VAST Transformations Handbook by Richard Thackway

Tracking the Transformation of Vegetated Landscapes Handbook for recording site-based effects of land use and land management practices on the condition of native plant communities by Richard Thackway ÂŠ Version 2.3: Oct 2012 Australia: ISBN # 1 876141 65 4

Tracking the Transformation of Vegetated Landscapes Handbook for recording site-based effects of land use and land management practices on the condition of native plant communities

Richard Thackway

Version 2.3: Oct 2012

VAST Transformations Richard Thackway 5 Spowers Circuit Holder ACT 2611 Email:<rthackway@netspeed.com.au>

ÂŠ Cover photo of rainbow over the salmon gums at Credo Station, Kalgoorlie, WA. by Leslie Westerlund

ISBN # 1 876141 65 4 Editor and Publisher: Leslie C. Westerlund: Westerlund Eco Services: Rockingham, Western Australia. Email: <leslie_westerlund@yahoo.com> Thackway, R. (2012). Tracking the Transformation of Vegetated Landscapes, Handbook for recording site-based effects of land use and land management practices on the condition of native plant communities, Version 2.3, October 2012. Westerlund Eco Services, Rockingham, Western Australia, p56.

Oct 2012: ÂŠ

Preamble This handbook was developed out of a need to implement a system to routinely operationalize the ‘T’ in VAST i.e. Transitions in the in Vegetation Assets, States and Transitions framework (Thackway et al., 2007, Thackway and Lesslie 2008). The handbook is designed to assist practitioners compile historical and contemporary information on the responses of native plant communities at sites to the impacts of land use and land management practices over time. Almost all vegetation in Australia has been affected by changes in land use and land management practices since first contact. A historical record of the responses of native plant communities to these pressures or disturbances can be used for several purposes: assessing the extent and condition of key assets, prioritising investment in key localities to redress ecological impacts associated with specific time periods, improved targeting of scarce public funding and monitoring and evaluating the outcome of this investment, assisting land managers to make improvements in land management practices to meet wider community social, economic and environmental goals. It is acknowledged that there is a plethora of ways that native vegetation has been managed, and continues to be managed to meet a wide range of goals. Therefore the disturbance history of every site will be different, although at the local level some sites are expected to share histories at the bioregional level. Across Australia, land use and management activities have transformed much of the forest and woodland landscapes associated with the Great Dividing Ranges; central Tasmania and south west of Western Australia with large areas cleared and converted to crops and improved pastures (Thackway and Lesslie 2008). Even in the absence of clearing, most of Australia’s arid and semi-arid rangelands have been transformed ecologically due to the impacts of livestock production over 150 years or more (Williams and Price 2010). The resultant landscapes are a diverse spatial mosaic of fragmented and modified native vegetation and converted and replaced vegetation cover types (Thackway and Lesslie 2008). Documenting the historic and contemporary use and management of a site and assessing their effects on vegetation condition is a complex task. This handbook sets out a systematic approach for compiling and assessing such quantitative and qualitative data and information as well as personal communications to determine changes in the condition of native plant communities over time. Sometimes the management history of a site can be determined from historical records and/or via observed characteristics of the vegetation. The effects of these activities can also sometimes be ‘read’ at sites from the presence of exotic species relative to the native species that remain, the lack of an overstorey or an understorey, the presence of soil erosion or of soil deposition, the lack of an age class in growth form (e.g. old trees), the height of the understorey, the density of particular species in the understorey indicating a recent fire. For this reason, this handbook provides general guidance only. An early draft of this handbook was developed during 2011 as part of a Sabbatical Visiting Fellowship with the Australian Centre for Ecological Synthesis and Analysis, a facility of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network. i

Acknowledgements

Support to develop the VASTTRANS system is gratefully acknowledged and was made possible through two research fellowships in 2010-11. First, a Visiting Sabbatical Fellowship with the Australian Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (ACEAS) a facility of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network (TERN) with the support of the University of Queensland Department of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management (Brisbane). Second, a Visiting Research Scientist Fellowship with the CSIRO Division of Sustainable Ecosystems (Canberra). Those fellowships enabled the VASTTRANS system to be developed and tested using numerous case studies across a number of bioregions. Since that time the VASTTRANS system continues to be implemented at sites across Australia. The theoretical underpinnings for the VASTTRANS system has been developed with the support and encouragement of several of Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading ecologists in particular Tim Clancy, Rob Lesslie, Jamie Kirkpatrick, Sue McIntyre, Henry Nix, Denis Saunders, Alison Specht, Ray Specht and Joe Walker. Many other private, non-government and government agency land holders and managers as well as ecologists and environmental historians have provided valuable insights and constructive comments to improve the system.

Table of Contents Preamble .............................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................. ii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Ten benefits of tracking the effects of land management practices ...................................................... 3 Aims of this Handbook ............................................................................................................................ 4 What information is essential? ............................................................................................................... 5 Why monitor? ..................................................................................................................................... 6 What is a reference state? ...................................................................................................................... 6 Why use a reference state as a benchmark? ...................................................................................... 6 Where in the landscape to select sites? ................................................................................................. 7 How to define a site? .......................................................................................................................... 7 How to select and describe a site? ..................................................................................................... 7 What year to start recording a site chronology? .................................................................................... 8 How to record time at a site? ............................................................................................................. 8 How to monitor................................................................................................................................... 8 What land use and management information to record? ...................................................................... 9 What land use information to record? ............................................................................................... 9 What land management practice information to record? ................................................................. 9 Understanding natural and human caused disturbances ..................................................................... 10 Why use indicators to describe impacts of land use and management? ............................................. 10 What contextual site-based environmental information is important?............................................... 11 What vegetation structure and species composition information is important? ................................ 11 How to describe vegetation transformation using VASTTRANS indicators? ........................................ 12 What evidence to record of impacts on regenerative capacity? ...................................................... 13 1)

Fire regime ............................................................................................................................ 13

Soil hydrology........................................................................................................................ 14

Soil physical state .................................................................................................................. 14

Soil nutrient state.................................................................................................................. 14

Soil biological state ............................................................................................................... 15

Reproductive potential ......................................................................................................... 15

What evidence to record of impacts on vegetation structure? ........................................................... 16 7)

Overstorey vegetation structure........................................................................................... 16

Understorey vegetation structure ........................................................................................ 16 iii

What evidence to record of impacts on species composition? ........................................................ 17 9) 10)

Overstorey species composition ........................................................................................... 17 Understorey species composition..................................................................................... 17

What are species functional groups?.................................................................................................... 18 Table 5. List of 12 species functional groups affected by land management practices. .................. 18 What sources of information are helpful?............................................................................................ 19 How to record the reliability of sources of observations or measurements? ...................................... 20 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 20 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 21 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................ 23 Glossary ................................................................................................................................................. 23 Figure 1. Information hierarchy used to synthesize data through four levels; indicators (22), attribute groups (10), diagnostic attributes (3) and transformation score (1). ................... 25 Figure 2. Example of VASTTRANS scores for a Themeda grassy woodland, ................................. 26 Figure 3. Assessing and scoring the reliability of thematic information....................................... 27 Table 1. Summary of the Australian Land Use and Management (ABARES 2011). ...................... 28 Table 2. Land Use and Management Information System............................................................ 31 Table 3. VASTTRANS hierarchy comprising components of vegetation condition, attribute groups and indicators of vegetation transformation.................................................................... 37 Table 4. Certainty level standards used to assign reliability scores site-based historical records. ......................................................................................................................................... 39 Appendices............................................................................................................................................ 40 Appendix 1. VASTTRANS datasheet - Site-based recording of use and land management and their effects on a plant community over time .................................................................................. 40 Appendix 2. People, Sheep and Nature Conservation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Tasmanian Experience ....................... 49 Appendix 3. How to use the Australian Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (ACEAS) Portal to access completed vegetation transformation sites ........................................................... 50

Introduction The use and management of native plant communities results in characteristic impacts on the extent and condition (fragmentation and modification) of vegetation structure, species composition and regenerative capacity. Landsberg and Crowley (2004) describe these impacts as pressure metrics or indicators, which include grazing, clearing, weed invasions and inappropriate fire regimes. Williams et al., (2002) in assessing the key issues in resource management at the regional level in Australia defined a range of vegetation and ecological function indicators are impacted by use and management. Doherty (2009) in a review of the conservation value of regrowth native plant communities for biodiversity highlighted the importance of understanding the impacts of use and management of native plant communities (vegetation structure, species composition and regenerative capacity). McGlone (2000) points out that information on history of use and management plays an important role for developing a template for how we might manage our future natural environments, noting that where information is documented and analysed at sites it provides a continuous record of change. Land planners and managers require information on the status, change and trend of these impacts on vegetation types for environmental reporting, land use trade-offs, and to inform future land use scenarios. Over the last decade considerable progress has been made in developing information systems for compiling regional scale datasets of the current extent and condition of Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vegetation types, relative to a pre-European unmodified state. However, little work has yet been done to develop a method for compiling data and information on the way land use and land management practices have transformed, and continue to transform the extent and condition of Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vegetated landscapes. The absence of a consistent approach to report transformations of native vegetation over space and time remains a source of contention, and even conflict, between those involved in conservation and protection and those involved in sustainable land use and management of native vegetation. This handbook presents a system for recording site-based transformations of Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vegetated landscapes since settlement. The system utilises observed and/or measured information on changes in land use and land management practices and their impacts on vegetation structure, species composition and regenerative capacity over time. Fundamental to the approach is access to credible published sources of information that describe where, when, and what changes in land use and land management practices were used to manage the vegetation. The sources of this information are multidisciplinary, including land use histories, remote sensing, and several branches of ecological science; landscape, vegetation and restoration. Much of the historic information is qualitative, compared to contemporary information, which is mostly quantitative. A key challenge for users of this handbook is to compile information which is generally piecemeal, not easily discoverable, poorly organised and to a large extent non-digital. Information is held in disparate places, sources and forms.

This handbook has been developed based on lessons learnt in compiling and translating disparate sources of information about case study sites. It provides a consistent national guideline for recording the transformation of native plant communities at sites. This version of the handbook does not describe: ď&#x201A;ˇ ď&#x201A;ˇ

ď&#x201A;ˇ

The scoring system (1-0) used in the VASTTRANS spread sheet for scoring 22 indicators which underpin regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition. The process for aggregating separate scores for regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition into a single composite vegetation transformation score for each year. The process for developing models of the transformation of vegetation at landscape scales across Australia over time.

