Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme 7

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Vatel 140, rue Vatel BP 7128 30913 NĂŽmes Cedex - France

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Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme numĂŠro 7

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Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme numĂŠro 7 CirVath International Journal of Tourism

Publication du

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LES CAHIERS INTERNATIONAUX DU TOURISME CIRVATH INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM

Préface Page 9 Preface Page 10 Avant-Propos Page 11 Foreword Page 15 Benjamin GARCIA Réflexions sur l’évaluation des connaissances en hôtellerierestauration. De l’évaluation sanction à l’évaluation formative Page 19 Dr Worarak SUCHER Cross cultural curriculum design for Thai hotel students Page 29 Claudette JOHN, Dr Constance KAMPF, Dr Alexandra BROILLET and Eric GREGOIRE Socio-technical design for evaluation of student’s behaviour and expectations. The case of web apps for course knowledge management evaluation in form of student’s perception of quality Page 57

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Dr. Line LAFFOND Compétence, compétences. Vers une pluralité des compétences Page 83 Alexandra REY-KAENEL Interviewing process evaluation for non-native speakers of English - The case of the English plus method Page 109 Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE Digital storytelling as assessment tool through capstone project for tourism and hospitality management courses Page 113

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PRÉFACE A l’occasion de la Convention Internationale Vatel qui se déroule en mai 2015 à Tel Aviv, je me réjouis de la publication de la 7e édition des Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme qui va enrichir, une fois encore, la réflexion du Groupe Vatel sur les problématiques liées à la pédagogie et aux contenus de nos enseignements que je considère comme des questions centrales de notre mission.

Le Conseil académique de Vatel et le Conseil Scientifique du CirVath ont choisi cette année de faire travailler nos enseignants, enseignants-chercheurs et partenaires sur le thème des outils et des méthodes pédagogiques. La production est d’excellente qualité.

Elle va permettre au Conseil académique d’analyser les résultats de ces recherches, d’inviter l’ensemble du réseau des écoles Vatel à se les approprier, voire éventuellement en intégrer certaines dans nos standards.

C’est au fond le but recherché car quoi de plus gratifiant que d’écouter les réflexions et découvrir les expériences de celles et ceux qui, au quotidien, ont la charge auprès de nos étudiants de transmettre les savoirs professionnels et les valeurs d’humanité dont nous sommes très fiers.

Je souhaite que la dynamique ainsi crée au sein du groupe Vatel poursuive son développement sur tous les continents où nous sommes implantés et j’invite chacun à nous proposer de nouveaux thèmes de recherche et de réflexions.

Alain SEBBAN President CirVath

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PREFACE On the occasion of Vatel’s Convention in Tel Aviv, I am delighted with the publication of CirVath’s International Journal of Tourism 7th Edition that will enrich, once again, the thoughts of Vatel Group on issues relating to pedagogy and course contents, which I consider to be central to our overall mission.

Vatel’s Academic Council and CirVath’s Scientific Committee chose this year to ask our professors, researchers and partners to work on research regarding teaching methodology and tools. Their production is of excellent quality and therefore the Academic Council is now able to analyze the results of the research, and invite our entire Vatel global network to see its appropriateness, or indeed possibly incorporate some of them into our standards eventually.

In fact this is the goal of our research, as what could be more rewarding than listening to the thoughts and experience of people who every day are responsible for the transmission of professional skills to our students, as well as human values which we are very proud of.

I do hope that the dynamism generated within Vatel Group continues to develop on all the continents where we are located, and I would like to invite everyone to propose new themes of research and reflection.

Alain SEBBAN President CirVath

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AVANT-PROPOS En créant, il y a quelques années, le Centre International de Recherche Vatel en Tourisme et Hôtellerie – CirVath – le Groupe Vatel s’est doté d’un outil performant destiné à développer la recherche fondamentale et la recherche appliquée dans les domaines de l’enseignement du tourisme et de l’hôtellerie. Prenant conscience que l’industrie du tourisme est un modèle à réinventer, que ses méthodes de gestion se sont profondément modifiées au cours des dernières années et que s’imposent à la fois un changement de culture et une nouvelle manière d’exercer cette activité, le CirVath a donc pour vocation d’être un pôle de réflexions et d’analyses capable de contribuer, à son échelle, à refonder l’industrie moderne et à requalifier les métiers du tourisme et de l’hôtellerie.

Il est bon de réaffirmer qu’en promouvant la recherche au sein du Groupe Vatel, le CirVath : • favorise le développement professionnel du corps enseignant par l’élargissement des connaissances et des compétences, par une meilleure imbrication entre théorie et pratique et par la création d’une nouvelle identité professionnelle ; • crée une dynamique nouvelle au sein du groupe. De nouvelles formes de contacts, des échanges plus nombreux entre professeurs et chercheurs favorisent l’esprit d’équipe, motivent et apportent un esprit nouveau ; • permet d’améliorer l’enseignement. A des questions issues de la pratique sont apportées des réponses, des solutions, des évaluations et des méthodes, générant une compréhension théorique nouvelle qui retourne dans la pratique ; • met le Groupe Vatel en contact avec d’autres institutions de formation ou de recherche françaises et étrangères, favorisant ainsi l’interdisciplinarité, voire l’internationalité.

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En se profilant comme centre de compétences, le Groupe Vatel, dans son domaine d’expertise, se positionne comme l’un des partenaires privilégiés d’autres écoles et institutions spécialisées dans le monde. Le réseau Vatel, présent sur les 4 continents de la planète, offre un avantage par rapport à toute autre institution, celui de mobiliser des cultures et des pratiques éducatives inhérentes à chaque continent, source incomparable de richesse et d’enseignement.

En 2014, le Comité Scientifique du CirVath a décidé de lancer auprès de tous les enseignants et enseignant-chercheurs du réseau des écoles Vatel dans le monde ainsi qu’auprès des professionnels et chercheurs en relation avec les écoles, deux nouveaux thèmes de recherche pour les années 2015 et 2016. L’objectif recherché vise à confirmer, à ajuster, voire à modifier nos programmes de cours, nos méthodes pédagogiques et nos systèmes d’évaluation afin d’encore mieux répondre aux attentes de l’industrie hôtelière mondiale en matière de compétences et de ressources humaines.

En accord avec le Conseil académique de Vatel, le thème choisi pour la 7e édition des Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme était proposé autour de différentes approches : Quelles sont les outils et les nouvelles méthodes d’évaluation des connaissances et des compétences mises en œuvre dans les cursus des formations au management de l’hôtellerie dans votre pays ? Comment sont définis les objectifs et les divers niveaux d’évaluation ? Comment est construit le dispositif d’évaluation ?

Comment sont utilisées les nouvelles technologies dans l’évaluation des comportements et des attitudes ? Quelles sont les expérimentations réalisées dans le domaine de l’évaluation et quelles leçons peut-on en tirer ?

Vatel Corporate et les écoles de Nîmes, de Bangkok, de Manille et de Martigny ont répondu à la demande en faisant travailler leurs enseignants et partenaires sur les thèmes suivants, intégralement publiés dans cette édition : - 12 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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Vatel Corporate : « Réflexions sur l’évaluation des connaissances en hôtellerie-restauration : de l’évaluation sanction à l’évaluation formative ».

Vatel Bangkok : « Constitution d’un syllabus en management interculturel pour des étudiants thaïs ».

Vatel Manille : « Le conte numérique comme outil d’évaluation par le prisme du projet Capston pour l’enseignement du management de l’hôtellerie et du tourisme ».

Vatel Martigny : « Évaluation de la connaissance de la langue anglaise, basée sur l’interview, pour les apprenants non-anglophones ».

Vatel Martigny : « Comment sont utilisées les nouvelles technologies dans l’évaluation des comportements et des attitudes ».

Vatel Nîmes : « Compétence, compétences ; vers une pluralité des compétences ».

Comme il est d’usage dans nos Cahiers, les textes et les articles remis par les chercheurs sont publiés dans leur langue d’écriture, leur traduction pouvant amener à déformer la pensée profonde de leurs auteurs. Ils ont fait cependant l’objet d’une lecture attentive par le Comité scientifique du CirVath qui a pu parfois suggérer des précisions ou proposer quelques pertinentes modifications.

Ce travail de recherche et de réflexion, sera pris en compte par le Conseil académique de Vatel dont la mission principale est d’offrir au réseau une mise à jour permanente des cours et des programmes.

Enfin, il me parait important de rappeler que les thèmes proposés par le Comité scientifique ne sont jamais définitivement fermés.

Toute école, tout chercheur ou encore tout enseignant qui voudrait proposer une nouvelle publication sur une recherche qui lui tient à cœur et sur laquelle il a déjà beaucoup travaillé, peut le faire à tout moment. L’éducation n’est pas une science figée, elle évolue et s’enrichit au gré des expériences et des recherches pour le plus - 13 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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grand bonheur des professeurs dont le souci permanent est tout naturellement d’offrir à leurs étudiants un enseignement de grande qualité en harmonie étroite avec les attentes en matière de main d’œuvre qualifié d’une des plus grandes économies au monde : le Tourisme.

Henri MAGNE Vice-Président CirVath

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FOREWORD

Vatel International Research Center in Hotel and Tourism Management (CirVath) was created a few years ago to provide Vatel Group with high-performing tools in order to develop fundamental and applied research in the field of hotel and tourism management.

As we are completely aware, the tourism industry has changed significantly in recent years and the methods of management along with tourism industry models need to be constantly updated in order to cope with cultural changes and the way tourism carries out its activities. The goal of CirVath is therefore to be a center where the analysis and reflection of tourism can contribute to the rebuilding of modern day hospitality and tourism and redefine the business at this level.

It is good to reiterate that by promoting research in Vatel Group, CirVath: • Facilitates professional development of faculty members by broadening their knowledge and skill sets that foster closer links between theory and practical applications, and the creation of a new professional identity; • Creates new dynamics in the Group. New types of contacts, more fruitful exchanges between professors and research experts to boost team spirit, motivate and bring in fresh ideas; • Improves our educational methods and courses. Answers are given to questions stemming from practical matters, assessments and methods; and thus generating a new comprehension of theory which trickles back down into practical applications;

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• Puts Vatel Group in contact with research centers, as well as other French and foreign schools, thereby promoting interdisciplinary research, and we can even say, possessing an international mind-set.

Vatel Group is therefore recognized as a center of excellence, positioned as a privileged partner of other specialized schools and institutions throughout the world. The Vatel Network is present on the four continents of the world and is advantageous to other institutions by being able to mobilize cultures and educational practices, which are an inherent part of each continent and incomparable in its value to education.

In the year 2014, CirVath’s Scientific Committee decided to launch, among teachers, professors and researchers of the Vatel network worldwide, as well as among researchers in contact with Vatel schools, two themes of research for the years 2015 and 2016. The aim of this research is to confirm, adjust, or modify our syllabus and course content, to enrich our training methods and our evaluation systems in order to better meet the needs of the global hotel industry with regards to competencies and human resources.

In agreement with the Vatel Academic Council, the theme selected for the 7th issue of the Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme was proposed around different approaches: Theme: What tools and new knowledge and skills assessment and grading methods are currently in use in education in hotel management in your country or geographical area? What different assessment levels do you have? How do you define the goals of the assessment? How is your assessment method built? How are new technologies used in assessing conduct and attitudes?

What type of experimentations have you carried out in the field of assessment and what lessons have you learned from them?

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and partners to work on this theme. Their work is published in full in this edition.

Vatel Corporate: “Réflexions sur l’évaluation des connaissances en hôtellerie-restauration. De l’évaluation sanction à l’évaluation formative”.

Vatel Bangkok: “Cross cultural curriculum design for Thai hotel students”.

Vatel Manila: “Digital Storytelling as assessment tool through Capstone project for tourism and hospitality management courses”.

Vatel Nîmes: “Compétence, compétences. Vers une pluralité de compétences”.

Vatel Martigny “Interviewing Process Evaluation for Non-native speakers of English. The case of the English Plus Method”.

Vatel Martigny: “Socio-technical design for evaluation of Student behavior and expectations. The case of Web Apps for course knowledge management evaluation in form of Student’s expectation of quality”.

As is customary in our Journal, researcher’s papers are published in their original written language, as translation could distort the profound thoughts of the authors. However the papers were subject to a careful reading by the Scientific Committee which has made, sometimes, pertinent suggestions or amendments.

This work of research and reflection will be taken into account by Vatel’s Academic Council whose major mission is to offer to our network a constant update of our programs and course contents.

Finally, it seems important to recall that the themes or research proposed by the Scientific Committee are never permanently closed.

Every school, every researcher or every professor who would like to propose a new paper regarding a specific research close to his/ her heart, can send it to the Committee at any time. Education is

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not a static science as it is always evolving and enriched by new research or experiences, much to the delight of professors’ in their constant efforts to provide students an education that is of the highest quality and closely aligned to the expectations from one of the largest industries in the world: Tourism.

Henri MAGNE Vice-Président CirVath

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RÉFLEXIONS SUR L’ÉVALUATION DES CONNAISSANCES EN HÔTELLERIE-RESTAURATION. DE L’ÉVALUATION SANCTION A L’ÉVALUATION FORMATIVE. Benjamin GARCIA* Agé de 36 ans, diplômé en droit et en sciences du langage, Benjamin Garcia a acquis, au fil des années, une double expérience pédagogique et internationale. Chargé de mission pour l’enseignement supérieur auprès du ministère français des Affaires étrangères et européennes, il a coordonné la coopération universitaire, suivi les partenariats et les implantations d’établissements français au Proche Orient. En 2010, il rejoint le Groupe IDRAC Business School, au titre de Directeur pédagogique du Campus de Paris, puis devient directeur du développement international Groupe.

Benjamin Garcia est actuellement le directeur académique du Groupe Vatel depuis décembre 2013.

Benjamin GARCIA is 36 years old and graduate in law and language sciences; he has acquired over the years a double experience both in the educational and international fields. Project manager for Higher Education at the French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs, he coordinated academic cooperation, partnerships and follow the settlements of French institutions in the Middle East. In 2010, he joined the IDRAC Business School Group, as Head of studies of the Paris Campus then he became director of the International development. Benjamin Garcia is currently the Academic Director of Vatel Group since December 2013. * Directeur académique du Groupe Vatel, International Business School Hotel & Tourism Management

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I. INTRODUCTION L’évaluation des connaissances dans l’enseignement supérieur français est sans nul doute la partie la plus émergée de l’iceberg des cursus suivis par les étudiants. Que ce soit en université, en école de commerce et de management ou encore d’ingénieur, l’évaluation des connaissances, consiste le plus souvent en une note, en des notes, en une moyenne menant à un diplôme ou un titre ; graal suprême à obtenir dans la quête de la réussite scolaire. Ce raisonnement occultant partiellement ou en totalité le contenu même des programmes et la qualité de leurs enseignants.

L’évaluation des connaissances et des compétences, de l’école primaire aux études supérieures constitue un élément important et un sujet de réformes depuis la IIIe République sans pour autant que les choses aient réellement changé, à tout le moins au niveau de l’enseignement supérieur. Supprimer les notes, telle est la question qui taraude nos dirigeants depuis plusieurs années. Force est de constater que les notes existent toujours, que la réussite passe toujours par de bons résultats scolaires, c’est-à-dire de bonnes notes.

Or, on le sait, les notes ne constituent pas une mesure fiable des compétences des apprenants, les copies placées dans le premier tiers d’un paquet sont souvent notées de façon plus indulgente que les suivantes et enfin, la notation d’une copie est également liée au niveau de la copie précédente.

Dans le secteur de l’enseignement supérieur de l’hôtellerie-restauration, l’évaluation porte non seulement sur les matières théoriques mais aussi sur des compétences pratiques. L’évaluation d’un savoir, d’un savoir-faire et d’un savoir-être fait sans doute l’originalité du secteur professionnel. Les écoles formant les jeunes professionnels à ces compétences ne pouvant faire l’impasse sur ce triptyque au risque de perdre en qualité d’enseignement.

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enseignements eux-mêmes. Si l’évaluation sommative est nécessaire dans sa fonction administrative et sociale, l’évaluation formative l’est tout autant dans sa fonction pédagogique*.

