards, Betty. Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher, 1978. Fleming, John, Hugh Honour, and Niko-
nacular Architecture. London: Faber and
laus Pevsner. The Penguin Dictionary of
Faber, 1971.
Architecture. London: Penguin Books,
Calthorpe, Peter. The Next American 188
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think like an architect
1966.
Fletcher, Sir Banister, with Dan Cruickshank. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. 20th ed. Oxford: Architecture Press, 1896 –2002. Fluckinger, Dan, ed. Lake-Flato. Rockport, Mass: Rockport Publishers, 1996. Frampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Garreau, Joel. Edge City: Life on the New Frontier. New York: Doubleday, 1998. George, Mary Carolyn Hollers. O’Neil Ford, Architect. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1992. Germany, Lisa. Harwell Hamilton Harris. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991. Gideon, Sigfried. Space, Time and Architecture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1941. Goodman, Robert. After the Planners. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971. Goodwin, Philip L. Brazil Builds. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1943. Gropius, Walter. Scope of Total Architecture. New York: Harper and Row, 1955. Hale, Jonathan. The Old Way of Seeing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday, 1966. Hall, Edward T., and Michael Hays. Archi-
American Cities. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. Joy, Rick. Rick Joy: Desert Works. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. Katz, Peter. The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of Community. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994. Keim, Kevin. An Architectural Life: Memoirs and Memories of Charles W. Moore. Boston: Bulfinch Press, 1996. ———. Placenotes: Guides for Austin, Houston, San Antonio, and Santa Fe. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005. Kidder, Tracy. House. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985. King, Ross. Brunelleschi’s Dome. New York: Walker and Company, 2000. Kostof, Spiro. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History. Boston: Bulfinch Press, 1991. ———. A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Krieger, Alex, ed. Duany, Andres and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk: Towns and TownMaking Principles. Cambridge: Harvard GSD, 1991. Krier, Rob. Architectural Composition. New York: Rizzoli, 1988. Kunstler, James Howard. Home from No-
tecture Theory Since 1968. Cambridge:
where. New York: Simon and Schuster,
MIT Press, 1998.
1996.
Halprin, Lawrence. Cities. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963. Henry, Jay C. Architecture in Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993. Jackson, John Brinckerhoff. Discovering the Vernacular Landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great
Langdon, Philip. American Houses. New York: Stewart, Tabori and Ching, 1987. ———. A Better Place to Live: Reshaping the American Suburb. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Lawlor, Robert. Sacred Geometry. London: Thames and Hudson, 1982. ———. The Temple in the House. New York: r e a d i ng l i s t
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G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994. Ledoux, De C. N. L’Architecture. Paris: Lenoir, 1804. Reprint, Princeton Architectural Press, 1983. Lewis, Roger K. Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession. Cambridge: MIT Press,
Mumford, Lewis. The Culture of Cities. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938. Myrvang, June Cotner, and Steve Myrvang. Home Design Handbook. New York: Henry Holt, 1992. Necipoglu, Gulru, et al. The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman
1985. Lynch, Kevin. The Image of the City. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960. Lyndon, Donlyn, and Charles W. Moore.
Empire. Princeton University Press, 2005. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci:
Chambers for a Memory Palace. Cam-
Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture.
bridge: MIT Press, 1994.
New York: Rizzoli, 1984.
Marcus, Clare Cooper. House as a Mirror of Self: Exploring the Deeper Meaning of Home. Berkeley: Conari Press, 1997. McAlester, Virginia, and Lee McAlester. A Field Guide to American Houses. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003. McCarthy, Muriel Quest. David R. Williams: Pioneer Architect. Dallas: SMU Press, 1984. McHarg, Ian L. Design with Nature. New York: Doubleday, 1969. Marshall, Alex. How Cities Work: Suburbs, Sprawl, and the Roads Not Taken. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000. Miles, Mike, et al. Real Estate Development; Principles and Process. Washington: Urban Land Institute, 1966. Mollison, Bill. Permaculture: A Designer’s Manual. Tyalgum, Australia: Tagari, 1988. Moore, Charles, with Gerald Allen and
———. Meaning in Western Architecture, New York: Rizzoli, 1980. ———. The Concept of Dwelling: On the Way to a Figurative Architecture. New York: Electra-Rizzoli, 1984. Oliver, Paul. Dwellings: The House across the World. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987. Paine, Robert Treat, and Alexander Soper. The Art and Architecture of Japan. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1975. Pelli, Cesar. Observations for Young Architects. New York: Monacelli Press, 1999. Pevsner, Nikolaus. Outline of European Architecture. London: Pelican Books, 1943. Pollan, Michael. A Place of My Own: The Education of an Amateur Builder. New York: Random House, 1997. Pope, Arthur Upham. Introducing Persian
Donlyn Lyndon. Place of Houses. New
Architecture. Shiraz: Asian Institute,
York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1974.
Pahlavi University, 1969.
———, with Kent C. Bloomer. Body, Memory, and Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977. ———, with Gerald Allen. Dimensions. New York: McGraw Hill, 1976.
190
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Pratt, James R. Dallas Visions for Community. Dallas: Dallas Institute, 1992. Ramsey, C. G., and Harold Sleeper. Architectural Graphic Standards. 3d ed. New York: John Wiley, 1941.
Rasmussen, Steen Eiler. Experiencing Architecture. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1959. Roman, Antonio. Eero Saarinen, An Architecture of Multiplicity. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2003. Rowe, Colin; Alexander Caragonne, ed. As I was Saying: Recollections and Miscellaneous Essays. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995. Rowland, Benjamin. The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967. Rudofsky, Bernard. Architecture Without Architects, A Short Introduction to Non-
tecture: An Unabridged Reprint of the English Edition of 1611. New York: Dover, 1982. Stern, Robert A. M., and Raymond Gastil. Modern Classicism. New York: Rizzoli, 1988. Sturgis, Russell. Architectural Sourcebook. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984. Sullivan, Louis. The Autobiography of an Idea. 1924. Reprint. New York: Dover, 1956. Summerson, John. The Classical Language of Architecture. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963. Susanka, Sarah, and Kita Obloensky. The
Pedigreed Architecture. Albuquerque: Uni-
Not So Big House. Newtown, Conn.:
versity of New Mexico Press, 1964.
Taunton Press, 1998.
———. Streets for People. New York: Doubleday, 1964. ———. The Prodigious Builders. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977. Ruskin, John. The Seven Lamps of Architec-
Taut, Bruno. Houses and People of Japan. The Sanseido Co., 1938. Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995. Toman, Rolf. Romanesque Architecture,
ture. 1848. Reprint. New York: Dover,
Sculpture, Painting. Cologne: Konemann,
1989.
