WATER SETTLEMENTS

WATER SETTLEMENTS CO-ORDINATOR: MR. SHUVOJIT SARKAR GUIDE: MR. ABHISHEK SORAMPURI

BY CHERUPALLY VARUN TEJA A/2614/2013 DATE OF SUBMISSION: 11-11-2016

WATER SETTLEMENTS

ABSTRACT The low lying islands are sinking. The current modern worldly activities are affecting the environment so significantly that the rapid global warming is questioning the future of many low lying, sinking islands after no longer than two to three decades.

These island nations have two options in front of them. One of them is to migrate to a higher land by buying land in a foreign country. The other is to tackle the invading oceans waters by re-building their settlement on water. But, what do they opt? Which is more feasible and practical? Which is safer?

This dissertation intends to identify and analyse the various options that the sinking island nations have, in order to tackle the invading water by rebuilding on water. The new water settlement was assumed in the worst case scenario that it is far away to source its energy needs, food, water etc. from mainland and thus it was analysed for a self-sustaining settlement. The identified types of settlements were analysed for feasibility in terms of various basic human settlement support systems such as energy source, transportation, safety, location etc. In addition to the surface water settlements, submerged settlements were also considered without any presumptions about its possibilities.

After looking into the feasibility factors of each type of water settlement, this dissertation also attempted to address the live issue of a few currently threatened, low lying nations. This began with the identification of best suitable water settlement type. In addition to that, the constraints like safety, transportation, energy source were taken into account for choosing the strategic location of the settlement at sea. The research body talks about the various feasible support systems for each settlement under various conditions, thereby, creating a base concept for rebuilding the settlement.

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DECLARATION

The research work embodied in this dissertation titled _WATER SETTLEMENTS_ has been carried out by the undersigned as part of the undergraduate Dissertation programme in the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, under the supervision of Mr. Abhishek Sorampuri The undersigned hereby declares that this is his original work and has not been plagiarised in part or full form from any source.

Name of student: Cherupally Varun Teja Roll No.

: A/2614/2013

Date

: 11/11/2016

(Signature of student)

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(Signature of guide)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would sincerely like to thank my internal guide, Mr. Abhishek Sorampuri, for his immense guidance and patience with me during this entire dissertation process. Without his valuable insights, this dissertation would not have been possible.

I would also like to thank my coordinator Mr. Shuvojit Sarkar, for his guidance, help and support.

I am also grateful to the college for providing free access to exhaustible reading material that helped in shaping my research.

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….....2 DECLARATION…………………………………………………………..........................3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………….............4 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION – WATER SETTLEMENTS 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………...10 RESEARCH QUESTION…………………………………………………………...10 AIM……………………………………………………………………………….....10 OBJECTIVES……………………………………………………………………….10 NEED FOR STUDY………………………………………………………………....11 SCOPE………………………………………………………………………………11 LIMITATIONS……………………………………………………………………...11 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………11

CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL AND PREVAILING WATER SETTLEMENTS…………………………………………………………..13

CHAPTER 3: SUBMERGED WATER SETTLEMENTS................................................15 3.1 UNDERSTANDING OCEANS………………………………………………………..15 3.1.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….15 3.1.2 STUDY OF LAYERS OF THE OCEANS………………………………………...16 3.1.2.1 EPIPELAGIC LAYER…………………………………………………………16 3.1.2.2 MESOPELAGIC LAYER……………………………………………………...16 3.1.2.3 BATHYPELAGIC LAYER……………………………………………………16 3.1.2.4 ABYSSOPELAGIC LAYER…………………………………………………..17 3.1.2.5 HADALPELAGIC LAYER……………………………………………………17 3.2 UNDERSTANDING MARINE ECOSYSTEMS……………………………………...17 3.2.1 DEEP SEA ECOSYSTEMS……………………………………………………….17 3.2.1.1 HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND COMMUNITIES………………………...17 3.2.1.2 COLD SEEPS AND COMMUNITIES………………………………………...18 3.2.1.3 CORAL REEFS………………………………………………………………..19 Dissertation 2016 School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi

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3.2.2 GREEN ECOSYSTEMS………………………………………………………...19 3.2.2.1 MANGROVES…………………………………………………………………19 3.2.2.2 KELP FORESTS………………………………………………………………20 3.2.2.3 SEA WEED…………………………………………………………………….20 3.3 SETTLEMENT ADAPTATION IN THE OCEANS………………………………….20 3.3.1 PRESSURE ADAPTATIONS: …………………………………………………....21 3.3.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY RESPONSE UNDER HIGH PRESSURE………………………………………………………………………...22 3.3.3 SAFETY OF THE SUBMERGED SETTLEMENT………………………………23 3.3.3.1 TSUNAMI……………………………………………………………………..23 3.3.3.2 INTERNAL WAVES………………………………………………………….24 3.3.3.3 MARINE SNOW………………………………………………………………25 3.4 BASIC AMENITIES…………………………………………………………………..25 3.4.1 OXYGEN SUPPORT……………………………………………………………...26 3.4.1.1 ARTIFICIAL GILL TECHNOLOGY…………………………………………26 3.4.1.2 ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER………………………………………………..26 3.4.1.3 PUMPING ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN……………………………………...26 3.4.2 DRINKING WATER………………………………………………………………27 3.4.2.1 DESALINATION TECHNIQUE………………………………………………27 3.4.2.2 REVERSE OSMOSIS………………………………………………………….27 3.4.3 FOOD……………………………………………………………………………….27 3.4.4 SUBMERGED ENERGY SOURCES……………………………………………...28 3.4.5 TRANSPORTATION………………………………………………………………28

CHAPTER 4: SURFACE WATER SETTLEMENTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION: TYPES OF SURFACE SETTLEMENTS………………………..29 4.1.1 LAND RECLAMATED …………………………………………………………..29 4.1.2 STILT SETTLEMENTS……………………………………………………………30 4.1.3 FLOATING SETTLEMENTS……………………………………………………..31

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4.2 FEASIBILITY OPTIONS…………………………………………………………….32 4.2.1 BASIC NEEDS……………………………………………………………………33 4.2.2 ENERGY SOURCES……………………………………………………………..33 4.2.3 TRANSPORTATION……………………………………………………………..33 4.2.4 SAFETY OF THE SETTLEMENT……………………………………………….34 4.2.5 WASTE DISPOSAL………………………………………………………………35 4.2.6 ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS………………………………………………………..35 4.2.7 FLORA IN SURFACE WATER SETTLEMENTS………………………………36 4.2.8 LOCATION FEASIBILITY………………………………………………………37

CHAPTER 5: SECONDARY CASE STUDIES 5.1 SUBMERGED BUILDINGS………………………………………………………….38 5.2 SUBMERSIBLES……………………………………………………………………..40 5.2.1 DEEP SEA CHALLENGER……………………………………………………....40 5.2.2 SUBMARINE……………………………………………………………………...42 5.3 LAND RECLAMATION TECHNIQUE……………………………………………...45 5.3.1 PALM JUMEIRAH, DUBAI……………………………………………………...45