Ten benefits of tracking the effects of land management practices 1) Tracking land management practices over time at well-chosen representative sites offers a least cost method of monitoring and modelling change and trend in vegetation condition. This is because native plant communities generally respond in predictable ways to land management practices. 2) Tracking the responses of native plant communities to land management practice e.g. interventions, can give insight into rates of change in the short term following one-off impacts and in the long term after repeated disturbances and interventions e.g. strategic grazing. 3) Tracking land management practices and the observed and/or measured responses of plant communities can provide key information on the timing of changes and trends in vegetation condition, which is critical for modelling local, landscape and boarder regional patterns. 4) Repeating a standardised monitoring method enables land managers to investigate which land management practices effect the vegetation condition indirectly either by targeting the regenerative capacity, or directly by targeting the species composition and vegetation structure. 5) Creating a historical record of land management practices provides important evidence of the effects of everyday and routine land management practices and helps decision makers understand the responses of vegetation to these practices: a) removing trees, shrubs and/or grasses e.g. clearing, pulling, pushing, ploughing b) replacing trees, shrubs and/or grasses e.g. revegetating, restoring c) managing the health and vitality of vegetation e.g. rolling, pruning, lopping, staking, slashing, fertilising, grazing, bailing, ploughing, rehabilitating, burning, poisoning and pulling d) managing waste and residues from vegetation e.g. burning felled trees, burning shrubs and grasses e) monitoring the response of vegetation to the above. 6) Documenting a historical record enables land managers to assess the likelihood of sites in similar environmental settings behaving in similar patterns in the short, medium, long term and very long term for least cost. 7) Tracking key indicators of the response of the vegetation and the environment, relative to a reference state (e.g. pre-European plant community), provides a valuable tool for evaluating progress toward a target or distance from a reference. Change that is positive is that which is trending toward the reference state, whereas change that is negative is that which is trending away from the reference state. 8) Tracking gains and losses in key indicators that are linked to land management practices provides insight into those practices which maintain, enhance, restore or remove a plant community. 9) Tracking gains and losses in key indicators that are linked to the fundamental components of vegetation condition i.e. regenerative capacity, species composition and vegetation structure can be used to understand, modify or enhance or replace native vegetation: a) Indicators of regenerative capacity include soil hydrology, soil structure, soil nutrients, soil biota, fire regime and the reproductive potential b) Indicators of species composition include species richness and vegetation functional groups in the overstorey and understorey c) Indicators of vegetation structure include height, cover and structural diversity or age of the dominant life stages /age classes of components of the overstorey and understorey. 10) Tracking the interactions between the prevailing environmental conditions e.g. long term average monthly rainfall and the land management practices on indicators of vegetation condition will establish insights into cause and effect. By recording these interactions it is easier to assign causal effects due to anthropogenic and natural environmental conditions. In some cases the interactions will result in inadvertent change and trend.

Aims of this Handbook

The aim of this handbook is to provide a structured way to record observed and/or measured responses of native plant communities at sites to historic and contemporary land use and land management practices relative to a reference state. This approach is premised on the idea that the disturbance history of a site strongly influences opportunities for improvements in vegetation condition.

The approach set out below aims to operationalize the ‘Transitions’ component of the Vegetation Assets States and Transitions (Thackway and Lesslie 2006, 2008). This is enabled by defining a ‘reference site’ (i.e. least ecologically modified native vegetation – assumed pre-European) and a ‘transformation site’ for each plant community.

A ‘reference site’ defines what was plausible at a ‘transformation site’ in terms of the three components of vegetation condition; species composition, vegetation structure and regenerative capacity. A ‘transformation site’ is the same plant community as the reference site but whose three components of vegetation condition may have been changed over time as a result of modern anthropogenic influences i.e. use and management.

To assist in fulfilling this aim, a site-based proforma datasheet (Appendix 1) is provided as a guide the systematic compilation of the historical record of a plant community over time, compared to a site-based reference state.

For the purposes of compiling and assessing vegetation and environmental change at a transformation site, it is assumed that the primary driving natural variable, common to the reference and transformation sites, is average monthly rainfall throughout the historic record.

What information is essential? Twelve core attributes are required to describe the transformation of a plant community relative to its reference state: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Location of the site Source of geo-code Reliability of the geo-code Date of the observation and/or measurement Source of date/year Reliability of the date/year Land management practices for each approximate year Source of land management practices Reliability of the land management practices Effects and impacts of land management practices on ecological function and vegetation condition, 11) Source of effects and impacts 11. Reliability of the observed and/or measured effects and impacts of land management practices. 22 indicators of vegetation and environmental transformation are used as a checklist to guide the search for, and compilation of, information on the effects and impacts of the land use and management on a plant community over time. The sequence of recording the information is important. Always start with the location followed by the year of observation and measurement, then compile land use and land management practices and the effects and impacts of land management practices on ecological function and vegetation condition. Contemporary observations and measurements can be recorded as year/month/day, whereas historic observations typically only have the year. Try to avoid general observations e.g. mid 1880s. Where no other date is available record this as 1885. It should be noted that this process may require several attempts at getting all the information in the right historical sequence and sorting out what are the important observations in regard to describing historic and contemporary changes in regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition that are due to land use and land management actions/practices. It should be noted that land use and land management practices can have cumulative effects over time. Also important are the interactions between natural events e.g. drought, fire and flood and the effects on the vegetation of land use and land management actions/practices. Record all major natural events as part of the chronology. Observations and/or measurements should be recorded relative the reference state. The VASTTRANS site-based datasheet at Appendix 1 specifies these contextual site-based geographic, vegetation and environmental attributes and how they should be recorded. The process of compiling information on the effects of use and management of a nominated site should refer to the 22 indicators as a checklist. These 22 indicators describe the key factors which land managers target to assess, maintain, enhance, restore, remove and replace with non-native vegetation e.g. plantations and crops or remove and replace with non-vegetated cover types e.g. built infrastructure, pavement or gravel surfaces. 5

Why monitor? Monitoring involves the regular collection of information at the reference and transformation site using the same method so that it is possible to track changes and trends in the key 22 indicators of the condition of a plant community and the summary components of the plant community i.e. regenerative capacity, vegetation structure, species composition and the total vegetation condition. It is an important on-going management tool that needs to be standardised, repeatable, verifiable and recognisable. For best results monitoring should occur continuously over a number of years at the same time using the same method of observation and measurement. The section below How to Monitor describes a photo-point approach, which provides a basis for recording several of the structural indicators at sites. Critical to the method is to develop an ecological understanding the interactions in the historic record between historic rainfall and land management and the responses of the indicators and the components of vegetation condition for each plant community. Recording the disturbance history of a site can inform future land management options.

What is a reference state? A reference state represents an unmodified state against which a transformation site can be compared. Components of vegetation condition at a reference site i.e. vegetation structure, species composition and regenerative capacity are comprised of groups of indicators, where each component is assigned 100%, i.e. unmodified. Observed and/or measured changes in 22 indicators for each year in the historical record at a transformation site range from 0 to 1; where 1 represents a natural unmodified plant community as it would have been without post settlement human intervention, and 0 is where that ecological function is absent (Cosier and McDonald 2010).

Why use a reference state as a benchmark? Describing a transformation site or modified vegetated landscape against a reference state does not imply or suggest that site or landscape should be returned to its pre settlement condition or state. Rather, a reference state simply provides a common base to measure change against a common denominator (Cosier and McDonald 2010). Reference condition or state is used extensively in the scientific literature to describe a standard or benchmark against which to compare the condition of an ecosystem or vegetation and habitat type (Parkes et al., 2003, Stoddard et al., 2006). In complex ecosystems it also provides an appropriate measure for describing where ecosystems are approaching critical thresholds (Scheffer et al.,. 2001, Walker and Meyers 2004).

Where in the landscape to select sites? Choose sites in areas which are representative of the bioregion i.e. representative of the characteristic soil landscape elements. Select a site (reference and transformation) in the same landscape element i.e. sharing the same soil, plant community and landform.

How to define a site? A site is an area of uniform soil and topographic features and pre-European vegetation communities considered to be representative of a dominant landscape element. A landscape element includes e.g. plains, depressions, flats and lower slopes, mid slopes, upper and ridge lines. The geology and soil type is also relatively uniform throughout a site. The pre-European plant community of a site is also relatively uniform throughout the area. The geo-location of a site and its shape and area remain constant back in time, now and into the future. The use and land management of the vegetation at a site will change over time but are expected to be uniform over the extent of a site at different time intervals. It is important to record changes in use and management of the site over time and their effects on the respective components of vegetation condition i.e. regenerative capacity, species composition and vegetation structure.

How to select and describe a site? Limit the size (length and width) of a site so that a site represents a narrow range of variation i.e. vegetation, soil, slope and aspect. Aim for uniformity throughout the site assuming the use and management has been homogeneous. There are number of ways to mark a site. A commonly used method is to establish a permanent marker at the site e.g. a star picket to help relocate the site. Use a GPS and/or Google earth to record the location of the site and distance from key features of the site. In addition, mark the site on a topographic map and or on a farm plan or vegetation plan. Where practical and with the resources available select and describe two sites in an area: 1. Choose a site which is representative of high impact use and management on the plant community i.e. the native vegetation has been fragmented and replaced. This site may be described as a treatment 2. Choose a site which is representative of low impact uses and management on the plant community i.e. the native vegetation has persisted since first settlement. The native vegetation at such sites may have been minimally modified as a result of land use and management pressures. This site could be described as a control.

What year to start recording a site chronology? Start the chronology in the year when explorers first traversed the area/region. NB: the path taken by an explorer need only be in the vicinity and be indicative of the soil landscape /bioregion and not be actually in the area of the site/s.

How to record time at a site? Document the start and finish dates of all major land use and land management changes that have affected the plant community at the site. Contemporary observations and measurements can be recorded as year/month/day, whereas historic observations typically only have the year. Try to avoid general observations e.g. mid 1880. Where no other date is available record this as 1885. Where the use and management of plant community is observed to be generally the same (e.g. sheep grazing at 1 sheep per 5 ha) for a period (e.g. started in 1835 and ceased in 1910); record the start and finish years of the practice. Where the use remains the same (e.g. grazing native vegetation) and the management regime/practices change then record the start of the changes in management regime/practices (e.g. started set stocking with 1 sheep per 2 ha in 1935 and changed to cell grazing in 2005), then record the start and finish years. Where information is available on the season of the land management practice, then record year/month/day.