1997.
Rybczynski, Witold. Home: A Short History
Tunnard, Christopher, and Henry Hope
of an Idea. New York: Viking Penguin,
Reed. American Skyline. New York:
1986.
Houghton Mifflin, 1953.
———. Most Beautiful House in the World. New York: Viking, 1986. ———. The Look of Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Tzonis, Alexander. Critical Regionalism: Architecture and Identity in a Globalized World. Munich: Prestel Verlag, 2003. Unwin, Raymond. Town Planning in Prac-
———. The Perfect House: A Journey with
tice. 1905. Revised edition. New York:
the Renaissance Master Andrea Palladio.
Princeton Architectural Press, 1994.
New York: Scribner, 2002. Saito, Yutaka. Luis Barragán. Mexico, D.F.: Noriega Editores, 1992. Scully, Vincent J. The Shingle Style and the Stick Style. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971. Serlio, Sebastiano. The Five Books of Archi-
Utzon, Jørn, et al. Jørn Utzon: The Architect’s Universe. Humlebaek, Denmark: Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, 2006. Van Hensbergen, Gijs. Gaudí. London: HarperCollins, 2001. Venturi, Robert. Complexity and Contradic-
r e a d i ng l i s t
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tion in Architecture. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1966. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus. The Ten Books on
Wolf, Tom. Bauhaus to Our House. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981. Wrede, Stuart. The Architecture of Erik
Architecture. Translated by Morris
Gunnar Asplund. Cambridge: MIT Press,
Hickey Morgan in 1914 from the ca. 50
1980.
BC text. New York: Dover, 1960. Walker, Theodore. Site Design and Construc-
v ideo s
tion Detailing. Lafayette, Ind.: PDA Publishers, 1978. Ware, William R. The American Vignola: A
Frozen Music. (The building of I. M. Peiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concert hall in Dallas.) Producer, Direc-
Guide to the Making of Classical Architec-
tor, Photographer: Ginny Martin. Dallas:
ture. New York: W. W. Norton, 1977.
PBS-KERA, 1990.
Williamson, Roxanne. The Mechanics of
The Los Angeles Symphony Inaugurates Walt
Fame. Austin: University of Texas Press,
Disney Concert Hall (Frank Gehry, Archi-
1991.
tect), PBS Great Performances, 2003.
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN
SEEING LIST
My idea of paradise is a perfect automobile
The architecture and urban settings listed
going thirty miles an hour on a smooth road
offer experiences for your memory bank.
to a twelfth-century cathedral.
This short list of sites in the United States
henry james
and Mexico, and the even shorter list for
(1843 â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1916)
the vast riches of the rest of the world, has hundreds of gaps to fill in as you look for these examples in your travels. Or in the library and on the Web explore these monographs on individual architects, histories of particular eras, regions, and places. eas t co as t
The CBS Building. Eero Saarinen. 51 West 52d St., New York City, 1965. Fallingwater. Frank Lloyd Wright. Ohiopyle (Bear Run), Penn., 1934, 1938, 1948.
s e e i ng l i s t
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193
Grand Central Terminal Concourse. Reed and Stern, Warren and Wetmore. New York City, 1904–1913. Guggenheim Museum. Frank Lloyd
Place. Charles Moore with Arthur Anderssen. 2102 Quarry Road, Austin, 1985. Esplanade, State Fair of Texas. Dallas, 1936. Houston Museum of Art. William Ward
Wright. Fifth Avenue, New York City,
Watkins, 1924; Ludwig Mies van der
1956 –1959.
Rohe addition, 1958; Rafael Moneo addi-
High Museum of Art. Richard Meier. Atlanta, Ga., 1983. Johnson House (The Glass House). Philip Johnson. New Caanan, Conn., 1949. Monticello. Thomas Jefferson. Charlottesville, Va., 1770 –1809. Morgan Library. McKim, Mead and White. 29 East 36th St., New York City, 1910. Richards Medical Center. Louis Kahn. Philadelphia, Penn., 1961. Seagrams Building. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe with Philip Johnson. 375 Park Avenue, New York City, 1958. Trinity Church. Henry Hobson Richardson. Boston, Mass., 1877. University of Virginia, The “Academical Village,” Lawn, and Rotunda. Thomas Jefferson. Charlottesville, Va., 1817–1826. Woolworth Building. Cass Gilbert. 233 Broadway, New York City, 1913.
tion, 2000. Kimbell Museum. Louis Kahn. 3333 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, 1971. Meyerson Center Symphony Center. Pei, Cobb, Freed and Partners. Dallas, 1989. Modern Art Museum. Tadao Ando. Fort Worth, 2002. Nasher Sculpture Center. Renzo Piano and Peter Walker. Dallas, 2003. Pennzoil Office Building. Philip Johnson with John Burgee. 711 Louisiana, Houston, 1976. Rachofsky House. Richard Meier. Preston Road, Dallas, 1996. San Jose Mission. Unknown. San Antonio, 1720 –1782. Temple Emanu-El. Howard Meyer with William Wurster. Dallas, 1957. Trinity University, Master Plan and Buildings. O’Neil Ford. San Antonio, 1948 –1978.
Yale Center for British Art. Louis Kahn. New Haven, Conn., 1974. middl e america t ex as
Atmospheric Research Center. I. M. Pei.
Battle Hall. Architecture and Planning
Cranbrook Schools. Eliel Saarinen. Bloom-
Boulder, Colo., 1961–1967. Library. University of Texas Campus. Cass Gilbert. Austin, 1911. Chapel in the Woods. O’Neil Ford with Arch Swank. Denton, 1939. Charles Moore Center for the Study of
field Hills, Mich., 1925–1942. Johnson’s Wax Building. Frank Lloyd Wright. Racine, Wis., 1936 –1944. Mesa Verde Cliff Dwellings. Unknown. C. Cortez, Colorado, eleventh to thirteenth centuries.
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Monadnock Building. Burnham and Root. Chicago, Ill., 1893. Price Tower. Frank Lloyd Wright. Bartlesville, Okla., 1937 onward. Taliesin West. Frank Lloyd Wright. Scottsdale, Ariz., 1937. Thorncrown Chapel. Jay Jones. Eureka Springs, Ark., 1980. Unity Temple. Frank Lloyd Wright. Oak Park, Chicago, Ill., 1906.
México. Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexico City, 1963. Santo Domingo. Anonymous. Oaxaca, Oaxaca, ca. 1550. Town of Guanajuato, sixteenth century onward. Town of Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, sixteenth century onward. Town of San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, sixteenth century onward. Tulum and nearby sites. Unknown. Near Cozumel, ca. AD 1200.
west coast
Uxmal and nearby Puuc sites. Unknown. Near Mérida, Yucatán, AD 600 –900.
Eames House. Charles Eames. Pacific Palisades, Calif., 1945. Garden Grove Church. Philip Johnson. Los
euro p e
Angeles, Calif., 1978 –1980. Golden Gate Bridge. Joseph B. Strauss. San Francisco, Calif., 1937. Salk Institute. Louis Kahn. La Jolla, Calif., 1959 –1966. Science Complex, University of Oregon. Charles Moore with Moore Ruble Yudell. Eugene, Ore., 1985.
Aachen Cathedral. Unknown. Aachen, Germany, 792 to 805. Alhambra. Unknown. Granada, Spain, 1248 –1354 and on. Altes Museum. Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Berlin, Germany, 1830. “Barcelona Pavillion” (German Pavillion).
Sea Ranch Condominium. Moore, Lyndon,
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Barcelona,
Turnbull, Whitaker with Lawrence Hal-
Spain, 1928; demolished 1930, rebuilt
prin, Landscape Architect. Mendocino
1959.
Coast, Calif., 1965.
Campidoglio, Capitoline Hill. Michelangelo. Rome, Italy, mid-sixteenth century. Campo Volantín Footbridge. Santiago
m e xi c o
Calatrava. Bilbao, Spain, 1997. Casa Mila. Antonio Gaudí. Barcelona,
Casa Luis Barragán. Tacubaya, D.F., 1947. Chichén Itzá. Unknown. Near Mérida, Yucatán, AD 200 –900. Hotel Camino Real. Ricardo Legorreta. Cancún, 1975. Museo Nacional de Antropología de
Spain, 1910. Centre Pompidou. Richard Rogers and Reno Piano. Paris, France, 1976. Convent of La Tourette. Le Corbusier. Eveux-sur-Arbresle, near Lyon, France, 1957–1960.
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Duomo of Florence. Arnolfo di Cambio. From thirteenth century; dome by Filippo Brunelleschi. Durham Cathedral. William St. Carileph. Durham, England, 1019. Eiffel Tower. Gustave Eiffel. Paris, France, 1887.
Roman Forum. Various. Rome, Italy, 100 BC–AD 300. Romanesque churches of Caen, Albi, Cluny, Arles. Unknown. Sixth to twelfth centuries. Sagrada Familia. Antonio Gaudí. Barcelona, Spain, 1882 and continuing.
Einstein Tower. Erich Mendelsohn. Potsdam, Germany, 1921. Galleria Vittorio Emanuele. Giuseppe Mengoni. Milan, Italy, 1861. Gothic churches of Chartres, Rheims, Beauvauis, Amiens, Paris. Unknown. Eleventh to fourteenth centuries. Greek Temples of Paestum. Unknown. Near Naples, Italy, 650 BC–200 BC. Guggenheim Museum. Frank Gehry. Bilbao, Spain, 1997. Hermitage. Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1762. Notre Dame du Haut. Le Corbusier. Ronchamp, France, 1955. Palace and Gardens of Versailles. Andre Le Notre, Louis Le Vau, Jules HardouinMansart, Charles Le Brun, Robert de Cotte, Ange-Janques Bagriel. Near Paris, France, 1661–1774. Pantheon. Attributed to Marcus Agrippa, later Hadrian. Rome, Italy, 118 –126. Paris Opera House. Charles Garnier. Paris,
Sainte Chapelle. Unknown. Paris, France, 1246. San Carlo a la Quattro Fontane. Francesco Borromini. Rome, Italy, 1638 –1641. San Giorgio Maggiore. Andrea Palladio. Venice, Italy, 1580. San Miniato al Monte. Unknown. Florence, Italy, eleventh to fourteenth centuries. Santa Sophia. Justinian I with Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. Istanbul, Turkey, 563. St. Basil’s Cathedral. Unknown. Moscow, Russia, 1560. Unite d’Habitation. Le Corbusier. Marseilles, France, 1952. Villa Capra, or Villa Rotunda. Andrea Palladio. Vicenza, Italy, 1571. Villa Savoye. Le Corbusier. Poissy, France, 1928 –1929. Wies Pilgrimmage Church. Johan and Dominikus Zimmerman. Wies, near Munich, Germany, 1754.
France, 1857–1874. Parthenon, Acropolis of Athens. Iktinos and Kallikrates with Phidias, sculptor.
as ia and o rient
Athens, Greece, 447 BC onward. Pazzi Chapel. Filippo Brunelleschi. Florence, Italy, 1461. Piazza of St. Peter’s. Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Vatican City, Rome, Italy 1656 –1667.
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Angkor Wat. Unknown. Cambodia, ca. 800 –1200. Fatehpur Sikri. Unknown. Uttar Pradesh, Agra, India, 1571 to 1585.
Forbidden City Palace and Grounds. Unknown. Beijing, China, 1420. Imperial Palace. Unknown. Beijing, China, 1279 â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1420. Ise Shrine. Unknown. Ise, Japan, 690, reconstructed every 20 years. Katsura Imperial Villa. Kobori Enshu.
Kyoto, Japan, ca. 1650. Miho Museum. I. M. Pei. Shiga, Japan, 1991. Naghsh-i Jahan Square. Unkown. Isfahan, Iran, ca. 1500. Taj Mahal. Emperor Shah Jahan. Agra, India, 1630 to 1653.
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN
PHOTO CREDITS
Photographs and sketches, unless otherwise noted, are by the author.
Courtesy of the author. Page 27. © Liao Yusheng. Courtesy of www.liaoyusheng.com.
Page 9. © Kim Seidl. Courtesy of iStockPhoto.com. Pages 14 (top left), 78 (bottom), 89 and 98 (bottom). © Pratt, Box, and Henderson. Courtesy of the author. Page 15 (top). © U.S. National Park Service, 1953, U.S. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, “Built in
Page 32 (top). © Blake Alexander. Courtesy of Drury Blakeley Alexander Collection, The Alexander Architectural Archive, The University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin. Page 32 (bottom). © João Saraiva. Courtesy of iStockPhoto.com. Pages 34 (top and bottom), 35 (top), 44 (left),
America” Collection. Courtesy of Wiki-
93 (top), and 124 (top right). © Larry
pedia.org.
Doll. Courtesy of Larry Doll.