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

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LIST OF PICTURES Figure 1: Bajao tribe stilt houses Figure 2: An example of a stilt crannog Figure 3: Clusters of tribe housing on water Figure 4: Bajao tribe boat transportation across their settlement Figure 5: Various layers of the ocean with respect to heights Figure 6: Various zones of the ocean Figure 7: Hydrothermal Vents, their mechanism and chemistry Figure 8: Typical topographical location of Hydrothermal Vents Figure 9: Cold Seeps ecosystem section Figure 10: A live image of Cold seeps Figure 11: Mangroves submerged in water Figure 12: Mangroves rooted in water Figure 13: Kelp forests standing upright in the water column Figure 14: Kelps and their Pneumatocysts Figure 15: Kelp forest exhibit in an aquarium Figure 16: 3D tsunami behaviour representation with depth Figure 17: Varying amplitude of tsunami with depth Figure 18: Particle behaviour of water during tsunami in along the depth Figure 19: Varying particle behaviour of water during tsunami with varying depth Figure 20: An illustration of internal waves in the ocean Figure 21: Internal waves created due to the varying fluid densities Figure 22: An illustration of marine snow sunken onto the sea bed Figure 23: An image of a ship wreck

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Figure 24: Maslow’s pyramid Figure 25: An illustration of Hydroponics mechanism Figure 26: An image of Hydroponics crops Figure 27: Hydrothermal Vent as a heat and biogas energy source Figure 28: An image of a black smoker due to the vents

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION – WATER SETTLEMENTS 1.1 INTRODUCTION The alarming rise in the sea level is an emergency warning to all low lying countries and Islands. (Geographic, 2013)Sea level rise has been estimated to be on average between 2.6 millimetres and 2.9 ± 0.4 millimetres per year since 1993. (Christopher S. Watson, 2015)Sea level rise has accelerated in recent years. For the period between 1870 and 2004, global average sea levels are estimated to have risen a total of 195 millimetres, and 1.7 ± 0.3 millimetres per year, with a significant acceleration of sea-level rise of 0.013 ± 0.006 millimetres per year per year. The continual of this pattern of rise in sea level can submerge numerous islands and countries. Ex: Maldives, Fiji etc. Some of the countries started buying lands for its citizens in higher altitude countries though it appears to be highly impossible to completely migrate a largely populated island. The alternative solution would be the construction of water settlements within the submerging site. A man-made island is not a new concept to this world.

There have been a number of artificial island constructions in the recent past such as Palm Jumeirah in Dubai, Willingdon Island in Kochi, Kansai International Airport etc.

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION: What are the alternative settlement options on water for the sinking island nations and to what extent are each of these alternatives feasible, if self-sustainable, in terms of various basic human settlement needs?

1.3 AIM The aim of this dissertation is to explore and analyse the feasibility of human settlements on the surface of ocean water as well as in the submerged region of the ocean at a depth.

1.4 OBJECTIVES -

To identify the various surface and submerged water settlements alternatives.

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To understand the extent of feasibility of various basic human settlement needs in the different types of surface water settlements identified.

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To validate the submerged water settlement feasibility in terms of basic needs of a settlement as there are no existing examples until present day.

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To conceptualize a base analysis for validation of submerged water settlements.

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1.5 NEED FOR STUDY -

The rise of the sea levels is pushing the island communities to create water settlements or migrate to a mainland country by buying lands. Moreover, the rapid population rise is creating uncomfortably dense and small spaces for each individual in the mainland as well. This factor is also a force pushing towards the utilization of ocean space which constitutes more than 70% of the earth’s surface.

1.6 SCOPE -

The analysis on water settlements is based on resourcing basic amenities and human needs and no analysis has been done on details like kinds and nature of spaces, psychology, economy etc.

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The conceptual submerged settlement is analysed in general terms with no consideration of a specific location on earth.

1.7 LIMITATIONS -

There are no water settlements in the country and hence there is a lack of a primary site visit. Secondary case studies are available in many regions but they exist as a single building unit and not as a settlement.

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This topic leads into various unusual sections in architecture and requires a vast amount of time to study and understand the biological forms, structural complexities, working of a water settlement, fluid mechanics etc., which is not available.

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The economy factor is not considered as the technology and techniques available for implementation are mostly expensive as well as limited in the current world.

1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY -

The research in this dissertation was based upon studying the feasible options to cater the basic human needs required for different types of water settlements identified.

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The first objective of this research is to identify the various kinds of settlements on water possible as an alternative.

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The identification process was done by researching on existing or past evidences of settlements on water which were then categorised into three types. Without any presumptions about the feasibility, a submerged settlement, as an alternative, was also considered.

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After identifying various alternatives, they were analysed for various feasible support systems (natural and technological) for fulfilling basic human needs in a settlement.

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In the case of submerged settlements, due to the absence of any real life, there was a necessity for validating the possibility of submerged settlement with support systems.

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The validation process was a study of various constraints under water, fluid dynamics, ocean behaviour etc. The response of marine eco systems and also the submerged man-made structures to ocean constraints were studied to understand how the settlement could respond to similar constraints under water.

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After adapting a few feasible techniques from marine ecosystems and the remaining by use of various modern technological innovations, a conceptual base for a submerged settlement was created.

- Similar study on support systems was done on surface water settlements, however, these types of structures were already existing in real life as settlements or existing in the form of single building, if not a settlement. Thus, many attributes were inherited from these existing instances but fulfilling the self-sustenance factor created the need to explore various other techniques.

- In addition to support systems, safety of the settlements from further external threats was a key factor for development of the conceptual settlement which was also studied through researches of various international organisations on behaviours of various threats at sea.

- With the support systems figured out for every kind of settlement, the major input needed for the sinking islands would be to identify the suitable type of settlement and also its location at sea which was done using constraints like safety ,energy source, transportation and a few support systems which would require certain suitable conditions for efficiency.

- To give a purpose to this dissertation research, two currently low lying sinking islands were chosen and the exercise of identifying the suitable type of settlement for each, their feasible energy sources, transportation possibilities and all the other settlement support systems was undertaken to create a base for the resettlement activity, if undertaken by that particular island nation.

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CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL AND PREVAILING WATER SETTLEMENTS Construction on water is not a new concept to humans. This has been prevailing from the ancient times. (The world's oldest dams still in use, 2013)Quantinah Barrage, the oldest dam in the world was built in 14th century BC. Numerous constructions were built on water with numerous functions like irrigation, transportation (ports), energy generation (dams), commerce (hotels) etc. but making a settlement on water is quite a new concept to the modern world.

(Pallasen, 1985)There are a few tribes like the Bajau Tribe of Borneo living on boats and stilt houses built on water from the 9th century (earliest record of the tribe) but their functions and requirements do not match the modern world needs. Stilt Crannogs of Ireland and Scotland are another instance of water settlement although they were constructed on lakes and ponds and are close to the mainland.

Figure 1: Bajao tribe stilt houses

Figure 3: Clusters of tribe housing on water

Figure 2: An example of a stilt crannog

Figure 4: Bajao tribe boat transportation

Medieval towns like Zhouzhuang and Venice are prominent examples of water towns.

(Dhwty, 2014)Venice town was constructed on wooden platforms which were supported by millions of wooden stakes (from Slovenian forests), 4metre long, driven deep into the sandy ground, resembling a stilt structure. The salty water around, petrifies the wood and makes it

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stronger over time, turning it into a stone like structure. However, apparently, the wood from the current sources of present world are not so strong.