II. ARTICLE L’évaluation des connaissances, dans son acception la plus traditionnelle, consiste à concevoir une épreuve écrite ou orale en fonction du contenu de cours, à faire composer les apprenants et à corriger cette épreuve en fonction d’un barème conçu ou non lors de la conception de l’épreuve. A l’issue de la correction apparait une note, le plus souvent sur 20. L’étudiant lors de la réception de la note, aura une idée de son niveau. Dans le meilleur des cas, cette note sera accompagnée d’une appréciation plus ou moins laudative ou au contraire cinglante en fonction de la note octroyée. Une note sous la moyenne étant souvent vue comme une honte, ou une injure au travail par l’étudiant. Sans corrigé, l’apprenant prendra conscience qu’il n’a pas le niveau requis sans pour autant connaitre les axes d’amélioration afin d’atteindre le niveau requis.

Ce type d’évaluation présente néanmoins l’avantage d’être claire et de permettre des synthèses et des moyennes afin d’opérer des classements permettant la mise en concurrence des apprenants entre eux et ainsi une sélection facilitée lorsque cela s’avère nécessaire (c’est ce que l’on nomme l’évaluation sommative (cf. supra).

L’inconvénient de ce type d’évaluation est qu’elle est le plus souvent désincarnée et qu’elle est peu propice au progrès des étudiants les plus faibles et est vu comme une sanction entrainant quelquefois l’échec scolaire.

L’idée de supprimer les notes, nous le disions, n’est pas nouvelle et agite les milieux de pensées pédagogiques et éducatifs. En effet, * HADJI, C. (1997). L’Évaluation démystifiée. ESF Éditeur, Pratiques et enjeux pédagogiques

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la pédagogie centrée sur l’individu et l’apprenant, qui prédomine actuellement, voudrait que les notes soient supprimées mais dans ce cas que resterait-il pour évaluer les apprenants dans le secteur de l’hôtellerie-restauration ?

A. L’évaluation pour mieux former Le modèle traditionnel d’évaluation, on l’a vu, peut être assimilé in fine à une sanction après l’épreuve : « Au-dessus de 14/20, je suis un bon élève entre 10 et 14/20, un élève moyen, en dessous de 10/20, je suis un mauvais élève. » L’idée de supprimer n’a pas de sens en tant que tel puisque l’évaluation ne reposerait alors sur aucun critère, aucun repère pour les apprenants. L’idée serait donc de créer une évaluation qui permette la formation et la progression des apprenants et en impliquant davantage les enseignants dans leur démarche pédagogique : c’est l’évaluation formative.

L’objectif poursuivi par l’évaluation formative est donc d’améliorer l’apprentissage en venant en aide aux apprenants dès que les difficultés sont détectées. L’idée est d’adapter le parcours pédagogique en modifiant la situation d’apprentissage ou même le rythme de la progression pédagogique. On s’éloigne donc du cours magistral universitaire ou de conférence où l’auditoire doit s’adapter. Dans la démarche de l’évaluation formative, c’est l’enseignant qui s’adapte aux apprenants. La place de l’erreur et l’implication de l’apprenant sont mises au centre du processus d’évaluation*.

Comme l’explique Linda Allal**, l’évaluation formative peut revêtir plusieurs formes : –– rétroactive sur la base d’un contrôle ou d’une interrogation, * ALTET, M. (2001). Pratiques d’évaluation et communication en classe.

In : G. FIGARI & M. ACHOUCHE (Éd.). L’activité évaluative réinterrogée.

Regards scolaires et socio-professionnels. Bruxelles : De Boeck. ** ALLAL, L. (1991). Vers une pratique de l’évaluation formative : matériel de formation continue des enseignants, Bruxelles : De Boeck-Wesmael.

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–– interactive par une observation des comportements, des interactions orales, un regard rapide sur les productions individuelles ou en sous-groupes, –– proactive lors d’un recueil d’indices susceptibles de guider des apprentissages ultérieurs.

L’évaluation formative apparait alors comme régulateur de l’action pédagogique de l’enseignant : les objectifs doivent être clairs, précis afin qu’ils soient compris et assimilés par l’apprenant. Le processus d’apprentissage pouvant – devant – évoluer au fil du temps, l’objectif à atteindre se doit d’être le plus visible possible sous peine d’entrainer un effet contraire à celui escompté. En effet, dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre de l’évaluation formative, la démarche d’évaluation est intégrée à l’apprentissage et les critères d’évaluation découlent alors d’une démarche de contractualisation pédagogique : tout au long de son apprentissage, l’apprenant mesure le chemin parcouru et celui restant à parcourir, il prend conscience des étapes franchies, des difficultés rencontrées et le but à atteindre. Véritable outil de pilotage pour l’enseignant et outil d’identification des obstacles pour l’apprenant, menant alors à l’engagement d’une médiation par l’enseignant.

L’apprentissage est donc à mettre en perspective dans nos écoles supérieures de management hôtelier. Dans les matières dites « théoriques » et dans les salles de classe.

La pédagogie traditionnelle est incompatible avec l’évaluation formative: le professeur fait son cours, les étudiants écoutent puis, de retour chez eux, font les exercices en relation avec le thème qui a été abordé. Cette pédagogie est devenue inadaptée à l’approche formative de l’évaluation. Par ailleurs, avec l’avènement des nouvelles technologies, le comportement des étudiants a profondément changé. Aujourd’hui, ils ont tendance à vérifier en temps réel sur Internet ce que dit l’enseignant allant parfois jusqu’à une remise en cause ce que dit l’enseignant.

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La démarche pédagogique d’apprentissage dans laquelle s’insère l’évaluation formative correspond bien aux exigences des nouvelles générations : les étudiants recherchent par eux-mêmes les contenus ; ils y réfléchissent ; ils formulent une synthèse et enfin ils en discutent en cours avec l’enseignant. C’est alors un enseignement fondé sur l’expérience, l’empirisme, conforme avec ce qui peut être appliqué dans l’enseignement pratique et en stage.

Cette démarche présente l’avantage de répondre aux besoins de cette nouvelle génération qui veut tout et tout de suite. C’est aussi une pédagogie fondée sur la responsabilité, l’implication de l’étudiant tout en s’exerçant dans un cadre rigoureux car on ne le laisse pas puiser ses références n’importe où.

Toutefois, dans tous les cas l’enseignant devra expliquer à l’apprenant à quoi sert la leçon pour lui expliquer ensuite sur quoi il sera interrogé.

B. Reconsidérer l’erreur Reconsidérer la conception et la place de l’erreur dans le parcours d’apprentissage apparait dès lors comme la condition sine qua non de la réussite à la mise en place de l’évaluation formative.

Dans la vision traditionnelle de l’évaluation l’erreur apparait souvent comme une source importante d’angoisse, reflet d’une incompétence ou d’un manquement dans l’acquisition des connaissances. Faire une erreur c’est commettre une faute.

Au contraire, dans le cadre de l’évaluation formative l’erreur est « positive », est fait partie de l’acte d’apprendre et permet de débloquer les démarches d’acquisition des connaissances et des compétences. Le bon moyen d’apprendre est donc de faire des erreurs. L’apprenant s’appuie alors sur son expérience et ses erreurs comme levier à ses besoins d’apprendre.

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L’exemple de reconsidération de l’erreur dans le secteur de l’enseignement en hôtellerie-restauration trouve idéalement sa place dans l’enseignement de la pratique. Pour former à l’art de recevoir, du service et du bon geste, la pratique apparait comme l’outil pédagogique le plus efficace. Un apprenant inexpérimenté aura des gestes gauches, maladroits puis à force de répétition, deviendra un bon professionnel.

Ce processus pédagogique ne peut toutefois être totalement efficace que si l’apprenant est corrigé tout au long de son apprentissage et guider par l’enseignant qui s’adapte à lui. L’erreur devient donc une source de motivation et sert de point de départ à l’apprentissage suivant. L’enseignant adapte au fur et à mesure son enseignement sur les comportements des apprenants dont il a la responsabilité en fonction de l’amélioration ou non des gestes et pratiques enseignés.

C. Les entretiens d’évaluation Les entretiens d’évaluation sont une composante centrale de l’évaluation formative. Ils visent à permettre à l’apprenant de prendre consciences des stratégies qu’il utilise dans le processus d’apprentissage et à porter une réflexion critique sur son activité. L’objectif poursuivi par les entretiens est surtout la mise en confiance de l’apprenant. Les entretiens permettent de formaliser les conditions d’une éventuelle seconde évaluation. On s’explique, on fait le point, le bilan sur le chemin de l’apprentissage. Loin d’une note, ici on explique le comment du pourquoi et on tente d’adapter le chemin vers la réussite.

La mise en œuvre des entretiens est assez simple dans l’hôtellerie-restauration puisque le jeu du briefing-débriefing après chaque service est chose commune dans les hôtels et restaurants.

Il suffirait de l’adapter en le personnalisant aux cours théoriques et à la pratique. Il s’agirait de mélanger finalement le concept du briefing-débriefing à un conseil de classe après chaque leçon.

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Les entretiens se voulant un temps d’échange et d’un bilan de ce qui est acquis et ce qui reste à acquérir. Une discussion enseignant et apprenant.

D. Vers un nouvel apprentissage ?

On le comprend, l’évaluation formative a le mérite de remettre au centre l’apprenant du processus d’apprentissage partant de la parole de l’enseignant à l’évaluation. L’évaluation formative permet de faire prendre conscience que la démarche d’apprentissage est protéiforme et qu’il n’existe pas une meilleure ou une moins bonne façon d’apprendre mais des façons différentes en fonction des capacités des apprenants. Il est en revanche du rôle de l’enseignant de formaliser ces différentes façons d’apprendre pour les rendre plus accessibles et plus efficientes pour l’apprenant.

Il serait erroné de penser que c’est faire baisser le niveau que de demander simplement à l’apprenant d’être capable de restituer ce qui lui a été enseigné selon des objectifs clairement défini à l’avance. Les nouvelles technologies et l’approche pédagogique par compétences nous poussent à souhaiter l’arrêt de la conception franco-française de l’évaluation certificative par les notes.

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RÉFÉRENCES ALTET, M. (2001). Pratiques d’évaluation et communication en classe. In : G. FIGARI & M. ACHOUCHE (Éd.). L’activité évaluative réinterrogée. Regards scolaires et socio-professionnels. Bruxelles : De Boeck.

ALLAL, L. (1991). Vers une pratique de l’évaluation formative : matériel de formation continue des enseignants, Bruxelles : De Boeck-Wesmael.

HADJI, C. (1997). L’Évaluation démystifiée. ESF Editeur, Pratiques et enjeux pédagogiques Inconnu, (2007), Les compétences professionnelles en enseignement et leur évaluation, Presses universitaires d’Ottawa.

MALGLAIVE, G. (1993) Alternance et compétences, Les cahiers pédagogiques.

MICHEL, J- F. (2013), Les sept profils d’apprentissage pour former, enseigner et apprendre, Eyrolles, Paris.

NOYE, D. (2005), Guide pratique du formateur : Concevoir, animer, évaluer une formation, INSEP Consulting éditions.

PREGENT, R. (2011) Enseigner à l’université dans une approche-programme : un défi à relever, Presses internationales Polytechniques, Paris.

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CROSS CULTURAL CURRICULUM DESIGN FOR THAI HOTEL STUDENTS. Dr. Worarak SUCHER, D.HTM*

Ms. Sucher is currently a Lecturer and researcher at Vatel International Business School, Thailand, holding a Doctorate degree in Hotel and Tourism Management from the School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. A postgraduate alumni of Silpakorn University International College, Thailand and Perpignan University, France; Ms. Sucher is also a Certified Hospitality Educator (CHE) from the American Hotel & Lodging Educational Institute. Ms. Sucher teaches various courses in Hotel and Tourism Management but specializes in Human Resources Management and Cross Cultural Competencies.

ABSTRACT Relevant academic literature is drawn upon to demonstrate the nature of cross-cultural management and consider its implications for administrating to the essential needs of preparing undergraduate students for the international hospitality and tourism industry. The key issues of cultural intelligence and cross cultural development are addressed in order to enhance the intercultural experience of students during their education in hospitality and tourism management. This paper examines cross-cultural needs and practices of Thai students and then this information will serve as a basis for making recommendations * Vatel, International Business School Hotel & Tourism Management, Thailand

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for hospitality educational programs. It will also explore Thai culture influences on educational contexts and learning approaches, which may differ from those of Western nations.

Keywords: cross cultural management, curriculum design, cross cultural development, cultural intelligence, hotel student, hospitality and tourism management, Thailand.

I. INTRODUCTION Globalization has had a major impact on the hospitality and tourism sector (Smith & Cooper 2000). One of the challenges for educators in the area of hospitality and tourism studies is the development of appropriate pedagogy to educate and train future generations of employees that integrates the influence globalization has had, and will have, on the industry (McGee & Festervand 2002). Successful graduates should be able to work with people from different national backgrounds, regardless of their cultural orientation, and successfully operate in different parts of the world. The technological achievement of the internet and globalization of commerce has brought people across the globe together in ways never seen before. This means that people from different parts of the world and with different cultural backgrounds are working and communicating with each other frequently (Kawar 2012). This issue needs to be integrated into the academic lexicon for producing a professional workforce to support the needs of the industry in both a local and an international context (Lughton & Ottewill 2000).

The hotel industry has gradually doubled the number of hotels over the last few decades (Lee 2008), indicating an increase in the importance of globalization for the international hospitality industry. The multi-national hotels play a major role in leading the sector and thus they are employing more people across the globe and setting the standard for the industry (Boardman & - 30 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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Barbato 2008). The acceleration of this trend has resulted in multibranded hotel companies emerging in the Asia-Pacific region, where the largest growth opportunities in the global hospitality industry are represented (UNWTO 2012). Southeast Asia has demonstrated remarkable growth during the last few decades and is one of the major markets for hospitality operation expansions (Meyer & Geary 1993). The international hospitality and tourism industry is facing increased multicultural diversity and relies on a multicultural workforce, thus producing graduates that have an understanding of cultural differences is important to hospitality and tourism management educational institutions (Hearns et al.

2007).

A national survey shows that students have a high degree of the anxiety related to multicultural sensitivity, including management of cultural differences (Mahoney & Schamber 2004). Gamio & Sneed (1992) remarked that cultural effectiveness has professional implications for employees in the international hospitality and tourism industry, an individual should develop cultural awareness, i.e., that is the ability to perform appropriately and communicate effectively with another culture. It can also help them to be more empathetic of other values, habits, customs, and lifestyles. This is attained through learning from an educational program that continuously develops the individual to be effective in their working environment (Mahoney & Schamber 2004). The key providers of future indigenous staff and managers are the hospitality and tourism institutions (Laughton & Ottewill 2000).

Therefore, this paper aims to focus on multiculturalism and the management of cultural diversity, which will be introduced and recommended for hotel and tourism management curriculum content.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Cross Cultural Management Each individual of a culture has in their mind the collective programming that identifies them as a member of a distinct group or category of people (Hofstede et al. 2010). These are the patterns of beliefs, behaviors, and values that are learned and shared among the members of a group (Mahoney & Schaamber 2004). Culture serves as the guideline or principles for actions.

When people with culturally different behaviors and beliefs must interact, faulty assumptions towards the others’ behaviors may arise. Stereotypes and assumptions of perceived negatives attributes displayed by an individual of a different culture create confusion about motives and meanings (Tung 1993). These negative attributes occur because the assigned labels are based upon the primary persons’ own cultural norms and worldview (Black & Mendenhall 1990). In an intercultural encounter, there may be a lack of knowledge and experience in interacting with a person who is different in significant ways. When replying to a communication that contains varied and uncertain patterns, it is difficult to interpret alien cultural behavior due to ethnocentrism (Harris & Kumra 2000). The ability of an individual to communicate appropriately and work effectively with people from diverse backgrounds is one of the essential skills that future generations of the international hospitality and tourism management require, but may often lack (Hearns et al. 2007).

The development and application of knowledge about cultures in the practices of international operations is necessary to prepare individuals for global businesses (Mead & Andrews 2009).