Page 15 (bottom). © Seville Tourism Bureau. Courtesy of Wikipedia.org. Pages 17 (bottom) and 33 (top). © Lawrence Speck. Courtesy of Lawrence Speck. Pages 22 and 91 (top). © James Pratt.
Page 35 (bottom). Public domain. Courtesy of Wikipedia.org. Page 37. © H. H. Harris. Courtesy of Harwell Hamilton Harris Collection, The Alexander Architectural Archive, The
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University of Texas Libraries, The Uni-
of Architecture, The University of Texas
versity of Texas at Austin.
at Austin.
Page 38 (bottom). © Cactus Yearbook 1955.
Pages 73 and 75. © Charlotte Pickett.
Courtesy of John Foxworth, University of
Courtesy of The Visual Resources Col-
Texas at Austin Student Publications.
lection, School of Architecture, The Uni-
Pages 40, 43 (left), and 165 (bottom). © Sinclair Black, FAIA. Courtesy of Sinclair
versity of Texas at Austin. Page 80. © Bill Cox. Courtesy of the author.
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INDEX
Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.
Amecameca, Mexico, 5–7 American Institute of Architects, 26, 60 – 61, 79; contracts of, 26, 62, 66 – 67, 121
Aalto, Alvar, 33, 34, 37, 184
Ando, Tadao, 157
About the House (Auden), 147
Archilithics, 78 –79
acoustics, 144–147
Architecton, 25
Acropolis, 27
architectonics, 125
aesthetics, 30 –31, 41, 154; of a building,
architects: amateur, 22 –24, 28, 51; aspir-
90 –91, 118, 137; traditional, 31, 38, 42
ing, ix, 7, 9, 25; client relationships, 58 –
agreements, architectural, 60, 62, 89. See
59, 62, 67, 95; and construction, 65, 181;
also contracts, architectural
education of, 6 –9, 13–19, 29 –30, 69 –
AIA. See American Institute of Architects
77, 152, 154; future of, 179, 181, 183; as
air conditioning, 86, 127–128
generalists, 71, 81, 86; Modernism,
Alexander, Christopher, 117, 131, 149
effects on, 31–33, 36 –38, 125, 177–180,
amateurs, 25, 40, 51, 53; as builders of most
185; passion of, 22, 69 –70, 80; profes-
buildings, 9, 23, 28; definitions of, 9,
sional, 23–24, 52, 57, 94–95, 106;
23–24; importance of, 24, 28; roles of,
regional, 38, 184; responsibilities of, 53,
24, 103
77, 84, 180 –182; roles of, 18, 23, 52, 58,
s e e i ng l i s t
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201
63, 77, 89; thinking like, 81– 82, 109,
Aztecs, 5
149; working with, 57– 61, 94–95, 121. See also Modernism; school, architecture
Bacon, Edmund, 87
Architectural Registration Exam, 76
Balcones Fault, 110
Architectural Studies, 70, 72 –73
Barcelona Pavilion (Spain), 39
architecture, 77, 182; appropriate, 36, 47,
Barragán, Luis, 4, 183–184
51, 166, 179 –180; as art, spatial, 14, 90 –
bathrooms, 148
91, 114, 134, 166; as art, unique, 81– 82,
Battle Hall Architecture and Planning
109, 125, 186; and buildings, 49, 156,
Library (Austin, TX), 32
186; and city planning, 161–162; and
Bauhaus school, 35
culture, 3, 8, 13, 21; and design elements,
beauty, 51–52; as forbidden term, 151–152;
138, 143–144; excitement of, 25, 28, 90;
quest for, 7, 26, 53, 174; seeing, way of,
experience of, 3, 5, 7, 11–14, 18, 26, 157;
153
form, contemporary, 125, 183; future of,
Beaux Arts, 29 –30, 31–33, 37, 156, 180;
157, 177, 184–186; and geography, 178 –
and design charrettes, 74; training in
179; historic, 15–16, 22, 130; history of,
the, 185
15–18, 31; as investment, 21, 83, 181;
bedrooms, 148
making, ix, 5– 8, 17–18, 57, 66, 81, 151;
Belluschi, Pietro, 37, 61
meaning and, 123–127, 130 –131; Mod-
Benedikt, Michael, 185
ernist changes in, 29 –30, 33–37; quality
Berenson, Bernard, 130 –131
of, 18, 21, 26, 28, 50 –52, 95, 154; and the
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 184
senses, 27, 30 –31, 124, 131, 157–158;
Better Living for Middle Income Families
taste, good, 151–158; types of, 22, 30, 73,
Design Competition (1959), 61 Better Place to Live, A (Langdon), 173
135, 180 ARE. See Architectural Registration Exam art, 26, 90; decorative, 41, 126, 183
Bidding and Negotiating of Construction Contracts Phase, 63– 64
Art and Time in Mexico (Weismann), 157
bidding process, 64, 89, 121
Art Deco, 35, 37
Bilbao Effect, 43
Art Modern, 37
Blink (Gladwell), 84
Art Nouveau, 35, 41
Boorstin, Daniel, 9
Arts and Crafts Movement, 156, 180, 185
Borromini, Francesco, 16, 184
As I Was Saying (Rowe), 165
Boston, MA, 166
Asplund, Gunnar, 33, 34, 184
Box, Eden, 4, 46, 110, 115
Atmospheric Research Center (Boulder,
Box, Hal: and architectural tour of 1964–
CO), 43
1967, 21–22, 27–28; architecture by, 64,
Auden, W. H., 147
98, 110, 113, 115 (see also individual build-
Austin, TX, 154–155, 167
ing names); and Austin, TX, 167; and
Auto-Cad, 99, 118
awards, 79; and budgets, 83; career, aca-
axis mundi, 127–128
demic, 27, 72, 100, 174, 185; and city
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planning, 161; and design competitions,
Calatrava, Santiago, 15, 43, 154, 183
61, 77; education, architectural, 7, 29 –31,
Cambridge University, 70
36, 71–77; and Nob Hill House, 110 –
Campbell, Joseph, 116, 129
122, 124; and O’Neil Ford, 30, 75, 119,
Caragonne, Alex, 38
186; as practicing architect, 22, 75, 77;