However, in addition to the existing structures on surface, with the current modern technology, Under-water and Deep Sea settlements are eligible to be thought of, for application in real world. Many under water laboratories have been conducted in the past few decades for the study of various issues and constraints under water.

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CHAPTER 3: SUBMERGED WATER SETTLEMENTS 3.1 UNDERSTANDING OCEANS 3.1.1 INTRODUCTION The under water conditions are not identical in every location. They vary with the place of location, the depth, the ocean floor terrain, the local marine eco systems etc.

Hence, the submerged settlement must be custom tailored depending upon the conditions of the location.

(National Weather Service, 2008) The ocean is divided into 5 zones in terms of depth and based on the conditions.

1. Epipelagic Layer, 2. Mesopelagic Layer, 3. Bathypelagic Layer, 4. Abyssopelagic Layer, 5. Hadalpelagic Layer

Figure 5: Various layers of the ocean with respect to heights

Figure 6: Various zones of the ocean

Each zone has identical conditions, up to an extent, throughout the depth within the zone, though customizations will be necessary based on the exact point location within the zone.

The exercise of theoretical testing for the possibilities of human settlement in the deep-sea is undertaken with respect to these 5 zones.

The deep-sea settlement necessities and salient features for human survival maybe inspired/derived from marine natural processes or by mimicking the natural processes using technology to tackle the sea and its constraints.

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3.1.2 VARIOUS LAYERS OF THE OCEAN 3.1.2.1 EPIPELAGIC LAYER Characteristics and conditions of Epipelagic layer -

This top layer extends from the water surface to a depth of 200 meters. Most of the visible light is present in this zone and thus this layer also receives more heat depending upon the location. And hence, wide variations in temperature can be observed across the world in this layer.

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The shallow layer results in abundant amounts of sunlight encouraging photosynthesis and promoting the growth of green ecosystems like Kelp forests, Sea weed etc.

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This surface layer interacts with the wind creating waves and disturbances in the layer.

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Pressure: Up to 6 atmospheres and hence relatively less structural costs for stability due to less external pressure on the settlement structure.

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Rich Ecosystems are available in the area which could be considered for inspiration and recognition of successful systems and patterns.

3.1.2.2 MESOPELAGIC LAYER (200M – 1000M DEPTH) Characteristics, Conditions and Marine life of Mesopelagic layer -

Partial light (only blue light) is visible however, photosynthesis is not possible.

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Low Oxygen levels in between 500m and 1000m depth.

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Temperature varies significantly with depth due to the Thermocline.

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The pressures are as high as 100 atmospheres.

3.1.2.3 BATHYPELAGIC LAYER (1000M TO 4000M DEPTH) -

There is complete darkness in this region.

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The temperature is constant in the region and is about 4 degree Celsius.

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The pressure in this zone is very high and can reaches over 5850 pounds/sq.inch which is 400 atmospheres at the depth of 4000m. Animals like sperm whales can survive in such extreme pressures and visit this layer in search of food.

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Energy sources for many species in this region are the Hydro thermal vents near the volcanic active places and the Marine snow. Hydrothermal Vents are a major source of energy for the aphotic regions of the ocean forming a rich ecosystem on the ocean floor

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in the deep sea. There are other deep sea benthic eco systems like cold seeps, Hydrothermal seeps.

3.1.2.4 ABYSSOPELAGIC LAYER (4000M TO 6000M DEPTH) -

This layer also has complete darkness.

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Temperature is just above freezing point.

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Immense pressure is present in this region.

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Invertebrates like small Squids, Basket Stars can thrive in this area by maintaining internal pressure equal to the immense external pressure of the water.

3.1.2.5 HADALPELAGIC LAYER (6000M TO THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN) -

Hadalpelagic layer mostly consists of deep trenches and canyons instead of flat ocean bed.

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Pressure is up to 8 tonnes per each square inch which is 1200 atmospheres. Submersible Technology could be inherited for materials and structure to withstand very high pressures.

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Temperature is just above freezing point.

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Invertebrates such as Star fish, Tube worms can survive here. Tiny single-celled species called foraminifera, a type of plankton, were discovered in the Challenger Deep trench. Formanifera have test walls with organically bound Iron.

3.2 UNDERSTANDING MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 3.2.1 DEEP SEA ECOSYSTEMS 3.2.1.1 Hydrothermal vents and communities (Dr. Paul Yancey, 2011) Hydrothermal vents are the fissures present on the ocean bed in certain areas through which geothermally heated water issues. These are very common in geologically active areas where tectonic shifts are frequent resulting in volcanic activity.

These fissures form tall chimney structures due to the emissions.

Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea support various marine species like tube worms, limpets, clams, and shrimps. Chemosynthesis phenomenon replaces the photosynthesis in these kind of deep sea eco systems.

The vents release chemicals like H2S, CO2, CH4, Mn, He, Fe etc.

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These gases could be used for the source of energy. (The released chemicals could be used for making biogas which could be used for generation of electricity) This marine ecosystem is found on the ocean bed.

Figure 7: Hydrothermal Vents, their mechanism

Figure 8: Typical topographical location of the Vents

3.2.1.2 Cold seeps and communities (Dr. Paul Yancey, 2011) Some places in the oceans seep cold methane, hydrogen sulphide, and oil out of sediments providing a rich energy source resulting in a marine eco system around it. Aquatic fauna such as tubeworms, clams, and mussels were found. Some mussels depend on methane-using bacteria and some harbour sulphide-using ones. Cold seeps are energy sourced by natural gas.

Cold seeps have also been observed around the boundaries of deep brine pools, or "lakes within oceans." The salt deposits beneath the ocean bed dissolve with ocean water to form pools of water. These pools are so salty that their high density prevents the mixing of the water with the overlying sea water. At the best-studied brine pool (in the Gulf of Mexico), large numbers of mussels lived around the rim, supported by methane gas seeping from the pool.

Figure 9: Cold Seeps ecosystem section

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Figure 10: A live image of Cold seeps

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In 2012, a new deep-sea ecosystem was discovered near Costa Rica. It is a mosaic of the above two mentioned ecosystems, with many new kinds of species. With extensive studies, this has the potential to become a much more abundant energy source for deep sea settlements.

3.2.1.3 Coral reefs Ecosystems are held by Calcium Carbonate structures secreted by Corals. They usually exist in shallow water and tropical areas. The coral reef structure and form is formed from tiny marine species called coral polyps which, when they die, leave behind a hard, stony, branching structure made of limestone (Calcium Carbonate).

Artificial Reefs: Artificial reefs could act as potential tourism generator in the water settlements.

An artificial reef is a man-made underwater structure, usually constructed to encourage marine life. These are built using objects with other purposes like the oil rigs, sunken ships etc.

Artificially, calcium carbonate can also be created by passing low voltage current to a metallic structure in salt water which causes limestone to crystallize on that surface. Thus the evolved marine ecosystem could be taken advantage for tourism.

3.2.2 GREEN ECOSYSTEMS 3.2.2.1 Mangroves Mangroves are small trees or shrubs that grow in coastal saline or brackish water.