According to Adler (2008), cross-cultural management explains the behavior of people in organizations around the world and shows people how to work in organizations with employees and clients from many different cultures. The practices of - 32 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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cross-cultural management will be presented in the areas of higher education management, executive training and consultancy and performed in schools or organizations that serve as a reference within their industry. Cross-cultural training is a strategy that could enhance the ability of individuals to deal with and manage cultural diversity and would help them become better equipped for employment in the international hospitality and tourism industry (Gamio & Sneed 1992). It has been advocated as a means of increasing various skills that facilitate effective cross-cultural interactions. In the area of personal growth, cross-cultural training increases an individual’s confidence and their capabilities to act appropriately and effectively in a cross-cultural setting. In relationship dimensions, cross-cultural training increases inter-personal skills, which is illustrated via cognitive maps of individuals from other cultures and provides explanations of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors for interacting in these settings (Black & Mendenhall 1990).

The development of effective cross-cultural training programs for future generations has gained the attention of scholars due to the growing body of grounded empirical literature on crosscultural training, with the intent to establish valid cross-cultural training programs in the future. Black & Mendenhall (1990) discussed three dimensional variables that are effective indicators of cross-cultural training: cross-cultural skills development, adjustment, and performance. These variables emphasize the efficacy of cross-cultural training and can positively determine the level of cross-cultural training development of an individual.

From a theoretical perspective, cross-cultural training prepares an individual to have adequate cultural knowledge to further develop cross-cultural skills. These skills center on the capabilities of an individual that enable him/her to engage in effective intercultural social interaction and to extend that engagement and interaction to exhibit effective and appropriate behaviors,

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thus maximizing the understanding between individuals from different cultures (Serrie 1992; John et al. 2006).

B. Cultural Intelligence The individual is supposed to adapt with differences in order to live within a specific culture. Cultural adaptation has therefore become one of the most important practices in international Human Resources Management (Nicolaides 2010). Employees in the hospitality and tourism industry must be comfortable with supervisors, fellow workers, and guests who may exhibit a wide range of human variations and cultures. They must be trained in the objectives, facts, and subjective behaviors, to develop crosscultural skills at an interpersonal level to prepare for work in a multicultural setting and to successfully interact with people from different cultures (Serrie 1992). Developing cultural intelligence is an on-going learning process that requires strong support from institutions (Johnson et al. 2006). Cultural intelligence is the ability to exhibit certain behaviors, including skills and qualities, which are culturally tuned to the attitudes and values of others (Kawar 2012).

The concept of cultural intelligence was firstly introduced by Earley (2002). Cultural intelligence covers three dimensions: cognitive, motivational, and behavioral facets. These three dimensions suggest enhancing knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal attributes of an individual. The cognitive dimension (mind-set) enables an individual to function effectively in a cross-cultural context; including cultural knowledge, cultural adaptation processes, and cultural self-awareness (Bennett 2009). Cultural knowledge is an important determinant of one’s ability to minimize misunderstandings with someone from another culture. The motivational dimension, or heart-set, is a vital driver. This dimension includes attitudes and motivation, as well as taking the initiative, being non-judgmental, risk taking, cognitive flexibility, and open-mindedness, tolerance of - 34 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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ambiguity, flexibility, and resourcefulness (Bennett 2009). The final dimension is behavioral. This facet deals with behavioral learning and is concerned with knowledge acquisition that is employed mostly in the display of appropriate behaviors and applying them in real-life situations.

C. Cross Cultural Development The perspective of cross-cultural learning development involves a progressive capacity to accommodate cultural differences and to construct an identity relative to others in which individuals learn through interaction and negotiation, not only from their own cultural identity, but also cultural differences in relation to other cultures (Bennett 1993b as cited in Mahoney & Schamber 2004). According to cognitive theories suggested by Black & Mendenhall (1990), learning takes place through the mental processing of information and determination of subsequent behavior. Additionally, behavioral theorists (e.g. Bochner 1982) argued that learning is shaped by the consequences of experiences and behaviors. Cross-cultural learning entails the modeling of behaviors such as being tolerant of ambiguity or appropriating judgment about the actions or behaviors of another culture and its consequences (Earley 1987). Working in a culturally different environment is always a challenge, so it is not surprising that the lack of cultural knowledge as well as a difficulty to adjust to or tolerate other cultures; are major factors contributing to cross cultural failure (Dowling & Welch 2005).

Modeled behaviors can be formed by: (1) lectures which are based on the imagined relationships between behaviors and consequences (2) by watching videos which are based on the observed relationship between behaviors and consequences and (3) through role-playing which is based upon observed experienced behaviors and consequences (Black & Mendenhall 1990; Stewart & Mendenhall 1991). Through these activities, students will be exposed to general cross-cultural situations so - 35 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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that they can become familiar and comfortable when interacting with people from different cultures. These can serve as important learning experiences that can engage cognitive behavior and their associated consequences. The learning models show appropriate and inappropriate behaviors in simulated general or specific situations. These activities can increase an individuals’ efficacy and expected outcome, they can facilitate the model behaviors, anticipate the determinants of what behaviors can be acted out, and execute appropriate behaviors.

HE EFFECT OF CULTURAL VALUES III. T ON THE THAI EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Cultural values have a considerable effect on the way people learn and are educated by educational institutions. Cultural values shape and effect human thought and behavior (You et al. 2000), influencing the way society is perceived and how decisions are made from a variety of contexts, particularly on organizational practices and strategy (Fisher & Hartel 2003).

Hofstede (2010) studied employees working in a multi-national organization. He described four ways of analyzing and understanding a culture; Collectivism, Femininity, Power Distance, and Uncertainty Avoidance. In relation to education, Hofstede (2010) wrote a paper on the effects of culture on teaching and learning values. Thailand ranked very high in all four domains, whereas Western European nations are much higher in Individuality and Masculinity domains.

It is interesting to note that Thailand scores high in Collectivism, indicating that a smaller harmonious group is a Thai preference i.e.; status within a group is more important than actual competency and the attitude of learning is generally meant for the young and not the old. It highlights the different approaches required when creating a professional development program for a group of Thai students with this cultural value. Thailand - 36 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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also ranks highly for Femininity, where quality of life, welfare of others and interdependence permeates the individual mindset.

Again Hofstede (1986) applies this to education, whereby social adaptation, modesty, caring for others, and friendliness to others are encouraged, average individual performance is the norm, and open praise of others is limited to conduct in the Thai educational society. This contradicts the Masculine dimension in education where praise and performance are recognized and encouraged, and brilliance admired and career advancement is sought after.

People of a nation like Thailand, with high Uncertainty Avoidance, also feel more comfortable in structured learning environments.

This is an individual subjectivity that is conceived by experience and feeling, which can be learned and obtained from external factors (Hofstede et al. 2010). In terms of education, students are likely provided all the directions and answers whereby teachers can act emotionally and are considered experts. In contrast, low Uncertainty Avoidance nations display more innovative approaches to problem solving. They are more open to unstructured learning, and suppress emotion.

Finally, high Power Distance cultures place more emphasis on how status and ranking between people are perceived within the society. It represents the inequality of power and wealth in a hierarchical organization which people within an organization find acceptable. In education, including teaching methodology, teachers are centric in the learning experience. Students expect teachers to protect, lead, teach, and advise them, as well as make decisions autocratically and paternalistically for them; they tend to be dependent on their teachers. Thus, criticism of teachers is not acceptable. Based on Thai perception, older teachers are respected more than younger ones and knowledge is transferred from a relationship with a guru or Master teacher. By contrast, nations with low Power Distance look towards applying student centered learning. Students are allowed to participate in discussions and - 37 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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participate in decision making, they prefer consultative teachers.

The age of teacher is not an issue and wisdom is gained from any person that is considered qualified or possessing enough potential.

IV. THE ESSENCE OF A CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT COURSE Hotel and tourism have increasing roles in the development of the Thai economy that has shifted from an agricultural-based, to an industrialized and service-based economy (Chon et al. 1993).

Tourism is one of the largest single sources of income comprising approximately 7.1 % of the GDP in 2011 and the industry is forecasted to increase by 6.3% by 2022. As seen by the end of the 1980’s, Thailand processed an inventory of 8,300 rooms and by the end of 2011, the number of rooms increased to 200,000 in the over 20 years of hospitality industry development (UNWTO 2012) with a full range of accommodations that is available across Thailand (MFA 2008). This rapid growth of the industry stimulates the economy of the country, creates jobs, encourages investment, and raises the standard of living, as well as education (Chon et al. 1993).

The growth in the Thai economy means that there is an ever increasing demand for hotel and tourism management personnel and many Thai universities currently offer programs in hotel and tourism management at the undergraduate level in both Thai and English language. International programs provide skills in foreign language skills and competencies that are required for working in international environments. According to Ministry of Education (2015) of Thailand, there were 387 international programs in 2002 and by 2008; the number of the programs had rapidly increased to 844. An investigation of seventeen universities with International programs in Hotel and Tourism Management revealed that only half of them offer a course in cross-cultural management; as illustrated in Table 1. To produce a potential resource for a globalized - 38 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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hospitality industry, educational institutes should pay more attention on a necessary component of intercultural study - an emphasis on application in cultural differences and similarities.

Students could raise their awareness in expressing the quality of intercultural communication.

Table 1: Samples of International Program in Hospitality and Tourism Field

No

University

DEGREE

Cross Cultural Management Course Available Unavailable

Public University 1

A

BA

Tourism and Hotel Management

√

2

B

BBA

Tourism Management, Hospitality Management

√

3

C

BBA

Hotel Management

4

D

BBA

Tourism and Hotel Management

5

E

BBA

Tourism Management, Hospitality Industry Management

×

6

F

BA

International Tourism and Hotel Management

×

7

G

BA

Tourism and Hospitality

×

× √

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Private University 8

H

BBA

Hotel and Tourism Management

9

I

BA

International Tourism Management

√

10

J

BBA

Hotel and Resort Management

√

11

K

BA

Hospitality Industry Management

12

L

BBA

Hotel and Tourism Management

13

M

BBA

Hotel and Tourism Management

14

N

BBA

International Hospitality Management

√

15

O

BA

International Hotel Management

√

16

P

BA

Hotel Spa and Tourism Management

17

Q

BBA

Hospitality and Tourism Management

×

× √ ×

× √

Source: Compiled by the author from the universities’ website (2015).

Nonetheless, Hallinger (2009) highlighted that South East Asia differs culturally from Western nations and therefore education reforms may take on different meanings and require alternative approaches to train students for the industry. A research on education changes in Thailand of Hallinger & Kantamara (2002) adopted Hofstede’s earlier findings and applied them to an educational context. It is noted that in order to enhance the cross-cultural competency of Thai students, the delivery of the program should continuously develop the pedagogy for an on-going intercultural learning process. Collier (1989) suggested that in seeking cultural and intercultural communication competence, individuals should develop competency via four approaches: ethnography of speaking, - 40 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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behavioral skills, cross-cultural attitudes, and cultural identity.

Redmond & Bunyi (1993) further define these competencies as a multi-dimensional concept, which includes the effectiveness of communication, language proficiency, adaptation, social integration, decentering, and knowledge of cultures. Hofstede (2001) supports this perspective and proposed factors for developing competency, such as awareness, knowledge, and skills (international management, global leadership, and intercultural communication).

In addition, the emerging economic activity of worldwide integration demonstrates the accelerating process of globalization of the international hospitality industry operations across borders (Briscoe et al. 2009). This has given birth to new forms of multinational hotel corporations and competitive behaviors (Go & Pine 1995). This phenomenon constitutes an increasing interaction, interconnection, and integration of people, culture, corporations, and countries (Briscoe et al. 2009). As these development trends continue globally, human operations require significant changes in management due to the challenges inherent in the diversity of employees (Mok 2002). In Thailand, the rapid expansion increases the opportunities for attracting workers and customers both within and across borders (IOM 2011). The behavior of employees is influenced to some extent by the cultural norms of different societies as they have to interact with people from different cultural backgrounds (Yu 1999). Thus, employees of the international hospitality market should understand their multi-cultural customers and co-workers and management has to learn how to deal with a multi-cultural and diverse workforce in response to the globalization of hospitality corporations (Kusluvan 2003). Multi-cultural workforces will become a major resource for international hospitality provision; organizations that can successfully implement global innovative business management practices for this type of workforce will gain a competitive advantage worldwide (Yu 1999).

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V. PROPOSED CROSS CULTURAL CURRICULUM STRUCTURE Curriculum is defined by Tribe (2002) as the entire educational experience packaged as a degree program. Gunn (1998) mentioned that curriculum consists of various modules or courses that contain knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The basic elements of the curriculum include objectives, knowledge, learning experiences, and evaluation or assessment (Smith & Cooper 2000).

The content approach is traditionally based on the students’ learning needs, i.e.; not only focusing on the content of the course, but also on the process of learning throughout the program to attain the expected outcome. Students must be fully involved in the educational process. Graduates of a hospitality and tourism management program should be well-prepared for a globalized and changing environment, since the levels of complexity in the work setting of the future cannot yet be predicted.

The multicultural curriculum should be developed and the goal of enhancing the students’ intercultural competency in communication and management should be set up as one essential strategy. This proposal is fostering multicultural education and practical values (Hearns et al. 2007). Consequently, students have to be educated to think critically, be analytical, and be able to use creative and new ways of thinking to tackle problems and adapt to changes by strongly focusing on generic skills which are applicable to different situations and are therefore transferable.

These help students to act appropriately in the highly complex environments of diverse societies (Raybound & Wilkins 2005; Morgan 2004). Hence, an ideal cross-cultural management course objectively prepares students to work internationally with multinational cultures and with fewer errors, whilst engaged in cross cultural interactions, plus having enhanced management skills (Ring et al. 2009).

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Course Objectives The understanding of culture is systematically and critically important for international managers (Bennett et al. 2000).

Students should enhance their current competency, including the strengths found in cultural management, the distinctive attributes needed to perform appropriately in a culturally diverse workplace and a more positive perspective about multicultural working environments within the hospitality and tourism industry (Hearns et al. 2007). In addition, students will enhance their career prospects as an international manager by working in contexts where an understanding of cross-cultural issues is an important ingredient of success (Ring et al. 2009). Culture is the distinctive way in which people behave in certain situations and it is about how people expect others to behave in these similar situations. In this sense, the understanding of culture is significant when we start a new job and meet new colleagues who attempt to explain how things are done at that company. In order to survive, there is a need to have the opportunity to do well in an unfamiliar situation by learning more about the distinctive culture of a particular management ethos and people. According to the above background, students will have an opportunity to enter into, contribute to, and learn about a new culture. This creates new ways of thinking about culturally managing people and its process in diverse work settings, across a range of national and international business and management contexts (Triandis 2001).

Course Content Since cross-cultural management is an applied field, everything on this topic is application-oriented. Students could be presented with information about cultures theoretically, and then they can develop applications accordingly in various cross-cultural cases (Bhawuk 1998). Culture theories can be effectively used in - 43 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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cross-cultural training; it helps to explain about what the reinforcement eventualities are in different cultures and why they are different. Students are expected to be trained to be cultural experts, who can use theory to organize knowledge, as well as to retrieve information and apply it in different cross cultural contexts or situations in order to be able to solve problems across cultures (Bhawuk & Triandis 1996). Therefore, the course content mainly provides students comprehensive knowledge and skills about managing cultural differences. The discussion and analysis is an on-going process in a range of international and cross-cultural management contexts. The main focus is the application of strategic decision-making that connects directly with the chapters from the course textbook and additional cross-cultural management cases (Adler 2008). The course should explore the processes of human resource management, marketing communications and negotiations, risk management, ethics, diversity management, and cases studies that are drawn from a range of international management contexts across the globe.

Learning Outcomes The development of cross-cultural skills for undergraduate students has been a major objective in the evaluation of the abilities needed to be successful in management at an international level. Cognitive skill development is the primary learning outcome and is activated from the completion of course objectives and study of content. Individual self-efficacy and outcome expectations will be increased and would have a positive impact on retention and reproduction of learning processes (Black & Mendenhall 1990). This in turn would have a positive impact on the performance and competency of students because they would have learned appropriate behaviors and effective management techniques across cultures which are associated with the expected outcome of the course. This learning process would - 44 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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explain why individuals who have received cross-cultural training reported higher levels of confidence and ability when engaged in cross-cultural contexts, than those who did not (Stewart & Mendenhall 1990).