Career Discovery Program (Harvard Uni-
and Pratt, Box and Henderson, 77– 80, 98; and San Miguel de Allende, 4, 5, 8, 14, 166, 169, 186; at the University of
versity), 70 Carl Miles Sculpture Garden (St. Louis, MO), 61
Texas at Arlington, 72; at the University
carpenters, 17, 78, 89
of Texas at Austin, 36, 71–72, 157, 174;
cars, 163, 166, 170 –172, 175
views, architectural, 45– 46, 99, 152,
Casa Canal (San Miguel de Allende, Mex-
183–186
ico), 14
Box, Rick, 28
Casa Mila (Barcelona, Spain), 32
Broadacre City (Wright), 41, 170
Casa Pani house (San Miguel de Allende,
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 23, 28, 70, 184 budgets, architectural, 53, 58 –59, 199; as constraint, 65– 66, 82 – 84, 90, 118 builders: master, 25–26; nonarchitect, 6 – 7, 22 –23, 95. See also nonarchitects building materials, 6, 137–138; local, 139, 145, 184; types of, 15, 180; unusual, 78 – 79, 182 buildings: aesthetics of, 27, 30, 86, 90 –91; and architecture, 24, 186; character of,
Mexico), 4, 5, 14 Caudill, Bill, 74, 86 ceilings, heights of, 143, 147 Century of Progress (World’s Fair, 1934), 169 –170 chakras, 130 Chambers for a Memory Palace (Moore and Lyndon), 149 –150 charrettes, design, 74. See also school, architecture
137, 155; codes, 82, 86, 90, 107; and com-
Chrysler Building (New York, NY), 126
mittees, 59; and community, place in,
cities, 161–176, 180, 185. See also sprawl,
80; design of, 52, 83– 84, 95, 167; experi-
urban
ence of, 114, 124, 131, 137; as invest-
City Beautiful Movement, 173
ments, 52, 80, 83, 97; lifespans, 45, 50,
city planning, 73; and architecture, 161–
52; public, 53, 59, 67; purposes of, 23–
162; changes in, 172 –176; as profession,
24, 27, 156; “reading,” 92 –94; spatial
169
progression in, 130, 143; spiritual content of, 90, 124; types of, 21–22, 52, 130; vernacular, appropriate, 179 –181, 183
City Planning According to Artistic Principles (Sitte), 172 clients: and architects, 58 –59, 95; and deci-
Bunshaft, Gordon, 61
sions, architectural, 65, 67; and design
Burnham, Daniel, 172 –173
competitions, 60 – 61; importance of, 24,
Bywaters, Jerry, 50
181; and programs, architectural, 82 – 85, 106; roles of, 58 –59, 62 – 63, 186
Caine, Michael, 7
climate, 135–136
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color, 41, 90, 141
costs: of construction, 52, 64– 65, 121, 182;
Colorado River, 111–112, 127
and decisions, architectural, 24, 51–53,
Columbian Exposition of 1893, 173
63. See also budgets, architectural
columns, 139, 142, 156
craftsmen, 15, 18, 66; working with, 17, 157
community, concepts of, 164–176
crews, construction, 67. See also contrac-
composition, 17, 25, 40, 103; as design element, 106, 183; rules of, 139 –141, 185
tors; craftsmen critiques, architectural, 104–106
computers, 83– 87, 97, 99
Crow, Trammell, 98
concepts, architectural, 84, 85, 94, 111–119,
Cuernavaca, Mexico, 4, 8 Cutler, James, 44
127 conferences, architectural, 106, 121. See also clients Congrés Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, 39
Dallas/Fort Worth, TX, 72, 162, 164 Dallas Museum of Fine Arts, 50 Deconstruction, 43, 45, 157
conservation, of energy, 113, 135
decoration, 41. See also ornamentation
construction, of buildings, 15, 67; choices
Definition of Culture (Berenson), 130 –131
in, 94–95, 109; costs of, 52, 64– 65, 121,
degrees, professional, 22, 72 –73, 76
182; design in, 89; pleasure of, 17, 78,
Denver, John, 70
80, 120; process of, 65– 67, 73, 121, 137–
Depression, the Great, 75
138; purposes of, 23
Derrida, Jacques, 157
Construction Administration Phase, 63, 65
design, architectural, 24, 67, 82, 154, 174;
construction documents, 94–95, 103, 121
architects, without, 52, 179, 181; and city
Construction Documents Phase, 62 – 64
planning, 161–165, 167, 172; complexity
construction sites, 89, 100; and architects,
in, 88, 94–95, 120; creating, 31, 83– 85,
89, 121; culture of, 17–18, 100
103–107, 145–147; elements of, 13, 17,
consultants, architectural, 59 – 62, 83; and
25, 89 –91, 109, 141; future of, 177, 186;
architects, 118; and construction, 86,
high cost of, 52 –53, 182; and myths, 115,
107; and design conferences, 106
123–134, 126; and place, sense of, 131,
contractors, 18, 52; and architects, 65, 95;
164, 180; of residences, 114–116, 118,
construction, roles in, 59, 82, 121; gen-
147–150; studies in, 63, 70; style and
eral, 64, 66; importance of, 64– 65, 121
taste in, 151–158; surroundings, improv-
contracts, architectural, 62, 64– 67, 95, 121
ing, 86, 164, 180; teaching, methods of,
Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, 38
73, 106; trial, 63, 85, 103; values, 89, 186 design awards, 79 – 80
Corbu. See Le Corbusier
design-build, 67, 95
Corbusian ideal, 169 –170, 174. See also Le
design-but-not-build tradition, 26
Corbusier Cornell University, 38 Cortez, Hernando, 5
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design competitions, 60 – 61, 77 design decisions, 24–25, 63, 153; and budgets, architectural, 65; and concepts,
architectural, 84– 85; guidelines for,
Eames, Charles, 184
133–139; types of, 88, 94–95, 116, 181.