Mangroves have a good potential to play the role of “green spaces� in the case of Surface and Epipelagic settlements as they can grow in the shallow salty ocean water. They can survive under the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud and can also withstand high saline conditions. Mangroves can grow up to 25 metres depending upon the location and the species.

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Figure 11: Mangroves submerged

Figure 12: Mangroves rooted in water

3.2.2.2 Kelp forests Kelp forests are submerged greens with dense clusters of kelp. These forests are found in cool, shallow waters, close to the shore. Most species stay in the first 40 metres of water.

Figure 13: Kelp forests standing upright in the water column

Figure 14: Kelps and their Pneumatocysts

Kelps have a good potential to create “green spaces� in the case of the submerged settlements. In fact, Kelps look very much like plants but they were physically formed by brown macro algae. Some species can reach heights of 45 metres under water. Many kelps have Pneumatocysts or gas-filled bladders which facilitate positive buoyancy to the body and helps in maintaining the structure in an upright position in water.

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Figure 15: Kelp forest exhibit in an aquarium

3.2.2.3 Sea Weed Seaweed is a light green coloured marine algae with very long strands on which a large number of leaves cling. This plant can survive at great depths in the ocean, up to 688 feet (210 metres). It performs photosynthesis by using blue light, which is the only wavelength which reaches the deeper layers of the ocean.

3.3 SETTLEMENT ADAPTATION IN THE OCEANS 3.3.1 PRESSURE ADAPTATIONS: -

In the deeper parts of the ocean where the pressure is immense, materials that are very tough and light like Titanium (Used in submarines to remain untraceable to radar), Steel, Carbon fibre, Syntactic foams, Acrylic Resins with high compression strength are generally suitable. (Observation from submersibles case study)

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Invertebrate living organisms typically survive under such crushing loads in the ocean by maintaining same pressure in their body as the external pressure, thereby, maintaining a balance. Moreover, the presence of TMAO piezolytes in the creatures living under high pressure (Ex: Grenadiers) have been observed. Research on behaviour, functioning and usage of these biomolecules could be a major leap through in dealing with high pressure environments.

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(Kunzig, 2001)Some of these living organisms have their internal pressure equal to the

external extreme pressures and thus survive under such high pressures.

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Same principle is applied in the case of non-watertight hull in a submarine which is hydro-dynamically shaped unlike the pressure hull.

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Moreover, decompression sickness caused in humans due to pressure differences could play an important role in the design of configuration and functioning of the settlement.

3.3.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY RESPONSE UNDER HIGH PRESSURE: From the observations of the submersibles case study, we understand that the best possible geometry to respond to high pressure is a sphere as it allows even distribution of stress throughout the surface avoiding extra reinforcements on any part of the structure unlike any other geometry. For an example, a cylinder shaped structure would require extra thickness of material on the curved surface as it is slender in proportions.

However, a structure with the requirement of motion under water may adopt other shapes (like submarines) based on streamline physics but the thickness of the material could multiply based on the uneven stresses developed in the structure due to the non-spherical form.

Many of the structural systems of submersibles have two hulls (skeleton frames). The inner hull is the pressure hull which is very tough in order to withstand the humungous pressure difference. This is generally a sphere due to the reasons explained above. The outer hull is not watertight and hence does not deal with the pressure difference. This streamlined outer hull originated due to the need for horizontal movement of submarines under water with least hydrodynamic drag.

In the case of a fixed settlement, an inner pressure hull would be adequate without any requirement of streamlined outer hull. However, in the case of mobile settlement, an outer hull would be necessary in order to move swiftly under water and also consume relatively less energy for motion.

From the ballast tanks mechanism in submersibles, we understand that, to be able to shift between positive and negative buoyancies, the volume of the overall space must be large enough to create positive buoyancy to avoid sinking so that weights can be added or removed to fluctuate between positive and negative buoyancies.

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3.3.3 SAFETY FROM EXTERNAL FACTORS 3.3.3.1 Threat from Tsunami: (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 2014) The effect of Tsunami on water settlements varies with the depth of the ocean floor at the settlement location and the distance from the coast The same Tsunami will have different impacts at the coast and at sea about 500m off the coast.

Figure 16: 3D tsunami behaviour representation with depth

The amplitude of the Tsunami at any point depends upon the depth of the sea. At deeper parts of the ocean, the amplitude is so low and the wavelength, so large, that the same tsunami behaves calm at a distance from the coast but devastating in the coastal areas. Moreover, the deeper parts of ocean has much lower effect than the surface/shallow depths.

Figure 17: Varying amplitude of tsunami with depth

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Tsunami is just the transfer of energy and not the forward movement of water molecules. The water molecules move in circular motion in their respective positions while the energy is transferred forward. Hence, the only threat of tsunami at sea, is the amplitude which is low in parts of the ocean with great depth.

Figure 18: Particle behaviour during tsunami along the depth

Figure 19: Particle behaviour during tsunami with depth

Conclusion: Water Settlements could be secured from Tsunami through locating the settlement strategically in the parts with large depths.

3.3.3.2 Threat from Internal waves: Internal waves exist in the deep parts of the ocean which are created due to the difference in density of ocean water along the depth (For an instance, brackish water on the top and salty water in the deeper parts of the ocean), due to terrain of the ocean floor and also in the thermocline region where there is rapid change in temperature with depth creating different density fluids.

Figure 20: An illustration of internal waves in the ocean

Figure 21: Internal waves due to the varying fluid densities

To avoid to these waves to a maximum extent, the location of the settlement is critical. Internal waves will be prevalent in the regions around the outlets of large rivers which typically contain brackish water and also in the areas where snow melts to give fresh water on top of a salt water body creating a density difference. In this case, the low density water on top plays the role of air (low density) on surface water (higher density) which creates the surface waves.

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3.3.3.3 Marine snow: It is the showering of organic material falling from layers of the ocean above. In certain occasions, it could be the parts of a sunken ship or any other heavy material.

These loads could be point loads and could be dangerous. Hence, these loads need to be considered in addition to the immense pressure of the site location.

Figure 22: Marine snow sunken onto the sea bed

Figure 23: An image of a ship wreck

3.4 BASIC AMENITIES AND NEEDS The needs of humans in the settlement are considered up till a part of second level of Maslow’s pyramid as this is a base validation of submerged settlements for humans.

The first level of Maslow’s pyramid talks about the basic biological and physiological needs required for any human such as Air, Food, Water, Shelter, Warmth, Sleep etc.

The second level of the Maslow’s pyramid talks about safety and security.

Figure 24: Maslow’s pyramid

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3.4.1 OXYGEN SUPPORT 3.4.1.1 Artificial gill technology Presently, this technology is utilized for small scale units like the case of individual modules.

Disadvantages: If used wouldn’t work in the low oxygen content regions like certain parts of mesopelagic region (500- 1000m depth) or is exponentially uneconomical.

Moreover, it could affect the marine life in the case of artificial gill technology throughout the settlement creating oxygen deficiency for the marine life The artificial gill technology which occupies very less space are still in development process however a large scale artificial breathing system might take a few decades for full scale development.

3.4.1.2 Electrolysis of water Most of the modern military submarines generate the oxygen required by Electrolysis of water (using a device called an "Elektrolytic Oxygen Generator").