Cross cultural training has long been regarded as a vital means with which to facilitate the cross cultural development and to refine the competencies that would be beneficial to undergraduate students to successfully work in an international environment (Ko & Yang 2011). It enables an individual to (1) describe different cultures and key models used for comparing cultures; (2) critically assess the practical value of the key models of cultures in the context of cross-cultural management and decision making strategy; (3) identify some of the factors that influence how decisions are made in cross-cultural management contexts; (4) analyze how disputes and conflicts arise and how they might be resolved in cross-cultural contexts; (5) determine the role of effective communication in contexts for international and cross-cultural management and; (6) demonstrate skills relevant to human resource management, including managing diversity and analyzing staffing decisions of international organizations in the issues of diversity (Bhawuk & Triandis 1996; Stewart & Mendenhall 1990).

Teaching Methods Teaching methods for a course at undergraduate degree level for hospitality and tourism should emphasize the three dimensions of cross cultural awareness, skills development, and teaching and learning methodology (Ottewill & Laughton 2000), as illustrated in figure 1. Three levels of teaching and learning process are proposed as follows: factual, analytical, and experiential.

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capabilities can be facilitated through the nature of the key components of their direct experience that evolve in relevance to the international world stage and by encountering different cultural situations. In addition, the dimension of cross-cultural capability can be developed and acknowledged towards the end of an academic program.

Figure 1: Cross-Cultural Teaching and Learning Methods Model (Adapted from Black & Mendenhall 1991).

Level 1 Factual

Level 1 Analytical

Lecture, books, videos, guest speakers, comparative exercises, research exercises

Lecture, books, videos, guest speakers, comparative exercises, research exercises

Level 1 Experiential Multicultural group work, self-diagnosis of cultural traits, simulators, role plays, international work experience, cross cultural development portfolio

This teaching and learning method for cross-cultural training can enhance students’ cross cultural skills in order to be successful in a new culture. These include: (1) self-maintenance skills that are related to psychological well-being, stress reduction and control, and self-confidence; (2) interpersonal relationship skills, in particular when dealing with people of varying nationalities and cultures; (3) cognitive skills that retrieve correct information and promote perception towards the new cultural environment and its social system (Stewart & Mendenhall 1991; Black & Mendenhall 1990). Students will be trained though culture assimilation exercises in mass lectures, whereas, tutorial students will be presented information through cross-cultural case studies with verbal models of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors in a particular culture and the interpretation of the behaviors.

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Assessment methods Assessment is a measure of whether the course objectives and learning outcomes were achieved. Students could be assessed through two written and presentation projects and one examination. The assignment instructions contain detailed guidance about what is required. All assignment answers are marked using assessment criteria. Students will receive comments accompanied on their papers. These comments are designed to help students master the subject and to improve their skills throughout the program. Examination and assignment questions are set to test different aspects of students’ skills and knowledge of cross-cultural management.

(1) Personal Culture Assessment To facilitate learning about cultural differences, the activities should provide students with fundamental knowledge about other cultures. They will have an opportunity to review the cultural differences between the students’ home country and an assigned one. They will learn the modeled behaviors of both countries in which they can imagine models of behavior formed by their expectations about the consequences of certain behaviors. Therefore, when they actually encounter similar cross-cultural situations, they can recall the models and imitate them better than individuals who had not been previously exposed to these situations (Black & Mendenhall 1990). Furthermore, the information of other cultures such as how people behave or view the world, students can make cognitive associations between congruent behaviors and cognitive maps of members of other cultures. This will enable students to be effective in the cross-cultural interaction by enhancing students’ skills for managing people and social difficulties poised by a multicultural society.

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(2) Cross-Cultural Training Project Over the past 30 years, cross-cultural training has been well accepted for preparing people to work in another culture (Bhawuk 1998; Stewart & Mendenhall 1990).

The use of different methods to educate and train people is well recognized, inclusive of a fully developed intercultural training program. In line of the rapid growth of industry and acceptance of this program, students can gain a greater number of insights in preparation for international assignments. Their ability to adjust to a foreign environment and their performance will be increased by completion of a cross-cultural training project. It can provide the students an example and give testimony to the complexity of cultural management through conduction of the cross-cultural training process, evaluating the outcomes, and assessing performance in multicultural groups in which students shall respond through appropriate and robust strategies. The strategies that will be used are to be stated clearly in the work schemes, i.e., what factors need to be considered and the criteria for grading performance. Students will write on the value of utilizing cross-cultural training programs for potential expatriates and others who are working in a multicultural situation.

VI. CONCLUSION Several remarks can be made concerning Thai cultural values and Thailand’s educational system. It is interesting to note that cultural values have a considerable effect on the way people learn and are educated by educational institutions. Thailand ranked very high in collectivism, femininity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance, whereas individuality and masculinity domains are much higher in European countries. It is additionally highlighted that - 48 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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South East Asia differs culturally from Western nations and therefore education reforms may take different meanings and require alternative approaches to train students for the industry. In relation to education changes and internationalization, cross cultural management can be applied into an educational context. The continuous development of the pedagogy for an on-going intercultural learning process can be delivered during undergraduate students’ study. Since the development trends continue globally, human operations require significant changes in management as human capital moves across the globe and multi-cultural workforces become a major resource for the provision of international hospitality. Finding the right people who can effectively operate and manage in an international context can help an organization maintain and enhance their global competitiveness.

Apart from Thai cultural values and Thai educational system, this paper also provides a review of the empirical literature on cross-cultural management, cultural intelligence, and cross cultural development. Cross cultural training has been suggested to have a positive impact on an individual’s skills development in managing cross-cultural situations and performance. It also enables individuals to learn both content and skills that can be used to facilitate effective cross-cultural interaction by reducing misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors. If this is widely accepted as the major concern for an essential skill required in the increasing globalized hospitality and tourism industry, it becomes necessary for students to understand appropriate interaction with others and use the knowledge for effective cross-cultural interaction. Cross-cultural training is required in course design and in its delivery to internationalize the curriculum, thus students are adequately prepared for the challenges they will face in their future international careers. The main concept of this curriculum design is to meet the challenges and rapid responses needed in human resources and administration in delivering modern hospitality education and training in today’s competitive global environment.

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The ethos of a multicultural curriculum is to help students develop their cross-cultural competency, abilities, attitudes, and comprehension, to function effectively within the national culture, their own ethnic sub-societies, and across different ethnic subsocieties and cultures (Mahoney & Schamber 2004). Hospitality and tourism management educational institutes may consider adding courses in multicultural management to the administration curricula in order to provide international experiences for students at a minimum required by the industry. Multicultural awareness must be integrated into existing courses with activities whereby students can gain an understanding of other cultures in relation to work-related values, expectations, verbal and nonverbal communication, and behaviors. It is crucial to invest in long-term education and cultural awareness in people, the developmental needs of intercultural sensitivity must be considered of value not only as a component of general education, but also as a vital skill for graduates to succeed in an increasingly independent world. This paper is intended to serve as a guideline for existing hospitality and tourism curriculums in Thailand that have not yet included cross-cultural management courses in their programs; but ultimately can be applied to other cultural and educational environments.

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SOCIO-TECHNICAL DESIGN FOR EVALUATION OF STUDENT’S BEHAVIOUR AND EXPECTATIONS. THE CASE OF WEB APPS FOR COURSE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT EVALUATION IN FORM OF STUDENT’S PERCEPTION OF QUALITY. Claudette JOHN, Dr Constance KAMPF, Dr Alexandra BROILLET and Eric GREGOIRE* ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the usability of new technologies and realtime socio-technical features for evaluation issues in student’s courses. The evaluation of content and forms of knowledge taught within a course are directly linked to behaviour, perception and expectations from the student’s side. So, we focus here, on the evaluation process based on socio-technical design that allows integrating student’s behaviour and expectations. A Web App has been constructed and tested on an exploratory basis to get real-time insights about the combination of theory, course and practical applications. The results demonstrate a very high participation ratio from the student’s side. This is due to the use of their smartphones that are directly integrated in their social life contexts. Therefore, real-time statistics can be used for improving the quality of teaching or practical applications on a continual basis, both during and by the end of a course. * AARHUS University, Denmark - Vatel, International Business School Hotel & Tourism Management, Switzerland

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INTRODUCTION This paper is treating the usability of new technologies, like realtime socio-technical features, for evaluation issues for student’s courses. The evaluation of content and form of knowledge that is taught within a course is directly linked to behaviour perception and expectations from the student’s side. So, we focus here on the evaluation process based on new socio-technical design that allows integrating student’s behaviour and expectations. Those behaviour and expectations from the student’s side allow us to understand not only what was understood from the student’s side, what they liked or disliked in regards to contents definition of a course, but also give us insights about the quality of teaching.

So, our main applied research Question is, “What is the sociotechnical communication design for Knowledge Management evaluation through student’s behaviour and expectations based with App? It is treated through the perspective of socio-technical design with Web Apps and Student’s behaviour with Web Apps linked to Course expectations and evaluation.

Indeed, using this Web App could be beneficial for knowing the efficiency of the teaching, too. We wonder if the integration of smartphones would increase the participation ratio. Today the evaluation procedures are often done through a classic questionnaire integrating dimensions touching pedagogical goals, course contents, evaluation and teaching abilities. Getting realtime statistics would be very useful for integrating the feed-back directly into the Quality Management of a Course or practical applications.

I. SOCIO-TECHNICAL DESIGN OF WEB APPS The field of socio-technical design gives us a perspective on Web Apps in general. Socio-technical design comes from different perspectives. Two important perspectives in the field are:

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1) the use of technology from a usability perspective that takes people and context into account for planning the use of technology; and 2) an interactive perspective that includes knowledge and interaction among people supported by technology.

Both of these perspectives work together in the design of our project.

In general, the idea of socio-technical design implies a user focus.

In the classroom, the user can be understood as the learner. Thus, using a Web App brings the learner into the centre of an interaction with a familiar technology, the smartphone. In our case, user/ learner behaviours and expectations are shaped by socio-technical features of the smart phones used by students. Because the students like to use their smartphones, and keep them at hand, doing evaluations through a smartphone application is easy and familiar to the students. This familiarity with the technology encourages more of the students to complete the evaluations, and gives them the opportunity to give more comments through a familiar situation and technology. Since Web apps are often evaluated by users, the use of an application to evaluate a course extends this familiar situation in a familiar setting. As we have had success with the evaluations, the next step is to examine how the use of mobile technology can go beyond the use of evaluations only, and become a more integral part of the learning process, and even the course experience.

In the field of socio-technical design, one can say that technology shapes user possibility at the same time as users work to shape the technology to fit their habits and expectations. Relying on this principle can help us develop the use of smartphone Apps in the educational system more effectively and broadly.

The field of mobile learning, or m-learning, has been under development since the early 2000s. Some of the early work focuses on the social aspects of using mobile phones, but is restricted by the limitations of early phone technology. However, historical frameworks for e-learning can also serve as guides for us to consider - 59 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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the social side of the technology with the faster and more capable smartphones we have today. For example, Silander et al (2004) focus on the use of mobile learning to combine classroom learning with field experiences. From a technological viewpoint, their work considers how different programmable modules, such as the module developed by Oaky** for course evaluations, can be reused in different ways simply by changing the content. Then from a social viewpoint, they focus on how the mobile capabilities of the phone enable a social connection between classroom and field experiences. This reuse of technology combined with new social experiences can be an inspiration for how to proceed with Oaky based on the technology they have currently developed. Oaky’s basic system enables users to answer multiple choice questions or use rating scales to answer questions. These answers are then combined with dashboard on the web enabling access to statistics about the answers. After some exchanges with the start-up Oaky, they are willing and interested in finding ways to reuse the modules they have already developed as evaluations by adapting the content to fit other classroom needs. This ability could, as with Silander et al’s project, be used for field experiences related to classroom activities. The key will be to work within the abilities of the current technology and use the survey and rating capability with statistics on responses for learning activities related to course learning goals and desired learning outcomes for students.

Building on Silander et al’s work, Nguyen et al (2006) develop scenarios for using mobile technology in learning contexts. Their scenarios include 1). Asking anytime; 2). Learning anywhere; 3).

As a convenient tool; 4). Collaboration; 5). University Radio. The first scenario, “Asking anytime” is about access to help. “Learning anywhere” is about access to learning materials on mobile devices, like smartphones. Third, “as a convenient tool” focuses on ways that smartphones can be used to accomplish learning outcomes. ** Oaky is the name of the Web App used in the experiment described in this paper

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For example, the Oaky survey tool could be repurposed as a data gathering tool for students to gather limited sets of information by visiting hotel sites, and the statistics could be used to analyse their findings across different hotel sites. Fourth, “for Collaboration” could allow students to use smartphones to share information with each other when they are in the field. It could also be used to facilitate study groups and collaborative study sessions. This notion was taken further in 2010, when with the more advanced smartphone technology, it was suggested by Cochrane & Bateman that smartphones could be used to organize and facilitate communities of practice (Wenger 1998). Communities of practice (CoP) can be understood as student groups or groups which connect students and professionals together that share three key characteristics: joint goals, shared concepts (e.g. learning content from the course curriculum), and mutual engagement (e.g. working together in an engaged and excited way toward shared goals). The fifth scenario “University radio” really refers to the multimedia capabilities of today’s smartphones—not just radio reception, but also with cameras capabilities allow for the use of photo and video material to either be delivered to or produced by the students. Many of these capabilities can be used to expand the social possibilities for the Oaky App within the technical constraints of the current software.

Two important issues to consider in expanding the use of smartphone Apps are: 1). whether and how the App structure and interface fits the students’ cultural expectations as users of smartphones, and 2). the cultural expectations built into interactions between learners and instructors. (Cochrane & Bateman 2010).

This is really the social side of socio-technical design, and it is the most important aspect of development for mobile learning in the classroom. When students can easily understand how to use the technology because it is familiar, focusing their energy on learning goals is much easier. This familiarity with the technology can also help students be more engaged and enthusiastic about learning.

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II. STUDENT’S BEHAVIOUR WITH REGARDS TO WEB APPS LINKED TO COURSE EXPECTATIONS AND EVALUATION As the student’s habits with regard to technology have changed and been observed in the field of Consumer Behaviour (Geels, 2004), we wonder how we may integrate student’s behaviour and expectations directly in our evaluation process of student’s perception of knowledge management in regard to a course for example. Due to Geels (2004), socio-technical design should include the systems, actors and institutions. Those three dimensions are combining individual’s perceptions and their social actions. So, the combination of socio-technical features, students and Vatel institutions are guiding the perception of knowledge evaluation through the student’s behaviour and expectations with regards to a course.

Vatel has not to be considered as an institution representing only “stability” based to Geels (2004), but more as a dynamic sociotechnical institution that is able to interact among the concerned actors and adapt perfectly to any new knowledge tendency in the Hospitality Business School industry. Consequently, this dynamic system of socio- technical interaction can be considered as a dynamic knowledge Management construction platform that is controlled with regards to this evaluation process through student’s behaviour and expectations. The dynamic of the knowledge platform is guaranteed through multi-level incentives from the combination of the three dimensions (technology, actors involved and institution) based on Geels (2004).

Further on, we may view the integration of socio-technical features from the student’s perception side by passing by the Consumer Behaviour from the individual perspective of a student with regards to an evaluation procedure of his courses. A student can be considered as an individual that is asked to give his opinion about a consumed service, here a course. The opinion is given by using a smartphone and the technical tool is perfectly integrated in - 62 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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the social life of the student. Based on Singly (2010), any social action of any individual is part of his or her constructed identity.

Here, the use of smartphones by students is integrated already in their social life. They use it on a daily basis and therefore, the technical tool on itself is part of their social constructed identity.

It is the same for Web Apps. Most of the students do use them, because they experienced already different other applications. So, the suggestions from the Institutional side to ask for a perception of a Course through a Web App is already accepted in advance because it is integrated in the socio-cultural reference frame.

This socio-cultural reference frame can be explained by using the social one that has been discussed by Goffman (1991). Actually, the way of using a cell phone and a Web App is linked to social norms and values. The socio-technical context of using them is perfectly known to students. They know when and how to use them. Often they try to use them even during theory courses.

Although, the use of cell phones, or Web Apps within a physical classroom is still rare. In addition, students do know the sociotechnical structure of Business School Courses. They know the socio-technical reference frame of a course, like, which teacher will give which subject, which kind of exam they will have, and so on. Physical and virtual social spaces are integrated in their social life (Emad and Broillet, 2014), but cell phone, Skype, Web Apps or other technical features are still not systematically integrated in a theory course within a physical class. In most of the teaching cases, integration of socio-technical interaction is not allowed at all.