East Texas State Teacher’s College Training
See also visualization
School, 81– 82
Design Development Phase, 63, 94
Eclecticism, 37
designers, 67, 84, 103, 114
Ecole des Beaux-Arts. See Beaux Arts
design idioms, 91–95, 93; and design
education, architectural, 6 –9, 13–19, 24,
problems, 95, 181; regional, 127–128 design phases, 62 – 67, 121 design problems, 38, 90, 94, 149; future, 178 –182; resolving, 104–105, 113; solutions, multiple, 84, 154 design process, 24, 26, 67, 121; approaches
51; academic, 31–33; curriculum and, 182, 185–186; and Modernism, 30, 36, 40, 180. See also Modernism; school, architecture Eisenberg House (Dallas, TX), 37 elevation drawings, 102 –103
to, 81– 82, 104, 114, 149, 157–158; con-
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 88
straints on, 85, 90, 107; creativity in,
Empire State Building (New York, NY), 126
87– 88, 102; delight in, 80, 82, 89 –91;
engineers, 82, 118 –119, 137, 154–155, 172
design idioms in, 94; and myths, 126;
English New Towns, 170, 174
tools for, 99 –100
Enrico Fermi Memorial Plaza (Chicago,
design studios, 71, 73, 74–75, 88, 95
IL), 61
de Stijl group, 35
entrances, to buildings, 117, 143, 147
details, architectural, 145–147, 181–182
environmental: issues, study of, 70; regula-
developers, 53, 82, 95, 163 diagrams, 83– 84. See also models,
tions, 107 Euclid, Ohio, 170
architectural Disney Concert Hall, 42 distances, consideration of, 163–174
façades, 88, 93, 137; design of, 141–143, 166
domes, 50, 143
Fallingwater (Bear Run, PA), 15, 33, 50
doors, 142 –146
Federal Housing Administration, 169
Doshi, Balkrishna, 157
fees, architectural, 59, 62, 181–182
Downtown St. Louis Urban Design Com-
Feng Shui, 130, 148
petition, 61
Fermi, Enrico, 61
drawing boards, 99 –100, 113–115
FHA. See Federal Housing Administration
drawings, architectural, 12, 18 –19; as com-
fire codes, 86, 107
munication, 89, 103–104, 181; pinning
fireplaces. See hearths
up, 106, 111, 149; as skill, 70 –73, 82,
Five-Minute Popsicle Rule, 175
86 – 87, 97–102, 113, 118; and specifica-
Flato, Ted, 44, 76, 92, 184
tions, 64, 121
floor plans, 136 –137
Duomo (Florence, Italy), 23, 28
Florence, Italy, 47
Dvorak, Antonin, 13
Flowers, Betty Sue, 87, 131 forces, structural, 137–138
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Ford, O’Neil, 84; as mentor to Hal Box, 30, 75, 186; as Regional architect, 37, 92, 119, 184; schooling and, 76 –77
Guadalquivir River, 15 Guggenheim Musem (Bilbao, Spain), 42, 44, 50, 145, 156
Ford, Tom, 156
guidelines, for design decisions, 133–139
form, architectural, 91, 106, 123–125, 185
guides, architectural, 40, 179 –180, 183
foundations, building, 86, 138 –139
Gulf of Mexico, 110, 127
freeways: cities, impact on, 163–165, 168 –169
Hadid, Zaha, 183
French Quarter. See New Orleans, LA
Hale, Jonathan, 141
Fuller, Buckminster, 50, 53, 138
Harris, Harwell Hamilton, 37, 38; and
functionality, of buildings, 83– 84
regionalism, 92, 184; and schooling,
funds, 60, 66. See also budgets,
architectural, 76 –77
architectural
Harvard Graduate Center, 36
furniture, arrangement of, 115, 146 –147
Harvard University, 35–36, 72
Futurama (World’s Fair, 1939), 170
Haussmann, Baron Georges-Eugéne, 163 hearths, 119, 128, 131, 148
Gateway Arch (St. Louis), 61
heating, 86
Gaudí, Antonio, 33, 102, 141
Heidegger, Martin, 157
Gehry, Frank, 42, 44, 50, 180, 183
highways. See freeways
Germany, 22
Hines, Gerland, 53
Gideon, Sigfried, 39, 45
Hippocrates, 85
Gilbert, Cass, 32, 74, 126, 184
historic preservation, 70
Gladwell, Malcolm, 84
history, architectural, 15–17, 27; and Mod-
globalization, 43, 157, 183
ernism, 29 – 47; study of, 70, 157, 185
Global Village, 178. See also Modernism
Hitchcock, Henry Russell, 35
Goldberger, Paul, 178
homebuilders, professional, 82
Golden Rectangle, 140. See also
House of Life, 130 –131
proportions Goldilocks Principle (“just right”), 30, 90 –
houses, 179, 182. See also residences How Cities Work (Marshall), 163
91, 94; and design, 105, 110, 127; and
Hudnut, Joseph, 35, 41
design process, 149, 153–154, 157, 186
Hurricane Katrina, 77
Google, 12 Granger, Charles, 76 gravity, 14, 15, 137, 141 Great Hall of the Dallas Apparel Mart (1964), 98, 144–145
iconography, architectural, 124–125, 130 –131 icons. See design idioms industrial revolution, 26
Green, Charles, 72
inspectors, city building, 101
Griffin Square and Tower, 80
Institute for Classical Architecture, 185
Gropius, Walter, 31, 32, 35–36, 41
instruments, surveying, 112
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interior design, 73
L’Enfant, Pierre, 162
International Correspondence School, 76
Life and Death of the American City, The
International Design Competition, 61 International Style, 35–38, 42, 179, 183. See also Modernism Interstate Highway Act of 1955, 170 interventions, architectural, 155–156, 179
(Jacobs), 172 light: considerations of, 112 –114, 135–136, 143–148; as design element, 90 –91, 116, 182 Lincoln Cathedral, 30 living rooms, 147–148
Jacobs, Jane, 172
location, importance of, 161–162
Jacobson, Hugh Newell, 44
Loos, Adolf, 41
Jeanneret, Charles-Eduard. See Le
Los Angeles, CA, 164, 170
Corbusier
Lyndon, Donlyn, 149
Jefferson, Thomas, 184 Johnson, Philip, 35, 70, 178 Jones, Fay, 44, 45, 115–116