3.4.1.3 Pumping atmospheric oxygen A system for Pumping/ Funnelling of atmospheric oxygen (Principle of Snorkel tube) could be developed with powerful pumping systems but it could be uneconomical.

The development of such a system is not complex as they can be following the principle followed in the oil rigs.

3.4.2 DRINKING WATER (Desalination techniques) 3.4.2.1 Thermal distillation (Peter Gleick, 2016)Desalination through thermal distillation is the most basic process of converting saline ocean water into drinking fresh water where nature process is directly mimicked however the cost of desalination process is very high and hence is uncommon till to date. It costs around $1-2 per cubic meter of water.

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3.4.2.2 Reverse osmosis Reverse Osmosis is the other common method that could be used which is prevalent throughout the world. This method requires less energy in relative to the Desalination technique.

There are many more methods that can be used for desalination of salt water.

3.4.3 FOOD In addition to the local fauna available for food, agriculture could also be practiced in the submerged settlements using Hydroponics technique.

Hydroponics The Surface as well as the submerged water settlements can adopt the hydroponics technique for the production of food in water enriched with minerals without soil. This technique is already under use and have resulted in productive production in many parts of the world like China, Tenochtitlan (Aztec) etc.

In the case of deep sea settlements with inadequate sunlight penetrating in, substitutes like high pressure, high intensity sodium lamps could be used in the place of natural sunlight.

Figure 25: An illustration of Hydroponics mechanism

Figure 26: An image of Hydroponics crops

3.4.4 UNDER WATER ENERGY SOURCES - Geothermal energy: The volcanic reserves beneath the ocean floor are generally shallow in the borders of tectonic plates that could be extracted as a source for heat energy.

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Figure 27: Hydrothermal Vent as a heat and biogas energy source

Figure 28: Black smokers from fissures of the Vents

- Bio gas electricity from Hydrothermal vents: The chemicals like Hydrogen Sulphide, Methane, Carbon dioxide etc. are released from the fissures which could be seen as a source of energy through adequate research. (Biogas is a mixture of Hydrogen sulphide, Methane, Carbon dioxide, Water and a source for electricity generation).

- Tidal Energy: Underwater ocean turbines could be a very hopeful source as the waves are non-depleting banks of kinetic and potential energy. Moreover, this is clean source of energy causing least harm to the environment.

3.4.5 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS Transportation system in the submerged water settlements will be most likely function using the principle of buoyancy. This very common method of buoyancy shift by submersibles for vertical transportation, ‘While moving vertically down, filling the ballast tanks of transportation tube with water/ heavier substance and while moving up, discharging the water and replacing it with lighter gas to achieve positive buoyancy’ will save significant energy.

In the case of horizontal movement under water, the principles used in submarines could be imitated precisely for transportation pods. The proposed submerged floating tunnels in a few nations are another possibility for shallow depths.

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CHAPTER 4: SURFACE WATER SETTLEMENTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION: TYPES OF SURFACE WATER SETTLEMENTS Various techniques are being used for creating an artificial structure on water surface such as: 1. Land Reclamation Technique 2. Stilt structures 3. Floating structures 4.1.1 LAND RECLAMATION TECHNIQUE Land reclamation is the most commonly used technique for creating an artificial island in the current world. (Bassett, 2005)In this technique, infilling of the whole area is done to raise the level of the site above the sea level. Then, the whole land infill is compacted for more stability of foundations over which, the construction of super structures take place.

A few existing examples of land reclamation projects are Beemster polder in Netherlands (70km2 area), The Palm islands, The World, The Pearl Qatar, Kansai International airport etc.

There are local Indian examples of land reclamation like The Wellingdon Island, a major coastline of Mumbai in Arabian Sea.

Figure 29: Aerial view of Pearl Qatar Reclamation Island

Scale of the settlement: If we look at the existing land reclaimed projects, we can understand that a land reclaimed island of the scale of a village/ town settlement is not a very difficult task using currently available modern technology. Once, the land is reclaimed, the functionality of the settlement is similar to the mainland cities except for the underground services of the settlement which would need some expertise supervision.

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4.1.2 STILT STRUCTURES Stilt structures are those which are raised above the sea/ ground level with piles in order to avoid the flooding of the settlements.

There are many instances in the past where stilt structures have been used in order to build over water. Traditional stilt houses on water are common in the areas like Philippines, Southern China, Nicaragua, West Africa etc. A good example of stilt housing is the Kelong house, commonly found in Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. They are supported on water using 20 metres long wooden piles, anchored 6 metres into the sea bed. They are usually sited in shallow water, although some can be found in deeper waters.

(Dhwty, 2014)A live example of a large scale stilt project is the city of Venice. The material for the construction is wood and the buildings were based upon wooden platforms which were supported by the wooden stakes driven into the earth.

Many oil rigs are also built offshore supported by steel/concrete legs driven into the sea bed at great depths of 500m.

Figure 30: A house on stilts located at sea

Scale of the settlement: The Venice city is a promising example of a large scale water settlement which rests on wooden piles (stilts) and also can act as a guide to creating a functional large scale stilt settlement.

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4.1.3 FLOATING STRUCTURES Floating Structures like ships and boats are very common means of water transport but the use of boat physics and architecture for housing is a trending concept in the regions like Netherlands where there is constant advent of water onto the mainland area. There are various housings which are being constructed based on this concept in Netherlands. (Kumar, 2014)In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of water housing developments due to the constant flooding in the mainland. This developed a new kind of housing called ‘amphibious housing’ constructed along a riverbed use to float only when the level of river rises during rainy season or when the tides are high. Many of these houses resemble a boat itself, from which the concept is taken in. Traditional use of boat houses is seen in the Bajau tribes. They row for fishing and moor at a common point of their community (Miller, 2011).

There are a few oil rigs which are required to extract oil resources from ocean depths of 1000 to 2000m. Such oil rigs are generally floating on water and are tethered to the deep sea bed.

The major advantage of this technique for construction of water settlements is the minimal use of materials for construction in relative to the land reclamation technique. Moreover, a settlement created with this technique has the potential to create a mobile settlement which could also be reconfigurable.

Figure 31: Floating house moored to the shore

Figure 32: Floating house build and lived in by Stephen Turner

Scale of a the settlement The scale of a single floating structure is generally not very large. However, fusing the ship architecture with settlement planning can create a larger structure or, a large number of smaller floating mobile structures interlocked together has the potential to create a flexible village scale water settlement.

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4.2 FEASIBILITY OPTIONS 4.2.1 Basic needs (Food, water) Hydroponics, Vertical Farming: Unlike the mainland settlement, there is no op land available for production of food through agriculture in addition to the sea food.

The soil less agriculture techniques like Hydroponics can be used in all the three kinds of surface water settlements. Moreover, to save more space, vertical farming can be adopted with hydroponics. The sunlight required can be compensated through high intensity sodium lamps or red-blue LEDs. (Doctor Depommier, 2013) Vertical farming in a building of 30 storeys or more can cater to about 40000-50000 people in a year. These farms, being indoor, are not exposed to any bad climate and hence reduces the chances of crop damage to almost zero.

Desalination techniques: The desalination techniques like Thermal distillation and Reverse Osmosis techniques are very common in many islandic nations can also be adopted for Surface water settlements as these techniques are indoor based.