A past teaching experience may illustrate the limit of integration of socio-technical features within theory course contexts. It happened within a third year’s Bachelor teaching experience. The use of Skype was perfectly integrated in a constructed plan of a theory course. Students welcomed an Applied Business Application from the beginning of the course. But once the course started and - 63 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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Skype experience was offered, it was rejected by nearly all of the students in the class because they missed the physical presence of the teacher. So, the social reference frame did not include for these students a use of socio-technical interaction that ought to be used “naturally” within a constructed course. Therefore, the integration and use of socio-technical features have to be well planned and discussed first with students as the level of integration of sociotechnical design within a course procedure is highly influencing the acceptation level of mixing up social and virtual social spaces within a Business School context.

In regard to socio-technical implications from the student’s side from an individual point of view, the acceptance level of use of smartphones for an evaluation process is very high. It concerns the Quality perception of a physical theory course through a Web App by using their own smartphones. The fact of using their own smartphones that students do use already on a daily base, is increasing the rate of return. So, the investment for constructing a standardized evaluation Survey through this Web App and getting statistics in near real-time, cannot be compared to a classic way of realizing a course evaluation procedure. The speed of production and immediate feed-back is certainly higher compared to a physical course evaluation. So, this Web App can be considered as a realtime perception tool of physical theory courses. It is consuming less time and money with regards to the production and analysis of data.

To understand the usability of socio-technical features for an evaluation process of Knowledge Management of a course through the student’s behaviour and expectations, we studied a new Web App, called “Oaky”. This Web App is accessed via the students’ device and appears in form of an icon, directly on a student’s screen. Each student has his unique access. Further on, an institution may add « an official institution icon », here the Vatel icon, on a secondary screen. So, every Vatel student can access directly, through this - 64 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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secondary level, a Knowledge Management evaluation process.

The Web App administrator activates then the evaluation process for one or more services at the same time. Socio-technical design was treated in the field of e-business by Kampf (2012) and a definition of macro and micro level was given.

III. THE CASE OF « OAKY ». A WEB APP FOR THE EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT EVOLUTION IN FORM OF STUDENT’S PERCEPTION OF QUALITY Our current students are part of the late phase of generation Y and in the addition of technology to their learning experience. There is no doubt that their engagement is augmented by technology.

Whereas mention of a traditional type of assessment brings only grunts and unenthusiastic responses, the offer of an electronic quiz is rarely met with opposition. It seems that electronic assessments are viewed more as a game than a test. Based on longterm practical teaching experiences of IT within the hospitality industry sector, students have been known to take quizzes before the instructor had communicated their availability. This research aims to investigate whether students will display the same attitude towards the evaluation of the provision of student services whether educational or non-educational. Using a real-time feedback tool in the form of a mobile application, we will measure students’ engagement overtime.

Oaky is a responsive web app i.e. software or application that runs in a web browser and adapts automatically to the device (computer, tablet, smartphone) used for browsing. Oaky is an extremely user-friendly means of obtaining formal feedback from customers or clients. Originally, the app was designed to gain feedback from hotel customers both before and during their stay.

It was then adapted to evaluate courses and students’ services in hospitality management schools.

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IV. METHODOLOGY FOR PILOT For getting first insights with regards to the usability of this sociotechnical Web Apps, we opted for the discovery context with a constructed methodology (Bergadaà, 2006). At Vatel Martigny, as our Web App is only in an exploratory phase, we need to get deeper insights with regards to the usability of this socio-technical communication design. We launched a pilot project in November 2014, allowing students to give real-time feedback on several delivery (or touch) points (campus, courses etc.) to measure the institution’s performance over time - and in real-time. Therefore two IT courses have been chosen for the course performance, but also a Vatel Café as a Campus performance. Practical and theory performances have been directly integrated in the evaluation procedure.

For the pilot project, we applied the following methodology: 1. The app proposes to evaluate a course or a service via a series of criteria called “touch points”. Before any evaluation, the touch points and attributes are defined and the evaluation questions customized. See Exhibit 1 for screen shots of the customization of the touch point before the pilot run at the Vatel School in Martigny.

2. The configuration spreadsheet (Exhibit 1) was then used by the app developers to customize the app and ready it for distribution.

3. For the dashboard, touch points are summarised into a series of dimensions as shown in the first column of Exhibit 1.

4. A list of students’ email was sent to Oaky who would send the link to the app. The students received an email explaining the pilot from the academic director, then they received the app link (see Exhibit 2 for screen shots of both messages)

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5. The lecturer/instructor introduced the project to the students and reminded them that their feedback was anonymous.

The students clicked on the link they had received by email and came to the screens shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1 : Screen shot of Oaky landing page and evaluation page.

6. Responding to the evaluation using the sliders is very fast, it can be done in under a minute. If the student writes some comments, the evaluation could take another minute or so.

As the students move the slider from best to worst evaluations, the app dashboard is presented on the overhead projector for the students to see the results in real-time.

The screenshots from figure 2 below shows the Score at a glance for 3 different evaluations: Vatel Café, IT course 2nd year and IT course 3rd year.

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Figure 2 : Oaky interactive dashboard.

7. The dashboard is interactive, if one clicks on one of the evaluations, the relevant details by touch point appear as illustrated in figure 3 below. When the respondents type in comments, these appear below the charts as shown on figure 4 below. The dashboard gives real-time insights into the delivery (touch) points, their dimensions and their relative impact per student.

Figure 3 : Drill down details of Vatel Café evaluation by touch point.

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Figure 4 : Graph with associated comments of Vatel Café evaluation.

Figure 5 : Drill down details of 3rd year evaluation of IT course by touch point.

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Figure 6 : Graph with associated comments for 3rd year evaluation of IT course.

V. RESULTS The following results give some more insights in regard to immediate results coming directly from the Web App. We underline the evaluation of theory courses and practical application evaluations.

Table 1 below shows the overall results of 3 evaluations (theory and practical evaluations), summarised across all touch points.

The table contains the data charted in figure 2 above.

Extremely positive

Very positive

Positive

Neutral

Negative

Very negative

Vatel Café

12,10%

12,10%

30,30%

18,20%

21,20%

6,10%

2nd year IT

16,70%

27,80%

22,20%

22,20%

5,60%

5,60%

7,10%

21,40%

50%

21,40%

0%

0%

Evaluations

rd

3 year IT

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Table 2 below shows the details for the evaluation of the Vatel Café by touch point. The table contains the data charted in figure 3 above.

Touch Point

Extremely Very Positive Neutral Negative Very Extremely positive positive negative negative

Ambiance

16,20%

12,10% 27,80% 31,30% 9,60%

2,00%

1,00%

Functionality

9,10%

18,20% 26,80% 21,20% 18,70%

4,50%

1,50%

Food and drinks

2,00%

7,10% 19,20% 20,20% 24,20% 17,20%

10,10%

Staff

13,00%

20,30% 34,80% 24,60% 5,80%

1,40%

0,00%

Personalization

0,00%

8,80% 20,60% 20,60% 23,50% 23,50%

2,90%

Hygiene

21,20%

27,30% 27,30% 15,20% 6,10%

0,00%

0,00%

Access

9,10%

12,10% 18,20% 15,20% 21,20% 21,20%

3,00%

Value for money

3,00%

12,10% 18,20% 18,20% 18,20% 27,30%

3,00%

Table 3 below shows the details for the evaluation of the IT course in 3rd year evaluation by touch point. The table contains the data charted in figure 5 above.

Touch Point

Extremely Very Positive Neutral Negative Very Extremely positive positive negative negative

Organization/ Presentation

2,40%

16,70% 40,50% 28,60% 11,90%

0,00%

0,00%

Assessment

7,10%

21,40% 42,90% 17,90% 7,10%

3,60%

0,00%

Content

12,50%

31,30% 43,80% 6,30%

6,30%

0,00%

0,00%

Staff

6,70%

40,00% 46,70% 6,70%

0,00%

0,00%

0,00%

Survey

0,00%

0,00% 35,70% 50,00% 14,30%

0,00%

0,00%

Language policy

57,10%

14,30% 14,30% 14,30% 0,00%

0,00%

0,00%

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The methodology that we used, described above, aims to answer our first research question: “Who defines the delivery points and the evaluation criteria?”

Oaky has a lot of experience of formulating evaluation criteria.

They proposed a list for both service delivery evaluation (Vatel Café) and course evaluation (IT). The lecturer/instructor selected and rewrote the corresponding questions. See exhibit 1 for a list of detailed criteria and questions. The rewriting appears in green.

The quantitative and qualitative results of the evaluations need to be further analysed in order to measure students’ engagement and determine future courses of action. Our second research question concerns engagement: “How do we measure engagement?”

Engagement can be measured by the willingness of the students to engage in evaluating service delivery and courses. In the pilot, no student showed any sign of resistance to the survey. On the contrary, they engaged with the app with determination and good humour. By analysing the details of the app data export we can also assess engagement in that less engaged students might not complete the survey. This confirms the level of acceptance of integration of socio-technical design that is already well known from the student’s side and therefore highly accepted within a course context. Therefore, measure of engagement can be seen by the high rate of answers, in our case we got about 231 answers.

On a third level, when doing students survey, it is customary to assess engagement from the number and quality of the comments written. We shall also analyse the details of the app data export to that effect. But this was not done in this exploratory phase.

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Our third research question introduces future usage of evaluation apps: “How do we convince educational and practical service providers?”

VI. APPLIED RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS We believe it is still early days and that we probably need a fully-fledged project in one or two courses and two or three service delivery points before the app usage is generalized with volunteers. The experience and results of these projects can be used to convince educational and practical service providers who could be invited to witness the use of the application in the volunteers’ classrooms. The initial team should also be involved in providing support for question selection and formulation as well as result analysis.

Qualitative comments should be analysed by using classic Web Analysis methods (Broillet, Dubosson & Trabichet, 2008) to get first applied research implications in regard to theory and practical quality improvement. Insights can be used to adapt the survey to cultural student’s needs.

Further on, applications of Oaky Web App within the Knowledge Management framework of an IT or different Hospitality and Tourism Management course can be seen as following: • A lecturer can imagine multiple application of the web app in a course.

First, it makes real-time feedback possible. This could be done at the end of each class with touch points being learning outcomes or content sections or teaching methods. The points not understood during one session would appear in red and could be reviewed during the following session.

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Second, the same touch point can be evaluated repeatedly over the duration of the course, allowing the lecturer to evaluate students’ progress.

Third, at the end of course, the app could be used to get overall feedback on the course/teacher. This feedback is useful both for the teacher and the academic director. The teacher can make necessary changes to the course before the following semester and the academic director can get an anonymous evaluation of the course and teacher.

All uses of the app are made possible because the app is fully customizable (see Exhibit 1).

VII. MANAGER’S IMPLICATIONS In general, this Web App technology is constructed for standardized evaluation procedure for theory and/or practical courses.

So, Oaky can be used easily for Bachelors or Master courses. A version that allows flexible integration of any question of evaluation can be interesting and constructed in the future. So, the teacher or professional can easily adapt a survey to his or hers evaluation needs that have to fit to a content of theory or practical courses.

The Quality Knowledge Management outcomes through this Web Apps are representing an applied opportunity to practice evaluation of learning contents differently. It may allow Vatel to define a procedure by getting permanent online insights about new knowledge tendencies from the student’s side through their perceptions of course contents. This can be considered as a “real-on-time” expectation procedure for the Vatel Knowledge Management. And the same time, Knowledge Management implications may create a dynamic knowledge management platform that can be considered as an interesting decision tool for the Knowledge Management field for Vatel Group that allows homogeneity among Vatel institutions.

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The Web App can also be used as a tool to keep the students focused. They love new technologies, and allowing them to use their smartphones to evaluate the course, especially their teacher is something totally new and interesting for them. For once, they have the power to evaluate the person who is often evaluating them. It makes the courses interesting and it is keeping all actors: teachers and student very well focused during the course.

Therefore we should get this Web App tested on a wider range, throughout different Vatel Schools. Results to get insights from students coming from around the world permit to improve the Quality Management of teaching within a school. At the same time, results can be compared among the schools and learning experiences shared among the Group. Consequently, new pedagogical tools can be experienced and tested and then communicated to other Vatel Schools. So, the Web App evaluation tool does integrate also all Intercultural issues that are well known to all group of actors.

This technology can be considered as a Quality Management tool from the Manager’s perspective. Without being in the class, a dean or a manager could have an idea of the performance of the teacher. However, the risk of manipulation from students exists, it is a low risk but to take into consideration. For instance, a group of students who dislike the lecturer could easily influence the results thanks the Web App evaluation. But we do not consider the risk higher compared to the classic way of evaluating theory courses or practical applications.

VIII. CONCLUSION As conclusion, this Web App has many positive effects allowing the real-time evaluation by students in regard to theory and practical courses. The results could generate remarks and therefore Quality Improvements based on teaching experiences through socio-technical interactions. This way, teachers pay - 75 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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more attention to student’s perception of pedagogical tools. From the teaching experience we know, that once a professional does know perfectly the content of a course, the way of teaching may vary from one class to a another. So the need of adapting the teaching methods does exist and this Web App may be considered as a teaching tool that helps professional to understand better and quicker the student’s needs.

This Web App evaluation tool should not be used exclusively within an evaluation procedure in a school. Additional steps, like in depth evaluation interviews between teachers and an academic dean should be part of it. This way all perspectives of evaluation of any type of courses are covered. Finally, we do not think that the risk of “giving wrong answers” from the student’s side is higher by using this Web App evaluation tool in comparison to the use of classic questionnaires. A non-satisfied student is telling it anyway and it is the same for a student that is rejecting an evaluation procedure, too. So, results of course evaluations represent always a group’s opinion and less the individual one.

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REFERENCES BERGADA à M., (2006). “Une stratégie de recherche constructiviste appliquée aux services culturels: l’exemple du Musée olympique, de son concept et de ses profils types de visiteurs”, Recherche et Application en Marketing, 21, 3, pp 91-140.

BROILLET, A., DUBOSSON M. & TRABICHET J-P. (2008). “An Internet based distribution strategy of luxury products and services grounded on qualitative Web discourse analysis.“, Professional Communication Conference, 2008. IPCC 2008. IEEE International Proceedings.

COHRANE, T. & BATEMAN, R. (2010). “Smartphones give you wings: Pedagogical affordances of mobile Web 2.0.” Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 26(7).

EMAD, S., & BROILLET, A. (2014). “The use of built-in digital backchannels in professional communication within academic conferences in virtual worlds: A comparison with the use of Twitter in real life conferences“, Professional Communication Conference (IPCC), 2014 IEEE International Proceedings.

GEELS, F.W., (2004). « From sectoral systems of innovation to socio-technical systems: insights about dynamics and change from sociology and institutional theory », Research Policy, 33, pp 897-920.

GOFFMAN E. (1991). Les cadres de l’expérience, Paris, Les éditions de minuit.

NGUYEN, D.P., GUGGISBERG, M., BURKHART, H. (2006) «CoMobile: Collaborative Learning with Mobile Devices», Advanced Learning Technologies, 2006. Sixth International Conference (ICALT) published by IEEE. SINGLY F. (2010), Choisir des “lunettes” sociologiques pour mieux voir la réalité sociale, In: Singly F., Girard C. et Martin O., Nouveau manuel de sociologie, Paris, Armand Colin, pp 18-27.

SILANDER, P., SUTINEN, E., & TARHIO, J. (2004). “Mobile collaborative concept mapping - combining classroom activity with simultaneous field exploration.” 2nd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, 2004 Proceedings.

WENGER, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, Identity.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Exhibit 1: Screen shots of the customization of the app prior to the evaluation (1of 2).

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Spreadsheet used to configure the selected touchpoints for the IT course evaluation.

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Exhibit 1: Screen shots of the customization of the app prior to the evaluation (2of 2).

Spreadsheet used to configure the selected touchpoints for the evaluation of the Vatel Café.

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Exhibit 2: Messages received by the students.

Mail sent to the students prior to the pilot.

Link received by students at the start of the survey.