MARCO. See Museo de Arte Contemporáneo
Joy, Rick, 44, 46, 183
Marcus, Stanley, 156
Jung, Carl, 115
marketplace, value of architecture in, 52,
Jupiter, Roman Temple of (Baalbek, Lebanon), 22 juries, formal design, 60 – 61, 106
181 “Marseilles Block” (France), 39 Marseilles Unite d’Habitation, 39 Marshall, Alex, 163
Kahn, Louis I., 27, 41, 50, 91, 157, 184
Marsh House (Austin, TX), 14, 64
Kahn, Terry, 175
Mason, James, 70
Kermacy, Martin, 18
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 61,
Kimbell Museum (Fort Worth, TX), 27, 41, 50
72 Matico, Inc., 61
kitchens, 147
Maya, 125, 129 –130
Korean War, 75
MCM. See Midcentury Modern McMansions, 85, 142, 179
Lake, David, 44, 76; regional design idiom of, 92, 184 Lake Austin (TX), 154–155
Meier, Richard, 92 –93 Metropolitan Museum (New York, NY), 126
Langdon, Philip, 173
Mexico, 4– 8, 46, 147, 166, 183
Le Corbusier, 33, 50, 184; architecture of,
Michaelangelo, 184
38 –39; and La Ville Radieuse Plan, 169;
Midcentury Modern, 182
and schooling, architectural, 76 –77; the-
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 33, 34, 61;
ories of, 41, 169 –170 Legorreta, Ricardo, 44, 46, 183–184 Leipziger-Pearce, Hugo, 161
schooling, architectural, 76 –77; theories of, 38 – 40, 41, 145, 184 Minimalism, 43, 45
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Mississippi River, 61
neighborhoods, 168, 171–174
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of
Neoclassicism, 180, 183
Technology models, architectural, 86 – 87, 88 – 89, 97,
Nervi, Pier Luigi, 61 Neumann, Baltazar, 184 Neutra, Richard, 76
102, 104 Modernism, 5– 6; aesthetics of, 36, 92, 137, 152, 173, 179; excitement of, 26, 29 –30,
New, the, 31, 40, 45, 183. See also Modernism
33, 38 – 40; failings of, 22, 44– 45, 152,
New Architecture, 41
178; history of, 29 – 47, 125; ideology of,
New Orleans, LA, 77; French Quarter, 164,
31–33, 35, 40, 178 –179, 182; as “the
165
International Style,” 35–38, 42, 179, 183;
New World (Dvorak), 13
reform of, 177–180, 183–184; and
New York City, 126, 164
Regionalism, 36 –38; tenets of, 33, 39 –
New Yorker, The, 99
43, 177, 179
New York Public Library, 126
Modernismo (Barcelona, Spain), 35, 156. See also Modernism Modernists, 16, 125; education of, 30, 41,
New York Times, The, 80, 176, 178 Nob Hill House (Austin, TX), 110–111, 119; design concept of, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116 –
180; figures, major, 33, 40 – 44; styles,
117, 127; as example of building, 109 –
architectural, 156. See also Modernism
122, 128 –131; meaning in, 124, 126 –128,
moldings, as design elements, 142, 145–146
130 –131; rooms in, 117, 119, 128 –129, 130
Moneo, Rafael, 44 Moore, Charles, 4, 19, 42, 184; architectural models and, 89; and “the Gold-
nonarchitects, 6, 8, 36; education, lack of, 9, 52, 95; guides for, 31, 179, 184; and Modernism, 31, 178; tasks of, 9, 186
ilocks Principle,” 90, 157; observations
Notre Dame Cathedral, 12 –13
on composition, 149
Notre-Dame-du-Haut (Ronchamps,
Most Beautiful Building in the World, The
France), 39, 50
(Rybczynski), 89 Mugerauer, Bob, 157
Oakland, CA, 171–172
Mumford, Lewis, 37, 171
Oglethorpe, James, 163
Muschamp, Herbert, 176
Old Way of Seeing, The (Hale), 141
Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (Monter-
organization, spatial, 88, 117
rey, Mexico), 46
orientation, of buildings, 102, 112, 136 –137 Orleans Parish Courthouse, 77
National Assembly Building (Bangladesh),
“Ornament and Crime” (Loos), 41 ornamentation, 30, 31, 182, 185
157 National Council of Architectural Registration Boards, 76
Outline of European Architecture, An (Pevsner), 30
National Endowment for the Arts, 185 National Museum of Finland, 33
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Palladio, Andrea, 50, 70, 91–92, 181, 184
Pani, Arturo, 5 Pantheon, 19 paper, tracing, 100 –101, 103, 113, 118 “paper architecture,” 88 Paris, France, 163 parking facilities, 164–166 parks, 164, 175 Paso de Cortez, 5 Pattern Language, A (Alexander), 117, 131, 149
design process; design decisions programs: architectural, 82 – 85, 90, 121; iconographic, 125–126, 131 progression, as design element, 90, 130, 137, 143 projects, architectural: control of, 90, 181– 182; public, 60, 64 proportions, 25, 30, 103, 153; classical, 31, 40; as design element, 90 –91, 106, 183, 185; rules of, 139 –141
Pei, I. M., 42
Pruitt-Igoe (St. Louis, MO), 180
Pena, William, 83
“Pyramid of the Magician” (Merida, Yuca-
Pevsner, Nikolaus, 30 Philadelphia, PA, 164
tán, Mexico), 124 pyramids, 118
Piano, Renzo, 183–184 Piazza del Campadoglio (Rome, Italy), 178 place, sense of, 3– 6; creation of, 36, 125, 134, 176; design as way to enhance, 131;
Quadracci Pavilion (Milwaukee Art Museum), 44 Quadrangle (Dallas, TX), 14
physical and metaphysical, 127 Plan Apparel Mart (Pratt, Box and Henderson), 98 plans, architectural, 86, 121; drawings, 100, 102, 136, 137; ground, 31; of cities, 162, 167
Rachofsky House (Dallas, TX), 93 Radburn, New Jersey, architectural plan of, 170 ratios, 140, 144. See also proportions; light
Posa Chapels, 130
real estate, 80, 83; for cars, 163–164, 166
Postmodernism, 43, 45. See also
Regionalism, 30, 36 –38, 43– 44, 119, 127.