How to monitor For best results monitoring should occur continuously over a number of years at the same time using the same method of observation and measurement. There are many different methods of monitoring change over time. Perhaps the most commonly used monitoring approach is that of photo-points, as they are relatively quick and simple and require a minimum of training and skills. Once a site is selected a permanent marker from which ground-based photos can be taken and retaken over time is established. Photo-points do have clear benefits however unless site methods are well designed they offer only limited information about change over time. Many state and territory agencies and university and CSIRO researchers have developed site-based methods for monitoring native vegetation. These protocols vary in the types and levels of detail that are collected. Where possible use available state and territory guidelines and protocols. Two examples of a photo-point methods are: (referenced under SA and WA Government Systems).

What land use and management information to record? What land use information to record? Land use is defined as … The purpose to which the land cover is committed. Some land uses, such as [intensive] agriculture, have a characteristic land cover pattern and usually appear in land cover classifications. Other land uses, such as grazing native vegetation, are not readily discriminated by a characteristic land cover pattern. For example, where the land cover is woodland, land use may be timber production or nature conservation. (ACLUMP 2010a)

Table 1 presents a list of national land uses classes and codes (ABARES 2011) for use reclassifying information compiled into Section 10 of Appendix 1 and ‘filling in’ the VASTTRANS spread sheet (not included in this Handbook). These classes and codes a known as the Australian Land Use and Management (ALUM) classification system and have been developed by the Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program (ACLUMP), which comprises representatives of the Australian and State and Territory land management agencies. What land management practice information to record? Land management practice is defined as the approach taken to achieve a land use outcome—the ‘how’ of land use (e.g. grazing a native woodland, such as raking fallen timber, burning windrowed fallen timber, spraying weeds, adding superphosphate). Some land management practices (e.g. clear felling native forest plantations and direct seeding) may be discriminated by characteristic land cover patterns that are be linked to vegetation and environmental indicators. For the purposes of the VASTTRANS approach each ALUM land use class can be described by up to five dominant land management practices that are observed and/or measured to operate at the site in a year. Table 2 presents a preliminary list of land management practice classes and codes for use reclassifying information compiled into Section 10 of Appendix 1 and ‘filling in’ the VASTTRANS spread sheet (not included in this Handbook). These classes and codes a known as the Land Use and Management Information System (LUMIS) and are being developed in consultation with ACLUMP (Bureau of Rural Sciences 2006, ACLUMP 2010b). To illustrate the need for a standardised national list of management practices, Appendix 2 presents a list of land management practices compiled by (Kirkpatrick and Bridle, 2008). This list, was compiled as part of a study of the history of use and management of sheep runs and their effects on the vegetation and environment in Tasmania’s midlands, shows the diversity of management practices which pertain to grassy woodlands in one bioregion. The value of such lists at the site level come when these land management practices are reclassified using the LUMIS framework in Table 2.

Understanding natural and human caused disturbances Short term (1-2 years) repeated observations of these data types at sites, may not show obvious changes where the causal factors are natural disturbances including, grazing and browsing by native animals, and recovery from cyclone, fire, drought, storms. Many human actions such as revegetation and rehabilitation, fencing out of domestic livestock, controlling weeds, reintroducing fire, adding or stopping fertilizer also may not show obvious changes in the short term. Short-term obvious responses do occur especially where the plant community has been highly modified via natural catastrophic events such as cyclones, wildfire, floods and storms. Short-term responses to human actions such as recovery from clear felling trees and shrubs, ploughing and over grazing with domestic and/or native animals or a combination of both may also be observed and/or measured. Medium (around 5 years) and longer term (around 10-20 years) repeated observations at sites, generally do show obvious changes. These changes include recovery from disturbances caused by cyclones, fire, drought, storms and human use and management actions (such as revegetation and rehabilitation, fencing out of domestic livestock, controlling weeds and feral species, reintroducing fire, reintroducing flooding of wetlands, mitigating soil erosion, thinning of dense vegetation). The VASTTRANS site-based datasheet at Appendix 1 defines these contextual site-based environmental attributes and how they should be recorded.

Why use indicators to describe impacts of land use and management? The science of ecosystem health indicators makes the task of accounting for the transformation of vegetated landscapes tractable. Cosier and McDonald (2010) noted that ecosystem health indicators are quantifiable and transparent measures of the characteristics of the ecosystem that can detect change. These authors also observe that with careful selection, indicators are capable of providing a simple measure for a complex system. Figure 1 shows 22 indicators forming part of the VASTRANS information hierarchy for deriving scores of vegetation and environmental transformation for each year in the historical record. That is, scores from the 22 indicators below are aggregated into 10 attribute groups. The scores from these 10 attribute groups are aggregated into 3 diagnostic attributes. The scores from these 3 diagnostic attributes are weighted and then aggregated into a single score vegetation transformation for each year in the historical record.

What contextual site-based environmental information is important? Regional scale natural environmental events such as tropical cyclones, wildfires and droughts can have profound effects on vegetation dynamics and provide insights into the response of natural vegetation systems. Only when these patterns and processes are understood is it possible to understand observed and/or measured impacts of land management activities on ecosystem function. It is vital therefore to take note of anomalies in the monthly average rainfall record e.g. droughts and prolonged periods or seasons of above and below average rainfall. It is vital to understand and describe the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reference state using the following environmental attributes and regimes: climate and rainfall, geology, soil, landform and position in the landscape, hydrology and fire. The system for describing and recording above attributes using the VASTTRANS indicators is presented below. The VASTTRANS site-based datasheet at Appendix 1 defines these contextual environmental attributes and how they should be recorded.

What vegetation structure and species composition information is important? The minimum information necessary to describe the effects of use and management practices on plant communities involves the collection of six types of data at each site: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Dominant growth form (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present) Cover (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present) Height (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present) Age structure or structural diversity (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present) Dominant species (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present) Functional traits of species groups (per stratum, if more than one stratum is present).

It is vital to understand and describe the reference state for attributes of vegetation structure and species composition at the site level. The system for describing and recording above attributes using the VASTTRANS indicators is presented below. The VASTTRANS site-based datasheet at Appendix 1 defines attributes of vegetation structure and species composition and how they should be recorded. Where other information is available for biomass and species density classes, these can be useful for understanding changes in several indicators of vegetation structure and species composition.

How to describe vegetation transformation using VASTTRANS indicators? A review of the ecological literature that describe the impacts of land use and management on the regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition of native plant communities, identified 22 core attributes which generally apply across Australia’s bioregions, Table 3. The 22 core attributes correspond with the VAST diagnostic attributes (Thackway and Lesslie 2008) of regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition. The 22 core attributes serve two purposes: 1) Site-level vegetation transformation At present this handbook handles only site level data compilation i.e. 1a below a) a framework to guide the compilation of likely relevant evidence of the probable responses of plant community i.e. changes in regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition due to changes in land use and management practices Information on the impacts of use and management of vegetation on the22 core attributes can be derived from site-based sources e.g. changes in species composition, changes in age class or structural diversity or changes in grazing pressure on grazing sensitive plant species. A VASTTRANS datasheet (Appendix 1) is provided as a convenient tool for recording information on:  Approximate year  Source of year information  Land use (ALUM)  List of land use (LU) and land management practices (LMP)  Source of LMP information  Descriptions of the response of native plant communities to LU and LMP (i.e. impacts on species composition, veg structure and regenerative capacity) informed by the22 core attributes  Source of response information b) a framework for scoring 22 indicators of the observed and/or measured impacts of land use and management practices on regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition. A separate VASTTRANS spread sheet can be provided as a convenient tool for scoring and graphing the 22 indicators. An example of a resultant graph is presented in Figure 2. 12

2) Landscape-level vegetation transformation At present this handbook handles only site level data compilation i.e. 1a above a) a framework for compiling relevant spatial evidence of the likely responses of a particular plant community i.e. changes in regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition due to changes in land use and management practices.

Spatial information on the impacts of use and management of vegetation on the core attributes can be derived from landscape level sources e.g. maps of extent of tree clearance, trends in grazing extent and density, trends in woody or ground layer vegetation, changes in the extent and timing of prescribed burning. b) a framework for modelling spatial information of the observed and/or measured impacts of land use and management practices on regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition

What evidence to record of impacts on regenerative capacity? This section describes 12 indicators that are impacted positively and negatively relative to reference state by changes in land use and management practices. Useful national guidelines for field survey of the following attributes of regenerative capacity include soil structure (National Committee for Soil and Terrain Information 2009) and reproductive potential (Hnatiuk et al., 2009).

1) Fire regime Have the LMPs impacted on the pre-settlement fire regime? Indicator 1.

Indicator 2.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference area /size of fire foot prints Examples: Small mosaics of burnt areas used to create landscape patchiness to break-up large wildfires. Burnt areas are used to create areas for managed grazing animals. No management used to control or manage the size of burnt areas. Seasonal burnt areas based on biomass curing used to create habitat for selected species. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference number of fire starts Examples: Total fire suppression and exclusion used to prevent burnt areas. Annual late dry season intense burns used to remove regenerating shrubs and trees and promote new ground cover following rains. Seasonal burning used to control fuel accumulation. Seasonal burning used to remove rank biomass and promote new pasture. Prescribed management burn used to remove weeds.

2) Soil hydrology Have the LMPs impacted the soil hydrology? Indicator 3.

Indicator 4.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference soil surface water availability Examples: Engineering works used to change surface water run-off/ run-on characteristics. Earthen banks used to redirect surface overflow patterns on floodplains. Drains used to channel water to, or away from, areas of interest or value Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference ground water availability Examples: Engineering works used to add ground water to the soil profile e.g. via flooding and irrigation. Engineering works used to remove ground water e.g. via deep drainage

3) Soil physical state Have the LMPs impacted the soil physical state? Indicator 5.

Indicator 6.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference depth of the A horizon Examples: Overgrazing on sandy and loamy soils in droughts inadvertently leading to wind and /or water erosion i.e. loss of A horizon. Practices that inadvertently result in deposition of soil on the pre-existing A horizon Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in reference soil structure Examples: Domestic stock in set stocking systems inadvertently compacting soil by trampling. Soil cultivation used to mix the A horizon

4) Soil nutrient state Have the LMPs impacted the soil nutrient state? Indicator 7.

Indicator 8.

Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rundown (deficiency) relative to reference soil fertility Examples: Continuous grazing without replenishing the nutrients inadvertently reduces NPK. NB: Addition of exogenous fertilizers can replace depleted NPK to plant growth. Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excess (toxicity) relative to reference soil fertility Examples: Addition of exogenous fertilizers and trace elements used to promote pasture and crop production

5) Soil biological state Have the LMPs impacted the soil biological state? Indicator 9.