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COMPÉTENCE, COMPÉTENCES. VERS UNE PLURALITÉ DES COMPÉTENCES. Dr. Line LAFFOND, PhD* Line Laffond a étudié pendant 8 ans les lettres classiques - latin et grec - associées aux grandes règles de la phonétique française, de la grammaire et des mouvements littéraires. Sa thèse « L’enfant, l’école et la publicité » lui a permis d’obtenir son Doctorat de Linguistique générale et de développer ses aptitudes de pédagogue. Elle assure, ensuite, durant plus de 15 ans, des cours de F.LE à l’Université Montpellier III puis Montpellier I, tout en parcourant de nombreux pays européens comme l’Allemagne, l’Italie, l’Espagne, la Grèce et la Belgique dans le cadre de formations intensives de Didactique du Français Langue Etrangère. Régulièrement, elle rejoint le Ministère de la Défense à Paris, en tant que formatrice pour y dispenser des cours de syntaxe, de synthèse, d’analyse d’écriture, de développement de la mémoire et de la vitesse de lecture. Passionnée par l’apprentissage de la langue française, elle participe à l’écriture d’ouvrages sur ce thème et appuie sa pédagogie sur le rôle de l’image associée aux mots dans la mémorisation d’une langue étrangère. Une méthode qu’elle applique auprès des étudiants internationaux de Vatel Nîmes à qui elle enseigne depuis plus de 10 ans la langue de Molière.

* Enseignante français langue étrangère - Vatel, International Business School Hotel & Tourism Management, France

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Line Laffond is French foreign language teacher at Vatel, International Business School Hotel and Tourism Management, Nimes. PhD graduate in general linguistics, she defended her thesis on: “The child, school and advertising”. Her training in Classics (Latin, Greek) French literature and phonetics enriches her daily professional practice and teaching interests in language and communication. Lecturer for several years at the University Paul Valéry Montpellier III and University Montpellier I, with foreign students and foreign teachers (over 45 different nationalities) in language, writing and oral culture, civilization, she was responsible for several missions in teaching French in different European countries (Italy, Belgium, Spain, Greece, Germany) Trainer for the Department of Defense in Paris, she has led and conducted various training courses for managers and employees in all categories (ABC) on topics such as speed reading, the development of memory, analysis of professional writing, preparedness assistance (executive summary, essay, summary).

The strength of her teaching is based on the use of authentic materials and the constant interaction teacher / learners, listening for their differences and their linguistic needs; it creates motivations to achieve her objectives and those of her students through the expansion of its courses on topics of current events, thus reinforcing the public in the career paths chosen.. Deeply interested in this profession, she oversees more than 10 years now in the international school Vatel with students from Europe, Asia and America, eager to love her mother tongue and discover the country where they study.

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I. RÉSUMÉ « Biologie : cellules compétentes, aptes à réagir à un stimulus et à se différencier ».

Pouvoir, ressort, aptitude, capacité.

Nous vivons une époque éprouvante mais des plus étonnantes où le métier d’enseignant est devenu un métier à risque. En douteriez-vous, lecteurs ? mais oui, si nous refusons de sortir des compétences propres à la matière enseignée, si nous nous refusons d’être bousculés hors de nos frontières, si nous gardons nos œillères sans avoir la curiosité d’aller voir ce qui se passe ailleurs, dans la classe d’à côté, dans le pays d’à côté, si l’on s’enferme dans son espace pédagogique et dans les exigences des sujets abordés, si l’on s’en tient à demander à nos étudiants, les seules compétences qui y sont associées, si l’on refuse la collaboration virtuelle qui a fait « sauter les frontières », nous courons le risque de survivre professionnellement face aux ondes de choc qui nous défient – changements sociaux, culturels, économiques, scientifiques, numériques.

Dans cette ère de changement permanent, l’heure n’est plus à l’isolement, à la distanciation, à l’esprit de clocher, il y a bien mieux à concevoir : échangeons, croisons nos pratiques pédagogiques, harmonisons-les pour établir, via le numérique, des interactions fécondantes au service de nos étudiants. Si l’on ne joue ni la carte de l’interdisciplinarité /transdisciplinarité, ni celle de l’internationalisation, nous coupons nos étudiants de la réalité du monde du travail. Il nous faut prendre conscience, à présent, de l’émergence d’une véritable communauté de formateurs qui échangent, par les ressources nouvelles du numérique, expériences et réflexions dans le noble but d’aider au développement des compétences multiples nécessaires à l’obtention d’un emploi et à la réussite professionnelle. Il nous faut anticiper, nous, enseignants, en étant à l’écoute des besoins des recruteurs pour faciliter un recrutement - 85 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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« heureux », confortant ici l’image de marque de l’établissement formateur. Le secteur économique pour lequel nous exerçons notre métier ne connaît pas véritablement la crise mais il est soumis à une concurrence mondiale, véritable stimulant qui exige une remise en cause au quotidien et qui interdit la routine. Dès lors, l’enseignant se doit d’acquérir, pour « coller » aux exigences de la clientèle de demain, une véritable compétence d’anticipation pour lui-même d’abord, en organisant une veille technologique sur le monde du tourisme, pour ses étudiants, ensuite, afin de les rendre plus performants et renforcer l’adéquation entre l’offre et la demande en hôtellerie/restauration..

Les notions de compétence et d’évaluation pour un enseignant en français langue étrangère exerçant dans l’univers de « l’hospitalité », appartiennent à son quotidien professionnel. Pour lui, toute capacité à communiquer, à l’oral comme à l’écrit, de manière adaptée à toutes situations dans le cadre d’un échange, se décline au pluriel : compétence phonétique, lexicale, grammaticale, syntaxique, Mais aujourd’hui, il lui faut sortir de l’étroitesse de sa classe pour s’ouvrir sur le monde professionnel dans lequel ses apprenants rentreront par le biais du stage puis du premier emploi.

Conscient que la matière linguistique est au service des autres disciplines inscrites dans le cursus envisagé, il sait aussi que l’éventail des compétences n’a de cesse de s’élargir : compétence et savoirs (linguistiques, informatiques, culturels), compétences et savoir-être, compétence et savoir-faire, compétence et savoiragir, compétence et pouvoir, compétence et vouloir, véritable « roue » des compétences qui ne se veut point exhaustive, certes, mais, sans tenir compte de cette pluralité, notre enseignement se coupe de la réalité professionnelle et se sclérose. Si le choix d’exercer un métier dans le monde de l’hôtellerie est établi, le candidat doit prendre conscience du fait que son savoir-être sera tout aussi important que son savoir-faire. Comportement, attitude, image de soi, élocution, niveau de langue sont des composantes - 86 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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essentielles pour interagir avec la clientèle ou le personnel de l’établissement.

Si le mode d’alternance travail/études accélère l’acquisition des savoirs, il met aussi en lumière les atouts, le sens de l’engagement, la polyvalence des étudiants. Qui plus est, d’un côté, il pousse l’enseignant à élargir ses propres domaines de compétence pour adapter ses cours aux exigences du marché du travail, de l’autre, il incite l’étudiant à développer les compétences en relation avec le poste souhaité mais aussi à élargir son « employabilité » face aux mutations de son univers professionnel.

Dans ce contexte, l’enseignant n’a d’autre choix, s’il souhaite optimiser son rôle, que celui d’être à l’écoute des tendances, des compétences demandées dans le domaine hôtellerie/restauration afin d’accompagner les futurs cadres et de les préparer aux évolutions d’envergure qui touchent ce monde professionnel – nouveaux langages, diversité des milieux culturels, modification des modes de réflexion due aux nouveaux outils de communication, sélection et gestion de l’information, influence de l’environnement.

II. ARTICLE A la notion de qualification d’hier – part du métier requise pour l’organisation du travail - a succédé celle de compétence mettant en jeu de nouvelles exigences (qualité, réactivité, responsabilité, innovation, investissement personnel, coopération …par exemple). Face à ces exigences, reconsidérer cette notion de compétence, en développer les aspects devient une priorité. De plus, traiter du concept de compétence implique tout autant celle de l’enseignant que celle de l’apprenant.

C’est en parcourant les différentes définitions du terme « compétence » que le lecteur prend conscience de son évolution sémantique. Au « competentia » latin signifiant : proportion, rapport exact qui renvoie au monde juridique –aptitude d’une autorité - 87 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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publique à accomplir des actes dans des conditions déterminées [maire, juge, Etat…] succède une définition issue du registre professionnel : capacité fondée sur un savoir ou une expérience que l’on reconnaît à une personne, à laquelle il faut adjoindre celle de la définition linguistique « aptitude théorique de toute personne parlant une langue à produire et à comprendre un nombre indéfini de phrases ». Ce jeu de définitions, plaçant toujours l’humain au centre de toutes explications, ne nous empêche pas d’élargir le champ de nos recherches en découvrant, l’espace d’un instant, cet autre emploi de l’adjectif « compétent » dans le domaine biologique : « cellules compétentes », cellules aptes à réagir à un stimulus et à se différencier. N’est-ce pas l’attente de tout enseignant/formateur d’assister avec son public à un enchaînement de réactions et de différenciations.

Au regard de la définition professionnelle originale, l’enseignant est surpris par le « singulier » des mots ‘capacité, savoir et expérience’ comparé à tout ce que porte en elle cette notion de compétence aujourd’hui. Il vit, au quotidien, une réelle multiplicité de ces trois mots et, ainsi, l’article du dictionnaire lui paraît bien incomplet face à la pluralité des compétences à laquelle il est confronté dans ses recherches comme dans ses missions pédagogiques. La longue liste des synonymes en est la parfaite illustration : aptitude, attribution, autorité, pouvoir, qualité, ressort, connaissance, art, capacité, expertise, qualité, science, système…

Cependant, aujourd’hui, face à sa classe de français langue étrangère, l’enseignant se doit de dépasser très vite le cadre de la matière à enseigner afin de tenir compte des différents profils qui composent ses groupes d’apprenants et déceler, pour chacun d’eux, les compétences à développer, à mettre en regard avec les compétences attendues par les recruteurs ; le rôle de l’enseignant est de donner le matériel linguistique et comportemental nécessaire à la structuration des compétences émergentes pour permettre d’adhérer au marché du travail du moment. La compétence - 88 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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communicationnelle tient toujours une place majeure dans la formation de nos futurs diplômés et reste le maillon central des nouvelles compétences attendues.

En effet, quelle que soit la langue utilisée, l’objectif premier est une élévation du niveau linguistique, que ce soit dans le cadre de la réussite des examens écrits et/ou oraux ou celui de l’échange professionnel. Le bon climat social, la cohésion des équipes, les opérations de relations publiques, les animations internes, le relationnel avec les clients, tout cela requiert une bonne, voire une parfaite maîtrise de la langue cible. Si les réseaux sociaux conduisent naturellement à un relâchement langagier par les formats qu’ils proposent, la parfaite connaissance du web n’implique pas le même laisser-aller ; elle nécessite, ne serait-ce que pour la mise en place de sites et l’accroissement de la visibilité sur la toile, une maîtrise linguistique évidente.

Quatre verbes clés encadrent l’univers professionnel de nos futurs diplômés et derrière chacun d’eux apparaissent des mots, des phrases, une syntaxe liés au monde de la « persuasion » du client réel ou potentiel : Nourrir - Héberger - Détendre - Divertir Quel que soit le poste que le stagiaire ou le jeune diplômé sera amené à occuper, la compétence première sera liée à son aisance langagière. L’outil principal de la communication est avant tout soi-même : chaque postulant à un emploi est un véritable média ; il est à la fois récepteur des propos de son manager, émetteur de ses connaissances professionnelles, de sa culture personnelle et générationnelle. Or, si par le passé, seules la langue et la culture étaient évaluées aux premiers contacts, force est d’admettre que ce début de XXIe siècle ne cesse de multiplier les compétences exigées pour l’obtention d’un travail ou d’un stage ; serait-ce le fait de la crise de l’emploi ? Au-delà du diplôme obtenu, la sélection, via le curriculum vitae et la lettre de motivation, puis

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via l’entretien téléphonique direct ou Skype, se durcit de plus en plus. Entrent en jeu, alors, d’autres aptitudes que celles justifiées par la matière enseignée et que chaque enseignant doit prendre en compte, dans le cadre de sa classe afin d’en accélérer l’acquisition et le perfectionnement.

La roue des compétences de Claude Flück, modèle de structuration des compétences particulièrement bien fait, est toujours un outil de choix que l’enseignant peut aisément adapter quelles que soient les activités humaines qu’il envisage. Elle aide l’enseignant à trouver réponses aux questions qu’il se pose : Comment identifier les compétences ? Les formaliser ? Quelles sont les compétences nécessaires à la maîtrise de telle ou telle situation professionnelle ?

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de compétence et nous avons établi une passerelle entre les 8 intelligences de Gardner et les compétences de nos étudiants.

Ces 8 intelligences sont celles qui favorisent la connaissance et privilégient le développement des compétences. En effet, bien exploitées ces intelligences mèneront aux compétences correspondantes, à divers degrés, en fonction des individus et du nombre d’intelligences mises en jeu. Ainsi, il devient pertinent d’adapter nos stratégies d’apprentissage aux différents types d’intelligences que l’on souhaite voir développer, en fonction du public. Rééquilibrer les intelligences, en renforcer certaines pour favoriser la réussite de chacun.

Dans un optimisme accru, un véritable enseignement à la carte se dessine, une fois analysés les profils des apprenants dans le cadre d’un cursus de 3 années successives. Ainsi, il nous faut concevoir des exercices personnalisés afin, par exemple, de: • favoriser le travail en équipe pour celui qui, d’ordinaire, préfère travailler seul, • développer la capacité de mémorisation pour certains, • mettre en scène une prise de parole, • illustrer, par un exercice chiffré, des données verbales, • associer la gestuelle à son discours, • visualiser l’espace de travail de chacun (en réception, en chambre, en cuisine ou dans un bureau), • schématiser des stratégies de travail, • utiliser l’humour pour désamorcer un conflit, • percevoir et établir des distinctions entre les humeurs, les intentions, les motivations et les sentiments d’autrui, • se situer dans le temps par des musiques d’époque ou dans l’espace par des musiques d’autres pays, • différencier les personnes, être sensible aux caractéristiques et problèmes du monde environnant…

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1. Intelligence verbale/linguistique : capacité d’employer le langage oral et écrit de façon claire et efficace.

2. Intelligence logique/mathématique : capacité d’utiliser les nombres de façon efficace et de raisonner logiquement.

3. Intelligence visuelle/spatiale : capacité à percevoir l’espace visuellement avec une grande exactitude et d’agir conformément à cette perception.

4. Intelligence intra personnelle : capacité de se connaître soi-même et de fonder son comportement sur cette connaissance.

5. Intelligence interpersonnelle : capacité de percevoir et d’établir des distinctions entre les humeurs, les intentions, les motivations et les sentiments d’autrui.

6. Intelligence musicale/rythmique : capacité de percevoir, de différencier, d’exprimer et de transposer des notions musicales.

7. Intelligence kinesthésique/corporelle : capacité de s’exprimer à l’aide de son corps.

8. Intelligence naturaliste : capacité de différencier les êtres vivants et sensibilité aux caractéristiques du monde environnant.

Chacune de ces intelligences semble directement liée à une compétence bien définie qui se développe au cours de la formation théorique ou dans le cadre de la pratique du métier.

Lors du dernier Gala organisé pour les 25 ans de Vatel Nîmes, le 5 février 2015, ces 8 compétences ont été mises en scène, face aux invités, confirmant notre intérêt porté aux intelligences multiples de H. Gardner. Maîtriser l’événement exigeait la multiplication des compétences et l’exercice illustrait bien la nécessité d’apporter davantage encore à nos étudiants pour mener à bien ce genre d’animation.

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La compétence spatiale était illustrée par la capacité des étudiants (serveurs et animateurs) à gérer tant l’espace salle que l’espace scène, occupés par les invités, les tables, les chaises et le matériel.

Ils repéraient promptement les zones de passage et les portes de services pour réussir leurs interventions successives.

La compétence rythmique/musicale : la maîtrise des phases musicales, celle des discours et des différents temps du dîner montraient une telle capacité.

La compétence logique relevait des stratégies opérationnelles pour résoudre tout problème interne au spectacle comme au dîner. La prise de parole régulière nécessitait le sens de la répartie et de l’enchaînement, la maîtrise du lexique et de la syntaxe : démonstration de la compétence verbale.

L’interaction avec les autres, l’expression d’une certaine empathie avec un public disparate mettaient en valeur la compétence interpersonnelle.

La maîtrise du dépassement du stress, d’une certaine représentation de soi, l’autocritique pour progresser témoignaient de la compétence intra personnelle. Les mouvements liés à la danse comme au simple déplacement, la gestuelle propre au service des tables faisaient valoir la compétence kinesthésique.