4.2.2 Energy Sources If the energy is generated on site in the water settlement, the surface water settlements have various feasible energy sources such as Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Ocean thermal Energy, Nuclear Energy, and Tidal Energy depending on the location and surrounding conditions of the settlement.

If we consider the effectiveness of the energy sources, Solar Energy, Ocean Thermal Energy sources are more effective in tropical settlements.

(Solar Energy Research Institute, 1989) On a typical day, the tropical parts of the oceans absorb heat energy which is an equivalent to the energy generated by 250 billion barrels of oil.

Converting 0.005% of this energy into electricity would be suffice the energy requirement of the entire United States for a day.

Wind Energy sources are more effective in areas with powerful winds like Aude in Southern France, Maui, Bonaire, etc. which could also bring in stronger ocean waves favouring tidal energy source.

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Nuclear energy plant is relatively more site independent making it feasible for water settlements across the world. However, any malfunction or damage in the plant could be fatal for the settlement and also its surroundings and local marine ecosystems.

Tidal Energy system is effective in certain regions across the globe and can be significantly productive in those regions with strong tidal waves for a large portion of the year. However, it is not suitable for regions like India.

In the case of tropical countries like India, due to more sunshine and heat, Ocean thermal energy can be utilized to a great extent with the import of the new technologies.

4.2.3 Transportation systems If the island is isolated and far away from the nearest coastal land, the only two means of transportation are Air and Water modes. Air mode is only feasible in the case of large settlements. Kansai International Airport is a live example of an airport construction on water.

Water transport is the other source of transportation. Submerged water transportation is already under development in countries like Norway where a submerged floating tunnel was proposed.

Figure 33: Proposed submerged floating tunnel in Norway

If the island is nearby a coastline, road transport can also be provided by bridges on water.

Instead of constructing a steel or concrete bridge, alternatively, a floating bridge/pontoon bridge is also a common kind adopted in the past. The 1246 metre long Nordhordland Floating bridge was constructed in 1994. This bridge is curved to better resist the wave. The same concept is used to shape the breakwaters and can be used to shape the settlements.

Boat transportation is the most suitable for transportation within in a settlement or within a cluster of settlements as it is the most economical to construct due to the lack of the need to create a pathway.

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4.2.4 Safety of the surface water settlement Even if the structure is very stable and intact, the extremely strong ocean tides in the night are unpredictable and have the potential to break through the structure.

Hence, protection systems like the break water are used. In fact, building a break water is necessary before the construction of a structure takes place at sea to ensure minimum washing away of the weak ‘under construction structure’ due to the ocean currents.

However, in the case of natural calamities like Tsunami, whose forces are so enormous and are inevitable, the best possible act could be to locate the settlement away from the potential natural calamity threat locations by studying the behaviour.

As explained in the previous chapter under subtopic 3.3.3.1, the tsunami has devastating effects in the shallow depths and at the coast but appears almost calm at a distance from the coast where the depth of the ocean reaches to a few hundred metres. It is observed that the amplitude is relatively very low in the locations with great depth.

Also, the more earthquake and volcanic prone areas like tectonic plate boundaries in the sea bed must be avoided to reduce the chances of a tsunami effect very significantly.

In such a case, the floating mobile settlements are the most suitable to face the tsunami as they can tackle it by moving into the locations with larger depth to minimise the effect.

The land reclaimed islands are practically not feasible for larger depths of the ocean considering the humungous amounts of filling material required. Hence, these settlements will have to face the consequences in the case of tsunami in that location.

In the case of stilt structures, there are a few exceptions. The present technology in structural engineering allowed for creating economically feasible fixed oil platforms (Oil rigs) with concrete/steel legs up to the depths of 520 metres. At such depths, the amplitude of a tsunami wave is relatively very low and the energy, dispersed and hence not catastrophic.

4.2.5 Waste Disposal A floating decentralized sewage treatment plant is required to avoid dumping in the sea leading to regional water pollution and damage to marine life around the area. Reusing systems such as conversion of solid waste into manure, grey water for watering plants and agricultural crops etc. can be undertaken.

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4.2.6 Ecological Effects (Mostafa, 2011) According to a study on environmental impacts due to land reclamation at Abu Qir bay in Egypt, they noticed that the transportation and handling of infill material, compaction, accidental spills or leakages, dredging operations etc. in the land reclamation process had the potential to affect the environment without sufficient supervision.

In the case of land reclaimed islands, the settlement would cover and occupy the entire ocean floor underneath it. Usually, these projects take place in shallow waters where the ocean floor has significant amounts of light. Hence, these areas are more likely to support rich marine eco system which could get destroyed. Dredging of the sea bed can also influence the waves, their velocities and patterns which in turn affects the coastline and many other ecosystems and their natural cycles.

Figure 34: Dredger involved in Reclamation process

Figure 35: An illustration showing the process of Reclamation

Stilt structures and floating settlements will have relatively less impact in comparision to the reclaimed lands as they lack the infill process which is the major influence on marine ecology as observed. However, common modern human activities in all the three kinds of settlements could cause noise and air pollution. Any leakages from service pipelines or accidental spills from settlements could pollute the whole surrounding areas. Moreover, the use of energy generation systems such as tidal wave energy system could directly affect the marine life. Any accident in the nuclear plant is fatal to every life in the surrounding region.

(Bassett, 2005) Large scale offshore structures influence the sea wave pattern causing coastline erosion. Ex: Palm Islands and Dubai shoreline.

4.2.7 Flora in Surface water settlements

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The plantation of trees or plants or any other green such as algae kelp forests in the site may be considered for implementation as they are the major components of soothing green natural setting which is being lost in the case of a water settlement. However, the sea bed should be shallow for the implementation of green in the surface water settlements.

The number of species that grow under salty ocean conditions are very less. However, on the reclaimed land, considerably large kinds of tree species can be planted and supported with enough supervision.

In the case of Stilt and Floating settlements, coastal trees like Mangroves which can survive high salty contents in water would become the major component of the green ecosystem. Sea grass/ weed, Kelp forests can also be planted on site.

4.2.8 Location Feasibility for Surface Water Settlements The conditions, the climate, the energy sources, feasible flora and the threat possibilities in the ocean vary with each and every location across the ocean, the distance from the coast and also with the depth of the ocean at the site location.

In the case of land reclaimed islands, the depth of the ocean cannot be large as the infill material that is required increases beyond available. In most cases, this also results in a location closer to the coastal mainland.

In the case of stilt structures, deep ocean bed locations of 520 metres and more are also feasible however the shallower the depth, the more economic, the settlement turns into. The other factor that comes into account is the tsunami. To avoid devastating effect of tsunami, the settlement needs to be in a location, more than 100 metre deep. However, additional safety factor could be accounted to make the settlement safer.

Floating structures can be in any part of the location however, that minimum depth of ocean could be maintained to be safer from tsunami. Other than that, a floating settlement does not have any strong constraint in terms of structure, construction feasibility or safety.

In addition to these location constraints for each of them, increasing energy sources and their effectiveness through strategic location marches the settlement towards self-sustainability.

Any kind of surface water settlement in the tropical locations has two relatively more effective energy sources (Solar Energy, Ocean thermal energy) bringing them close to self-sustenance.