Indicator 10.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference vertebrate /invertebrate recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling Examples: Practices which remove, destroy or degrade habitat for invertebrate recyclers e.g. soil compaction through set stocking, removal of organic ground cover. Practices which enhance habitat for invertebrate recyclers e.g. remove domestic stock, cell or strategic grazing. Reducing fire starts Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in reference surface organic matter, soil crusts Examples: Practices which remove, destroy or degrade indigenous surface organic matter, soil crusts e.g. burning, grazing and trampling, mechanical soil disturbance

6) Reproductive potential Have the LMPs impacted the reproductive potential of the plant community? Indicator 11.

Indicator 12.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species. Examples: Strategic release from continuous grazing used to establish and promote mixed age stands. Continuous grazing used to prevent cohorts of mixed age stands from establishing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; resulting in senescent adults with very low availability of viable of seed. Blade ploughing used to inhibit or kill deep rooted perennial plants. Selective logging used to maintain stand structural diversity. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of understorey structuring species Examples: Release from continuous grazing enabling establishment of mixed age ground cover. Continuous grazing/cropping used to prevent establishment of mixed age native ground cover. Mowing and burning used to promote the production and setting of viable of seed and /or vegetative material.

What evidence to record of impacts on vegetation structure? Land management practices can operate positively and negatively on the vegetation structure of a plant community. Useful national guidelines for field survey of vegetation structural attributes are presented in Hnatiuk et al., (2009).

7) Overstorey vegetation structure Indicator 13.

Indicator 14.

Indicator 15.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference overstorey top height (mean) of the plant community Examples: Ring barking used to kill trees. Grubbing used to remove regenerating tree seedlings. Tree pushing used to kill trees. Ball and chain tree clearing used to kill trees. Clear felling coupes used to create even aged stand regeneration. Selective logging used to maintain stand height. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference overstorey foliage projective cover (mean) of the plant community Examples: Selective logging used to reduce stand density and promote growth of selected tree species. Thinning of trees to promote pasture growth using ring barking and /or stem injection. Chaining and crushing of shrubs to open up areas for pasture establishment. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference overstorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community Examples: Timber stand improvement used to reduce stand density and promote growth of selected tree species. Large mature trees harvested for specialty timbers. Millable timber harvested for saw logs. Regrowth of seedlings and saplings controlled to reduce completion with poles and mature age classes. Vertebrate pest species controlled to promote establishment of seedlings.

8) Understorey vegetation structure Indicator 16.

Indicator 17.

Indicator 18.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference understorey top height (mean) of the plant community. Examples: Tactical use of grazing animals to reduce standing biomass. Continuous heavy set stocking can over graze ground cover leading to reduction in height of grass and shrub growth forms as well as structural diversity. Strategic release from continuous grazing used to promote growth of pasture grasses. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference understorey ground cover (mean) of the plant community. Examples: Strategic release from continuous grazing used to promote growth of pasture grasses and reduce exposed soil. Removal of domestic grazing animals to promote establishment of native pasture. Culling of macropods to promote growth of pasture grasses and reduce exposed soil. Fencing patches used to prevent access by grazing animals. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference understorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community. Examples: Revegetating with scalded areas with native grass and shrub species. Strategic release from continuous grazing used to promote establishment and growth or regrowth of a diversity of growth form age classes.

What evidence to record of impacts on species composition? Land management practices can operate positively and negatively on the species composition of a plant community. Useful national guidelines for field survey of species compositional attributes are presented in Hnatiuk et al., (2009) and Cummings and Reid (2008).

9) Overstorey species composition Indicator 19.

Indicator 20.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference densities of overstorey species functional groups. Examples: Continuous over harvesting of tree species may lead to inadvertent changes in the density of species functional groups in the remaining stand e.g. firewood to nonfirewood species, millable to non-millable species, fodder to non-fodder species. Regeneration /planting of harvested species used to replenish /replace or reestablish the density of species functional groups. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference number of overstorey indigenous species (richness) of the plant community compared to nonindigenous species. Examples: Timber stand improvement used to reduce stand density of some species and promote growth of other species.

10) Understorey species composition Indicator 21.

Indicator 22.

Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference densities of understorey species functional groups Examples: Continuous heavy set stocking rates may lead to inadvertent changes in the density of species functional groups in the understorey e.g. invasive native species, palatable to non-palatable species, woody to non-woody species. Harvesting and removal of exotic species biomass to reduce nitrogen loads. Spreading of high load carbohydrate products e.g. sugar or saw dust to suppress excessive nutrient levels which benefit weedy species. Observed and/or measured increase or decrease in the reference relative number of understorey indigenous species (richness) of the plant community compared to nonindigenous species. Examples: Continuous heavy set stocking may lead to a loss of understorey species richness. Strategic grazing used to promote seed set of native species in particular seasons. Prescribed burning used to promote seed set of selected native species. Release from continuous grazing used to promote establishment of mixed species in native pasture. Scarifying soil surface used to promote germination. Direct seeding and sowing of tube stock to increase species richness.

The VASTTRANS site-based datasheet at Appendix 1 defines these contextual site-based environmental attributes and how they should be recorded. 17

What are species functional groups? Cummings and Reid (2008) describe 12 species functional groups (Table 5). Land use and management practices maintain, modify by reducing or removing or modify by enhancing or restoring the number and densities of species functional groups listed in Table 5. Changes made to species functional groups generally reflect the values of a land manager and of the wider society. Depending on a land managerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose for managing a site, various mixes and densities of these 12 functional groups of the native vegetation are maintained, modified, removed and/or replaced. Records of land management practices and on-ground actions over time generally give insights into what changes have been made to alter the natural ecological function of a site and the desire of successive land managers to derive an altered mix of ecosystem services from that delivered from intact native vegetation (Yapp et al., 2010). Of course the reverse is also true, where a land manager will invest resources (private and public) to rehabilitate and restore the natural ecological function of a site (resilience) with the aim of reinstating the natural mix of ecosystem services, including biodiversity conservation that can be expected from intact native vegetation. Table 5. List of 12 species functional groups affected by land management practices.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Canopy Trees Understorey Trees Woody Shrubs Introduced Woody Shrubs Perennial Herbs Introduced Perennial Herbs Annual Herbs Introduced Annual Herbs Monocots Grass-like Monocots Introduced Grass-like Monocots Ferns

Source: Cummings and Reid (2008).

What sources of information are helpful? There are a wide range of sources of information that are useful for compiling observed and/or measured responses of a plant community at a site and the associated historic and contemporary land use and land management practices. These include quantitative and qualitative data and information as well as personal communications. Environmental history and experimental ecology offer valuable insights to determine changes in the condition of plant community over time. Land manager journals and plans of management are useful compendiums of information. Preferably observations or measurements should be based on published sources e.g. newspapers, books, reports, journal papers, maps, aerial photos and satellite images and websites. Government funded, standardised land evaluation, ecological and vegetation surveys usually provide quantitative time bound observations and measurements which can act as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;book endsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; within which to sequence less quantitative observations and personal communications. The preferred way to cite published sources is to use the standard Oxford method for recoding citations. Much historical information is in bits and pieces, and much of it is useful, even though it hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been peer-reviewed. For example, a land holder might have good land management practices information in farm records, but no ecologist has ever seen it. Such information in the hands of an ecologist, can generate new understanding of the impact of management decisions in transforming our landscapes. The preferred way to cite an unpublished source is to state the name of individual, the organisational affinity of the individual and the date of the observation e.g. John Smith, pers comm, May 2010, owner of Mulga Flats 1963-2001.

How to record the reliability of sources of observations or measurements? There are many valid sources of data and information some quantitative and some qualitative. Attribute types include geo-spatial, temporal and thematic. Information (i.e. measurements and observations) sources that are based on primary sources and measurements are the most reliable; these are quantitative. Those measurements and observations that are based on secondary and tertiary sources and measurements or which are based on anecdotal information and cannot be corroborated and validated or repeated are the least reliable; these are qualitative. Each attribute type is assigned a code for ease of scoring the reliability of the source information. Table 4 provides descriptions of three types of attribute information and how to attribute scores of reliability to these information using the VASTTRANS system: 1. Geo-spatial precision (geo-location). codes 1-3 2. Temporal precision (year of observation) codes 4-6 3. Theme accuracy (i.e. land use, land management practices, effects of practices on the components of vegetation condition) codes 7-9 Information sources assigned low scores (i.e. 1, 4 and 7) indicate high reliability where as high scores (i.e. 3, 6 and 9) indicate low reliability across the attribute types. Figure 3 illustrates the sources of relevant thematic information for a site however such information must be assessed and scored using the reliability scores. Issues to consider include granularity and equivalence of that broader geographic and ecological information to the ecological and land management history for the site in question.

Conclusions Documenting the historic record of land use and management at a site and assessing the effects on vegetation condition need not be a complex task. This handbook sets out a systematic approach for compiling and evaluating such quantitative and qualitative data and information as well as personal communications to determine changes in the condition of a plant community over time. Results for sites completed during the authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fellowship with ACEAS and CSIRO are posted on ACEAS Portal http://aceas.org.au/portal/. Guidelines of how to use the ACEAS Portal are presented in Appendix 3.