La compétence naturaliste, quant à elle, trouvait son illustration dans l’ensemble des objets et des personnes présentes : organisation des tables en fonction des étiquettes professionnelles, différenciation des mets en tenant compte des ingrédients, choix des vins associés aux plats. « Nos étudiants ont du talent » Tel était le slogan de cet événement vatélien qui a mis, d’une certaine façon, en évidence et en scène les 8 compétences amenées à être développées et confirmées au sein de notre formation. Une neuvième pourrait s’y adjoindre, à une époque où tout passe par la - 93 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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mise en lumière, par la diffusion sur le net ou les exigences de la sécurité : la compétence technique.

Ainsi, évaluer l’apprenant nécessite la sortie du cadre pédagogique. L’enseignant cesse d’être seul avec sa matière en tête, ses photocopies et ses marqueurs tricolores et son Power Point. Il est nécessaire d’observer ses étudiants, in situ et ex situ, dans la mesure du possible pour ne pas passer à côté de compétences « en herbe » que le seul univers de la classe ne peut dévoiler ou faire repérer.

Cependant, avant même d’établir les « fameuses » progressions pédagogiques de l’année de formation, l’enseignant se doit d’agir en amont, multipliant ses recherches, échangeant avec ses collègues français ou internationaux, les professionnels de l’hôtellerie-restauration pour être en adéquation optimale avec son public et les réalités du moment sur les 5 continents, mission un peu prétentieuse certes, mais dont on ne peut plus honnêtement se dispenser.

C’est dans une perspective d’ouverture au monde que ses cours doivent se construire et le web et les réseaux sont des facilitateurs : sans sortir de son bureau, il communique avec d’autres, parcourt un article d’une bibliothèque lointaine, découvre la carte d’un restaurant, visite un hôtel à 360 °, retrouve un ancien étudiant en poste dans un palace de rêve. Son travail a changé du tout au tout ; soyons sérieux, il n’est pas devenu omniscient, d’ailleurs, à la moindre erreur ses étudiants sont toujours prêts à « cliquer » pour vérifier une date ou un chiffre, mais il a pris conscience que les savoirs propres à sa matière- savoir phonétique, lexical, grammatical, syntaxique, rhétorique - ne suffisent plus.

Il lui faut, de plus, gérer un collectif « sa classe est multiculturelle », exercer en équipe (avec les professeurs d’anglais, de ressources humaines, d’informatique, d’économie touristique par exemple). Il se doit de savoir utiliser le contexte économique, social et culturel de son pays, de sa région mais aussi de ceux - 94 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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dont sont originaires ses étudiants, de gérer et s’adapter aux événements heureux ou malheureux qui surgissent en cours et prendre du recul, intégrer bien évidemment les nouveaux outils de communication en les désacralisant pour privilégier, dès qu’il le peut la communication humaine directe, et favoriser, au moment opportun l’individuel ou le collectif.

L’émergence de sentiments altruistes est directement liée au fait que nous sommes de plus en plus connectés à nos étudiants et nous semblons davantage à leur écoute via les différents réseaux de communication. En conséquence, l’empathie, capacité de se mettre à la place d’autrui, de se représenter ce qu’il ressent et/ou pense, intervient dans le processus d’apprentissage tant théorique que pratique. Qu’elle soit émotionnelle, cognitive pour percevoir les intentions de l’apprenant ou comportementale, elle se manifeste au quotidien en classe et hors classe. N’arrive-t-il pas fréquemment qu’au cours d’une mise en situation professionnelle entre étudiant et enseignant, l’étudiant imite les gestes et postures de l’enseignant voire son accent. Ainsi, aujourd’hui, l’empathie tient, de plus en plus, une place de choix, dans l’univers de la formation. « A la fin des années 50, le mouvement d’entraînement à la sensibilité s’est scindé en deux directions – l’une tournée vers les compétences organisationnelles, l’autre vers le développement personnel. La première a été utilisée par l’industrie pour réorienter les salariés et leur fournir les compétences émotionnelles et cognitives nécessaires à leurs activités dans le cadre d’entreprises complexes et diversifiées. Ce mouvement a connu une croissance exponentielle au cours des dernières décennies puisque, dans une société mondiale toujours plus multiculturelle, les gens ont dû apprendre à vivre et à travailler ensemble. Devenir attentif et sensible aux différences raciales, ethniques, religieuses, sexuelles et générationnelles, aux préférences sexuelles, aux handicaps, à l’apparence physique et même aux préférences de style de vie peut donner le tournis, et exige une réorientation des psychismes - 95 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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individuels et collectifs. Le mouvement d’entraînement à la sensibilité offre un processus concret pour repenser de fond en comble les normes et les valeurs culturelles » Rifkin J. (2011).

A l’heure où l’environnement économique est l’objet de profondes perturbations, les effets sur le monde de la formation ne se font pas attendre. Les compétences demandées aux enseignants comme aux étudiants évoluent. Au point que certaines « compétences de demain » ont d’ores et déjà émergé dans cette décennie.

Inéluctables, ces nouvelles compétences posent plusieurs questions. Côté étudiants, l’adaptation à ces compétences apparaît plus déterminante que jamais pour maintenir et développer son employabilité. Quant aux recruteurs, charge à eux de détecter les diplômés en mesure d’embrasser des carrières sur des métiers évoluants voire émergents. Le tout, évidemment, dans un contexte professionnel où l’irruption des nouvelles technologies de l’information, l’importance croissante des enjeux de Responsabilité Sociale et Environnementale (R.S.E) ou Responsabilité Sociétale des Entreprises, en passant par la course à l’innovation, sont les maîtres mots.

Etudiants et enseignants font face, ensemble aux mutations profondes de l’environnement professionnel. Les comprendre est indispensable pour anticiper et répondre aux attentes des employeurs et des futurs employés. De même, face à une concurrence internationale toujours plus vive, et pour répondre à l’obsolescence accélérée –naturelle ou artificielle - des produits et des services, les entreprises doivent innover sans cesse ce qui exige, lors de la formation, l’adaptation permanente des compétences propres à la matière enseignée mais nécessite aussi le développement de la créativité, la capacité à innover et l’acquisition d’une réelle vision stratégique. Dans ce contexte-là, les enseignants n’ont d’autre choix que d’anticiper. Il s’agit à la fois de préparer les étudiants, mais aussi et surtout, de les accompagner aux mieux dans cette transition.

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Plus que jamais, la capacité d’adaptation de chacun - enseignant/ étudiant- est un enjeu clé du recrutement. Par exemple, pour exercer la profession de serveur-sommelier, la personnalité du candidat (savoir-être) s’avère aussi importante que sa maîtrise des techniques (savoir-faire). Conduite, attitude et gestuelle, propres au métier sont des composantes essentielles de ce savoir-être indispensable pour interagir avec professionnalisme et empathie avec le client.

Expressions et syntaxe appropriées, connaissances interculturelles figurent également au tableau du bagage exigé. Le mode de formation en alternance travail-études, répond mieux aux grandes tendances et aux exigences actuelles du secteur de l’hôtellerie et de la restauration internationale.

En trois semestres de formation théorique, à raison de 4h à 6 heures de cours par semaine, en fonction de l’effectif, il nous faut distinguer le maximum de ces compétences transversales afin d’élargir les champs professionnels des apprenants et de les assister dans la recherche de passerelles entre les postes occupés en tant que stagiaires et ceux qu’ils seront susceptibles de briguer dans le futur.

Qu’en est-il alors de ces compétences nommées « transférables » ou encore « transversales » ? Encore d’autres adjectifs qui viennent qualifier l’objet de notre recherche.

En avril 2014, l’Union européenne comptait plus de cinq millions de jeunes de moins de 25 ans sans emploi, avec un taux de chômage global des jeunes de 22,5%. Il est d’autant plus important d’aider au mieux au développement de toutes les compétences de nos futurs diplômés d’un secteur professionnel, certes en bonne santé, mais dont ils pourront peut-être s’éloigner au cours de leur carrière. Leurs compétences transférables leur permettront de changer de secteur d’activité en postulant pour une fonction similaire alors que leurs compétences transversales les autoriseront à se reconvertir et changer totalement - 97 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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de poste de travail, illustration de «la mobilité professionnelle», (Journal du Net, 2014).

La commission européenne a lancé le passeport européen des compétences en hôtellerie-restauration avec des perspectives d’élargissement à d’autres secteurs professionnels ; c’est une des façons les plus pertinentes d’illustrer concrètement la notion de « mobilité » et de faciliter le recrutement en Europe. Destiné à dépasser les limites linguistiques, il permet aux employeurs de comparer les aptitudes professionnelles - des jeunes tout particulièrement – développées tant dans leur formation théorique que pratique et devient le complément indispensable à tout curriculum vitae; d’une certaine façon, il joue le rôle d’un « accélérateur », d’un « facilitateur » d’embauche au sein de l’Union européenne. (EURES : EURopean Employment Services) Dans la même logique, on assiste à l’apparition de nouvelles compétences en lien avec les problématiques sociétales et environnementales actuelles (santé, hygiène, environnement…). On sait que les entreprises qui recrutent sont aujourd’hui particulièrement friandes de profils pluridisciplinaires, conjuguant expertise en nouvelles technologies et systèmes d’information, maîtrise des techniques de marketing, analyse des comportements et attentes des clients, anticipation et vision à court, moyen et long terme, veille concurrentielle, faculté de convaincre, leadership, trilinguisme…

“Les consciences changent quand se produisent, conjointement, une révolution de la production d’énergie et une révolution des communications. Quand les deux se combinent, c’est bien tout notre rapport à l’espace et au temps qui change, notre modèle de civilisation.

Et notre empathie qui s’élargit.”

Jeremy Rifkin

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B. Digitalisation de la connaissance Force est de constater que la digitalisation de la connaissance a ouvert l’espace « classe ». Mobile, tablette, écrans en tout genre ont rendu plus actifs les apprenants et les enseignants. Cette véritable « digitalisation » de l’enseignement favorise l’individualisation malgré tout, même si réseau il y a, alors qu’il nous faut jouer collectif et inscrire nos missions pédagogiques, toutes matières d’apprentissage confondues, qu’elles soient pratiques ou théoriques, dans une vision globale.

Dans l’absolu, la connectivité des uns comme des autres devrait nous mettre sur un pied d’égalité instaurant une véritable collaboration virtuelle d’étudiant à étudiant, d’apprenant à apprenant, d’enseignant à enseignant ; en tant que formateur nous avons pris conscience de cette mutation de l’accessibilité aux savoirs. De fait, ce changement implique un accompagnement pédagogique différent ; en effet, cette digitalisation a entraîné une véritable illusion d’acquisition des connaissances, sans effort, accessibles en quelques clics; Reste alors à l’enseignant à « apprendre à apprendre » pour développer l’accès à ces savoirs, les identifier, les sélectionner et accompagner son public sur le chemin d’une réelle appropriation de ces savoirs.

Nombreuses sont les approches qui définissent le concept de compétence. La notion de compétence illustrée par l’éventail qui suit ,conçu par le didacticien Henri Boudreault (2009) ,nous montre la multiplicité des entrées et le long chemin à parcourir pour « agir avec compétence » ; par sa densité, il interpelle l’enseignant lors d’une mise en perspective avec ses propres classes compte tenu de ses effectifs - A chaque apprenant, son éventail régulièrement modifiable ou adaptable en fonction des temps de formation et des périodes de stage.

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Quels savoirs sont déterminants pour quelles compétences ?

Les étiquettes, là encore, ne manquent pas : • Savoirs théoriques (savoir comprendre, interpréter) • Savoirs procéduraux (savoir comment procéder) • Savoirs expérientiels • Savoir-faire (savoir opérer) • Savoir-faire cognitifs (savoir traiter les informations) • Savoir-faire sociaux (savoir se comporter) … « La compétence est la mobilisation ou l’activation de plusieurs savoirs dans une situation et un contexte donnés » (Le Bortef G, 2010). Dans son approche théorique des compétences, il met également en avant le savoir-agir qui, dans un contexte professionnel, est celui que l’enseignant ne doit jamais perdre de vue dans la situation « classe ». Indissociable de l’action, bien loin d’être un état, ce concept de compétence, sous l’angle de vue de Guy Le Bortef , combine encore, histoire de déstabiliser l’enseignant perfectionniste, d’autres savoirs autour de ce savoir-agir : Savoir-mobiliser, intégrer, combiner, transférer.

Pour le MEDEF (1998), la définition est plus globale : la compétence professionnelle est une combinaison de connaissances, savoir-faire, expériences et comportements s’exerçant dans un contexte précis. Elle se constate lors de la mise en œuvre en situation professionnelle à partir de laquelle elle est validable. C’est donc à l’entreprise qu’il appartient de la repérer, de l’évaluer, de la valider et de la faire évoluer ».

D’autres chercheurs, tel le sociologue Philippe Zarifian (2005) intègre lui aussi, dans ses définitions, d’autres dimensions qui enrichissent encore notre tour d’horizon et étayent notre réflexion.

Ses formulations plurielles mènent déjà à la notion de compétence collective mise en avant à l’heure actuelle.

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• « La compétence est la prise d’initiative et de responsabilité de l’individu sur des situations professionnelles auxquelles il est confronté ».

• « La compétence est une intelligence pratique des situations qui s’appuie sur des connaissances acquises et les transforme avec d’autant plus de force que la diversité des situations augmente ».

• « la compétence est la faculté à mobiliser des réseaux d’acteurs autour des mêmes situations, à partager les enjeux, à assumer des domaines de coresponsabilité ».

La liste peut-elle s’arrêter ? A notre avis : non, sachant qu’aujourd’hui les compétences techniques se laissent dépasser par les compétences comportementales. L’éventail des compétences ne cesse de s’élargir pour faire sortir les futurs professionnels des sentiers battus tracés par leurs formations initiales et les rendre moins lisses lors des entretiens d’embauche donnant ainsi plus de relief à leur profil afin de séduire tout interlocuteur-recruteur.

D’autres compétences entrent en jeu dans la sélection de nos diplômés : passion, bonne humeur, audace, humilité, stabilité émotionnelle, endurance, sens de la confidentialité, goût du détail – toute une série de facettes que la communication directe mettra en valeur dans le cadre d’un entretien et du jeu des questions réponses que le C.V et la lettre de motivation ne permettent guère de détecter.

C. Cocktails de compétences Nous nous trouvons face à la création de véritables « portefeuilles de compétences » où, au fur et à mesure de l’évolution de sa formation et de ses expériences professionnelles, l’étudiant range ses compétences personnelles telles des cartes de visite qui concrétisent ses rencontres, ses achats et lui permettent de les garder en mémoire.

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fera lui-même son propre cocktail de compétences ; ce vocable, choisi pour les connotations qu’il véhicule, correspond pertinemment à notre souhait de visualiser ce concept pluriel de compétence.

Pour préparer un « bon » cocktail il faut que soient réunies plusieurs conditions : • des boissons, alcoolisées ou non, en qualité et en variété suffisantes; • des consommateurs curieux pour vouloir s’aventurer dans de nouvelles directions gustatives; • des lieux appropriés, avec des professionnels capables d’innover et de mettre au point des compositions savoureuses et originales.

• un développement commercial permettant de découvrir de nouvelles boissons venues d’autres horizons.

De même, pour sélectionner ses propres compétences en fonction de la proposition d’emploi, il revient de concocter soi-même d’ « heureuses » associations de compétences en ciblant au mieux les opportunités professionnelles du moment.

Les propositions de bilan de compétences fusent sur le net, certains proposent même les 101 compétences indispensables que tout le monde devrait connaître : y aurait-il un lien direct avec les 101 dalmatiens ? Des compétences sur You Tube en quelques clips ! la «vidéo-compétence » à l’échelle mondiale.

A partir de l’illustration suivante, clin d’œil à l’univers hôtellerie/restauration, laissons libre cours à notre imagination pour accompagner nos étudiants dans la confection de leurs propres cocktails de compétences. Prenant appui sur nos analyses et remarques à propos de leurs compétences apparentes ou en veille, ils deviendront les créateurs de leurs propres « cocktails de compétences ».

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Dans certaines grandes entreprises, un intranet de recherche d’emploi a été installé dans lequel les salariés déposent leurs souhaits liés à la mobilité au sein de leur entreprise en prenant comme références leurs compétences personnelles.