Modernism Prairie’s Yield: Forces Shaping Dallas 1842 – 1962, The (Box), 79 Pratt, Alex, 19 Pratt, Box and Henderson, 77– 80, 98
See also Modernism Registry of Midwives and Architects (New Orleans, LA), 77 relationships: architect-client, 58 –59, 67; architect-contractor, 65
Pratt, James, 61, 91, 177–178
relocation, 168, 170
Pratt, Joanne, 61
Renaissance, 22, 70
Predesign Phase, 62 – 63
Request for Qualifications, 60
Prince Phillip, 185
Requiem (Verdi), 73
Princeton University, 70
residences: and design, lack of, 52, 179,
problem solving, 82 – 84, 88, 113
182; rooms in, 147–150
Problem Solving, Program Making (Pena), 83
RFQ. See Request for Qualifications
profit. See budgets, architectural
Rheims Cathedral (Rheims, France), 12 –13,
programming, 59, 62 – 63, 83. See also
124
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rhythm, as design element, 90, 153
38, 70 –73, 76, 118, 153, 174, 181–183;
Richards, Ann, 154
and design, 26; experience of, 71–77;
Richardson, H. H., 184
history of, 28, 72 –73; intellectualization
Rockefeller Center (New York, NY), 126
of, 51; success and, 70, 73, 76; at the Uni-
Ronchamps Chapel. See
versity of Texas at Arlington, 72; at the
Notre-Dame-du-Haut
University of Texas at Austin, 37
roof, as design problem, 104, 137
Seagrams Building (New York, NY), 40, 156
Room of One’s Own, A (Woolf ), 116
Sea Ranch (Moore), 43
rooms, 116; design of, 102, 143; and the
Secessionist (Vienna), 35, 156
outdoors, 116, 149; in residences,
seeing, ways of: design elements, 17, 71; experiencing architecture, 26 –27; as
147–150 Rowe, Colin, 38, 165. See also City, The
skill, 11–13, 15, 19, 153 Señor de Sacromonte, 5 –7
Historic Ruskin, John, 82
Sert, Jose Luis, 61
Russian Constructivism, 35
Sinan, Mimar Koca, 23
Rybczynski, Wittold, 89
Siracusa (Italy), 178 site planning, 62, 101, 134, 162
Saarinen, Eero, 76, 92, 93, 184
sites, architectural, 82 – 83, 90; designing
Saarinen, Eliel, 33, 37, 184
on a specific, 100 –102, 112 –114, 121;
Sacromonte, chapel of, 5
physical aspects of, 86, 101, 117
Sainte Marie de La Tourette (Lyon, France),
Sitte, Camillo, 172 sketches, architectural. See drawings,
39 Salk Institute (La Jolla, California), 42
architectural
Salt Lake City, UT, 164
skyscrapers, 78, 169, 174
San Antonio River (San Antonio, TX), 75
Smith, John, 66
San Jose Mission (San Antonio, TX), 75
Soane, Sir John, 184
San Miguel de Allende (Guanajuato, Mex-
sound, importance of, 144, 147
ico), 8, 14, 46, 166 –167, 170
space: as design element, 90, 105, 114,
San Miniato al Monte (Florence, Italy), 28
134–139, 143–145, 182; exterior, 117,
Santa Maria del Fiore, dome of (Florence,
134–135; interior, 115, 117, 119, 136; and
Italy). See Duomo Savannah, Georgia, 163, 164
meaning, 124, 144; sense of, 13–14, 91, 134; sound and, 144, 147
Saynatsalo Town Hall (Finland), 34
Space, Time, and Architecture (Gideon), 39
scale, 25, 30, 85– 86, 90
Space Is an Illusion (Box and partners), 50
Schele, Linda, 131
sprawl, urban, 163–164, 171
schematic design, 63, 94
Stadthaus (Ulm, Germany), 17
Schematic Design Phase, 63
stairs, 146
school, architecture: and beauty, 51, 152;
Stein, Clarence, 170
changes in, 29 –30, 31–33, 185–186; cri-
Stein, Gertrude, 171–172
tiques, architectural, 106; curricula in,
Steinberg, Saul, 99
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Stewart, Jimmy, 70
trees, as design element, 130, 135, 166, 175
St. Ivo, church of (Rome, Italy), 16
Trinity University Campus (San Antonio,
St. Maclou (Rouen, France), 26 Stockholm City Hall (Ragnar Ostberg, Sweden), 16 St. Stephen United Methodist Church (Mesquite, TX), 78 –79 styles, architectural, 29, 40, 151–153,
TX), 38 Triumphal Arch, 142 Tucson Mountain House (Arizona), 46 Tulane, architecture building at, 77 Turnbull, William, 184 Twain, Mark, 90
156 –158 subcontractors, 17–18, 64, 66, 121. See also contractors suburbs, 163, 167; FHA role in creating,
UCLA, 19 Union Station (St. Louis, Missouri), 61 University of Dublin, 185
168 –169; neighborhoods, replacement
University of Notre Dame, 185
of, 171–172, 175. See also cities
University of Texas at Arlington, 72
Sullivan, Louis, 184 Summer Academy (University of Texas at Austin), 70 Supreme Court Building (Washington,
University of Texas at Austin, 19, 36; School of Architecture, 37, 72 –73, 157 Usonian House (Wright), 41 Utzon, Jørn, 41– 42, 50, 184
D.C.), 74 surveys, architectural, 62, 101
Valencia, Fray Martín de, 5
sustainability, 50 –51, 70, 107, 135
Venturi, Robert, 42
Sydney Opera House (Australia), 42, 50
Verdi, Giuseppe, 73
symmetry, 140 –141, 153
Vietnam War, 75
Syracuse University, 38
views, from buildings, 111, 112, 116 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, 33, 142
temple, Greek (Paestum, Italy), 124
Villa Rotunda (Venice, Italy), 91
Temple, Latané, 152
Villa Savoy (Poissy, France), 35, 39
Texas Department of Transportation, 154
Ville Radieuse Plan, La (Le Corbusier), 169
Texas Dog Run House (Austin, TX), 115
visualization, 12, 71, 118; of buildings, full-
“Texas Rangers,” 38
size, 97–98, 100, 102; of design con-
Texas state capitol building, 27, 112, 127
cepts, 84– 85, 102, 112, 114; importance
Texas Tech University, 70
of, 97; of light, 113, 141, 146; and models,
theories, architectural, 26, 70, 90, 157
physical, 87– 88, 103, 137; tools for, 97–
Third World, 23, 166, 185
99, 112
Thoreau, Henry David, 89
Vitruvian triad, 58, 91
three-lamp rule, 144
Vitruvius, 91, 127, 157
three-step rule, 147 tools, design, 86 – 87, 100, 104
Walden (Thoreau), 89
transportation, 164, 169, 168 –171, 175. See
walk, Via Sacra, 130
also cars; freeways
walking, 163–169, 171, 175 i nldies xt s e e i ng
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walls, 30, 103, 138, 141–143, 145, 149
World War I, 12
Washington, D.C.: city plan, 162; urban
World War II, 75
design of, 164
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 4; and Broadacre City,
Weismann, Elizabeth Wilder, 157
41, 170; design idiom of, 92, 127; design
Welch, Frank, 92, 184
philosophy of, 92, 156, 170; Fallingwater
West Mall (University of Texas at Austin), 55
(Bear Run, PA), 15, 33, 50; as Modernist,
wheelchair accessibility, 146
33, 37, 41, 184; and schooling, architec-
White, Lancelot, 61
tural, 76 –77
Widor, Charles-Marie, 13
Wright, Henry, 170
Williams, David, 37, 76
Wurster, William, 37
Willow Way, 75 Wilson House (Dallas, TX), 76
Yale University (CT), 19
windows, as design element, 30, 142, 144–145 Woodland Chapel (Stockholm, Sweden), 34
Zisman, Sam, 134 zoning: constraints of, 90, 164–165, 169;
Woolf, Virginia, 116
laws, 82, 86, 90, 107, 164–174; and San
Woolworth Building (New York, NY), 126
Miguel de Allende, 166, 170
workmen, working with, 17, 66, 121. See also craftsmen
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