Bibliography ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences), (2011). Guidelines for land use mapping in Australia: principles, procedures and deﬁnitions, fourth edition, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Canberra. http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abares99001806/GuidelinesLandUseMappingLowRes2011.pdf

ACLUMP (Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program), (nd). Land Use in Australia – At a Glance. http://adl.brs.gov.au/mapserv/landuse/pdf_files/Web_LandUseataGlance.pdf ACLUMP (Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program), (2010a). Land Use and Land Management Information for Australia: Workplan of the Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Canberra. http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abares99001769/ACLUMP_WorkplanReport_20101216.pdf ACLUMP (Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program), (2010b). Status of Land Management practices Activities of the Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Canberra. http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abares99001770/ACLUMP_StatusReport_20101216.pdf Bureau of Rural Sciences (2006). Land management practices classification and mapping. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. http://adl.brs.gov.au/landuse/docs/LUMIS_Brochure_2006.pdf Cosier, P. and McDonald, J. (2010). A Common Currency for Building Environmental (Ecosystem) Accounts A proposed standard for Environmental (Ecosystem) Accounting for the international ‘System of integrated Environmental and Economic Accounts’. 16th Meeting of the London Group on Environmental Accounting, held at Santiago, 25 – 28 October 2010. Paper prepared for the 16th meeting of the London Group on Environmental Accounting (LG/16/22), Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists. Cummings, J. and Reid, N., (2008) Stand-level management of plantations to improve biodiversity values. Biodivers Conserv 17:1187–1211 Doherty, M., (2009). The Conservation Value of Regrowth Native Plant Communities: A Review. Final report. A Report Prepared for the New South Wales Scientific Committee, December 1998. CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, Canberra. Hnatiuk,R., Thackway, R., and Walker, J. (2009). Vegetation. In: National Committee for Soil and Terrain Information (Ed). Australian soil and land survey: field handbook (3rd edn). CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. http://www.worldcat.org/title/australian-soil-and-land-survey-fieldhandbook/oclc/435620287 Kirkpatrick J and Bridle, K (2008) People, Sheep and Nature Conservation. The Tasmanian Experience Geographical Research. V 46, Issue 1, pages 130–132, March 2008 Landsberg, J., and Crowley, G. (2004). Monitoring rangeland biodiversity: Plants as indicators. Austral Ecology 29:59-77. McGlone, M., (2000). The role of history in the creation of a vision of future landscapes. In Hamblin, A. (ed) (2000), Visions of Future Landscapes . Proceedings of 1999 Australian Academy of Science Fenner Conference on the Environment, 2-5 May 1999. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.

National Committee for Soil and Terrain Information (Ed). (2009). Australian soil and land survey: field handbook (3rd edn). CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. http://www.worldcat.org/title/australian-soil-andland-survey-field-handbook/oclc/435620287 Parkes, DG, Newell, and Cheal, D., (2003) Assessing the quality of native vegetation: the ‘habitat hectares’ approach. Ecological Management and Restoration 4(Supp. l):29–38 Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S., Foley, J.A. and Walker, B., (2001). Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature, 413: 591-596. Stoddard, J.L, Larsen, D.P, Hawkins, C.P., Johnson, R.K. and Norris, R.H., (2006). Setting expectation for the ecological condition of streams: A concept of reference condition. Ecological Applications. 16(4): 1267-76 Thackway, R., Frakes, I., and Lesslie, R., (2007). Reporting Trends in Vegetation Assets, States and Transitions at the farm level – a southern tablelands case study. In: Veg Futures, Conference in the Field, 19 - 23 March 2006 held in Albury-Wodonga. Greening Australia, Canberra. http://live.greeningaustralia.org.au/vegfutures/pages/page124.asp Thackway, R. and Lesslie, R., (2006). Reporting vegetation condition using the Vegetation Assets, States, and Transitions (VAST) framework. Ecological Management and Restoration. 7(Suppl. 1):53-62. Thackway,R., and Lesslie,R., (2008).Describing and mapping human-induced vegetation change in the Australian landscape. Environmental Management 42, 572–590. Walker, B., and Meyers, J.A., (2004). Thresholds in ecological and social-ecological systems: A developing database. Ecology and Society, 9: 3. Williams J, Hook, R. and Hamblin, A., (2002), Agro-ecological regions of Australia, Methodology for their derivation and key issues in resource management. CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra. Williams J. E. and Price R. J. (2010). Impacts of red meat production on biodiversity in Australia: a review and comparison with alternative protein production industries. Animal Production Science 50, 723--747. Yapp, G., Walker, J., and Thackway, R, (2010). Linking plant community and condition to ecosystem goods and services. Ecological Complexity 7(3), 292-301.

NOTE: Examples of a photo-point methods are: South Australian Government system http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAALMonitoring_Photopoints-FS-022008.pdf Western Australian Government system http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/fm/rangeman/monitoring_manual_for_land_m anagers_rcm.pdf

Abbreviations ACEAS

Australian Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis

ALUM:

Australian Land Use and Management. ALUM is a classification system for consistently describing and mapping land use across Australia.

ACLUMP:

Australian Collaborative Land Use and Management Program.

LUMIS:

Land Use and Management Information System. LUMIS is a classification system for consistently describing and mapping land management practices across Australia.

LU:

Land use. Land use mapping classifies the purpose for which land is used.

LMP:

Land Management Practice/s.

TERN:

Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network

VASTTRANS:

Vegetation Assets, States and Transitions Transformations ÂŠ

Glossary Baseline:

An initial set of observations that describe the vegetation and environmental attributes of a site prior to initiating new on-ground land management practices.

Certainty level:

Assignment of quality ratings to measurements and observations. It includes spatial precision (scale), temporal precision (year of observation) and theme accuracy (land use, land management practices, effects on condition).

Disturbance history:

A sequence of LU and LMP interventions operating at a site and within a landscape.

Geo-location:

Spatial coordinates for a site comprising latitude and longitude.

Geo-spatial:

The location of a site, area or landscape.

Historical record:

A temporal sequence of land use and management and the response of a plant community to these impacts.

Land cover:

Land cover is the observed biophysical cover on the Earth's surface. This includes native vegetation, soils, exposed rocks and water bodies as well as anthropogenic elements such as plantations, crops and built environments. The capacity to measure and report change and trend in land and ground cover over time is critical.

Land management practice:

Land management practices describe the way that land is managed. They indicate the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;howâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of land use. LMP are the means by which vegetation and environmental conditions are changed, modified, enhanced, restored or removed.

Land use:

Land use information shows how our geographic (land and water) resources are used. This includes the production of goods (such as crops, timber and manufactures) and services (such as defence, recreation, biodiversity and natural resources protection).

Landform:

Landform is the shape of the land surface. At the landscape scale landform pattern is comprised of classes of relief and slope.

Landscape element:

A repeating combination of soil, plant community and landform.

Measurement:

Measurement is collection of quantitative data. A measurement is made by comparing a quantity with a standard unit.

Monitoring:

Repeated observations and /or measurement at a site/s using a standardised method and /or protocol.

Observation:

Observation is collection of qualitative information. Qualitative information is non-standardised.

Photo-point:

The exact location of the site-based photo taken within a landscape element.

Precision:

The precision of a measurement system, that is repeatability, is the degree to which repeated observation and/or measurement under unchanged conditions show the same results.

Reference site:

A geo-referenced location for the reference state.

Reference state:

Pre-existing vegetation and environmental conditions present at a site at the point of first contact with European explorers.

Site:

A geo-referenced locality. The place where an observations and measurements are taken.

Theme accuracy:

Accuracy of an observation and/or measurement (e.g. land use, land management practices, effects on condition) is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity's actual value. Observations and measurements recorded at sites may have a higher theme accuracy than those collected at a coarser scale.

Transformation site:

A geo-referenced location that shares the same vegetation and environmental conditions present at the reference site, but these condition have been changed through the historical record due to LU and LMP operating at the site.

Figure 1. Information hierarchy used to synthesize data through four levels; indicators (22), attribute groups (10), diagnostic attributes (3) and transformation score (1).

Figure 2. Example of VASTTRANS scores for a Themeda grassy woodland, 34째58'1.12"S,,149째10'39.62"E, Murrumbateman, NSW SC = Species composition, VS = Vegetation structure and RC = Regenerative Capacity

Figure 3. Assessing and scoring the reliability of thematic information

Table 1. Summary of the Australian Land Use and Management (ABARES 2011). The following table has been modified from information developed by ACLUMP (ABARES 2011). 1 Conservation and natural environments 1.1.0 Nature conservation 1.1.1 Strict nature reserves 1.1.2 Wilderness area 1.1.3 National park 1.1.4 Natural feature protection 1.1.5 Habitat/species management area 1.1.6 Protected landscape 1.1.7 Other conserved area 1.2.0 Managed resource protection 1.2.1 Biodiversity 1.2.2 Surface water supply 1.2.3 Groundwater 1.2.4 Landscape 1.2.5 Traditional Indigenous uses 1.3.0 Other minimal use 1.3.1 Defence landâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;natural areas 1.3.2 Stock route 1.3.3 Residual native cover 1.3.4 Rehabilitation

2 Production from relatively natural environments 2.1.0 Grazing native vegetation 2.2.0 Production forestry 2.2.1 Wood production 2.2.2 Other forest production 2.3.0 Land in transition - treed 2.3.1 Land under development 2.3.2 Degraded land 2.3.3 Abandoned land 2.3.4 Land under rehabilitation 2.3.5 No defined use 2.4.0 Land in transition - shrubby 2.4.1 Land under development 2.4.2 Degraded land 2.4.3 Abandoned land 2.4.4 Land under rehabilitation 2.4.5 No defined use 2.5.0 Land in transition - grassy 2.5.1 Land under development 2.5.2 Degraded land 2.5.3 Abandoned land

2.5.4 Land under rehabilitation 2.5.5 No defined use

3 Production from dryland agriculture and plantations 3.1.0 Plantation forestry 3.1.1 Hardwood plantation 3.1.2 Softwood plantation 3.1.3 Other forest plantation 3.1.4 Environmental forest plantation 3.2.0 Grazing modified pastures 3.2.1 Native/exotic pasture mosaic 3.2.2 Woody fodder plants 3.2.3 Pasture legumes 3.2.4 Pasture legume/grass mixtures 3.2.5 Sown grasses 3.3.0 Cropping 3.3.1 Cereals 3.3.2 Beverage & spice crops 3.3.3 Hay & silage 3.3.4 Oil seeds 3.3.5 Sugar 3.3.6 Cotton 3.3.7 Alkaloid poppies 3.3.8 Pulses 3.4.0 Perennial horticulture 3.4.1 Tree fruits 3.4.2 Oleaginous fruits 3.4.3 Tree nuts 3.4.4 Vine fruits 3.4.5 Shrub nuts, fruits & berries 3.4.6 Perennial flowers & bulbs 3.4.7 Perennial vegetables & herbs 3.4.8 Citrus 3.4.9 Grapes 3.5.0 Seasonal horticulture 3.5.1 Seasonal fruits 3.5.2 Seasonal nuts 3.5.3 Seasonal flowers & bulbs 3.5.4 Seasonal vegetables & herbs 3.6.0 Land in transition 3.6.1 Degraded land 3.6.2 Abandoned land 3.6.3 Land under rehabilitation 3.6.4 No defined use 3.6.5 Abandoned perennial horticulture