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However, locating the settlement in favour of the tidal and wind energies could be giving out threat to settlement structures due to strong ocean waves.

In addition to these constraints, the safety of a water settlement is most doubtful in the geologically active areas like the Pacific Ocean ring of fire where the tectonic plate shifts cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions thereby resulting in tsunamis. 80% of the tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean.

CHAPTER 5: SECONDARY CASE STUDIES 5.1SUBMERGED BUILDINGS (FOR SERVICES) 5.1.1 Poseidon Under sea resort

Figure: Conceptual stage illustration of the Poseidon Resort

Figure: Basic form of the submerged part of the resort

Figure: A 3D illustration of the individual pod

(ussubmarinestructures, n.d.)The resort form is inspired from the submarine structures.

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A sphere is the most efficient structural form to respond to the uniform pressure by the water.

However, this is necessary for deep sea submersibles where the pressures are immense. In the case of a structure in the epipelagic layer, where the pressure is not so high, the geometry is shaped to minimise hydrodynamic drag. This concept is used in most of the submarines.

Each pod in the resort is designed to give in a large view area of the ocean but also not so large to give the feeling of privacy invasion.

The resort is a complete independent structure with on-site electricity generation, filtration for drinking water etc. Thus it was possible build the resort away from mainland without the need for constant support from the mainland.

The large viewing windows were made of transparent acrylic which is very strong and prefabricated as truncated cones. Moreover, acrylic can deform elastically under pressure without damaging. As the pressure on the exterior face of the window increases the seal at the window-pressure hull interface became more secure. The windows were 4 inches thick to ensure safety.

The resort, in ballasted condition is expected to weigh approximately 7,140 tons and to measure 420 feet in length by 80 feet in width and 15 feet in height.

The resort is moored using steel piles to avoid horizontal and vertical wave movements which could result in sea sickness.

Figure: A photograph from the suite pod

Figure: A photograph from the aquarium in the resort

Maintenance and Services: Back-up equipment is installed to support systems like Power and communications in addition to scheduled service.

Window cleaning is an issue as it needs to be constantly wiped from the outside to avoid any accumulation/depositing of organic or inorganic materials. An automated water jet had been made to take care of external cleaning maintenance.

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The resort was planned such that the pods are detachable from the main submerged structure to enable servicing above water. This is planned once for a 10 year interval.

The resort design tried to minimise the environmental impact by situating itself above the sea bed. Only the supporting piles reach the ocean bed. This resort structure itself became an artificial reef.

Figure: Individual pods being detached for maintenance

Figure: Resort is not occupying the space of the coral reefs

5.2 SUBMERSIBLES (FOR STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS) 5.2.1 Deep Sea Challenger (Submersible which reached the Marina trench) A sleek, narrow, 24-foot-tall (7.3-meter) vessel, the Deep sea challenger is a 7.3 metre tall narrow vessel and consists of 3 sections. The beam of the submersible is made of syntactic foam called Isofloat which can withstand high pressures. The 1.1 metre diameter pilot sphere is situated underneath this beam. Below the pilot sphere, an array of scientific gear stands ready to deploy at the bottom. The ballast tanks are located below the pilot sphere which maintains the required buoyancy of the submersible.

Objectives: -

A submersible that can accommodate a human to the deepest site in the ocean.

-

To demonstrate the effectiveness of a human-piloted vehicle as a science platform for investigation in the Hadalpelagic zone.

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-

To make imagery of the unexplored geological activities and marine species across the undiscovered sea bed.

Figure: Labelled parts of the Deep Sea Challenger

Figure: Schematic section of the submersible

Materials: 1. Syntactic foam called Isofloat is developed to withstand the immense pressure of 8tonnes per sq.inch at Mariana trench. It has a specific density of about 0.7 and will float in water and the material comprises about 70% of the submarine's volume.

Syntactic foam consists of millions of hollow glass microspheres suspended in an epoxy resin. It is the only flotation material (specific gravity<1) that can tolerate such incredible pressures in the deep ocean.

Other: -

The pressure hull is sphere shaped because it distributes uniform load all across the surface avoiding uneven stress thereby maintaining the minimum possible thickness of the material. They made the steel hull, 2.5 inch thick, to withstand the crushing pressure.

-

The sub spins slowly as it ascends or descends so that it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t veer off the track

-

The submersible is equipped with oxygen cylinders enough for one person to breathe for 56 hours.

-

The sub descends because of more than 1,000 pounds (450 kilograms) of steel weights held on to either side by electromagnets. To rise to the surface, the pilot flips

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a switch, the plates of steel fall to the ocean floor, and the lighter-than-water foam hurtles the sub skyward.

-

Submersibles are generally designed along a horizontal axis, for reducing hydrodynamic drag during horizontal movement during exploration but the Deep sea challenger with vertical axis, slips rapidly through the water vertically.

Figure: A photograph of the Pressure hull/ Pilotâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chamber

Figure: Human posture and interior space in the chamber

5.2.2 Submarines

Figure: A photograph of a submarine showing its form

Figure: A form of a military submarine

Buoyancy:

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-

The basic characteristic of any sea structure is its nature of buoyancy depending upon the kind of usage. Positive buoyancy in the case of a surface water structure and a negative buoyancy in the case of a submerging structure.

Ballast tanks and Depth control tanks: -

These tanks are used in submersibles to change the buoyancy of the structure by carrying dense material while sinking down and by unloading them in the case of surfacing. (Generally, the tanks are occupied with water to submerge and the water is drained and filled with air to surface to the top.)

-

However, in the case of greater depths where the pressure is very high, the sea water is not replaced with pressurized air but the dense ballast is lost to the ocean floor to reach a positive buoyancy.

Geometry: -

There are various kinds of structures developed over the last two centuries on the basis of their military or civil research usage. Some of them have a single pressure hull while some have a non-watertight outer hull with the shape designed for least hydrodynamic drag and an inner pressure hull as the core structure.+

-

Modern submarines are usually cigar-shaped (the non-watertight hull) and patterned after the body of whales.

-

This is because whale body geometry reduces the hydrodynamic drag significantly under water.

-

The inner pressure hull is a sphere in most cases for even distribution of stress. b

-

Even a one-inch (25 mm) deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth.

Figure: A schematic representation of the double hulled submarine structure

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Figure: Pressure hull of a submarine

Figure: Thickness of an old pressure hull

Materials: -

Titanium, Syntactic foam, High strength alloyed steel, Acrylic resin

Life support systems: -

Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water

-

Drinking water is commonly produced by using a reverse osmosis unit/evaporator.

Abandoning the vessel: The crew can use Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment (Whole body suits and one man rafts) to abandon the submarine. Decompression sickness is avoided by exhaling during ascent.

Figure: An illustration of the response of ballast tanks to the requirement of upward or downward movement in water

5.3 LAND RECLAMATION TECHNIQUE 5.3.1 PALM JUMEIRAH -

Located in the Arabian Gulf

-

It is a man-made island built only using natural materials like rocks and sand.

-

Built to increase coast line for tourism.

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-

Located in a shallow depth region in the sea. (30m average depth) to avoid catastrophic waves.