4 Production from irrigated agriculture and plantations 4.1.0 Irrigated plantation forestry 4.1.1 Irrigated hardwood production 4.1.2 Irrigated softwood production 4.1.3 Irrigated other forest production 4.1.4 Irrigated environmental forest plantation 4.2.0 Grazing irrigated modified pastures 4.2.1 Irrigated woody fodder plants 4.2.2 Irrigated pasture legumes 4.2.3 Irrigated legume/grass mixtures 4.2.4 Irrigated sown grasses 4.3.0 Irrigated cropping 4.3.1 Irrigated cereals 4.3.2 Irrigated beverage and spice crops 4.3.3 Irrigated hay and silage 4.3.4 Irrigated oil seeds 4.3.5 Irrigated sugar 4.3.6 Irrigated cotton 4.3.7 Irrigated alkaloid poppies 4.3.8 Irrigated pulses 4.3.9 Irrigated rice 4.4.0 Irrigated perennial horticulture 4.4.1 Irrigated tree fruits 4.4.2 Irrigated oleaginous fruits 4.4.3 Irrigated tree nuts 4.4.4 Irrigated vine fruits 4.4.5 Irrigated shrub nuts fruits and berries 4.4.6 Irrigated flowers and bulbs 4.4.7 Irrigated vegetables and herbs 4.4.8 Irrigated citrus 4.4.9 Irrigated grapes 4.5.0 Irrigated seasonal horticulture 4.5.1 Irrigated fruits 4.5.2 Irrigated nuts 4.5.3 Irrigated flowers and bulbs 4.5.4 Irrigated vegetables and herbs 4.5.5 Irrigated turf farming 4.6.0 Irrigated land in transition 4.6.1 Degraded irrigated land 4.6.2 Abandoned irrigated land 4.6.3 Irrigated land under rehabilitation 4.6.4 No defined use (irrigation) 4.6.5 Abandoned irrigated perennial horticulture

5 Intensive uses 5.1.0 Intensive horticulture 5.1.1 Shadehouses 5.1.2 Glasshouses 5.1.3 Glasshouses (hydroponic) 5.1.4 Abandoned intensive horticulture 5.2.0 Intensive animal husbandry 5.2.1 Dairy sheds with yards 5.2.2 Cattle feedlots 5.2.3 Sheep feedlots 5.2.4 Poultry farms 5.2.5 Piggeries 5.2.6 Aquaculture 5.2.7 Horse studs 5.2.8 Stockyards/saleyards 5.2.9 Abandoned intensive animal husbandry 5.3.0 Manufacturing and industrial 5.3.1 General purpose factory 5.3.2 Food processing factory 5.3.3 Major industrial complex 5.3.4 Bulk grain storage 5.3.5 Abattoirs 5.3.6 Oil refinery 5.3.7 Sawmill 5.3.8 Abandoned manufacturing/industrial 5.4.0 Residential and farm infrastructure 5.4.1 Urban residential 5.4.2 Rural residential with agriculture 5.4.3 Rural residential without agriculture 5.4.4 Remote communities 5.4.5 Farm buildings/infrastructure 5.5.0 Services 5.5.1 Commercial services 5.5.2 Public services 5.5.3 Recreation and culture 5.5.4 Defence facilitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;urban 5.5.5 Research facilities 5.6.0 Utilities 5.6.1 Fuel powered electricity generation 5.6.2 Hydro electricity generation 5.6.3 Wind farm electricity generation 5.6.4 Electricity substations and transmission 5.6.5 Gas treatment, storage and transmission 5.6.6 Water extraction and transmission 5.7.0 Transport and communication 5.7.1 Airports/aerodromes 5.7.2 Roads 5.7.3 Railways 5.7.4 Ports and water transport 5.7.5 Navigation and communication

5.8.0 Mining 5.8.1 Mines 5.8.2 Quarries 5.8.3 Tailings 5.8.4 Extractive industry not in use 5.9.0 Waste treatment and disposal 5.9.1 Effluent pond 5.9.2 Landfill 5.9.3 Solid garbage 5.9.4 Incinerators 5.9.5 Sewage/sewerage

6 Conservation and production form water features 6.1.0 Lake 6.1.1 Lake–conservation 6.1.2 Lake–production 6.1.3 Lake–intensive use 6.1.4 Lake–saline 6.2.0 Reservoir/dam 6.2.1 Reservoir 6.2.2 Water storage–intensive use/ farm dams 6.2.3 Evaporation basin 6.3.0 River 6.3.1 River–conservation 6.3.2 River–production 6.3.3 River–intensive use 6.4.0 Channel/aqueduct 6.4.1 Supply channel/aqueduct 6.4.2 Drainage channel/aqueduct 6.4.3 Stormwater 6.5.0 Marsh/wetland 6.5.1 Marsh/wetland–conservation 6.5.2 Marsh/wetland–production 6.5.3 Marsh/wetland–intensive use 6.5.4 Marshland–saline 6.6.0 Estuary/coastal waters 6.6.1 Estuary/coastal waters–conservation 6.6.2 Estuary/coastal waters–production 6.6.3 Estuary/coastal waters–intensive use

Table 2. Land Use and Management Information System The following table has been modified from unpublished information provided by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences in 2010. Five objectives of vegetation management: 1:Establish and rehabilitate; 2:Improve and maintain growth and condition; 3:Harvest plant products and remove waste and weeds;4: Monitor health, vitality and condition; and 5:No activity or interventions. In practice land managers implement these five objectives by using combinations of the following land management practices: 1. Establish and Rehabilitate 1.1.0 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.1.5 1.1.6

Preparing a selected site Animal management (under ANIMAL 2.0) Water management (under WATER 4.0) Soil management (under SOIL 3.0) Weed management (under VEGETATION 1.2.2) Wildfire management (see VEGETATION 1.2.5) People management (see VEGETATION 1.2.3, 1.2.4)

1.2.0

Breeding / selecting plant material

1.3.0 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3

Pre-planting Propagation Pre-treatment for germination Pre-treatment for transplanting

1.4.0 1.4.1.0 1.4.1.1 1.4.1.2 1.4.1.3 1.4.1.4 1.4.1.5 1.4.1.6 1.4.1.7 1.4.1.8 1.4.1.9 1.4.2.0 1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 1.4.2.3 1.4.2.4 1.4.2.5 1.4.2.6 1.4.2.7 1.4.2.8 1.4.2.9 1.4.3.0 1.4.3.1 1.4.3.2 1.4.3.3 1.4.3.4

Planting and seeding Hand strewn seed Indigenous non-province tree sp or spp Indigenous province tree sp or spp Other tree sp or spp Indigenous non-province shrub sp or spp Indigenous province shrub sp or spp Other shrub sp or spp Indigenous non-province grass-like sp or spp Indigenous province grass-like sp or spp Other grass-like sp or spp Manual Tube stock (indigenous non-province tree sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous province tree sp or spp) Tube stock (other tree sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous non-province shrub sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous province shrub sp or spp) Tube stock (other shrub sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous non-province grass-like sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous province grass-like sp or spp) Tube stock (other grass-like sp or spp) Mechanical Tube stock (indigenous non-province tree sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous province tree sp or spp) Tube stock (other tree sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous non-province shrub sp or spp)

1.4.3.5 1.4.3.6 1.4.3.7 1.4.3.8 1.4.3.9 1.4.3.10 1.4.3.11 1.4.3.12 1.4.3.13 1.4.3.14 1.4.3.15 1.4.3.16 1.4.3.17 1.4.3.18 1.4.3.19 1.4.3.20 1.4.3.21 1.4.4.0 1.4.4.1 1.4.4.2 1.4.4.3 1.4.4.4 1.4.5.0 1.4.5.1 1.4.5.2 1.4.5.3 1.4.5.4

Tube stock (indigenous province shrub sp or spp) Tube stock (other shrub sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous non-province grass-like sp or spp) Tube stock (indigenous province grass-like sp or spp) Tube stock (other grass-like sp or spp) Tube stock (softwood plantation tree sp or spp) Tube stock (hardwood plantation tree sp or spp) Tube stock (other tree sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous non-province tree sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous province tree sp or spp) Direct drill (other tree sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous non-province shrub sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous province shrub sp or spp) Direct drill (other shrub sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous non-province grass-like sp or spp) Direct drill (indigenous province grass-like sp or spp) Direct drill (other grass-like sp or spp) Mechanical seed spreader or broadcaster Native indigenous plant seeds Non-indigenous plant seeds (infertile hybrid) Non-indigenous plant seeds (fertile) Non-indigenous plant seeds (fertile) and fertiliser Aerial seed spreader or broadcaster Native indigenous plant seeds Non-indigenous plant seeds (infertile hybrid) Non-indigenous plant seeds (fertile) Non-indigenous plant seeds (fertile) and fertiliser

1.5.0 1.5.1.0 1.5.1.1 1.5.1.2 1.5.1.3 1.5.1.4 1.5.1.5 1.5.1.6 1.5.2.0 1.5.2.1 1.5.2.2 1.5.2.3 1.5.2.4 1.5.2.5 1.5.2.6

Regenerating Natural regeneration Allow seed set for dominant structure sp or spp Promoting growth of biomass (1.2.1) Controlling weeds, pests or disease (1.2.2) Controlling access and site pressures (1.2.3) Removing dumped material (1.2.4) Controlling wildfire (1.2.5) Assisted regeneration Planting and seeding (1.1.4) Promoting growth of biomass (1.2.1) Controlling weeds, pests or disease (1.2.2) Controlling access and site pressures (1.2.3) Removing dumped material (1.2.4) Controlling wildfire (1.2.5)

2. Improve and maintain growth and condition 2.1.0 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.7

Promoting plant growth and diversity Inoculation (rhizobia) Fertilising (under SOIL) Pruning trees/shrubs Thinning trees/shrubs Coppicing trees/shrubs Shrub - slashing, mowing Irrigating (under WATER 4.0)

2.1.8 2.1.8.1 2.1.8.2 2.1.8.3 2.1.8.4 2.1.8.5 2.1.8.6 2.1.9 2.1.10 2.1.10.1 2.1.10.2 2.1.11 2.1.12

Grazing management (see 1.2.3) Free ranging (no fences) Occasional grazing Set stocking Strategic or cell Crash or heavily grazed (trampled) Pasture rotation system Crop and/or pasture rotation system Burning Low intensity High intensity Protection: minimal use and management Ground cover management (under SOIL)

2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6

Controlling weeds, pests or disease Chemical Mechanical / physical Biological Burning Mulch Other

2.3 2.3.1.0 2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.1.3 2.3.1.4 2.3.1.5 2.3.2.0 2.3.2.1 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 1.2.3.3.0 1.2.3.3.1 1.2.3.3.2 1.2.3.3.3 1.2.3.4