-

Before the construction of the main island, a break water needs to be constructed to protect the weak ongoing construction from the strong sea waves.

-

How to build up the sea floor to create a break water?

They dumped huge amounts of sand. (This is done when the sea is calmest). Over this sand layer, a layer of rocks is laid immediately to prevent washing away of sand.

Over this the armour layer is laid which consists of huge rocks (each 6-7 tonnes) which protects the land from powerful waves. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the sheer volume that keeps the rocks in place. No concrete was used to bind.

The sand needed for the island must be suitable. Desert sand of Arab is too fine to cling together and withstand waves. Hence, sand was collected from the ocean floor, 6miles off the coast. Thus construction of the mainland started after the completion of the break water.

To prevent the sinking of island after construction, the particles used for artificial island must be compacted through Vibral Compaction technique. (Road rollers wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be able to compact such a large reclamation, enough to withstand earthquakes) Land Reclamation is feasible and economical only in the case of shallow depths.

Effect on Ecology: Any ecosystem within the site is completely destroyed within the site.

Hence, this technique is not recommended for large scale structures. However, marine life will take shelter in the break water created. This could also be used to promote tourism.

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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION The research in this dissertation for various life support systems, their feasibility, safety etc. gave out a positive response in most aspects either through nature mimicking process or modern technology showing that the various available modern technology fused with many nature mimicking processes have the promising potential to create a self-sustained water settlement.

In addition to this conclusion, based on the constraint overlaps created by various systems of the water settlements and their safety, an attempt is made to address the resettlement issue of a rapidly sinking island nation Maldives.

Following aspects are figured out using the research body to create a base reference for the islands to create a new water settlement.

MALDIVES The lowest lying country in the world.

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FEATURES: Location: In the middle of Indian Ocean in between 80N and 10S latitudes. (On and either side of Equator.)

Climatic Region: Tropical Climate Depth of Ocean: Within the continental shelf of the country, the depths of ocean ranged from 1000 to 3000 metres along the boundary edge.

Ecological context: Coral reef ecosystems are in abundance all around the islands.

Mangroves also grow in certain regions.

Threats from Storms, Hurricanes: Equatorial belt locations have extremely rare severe storms and cyclones but the country faces rough weather due to the events in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Potential renewable energy sources: 1. Wind Energy. (Goodall, 2009)A 75 MW wind farm was proposed few years ago in Maldives. The Maldives has moderate but reliable winds that blow for most of the year, making this source of power a good choice for the country.

2. Solar Energy (Floating PV panels). (Tropical location of the country) 3. Ocean thermal energy (OTEC). (Tropical location of the country) 4. Tidal energy.

5. Waste to Energy plan. (Considered by IRENA which estimated an 8 MW potential through this source in the existing island.)

(Kaler, Taibi, IRENA, 2015)OTEC and Tidal Energy have been ruled out due to the lack of sufficient advancements in the technology as of this decade.

Maldives is far away from tectonic plate boundaries which are generally the home to volcanoes and hence, locating a hydrothermal vent or a cold seep is a difficult task in Maldivesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; territory. However, a few threatened countries like Solomon Islands are close to the tectonic plate boundaries and volcanoes and may get access to the fissures on the ocean bed making them more favourable to create submerged settlements.

ANALYSIS: (Using research body to respond to the site features) 1. Settlement type:

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Practically, all the four explored types of water settlements are buildable as a new water settlement in and around the existing islands but a few constraints weigh the four options unevenly resulting in a type better than the other.

Factor 1: How well does the new settlement tackle the main issue?

Both Land Reclamation islands and Stilt structures fail to address the issue of rising sea levels. In the future, if the sea levels rise drastically beyond any predictions and analysis, then the settlements are back under water. However, if the islands are constructed very high with a very high safety factor beyond any predicted rise in sea level, then these two types of settlements can still stand in the competition.

Floating settlements and Submerged Settlements are the two types which stay unaffected by the rise in sea level.

Factor 2: Cost and material consumption Submerged settlements would be the most expensive among the four due to the least advancements in the technological support and the additional needs of life support systems such as oxygen support systems.

Land Reclaimed settlements would need to be very high considering the safety factor issue, resulting in humungous consumption of materials and money.

Floating settlements and Stilt settlements consume relatively very less materials and thereby, monetary resources.

Factor 3: Safety Many threats from the oceans have been mentioned in the research body such as Tsunami, Internal waves, Marine Snow, Storms and Cyclones.

Internal waves and Marine snow are additional threats to the submerged settlements which could be moulded into minor threats by strategical location of the settlement as mentioned in the researched body. Moreover, the threat from tsunami is almost negligible if the settlement is not in the shallow waters just below the water surface. (Tsunami waves are not devastating from a depth equal to half the wavelength of its wave.)

Floating settlements also can avoid the threat from tsunami when located in deep waters as mentioned in the research body, considering the behaviour of tsunami.

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Factor 4: Ecological effects From the existing case studies on environmental impacts due to the water settlements such as ‘The Marine Environmental Impacts of Artificial Island Construction in Dubai’ by Bayyinah Salhuddin and observations on existing structures such as the Poseidon Resort which turned into an artificial reef in itself, we can conclude that the land reclamation technique is affecting the environment relatively more than the others.

Stilt and Floating structures are said to have relatively minimal effects on the marine environment and ecology when compared to land reclamation, if proper supervision is undertaken. However, reliable studies comparing stilt and floating structures’ impacts on marine ecology are unavailable.

Submerged settlements, considering the fact that they are unavailable, cannot be accurately predicted on their ecological impacts however, acts like mimicking the hydrothermal vents for energy source could affect the local ecology to a great extent as they are among the richest eco systems of the deep sea, discovered to date.

2. Location of the water settlement The location of the settlement must be within the continental shelf of the Maldives to avoid any international border disputes.

The sea depth contour map shows that the depths of the ocean extend up to 3000 metres below sea level within the boundary of the country.

The only factor that constrains the depth of the water below the settlement is the threat from tsunami.

In the case of surface water settlements (Land reclamation and Stilt settlements), the depth of water below the settlement is an important feature, as it is the deciding factor for the amount of consumption of materials for the structural safety and also to maintain sufficient safety factor for the future consequences. In that case, shallow water settlements of these two types save significant materials and expenses but expose themselves naked to the threat of tsunami.

Exception: Mimicking oil rig structures for stilt structured settlement in the deep waters could avoid tsunami threat.

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Floating settlements can be located in deep waters without any significant extra expenditure.

This makes this type of the settlement more secure and economic.

Submerged settlements are the safest from tsunami however, internal wavesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; data/ water density change with depth must be taken into consideration for locating it safer.

Another factor influencing the location is the energy source.

Energy sources like Solar Energy, Wind Energy and Ocean Thermal Energy, Floating Nuclear plants are location independent within the country territory.

But, energy sources like Tidal Energy, Deep sea hydrothermal vent and cold seep sourced energies (Geothermal Energy and Biogas electricity) are location dependent.

In the case of all surface settlements, the only energy source that could constrain the location is the tidal energy, if it is to be utilized. But, in the case of submerged settlements, all the three mentioned energy sources constrain the settlement location.

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Figure: Maldives Island ocean depth analysis

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Figure: Depth contours of the ocean surrounding the Islands

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