Controlling access and site pressures Exclosure (prevent access) Domestic stock Feral animals Native animals Vehicular Foot Enclosure (prevent escape) Domestic stock Feral animals Native animals Water points (dams, troughs, drains) Domestic stock Feral animals Native animals Other

2.4.0 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3

Removing dumped material Green waste Building waste Household waste

2.5.0 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5. 4

Controlling wildfire Prescribed burn to reduce fuel Slashing, cutting or mowing Grazing Firebreak

3 Harvest plant products and remove waste and weeds 3.1.0 3.1.1.0 3.1.1.1 3.1.1.2 3.1.1.3 3.1.1.4 3.1.2.0 3.1.2.1 3.1.2.2 3.1.2.3 3.1.2.4 3.1.3.0 3.1.3.1 3.1.3.2 3.1.3.3 3.1.3.4 3.1.4.0 3.1.4.1 3.1.4.2 3.1.4.3 3.1.4.4 3.1.4.5 3.1.4.6 3.1.5.0 3.1.5.1 3.1.5.2 3.1.5.3 3.1.5.4 3.1.5.5 3.1.5.6 3.1.6.0 3.1.6.1 3.1.6.2 3.1.6.3 3.1.6.4 3.1.6.5 3.1.7.0 3.1.8.0 3.1.8.1 3.1.8.2 3.1.8.3 3.1.8.4 3.1.8.5

Harvesting productive biomass Manual Tree cutting (stump and/or trunk & roots intact) Shrub cutting (stem bases & roots intact) Grass or graminoid cutting (butts & roots intact) Other Mechanical Tree harvesting Shrub harvesting Grass or grass-like harvesting Other Horse and/or bullock power Tree harvesting Shrub harvesting Grass or grass-like harvesting Other Grazing by sheep Free ranging (no fences) Set stocking Occasional grazing Strategic or cell Heavily grazed (trampled) Pasture rotation system Grazing by cattle Free ranging (no fences) Set stocking Occasional grazing Strategic or cell Heavily grazed (trampled) Pasture rotation system Grazing by goats Free ranging (no fences) Set stocking Strategic or cell Heavily grazed (trampled) Pasture rotation system Grazing by other domestic animals Grazing by native wildlife Free ranging Set stocking Occasional grazing Strategic or cell Heavy grazing

3.2 3.2.1

Storing productive biomass Retain dead timber: fallen

3.3

Transporting productive biomass

3.4

Handling residues - re productive biomass

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.4.1 3.4.4.2

Left intact Incorporated / ploughed into the soil Baled Stacked and/or piled Large dumps and wind rows Smaller piles

3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2.0 3.5.2.1 3.5.2.2 3.5.2.3 3.5.2.4 3.5.2.5 3.5.2.6 3.5.2.7 3.5.2.8 3.5.2.9 3.5.2.10 3.5.3.0 3.5.3.1 3.5.3.2 3.5.3.3 3.5.4.0 3.5.4.1 3.5.4.2 3.5.4.3 3.5.4.4 3.5.4.5 3.5.4.6 3.5.4.7 3.5.4.8 3.5.4.9 3.5.5.0 3.5.5.1 3.5.5.2 3.5.5.3 3.5.6.0 3.5.6.1 3.5.6.2 3.5.6.3 3.5.6.4 3.5.6.5 3.5.6.6 3.5.7.0 3.5.7.1 3.5.7.2

Removing/destroying unwanted biomass Left intact Mechanical Tree and/or shrub - pulling or pushing Tree and/or shrub - thinning and/or cutting Tree and/or shrub - stump grinding Tree and/or shrub - chaining Tree and/or shrub - slashing Tree and/or shrub - mulching Tree and/or shrub - rolling and crushing Tree and/or shrub - root raking Grass - slashing, cutting or mowing Grass - Tillage, discing or grubbing Grazing Set stocking Strategic or cell Heavily grazed (trampled) Manual Tree - pulling or pushing Tree - ring barking without injection Tree - ring barking with injection Shrub and seedling - chipping/howing Shrub and seedling - slashing or cutting Shrubs & vines - lifting roots (e.g. Bradley) Shrubs & vines - poisoning Grass & graminoid - tillage or grubbing Grass & graminoid - slashing, cutting or mowing Burning Low intensity hazard/fuel reduction High intensity hazard/fuel reduction or wildfire Stacked/piled and wind-rows Chemical Pre-emergent herbicide (broadacre) Pre-emergent herbicide (spot) Post-emergent herbicide (broadacre) Post-emergent herbicide (spot) Tree and shrub killing herbicide Other NEC Cropping system Crop rotation Crop or pasture species management

4 Monitor health, vitality and condition 4.1 4.1.1.0 4.1.1.1 4.1.1.2 4.1.1.3 4.1.1.4 4.1.1.5 4.1.1.5 4.1.2.0 4.1.2.1 4.1.2.2 4.1.2.3 4.1.2.4 4.1.2.5 4.1.2.6

Scoring condition (against reference) Stand or community Composition Structure Function/ regenerative capacity Strata (e.g. Shrub layer) Growth forms Weeds Species individuals Flowering Seed viability New growth Age class Crown size Other

4.2. 4.2.1.0 4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 4.2.1.3 4.2.2.0 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3 4.2.2.4 4.2.2.5

Surveying and inventory Stand or community Height Percentage cover Other Species Number of plants Mean annual increments Age classes Height Other

4.3.0 4.3.1.0 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4 4.3.1.5 4.3.2.0 4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.2.3 4.3.2.4 4.3.2.5

Monitoring infestations Surveillance monitoring Plant Animal Plant Insect Pathogen Investigative monitoring Plant Animal Plant Insect Pathogen

5 No activity or interventions 5.1 5.2 5.2

Unmanaged Abandoned in transition Reference/control area

Table 3. VASTTRANS hierarchy comprising components of vegetation condition, attribute groups and indicators of vegetation transformation. Condition components (VAST diagnostic attributes) (3)

Attribute groups (10)

Description of loss or gain relative to pre settlement indicator reference and indicator abbreviations (22) Indicator codes e.g. RC_fire_burnt_area are used in the VASTTRANS spread sheet

Fire regime

1. 2.

Soil hydrology

3. 4.

Regenerative capacity

Soil physical state

5. 6.

Soil nutrient state

7. 8.

Soil biological state

10. Reproductive potential

11.

12.

Overstorey structure

13.

14.

Vegetation structure

15.

Understorey structure

16.

17.

18.

Increase or decrease in the area /size of fire foot prints RC_fire_burnt_area Increase or decrease in the number of fire starts RC_fire_starts Increase or decrease in the soil surface water availability. RC_soil_hyd_surf_water Increase or decrease in the ground water availability RC_soil_hyd_gnd_water Increase or decrease in the depth of the A horizon RC_soil_phys_dpth_a Increase or decrease in soil structure. RC_soil_phys_struct Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rundown (deficiency) relative to soil fertility RC_soil_chem_nutrient_rundown Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excess (toxicity) relative to soil fertility RC_soil_chem_nutrient_excess Increase or decrease in the recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling RC_soil_biol_invert_recyc Increase or decrease in surface organic matter, soil crusts RC_soil_biol_organ_matt Increase or decrease in the reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species RC_reprod_potent_OS Increase or decrease in the reproductive potential of understorey structuring species RC_reprod_potent_US Increase or decrease in the overstorey top height (mean) of the plant community VS_OS_height Increase or decrease in the overstorey foliage projective cover (mean) of the plant community VS_OS_fpc Increase or decrease in the overstorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community VS_OS_div_age_class Increase or decrease in the understorey top height (mean) of the plant community VS_US_height Increase or decrease in the understorey ground cover (mean) of the plant community VS_US_gnd_cov Increase or decrease in the understorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community VS_US_div_age_class

Condition components (VAST diagnostic attributes) (3)

Attribute groups (10)

Description of loss or gain relative to pre settlement indicator reference and indicator abbreviations (22) Indicator codes e.g. RC_fire_burnt_area are used in the VASTTRANS spread sheet

Overstorey composition Species Composition

Understorey composition

19. Increase or decrease in the densities of overstorey species functional groups SC_OS_fnl_groups 20. Increase or decrease in the relative number of overstorey species (richness) of the plant community SC_OS_richness 21. Increase or decrease in the densities of understorey species functional groups SC_US_fnl_groups 22. Increase or decrease in the relative number of understorey species (richness) of the plant community SC_US_richness

Table 4. Certainty level standards used to assign reliability scores site-based historical records. Certainty level standards

HIGH "Definite" Code: H

Spatial precision (Scale)

Temporal precision (Year of observation)

Attribute accuracy (Land use, land management practices, effects on condition)

Reliable direct quantitative data.

Examples: Site, plot and transect based records.

Examples: Day-month-year, season-year and year.

Code: 1

Code: 4

Examples: Inventory and counts, recorded observations from field survey and monitoring, farm records Code: 7

MEDIUM "Probable" Code: M

Direct (with qualifications) or strong indirect data.

Examples: Land unit and soil-landscape reports.

Examples: Mid 1850s

Examples: Reconnaissance surveys, medium and moderate resolution remote sensing, regional mapping

Code: 5 T-M Code: 2

Code: 8 LOW "Possible" Code: L

Limited qualitative and possibly contradictory observations. More data needed.

Examples: Land system, sub-bioregion and bioregion reports.

Examples: Early 1800s and th first half of 19 century.

Examples: Generalised descriptions and narratives, census-based surveys

Code: 6 Code: 3

Code: 9

Appendices Appendix 1. VASTTRANS datasheet - Site-based recording of use and land management and their effects on a plant community over time

Name of the site/area: ___________________________________________________________________________ (Include: state, locality, size of area, intent of management e.g. NSW, Big Scrub, foreshores of Rocky Creek Dam â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 25 ha assisted regeneration â&#x20AC;&#x201C; conversion of lantana thickets to rainforest) e.g. Qld, Traroom, conversion of Brigalow forest to pasture and cropping

Brief description of the natural undisturbed ecosystem of the site/area: ________________________________ . Include: Plant community, geology, soil characteristics, elevation, rainfall, slope and aspect, fire regime,

Current purpose (2011) of the site/area: ______________________________________________________________________ . Include: tenure and land use (e.g. public reserve (Whian Whian State Forest) on the foreshores of Rocky Creek Dam)

Reference plant community description: pre clearing or pre European community:

Area of the plot =e.g. 20 m x 20 m (0.4 ha): _______________________________ . NVIS level IV â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sub-association

Overstorey

Midstorey

Understorey - ground layer

Dominant Species Species richness Growth form Structural Formation Class FPC Height

Ground cover characteristics:

Location of site a. State:_____________ . b. IBRA REG_NAME_7:

REG_CODE_7:

SUB_NAME_7:

SUB_CODE_7:

c. Google Earth: __________________________________________________________________________________________________ . Include: full GPS coordinates and source e.g. Google Earth 28째38'24.39"S,,153째20'3.93"E

d. Spatial precision re Table 4: Code = ________ .

Area of the site: __________________________________________________________________________________________________ . Include: the area in hectares or meters e.g. 1 ha, 250 m x 250 m. Where possible the Google earth pin should be the centroid /centre of the site

Brief history of the site/area: __________________________________________________________________________________ . Include: Main use and management interventions which are likely to have changed the vegetation structure, species composition and regenerative capacity over time. e.g.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

1788-1910 Unmodified and intact rainforest; 1911 Clearing and conversion to pasture/cropland; 1911 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1948 Grazing exotic pasture and dairying; 1949 Land use change to "water catchment"; 1950 Cessation of grazing and agricultural use 1950-89 Autogenic (spontaneous) regrowth, which at some stage included a dominance of non-native woody species; 1990-2000 Removal weeds and encouragement of native forest regeneration. 2001-2011 Management of the regrowth rainforest forest

Proximity to large area of intact and largely intact and unmodified remnant: __________________________________________________________________________________ . Include: Distance and size of the remnant e.g. <500 m to remnant 200 ha

Sources of data and information used to complete table below: Include: Citation details e.g. Pers Comm, official journal papers, non-government and government reports and websites A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10.

Description of use and management and their effects on a plant community over time (add more rows as required): Include: alphabetic code e.g. A and the page number from the list above.

Year

1788 1800 1980 2011

Source: year

C D A A

Land use (ALUM)1

List of LU2 and LMP3

Source: LMP

D F A A

Reliab: LMP

D F A A

Observed and/or measured affects and consequences on ecological function and native vegetation structure, composition and regeneration

Source: affects

Reliab: Effects

A G A A

ALUM = Australian Land Use and Management classification LU = Land use 3 LMP = land or vegetation management practice 2

11.

For each time period (e.g. decade) score the following indicators relative to the reference: Reference vegetation description i.e. pre clearing or pre European community-(See Point 4 above)

Score  0 for complete loss or removal relative to pre-European  10 for complete return to pre European conditions

e.g. 1830

Indicator

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Increase or decrease in the area /size of reference fire foot prints Increase or decrease in the number of reference fire starts Increase or decrease in the reference soil surface water availability. Increase or decrease in the reference ground water availability Increase or decrease in the reference depth of the A horizon Increase or decrease in reference soil structure. Nutrient stress – rundown (deficiency) relative to reference soil fertility Nutrient stress – excess (toxicity) relative to reference soil fertility Increase or decrease in the reference invertebrate recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling Increase or decrease in reference surface organic matter, soil crusts Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of understorey structuring species

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Increase or decrease in the reference overstorey top height (mean) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference overstorey foliage projective cover (mean) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference overstorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference understorey top height (mean) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference understorey ground cover (mean) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference understorey structural diversity (i.e. a diversity of age classes) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference densities of overstorey species functional groups Increase or decrease in the reference relative number of overstorey species (richness) of the plant community Increase or decrease in the reference densities of understorey species functional groups Increase or decrease in the reference relative number of understorey species (richness) of the plant community

19. 20. 21. 22.

Indicator scored from 0 to 1

Reliability (7-9) Table 4

e.g 1980

Indicator

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Increase or decrease in the area /size of reference fire foot prints Increase or decrease in the number of reference fire starts Increase or decrease in the reference soil surface water availability. Increase or decrease in the reference ground water availability Increase or decrease in the reference depth of the A horizon Increase or decrease in reference soil structure. Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rundown (deficiency) relative to reference soil fertility Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excess (toxicity) relative to reference soil fertility Increase or decrease in the reference invertebrate recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling Increase or decrease in reference surface organic matter, soil crusts Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of understorey structuring species

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19. 20. 21. 22.

Indicator scored from 0 to 1

Reliability (7-9) Table 4

e.g. 1990

Indicator

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Increase or decrease in the area /size of reference fire foot prints Increase or decrease in the number of reference fire starts Increase or decrease in the reference soil surface water availability. Increase or decrease in the reference ground water availability Increase or decrease in the reference depth of the A horizon Increase or decrease in reference soil structure. Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rundown (deficiency) relative to reference soil fertility Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excess (toxicity) relative to reference soil fertility Increase or decrease in the reference invertebrate recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling Increase or decrease in reference surface organic matter, soil crusts Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of understorey structuring species

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Indicator scored from 0 to 1

Reliability (7-9) Table 4

e.g. 2010

Indicator

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Increase or decrease in the area /size of reference fire foot prints Increase or decrease in the number of reference fire starts Increase or decrease in the reference soil surface water availability. Increase or decrease in the reference ground water availability Increase or decrease in the reference depth of the A horizon Increase or decrease in reference soil structure. Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; rundown (deficiency) relative to reference soil fertility Nutrient stress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excess (toxicity) relative to reference soil fertility Increase or decrease in the reference invertebrate recyclers responsible for maintaining soil porosity and nutrient recycling Increase or decrease in reference surface organic matter, soil crusts Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of overstorey structuring species Increase or decrease in the reference reproductive potential of understorey structuring species

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Indicator scored from 0 to 1

Reliability (7-9) Table 4

Appendix 2. People, Sheep and Nature Conservation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Tasmanian Experience (Kirkpatrick and Bridle, 2008) Land Management Practices (LMP), Alphabetical Order: 1. Aerial spray has killed trees 2. Avoid dusty conditions/maintain ground cover 3. Better grass cover in runs keeps wool cleaner 4. Bush as summer feed reserve 5. Cattle and sheep run together 6. Cattle in native/bush prior to calving 7. Cattle not used to knock back tussocks 8. Cattle on improved pasture 9. Cattle used to knock back tussock 10. Cattle used to open up bush 11. Cell grazing allows eucalypt regeneration 12. Combination of set-stocked and rotational grazing 13. Cool fires prevent eucalypt regeneration 14. Cropping 15. Destock in dry years 16. Don't put cattle in runs in droughts 17. Don't run hoggets on improved 18. Don't use bush for stock 19. Fenced bush/remnants 20. Fenced hilltop 21. Focus on superfine from native pasture 22. Fodder grown 23. Graze bush intensively for short period 24. Graze improved in summer 25. High altitude country used as extended spring 26. Horticulture 27. Irrigating 28. Lamb onto improved pasture 29. Lower stocking rates improve health 30. Manage according to soil types 31. Native pasture as shelter 32. Need improved for nutrition/live weight gain 33. Planting shelter belts 34. Rest native pasture in winter 35. Rest runs after shearing 36. Rest runs by changing stocking rate 37. Rest runs for long period after drought 38. Rest runs for variable periods 39. Rest runs in lush years 40. Rest runs in spring to allow growth/seeding

41. Rest runs in spring to improve stock condition 42. Rest runs in summer to allow growth 43. Rotating stock maintains biomass/reduces erosion 44. Rotation in bush prevents it from getting overgrown 45. Rotational grazing 46. Runs not used for shelter 47. Set-stocked 48. Sheep not in bush when flowers are there 49. Stock heavily in early summer for short period 50. Stock heavily 51. Stocking rate varies with different types of country 52. Tree planting 53. Try not to damage trees with burns 54. Try to spell some runs for reserve 55. Tussock country shelter for lambing 56. Urea/lick supplements used in winter 57. Urea/lick/supplements used in dry time or to encourage browsing of less palatable species 58. Use all/part of native pasture as drought reserve 59. Use bush as drought reserve 60. Use bush for feed reserve 61. Use bush for shelter 62. Use cell grazing 63. Use native pasture all year 64. Use native pasture as feedlot during drought 65. Use native pasture in autumn 66. Use native pasture in summer 67. Use native pasture in winter 68. Use rough country before shearing 69. Use urea/lick blocks for runs 70. Variable stocking rate on different runs 71. Wethers in run all year 72. Young and old wethers on better runs 73. Young ewes on native (cells) 74. Young wethers not on runs/on best runs

Appendix 3. How to use the Australian Centre for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (ACEAS) Portal to access completed vegetation transformation sites

Hint: Download Google Chrome and use the following steps to navigate the http://aceas.org.au/portal/ website. Use the following steps to navigate the ACEAS Portal: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Click on the ‘Vegetation Transformation Study Sites ’ Click on the lolly pops depicting each VASTTRANS site Zoom in to the site using the Google Earth map to see the landscape context for the site, the land and vegetation cover Scroll down past the graph you will see the information underpinning each graph: a. Metadata for the site b. Description of the site using 12 core attributes for describing the transformation of a native vegetation community relative to its reference state: 1) Location of the site, 2) Source of geo-code, 3) Reliability of the geo-code, 4) Date of the observation and/or measurement, 5) Source of date/year, 6) Reliability of the date/year, 7) Land management practices for each approximate year, 8) Source of land management practices, 9) Reliability of the land management practices, 10) Effects and impacts of land management practices on ecological function and vegetation condition, 11) Source of effects and impacts, 12) Reliability of the observed and/or measured effects and impacts of land management practices. 22 indicators of vegetation and environmental transformation are used as a checklist to guide the search for, and compilation of, information on the effects and impacts of the land use and management on a plant community over time c. Spread sheet representing the effects of the land management practices on the 22 transformation indicators. Each indicator is scored from 0 to 1 for each year of the historical record; where 1 represents the reference state for each vegetation and environmental indicator and 0 is where that vegetation indicator and/or ecological function is absent. The spread sheet is used to sum and weight the indicators into the respective components of vegetation condition i.e. regenerative capacity, species composition and vegetation structure. The weighted components of for vegetation condition are then added to produce a single transformation index of vegetation condition for each year of the historical record. The results are graphed and annotated to show the response of the plant community under different land use and management regimes.

The aims of the website are to present information about the transformation of a plant community at selected site including:  

 

Location and spatial context of the site using Google Earth Graphical result showing the transformation of a plant community at a site i.e. changes and trend over time. The total vegetation transformation index is comprised of weighted indices for the components of for vegetation condition; regenerative capacity, vegetation structure and species composition Metadata for the site An historical record of use and management and its positive and negative impacts/effects on vegetation condition relative to a reference state for that vegetation community.