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D. Community Manager S’il existe des univers professionnels qui élaborent de plus en plus de projets communs, à l’exemple des professionnels de la santé qui coopèrent à travers le monde pour trouver réponses à des pathologies précises, le monde de l’enseignement nécessite, plus que jamais, le partage des pratiques pédagogiques. A l’heure de la multiplication des réseaux dont l’origine latine « rets » (filet) confirme nos craintes parfois tout comme celle du terme web, de l’anglo-saxon webb « toile d’araignée » sachons tisser, à partir de ces emprises virtuelles, les liens professionnels au-delà des frontières et rendre nos échanges productifs.

Nos missions pédagogiques sont loin d’être terminées. Il devient nécessaire d’accompagner également nos étudiants sur les chemins du virtuel sur lesquels ils sont bien loin de savoir s’orienter. Les systèmes de géolocalisation (GPS) nous rendent paresseux et cette paresse est transposable sur le net : on ne sait pas encore vraiment comment chercher et sélectionner les informations pertinentes et nous devons apprendre, en même temps que nos étudiants, à nous repérer dans le monde virtuel.

En conséquence, l’enseignant/formateur deviendra progressivement un « Community Manager » dont la mission sera de créer et d’animer cette nouvelle communauté –étudiants, « alumni », collègues, employeurs...- tant pour développer les relations et construire ses réseaux que pour mettre en place une plateforme participative en interne, comme en externe pour favoriser et déployer des dispositifs de connaissances.

Concrètement, il lui faudra dialoguer sur les différentes plateformes ou médias sociaux propres à son école mais aussi sur les sites extérieurs (blogs, forums, réseaux sociaux) et participer, à son échelle, à la veille technologique propre à l’hôtellerierestauration. L’univers professionnel de demain, ultra-connecté, l’obligera à s’adapter à des personnes –étudiants, collègues, - 105 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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responsables- de milieux géographiques différents et de cultures distinctes.

La maîtrise des nouveaux outils de communication, les réseaux sociaux, les blogs et les médias, attire l’attention de tous les publics : étudiants, collègues, patrons, clients...Un autre problème se pose, alors, en instaurant des comportements de libreéchange relationnels, pédagogiques, professionnels, celui de la traçabilité mémorielle, question soulevée par Louise Merzeau (2013) et de ses dangers pour le respect de la vie privée - la e-réputation de soi et de son employeur – Ce sont d’autres enjeux certes, allant au-delà de notre propos mais qu’ il nous faut considérer puisqu’ils touchent à l’éthique, au culturel et au politique. Cependant, dépassons tout ce qui peut nous freiner dans notre désir d’exercer au mieux notre métier.

E. T comme Transversalité Evoluer dans différentes cultures est devenu une évidence quotidienne ; se confronter à d’autres univers pédagogiques ou professionnels pousse à l’innovation. C’est cette nouvelle intelligence collective d’aujourd’hui qui nous séduit davantage plutôt que l’intelligence individuelle qui a tant attiré par le passé.

Le recruté de demain comme l’enseignant est amené à réfléchir différemment et à développer deux compétences majeures dans les années à venir : adaptabilité et interaction.

Etre spécialisé dans une seule discipline ne suffit pas, aussi érudit que l’on soit dans son domaine. Il est utile d’avoir des connaissances approfondies dans plusieurs branches. Le travailleur de demain «aura la forme d’un T» comme transversalité, dit-on c’est-à-dire qu’il sera spécialiste d’une discipline et expert des autres.

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ne sommes plus au seuil de « l’âge de l’accès » selon le titre de l’essai de Jéremy Rifkin nous y sommes entrés.

A l’instant même où se termine cet article, l’expression « Compétence durable »- compétence liée à la prise en compte dans ses actions professionnelles du respect environnemental – entre de plain-pied dans le quotidien de tous les professionnels.

Et la roue des compétences s’enrichit et tourne de plus belle.

L’aventure n’est donc pas finie. Alors, conclure devient, d’une certaine façon, impossible puisque l’éventail des compétences se déplie encore. Soyons curieux et poursuivons nos investigations.

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REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIE GARDNER H. (2005) Les Intelligences Multiples, nouvelle édition, Paris, Retz.

LE BORTEF Guy, (2010) Construire les compétences individuelles et collectives, Paris, Les Editions d’organisation.

MEDEF, (1998) Mouvement des Entreprises de France, 10e édition des Journées de Deauville France.

MERZEAU Louise (2013) “L’intelligence des traces”, Intellectica, /1, n° 59.

RIFKIN J. (2005) L’âge de l’accès, La nouvelle culture du capitalisme La Découverte Poche n° 205.

RIFKIN Jeremy (2011) Une nouvelle conscience pour un monde en crise, de, traduit de l’anglais (Etats-Unis) par Françoise et Paul Chemla, PARIS éd. Les liens qui libèrent.

ZARIFIAN Philippe (2005), Compétences et stratégies d’entreprise. Les démarches compétences à l’épreuve de la stratégie de grandes entreprises, Paris, Editions Liaison.

WEBOGRAPHIE www.fluck-competences.com JDN, l’économie de demain, 2014 sous le signe de la mobilité professionnelle Guillaume HOLSTEYN http://www.journaldunet.com/management/expert/55843/2014--sous-le-signede-la-mobilite-professionnelle.shtml http://www.creg.ac-versailles.fr/IMG/pdf/Merzeau_Identite-traces_notes.pdf http://didapro.me/…e-la-competence-professionnelle/ Henri BOUDREAULT - Didactique professionnelle EURES - The European Job Mobility Portal - European Commission http://ec.europa.eu/eures

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INTERVIEWING PROCESS EVALUATION FOR NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH. THE CASE OF THE ENGLISH PLUS METHOD. Alexandra REY-KAENEL*

ABSTRACT This paper is treating the learning experiences of non-native English speakers who are applying for first time internships in the Hotel & Tourism industry in English. Whether conscious of it or not, the classroom environment of English as a Second Language (ESL) reflects teachers’ understandings and beliefs about language acquisition. However, recent results have shown that students who draw from their own personal experiences instead of solely completing practical, step-by-step exercises are to be the most successful in learning English for interviews hence The case of the English PLUS method. Not only are they more inclined to answer typical questions such as what are your strengths and weaknesses but also understand in more detail the skills required for an internship of choice, which in turn facilitates the career search.

Keywords: Applied linguistics, English – target language, implicit learning & explicit teaching.

* Lecturer of English communication I - III at Vatel, International Business School Hotel & Tourism Management, Switzerland

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I. INTRODUCTION This paper is treating such a learning experience of non-native English speakers in which the value is being placed more on English for interviews from a personal viewpoint. Furthermore, its evaluation process and how candidates for potential employment can induce or draw from their intellect and character that would otherwise have remained unexplored. Hence personal experiences in relation to language acquisition are favored over a set of explicit exercises assigned in the classroom. In reference to explicit teaching and its relation to language acquisition, it can easily be defined as an instructional strategy used by teachers to meet the needs of their students and engage them in unambiguous, clearly articulated teaching. Teachers plan for explicit teaching to make clear connections to curriculum content, through a concise focus on the gradual and progressive steps that lead to a student’s development and independent application of knowledge, understanding and skills associated.

II. THE CASE OF THE ENGLISH PLUS METHOD The field of English as a Second Language and in this case its importance in the workforce has two perspectives to consider: –– an interactive perspective that includes knowledge of the four language skills of English; and –– the importance of personal experiences i.e., drawing from them in relation to language acquisition Exactly how this kind of educing happens is hard to pin down however based on teaching practice, it has been observed that when you create a learning environment in which students are asked to draw from their own references rather than one where lecturing is solely present, the learning outcome is substantially better. Students in this situation are more willing to think for

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themselves. There is a sudden improvement of social-verbal knowledge and as result, students make thoughtful correlations between experience and language acquisition. The result is by far more authentic facilitating easier retention of vocabulary and a sense of ownership in their spoken words in English.

A past teaching experience illustrates this notion as such: Whilst distributing a handout of suggested Q&A scenarios for interviewing in English, I noticed an immediate difference between responses coming from students who were reading from the paper and those who engaged the group exercise in a more personal approach. The later was by far more agreeable as students came forth with their original ideas without any inhibitions. They were more inclined to formulate their own thoughts rather than have them handed to them on paper. In this moment, students abandoned the notion of speaking perfectly in the target language and instead, focused on the task at hand. It was genuine, engaging and by far more interesting overall. In this given situation, teachers can assist more on lexical resource and grammatical range and accuracy of English leaving the original thoughts up to the learner i.e., the case of the English PLUS method.

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DIGITAL STORYTELLING AS ASSESSMENT TOOL THROUGH CAPSTONE PROJECT FOR TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT COURSES. Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE* Benigno Glenn R. Ricaforte’s more than twenty years of solid work experiences revolved primarily in food microbiology, hygiene, sanitation and quality management vis-a-vis with sufficient knowledge and industry exposure in food production, laboratory diagnostics and marketing.

He is presently connected as assistant professor of tourism and hospitality management and program coordinator of graduate studies at School of Hotel, Restaurant and Institution Management, De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, Manila, Philippines handling food safety and business management courses alongside with his active participation in research. Recently, he was elected as one of the board members of the Philippine Society for Microbiology, Inc. and now taking up his doctoral studies in education at the University of the Philippines.

In general, his education, training and work experiences help him to evolve as a total individual with a keener perspective to serve other people without sacrificing his business sense and values.

* De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde - Manila, Philippines

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ABSTRACT Digital storytelling as a learner-centered instructional strategy can be a medium for teachers to engage, evaluate and assess students. Through descriptive survey research method, the study determined the appropriateness of digital story format as assessment tool for tourism and hospitality management courses. Results highlighted that an introductory lecture on the use and pedagogy of digital story and discussion and viewing of digital stories examples were useful in conceptualizing and creating students’ own digital story as capstone project.

Though students encountered difficulty in uploading the file in a Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE) site, they strongly agreed that creating, submitting, finding relevant images and recoding the narration of a digital story were straightforward process in which they encountered minimal problems in digital story development. As a capstone project for assessment of learning, students strongly agreed that digital story format can be an alternative to the traditional achievement test as it was an opportunity for them to reflect on their learning. Higher educational institutions may consider to integrate digital story telling as an assessment option, though, it is highly recommended to compare reflective learning between digital storytelling and text-based reflective writing vis-a-vis with teachers’ training and perception on digital storytelling.

Keywords: assessment, evaluation, digital storytelling, reflective learning, learner-centered education.

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I. INTRODUCTION «Our students have changed radically.

Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was designed to teach».

Prensky, 2001:1 Digital literacy includes the ability to read and interpret media, to reproduce data and images through digital manipulation, and to evaluate and apply new knowledge gained from digital environments (US Digital Literacy, 2015). It follows that students must understand how to use digital tools to gather facts, interpret, analyze and create meaning, even create new meaning from the information they gather which emphasize critical thinking skills.

Becoming truly literate means embracing a new framework of learning that layers core content into a world rich in digital and media literacy that will help students become future ready graduates in a globally collaborative world (US Digital Literacy, 2015).

Assessment as a process of determining «what is» provides faculty members, administrators, trustees, and others with evidence, numerical or otherwise, from which they can develop useful information about their students, institutions, programs, and courses and also about themselves in which this information can help them make effectual decisions about student learning and development, professional effectiveness, and program quality (Gardiner, 2000:165) Narrative assessment, which can capture a learning event through observation, picture or video or an analysis of an event through eyes of an observer, is an approach to assess and describe a student’s learning that allows a far richer depiction of that learning than is possible through more traditional criterion-referenced assessment (Evaluation Associates, 2015). Digital story telling can be a form of narrative assessment as digital story telling refers to a kind of video story and methodology used to produce them through the integration of knowledge, cutting, paraphrasing, revising, synthesizing, and reflecting (Alexander,2001:213).

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Digital storytelling is a technology application that is well-positioned to take advantage of user-contributed content and to help teachers overcome some of the obstacles to productively using technology in their classrooms which allows computer users to become creative storytellers through the traditional processes of selecting a topic, conducting some research, writing a script, and developing an interesting story. This material is then combined with various types of multimedia, including computer-based graphics, recorded audio, computer-generated text, video clips, and music so that it can be played on a computer, uploaded on a web site, or burned on a DVD (Robin, 2008:222).

Indiana University (2015) pointed out that digital storytelling is beneficial for students as it (1) provides evidence of learning in a way that is appealing to others, (2) enables demonstration of skills that may otherwise be hard to articulate, (3) allows for creativity and personality and (4) it forces one to practice responses to likely interview questions. For teachers, digital story telling: (1) facilitates the reflection process in a more meaningful way, (2) provides authentic evidence of student learning (3) results in deeper levels of learning and (4) provides evidence of community impact and impact of the use of service learning pedagogy. Burmark (2004:4) have found that integrating visual images with written text both enhances and accelerates student comprehension, and digital storytelling is an especially good technology tool for collecting, creating, analyzing, and combining visual images with written text.

Digital storytelling can be a potent learning experience that encompasses much of what society hopes that students will know and be able to perform in the 21st century (Jakes & Brennan, 2005).

The push for students to gain 21st century literacy skills by using the latest technology to communicate effectively is facilitated by students actively participating in the creation process of digital storytelling (Jakes & Brennan, 2005).

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Majority of digital storytelling studies is concentrated on the primary and secondary education, the literature on digital storytelling in the tertiary and adult education particularly in area of assessment is quite limited. Research on the use of digital storytelling in tourism and hospitality management appears almost non-existent.

Given the imperatives of digital storytelling, the study determined its appropriateness as an authentic assessment tool for tourism and hospitality management courses and suggested action plans for improvement of digital storytelling as an assessment tool.

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK One of the proponents of the 21st century skills as learning framework is the Partnership for 21st Century Skills which developed a unified, collective vision for learning known as the Framework for 21st Century Learning. This framework describes the skills, knowledge and expertise students must master to succeed in work and life; it is a blend of content knowledge, specific skills, expertise and literacy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). Within the context of core knowledge instruction, students must also learn the essential skills for success in today’s world, such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication and collaboration which can be achieved through inquiry-based learning. Educational groups such as The United States Ministry of Education and MacArthur Foundation also support this learning framework (Learning Theories, 2014) which advocates that skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy and innovation skills.

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science, geography, history, government and civics. In addition to these subjects, we believe schools must move to include not only a focus on mastery of core subjects, but also promote understanding of academic content at much higher levels by weaving 21st century interdisciplinary themes into core subjects: Global Awareness (using 21st century skills to understand and address global issues, learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing diverse cultures, religions and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open dialogue in personal, work and community contexts and understanding other nations and cultures, including the use of non-English languages); Financial, Economic, Business and Entrepreneurial Literacy (knowing how to make appropriate personal economic choices, understanding the role of the economy in society and using entrepreneurial skills to enhance workplace productivity and career options); Civic Literacy (participating effectively in civic life through knowing how to stay informed and understanding governmental processes, exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national and global levels and understanding the local and global implications of civic decisions); Health Literacy (obtaining, interpreting and understanding basic health information and services and using such information and services in ways that enhance health, understanding preventive physical and mental health measures, including proper diet, nutrition, exercise, risk avoidance and stress reduction, using available information to make appropriate health-related decisions, establishing and monitoring personal and family health goals and understanding national and international public health and safety issues) and Environmental Literacy (demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the environment and the circumstances and conditions affecting it, particularly as relates to air, climate, land, food, energy, water and ecosystems, demonstrate knowledge and understanding of society’s impact on the natural world, investigating and analyzing environmental issues, and making accurate conclusions about - 118 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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effective solutions and taking individual and collective action towards addressing environmental challenges).

Likewise, National Science Teachers Association of United States of America (2011) recommends that the science education community support 21st-century skills consistent with best practices across a science education system, including curriculum, pedagogy, science teacher preparation, and teacher professional development.

III. METHODOLOGY Descriptive survey research method, which is concerned with particular characteristics of a specific population and is used to gather information largely on what people do and think (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:81) was used in the study. Survey questionnaire contains uniformity as the same questions are asked and the same responses are provided; thus, maintaining an objective epistemological position (Sarantakos, 2005:263). Though in-depth data may not all be provided by survey questionnaire (Sarantakos, 2005:263), focus group discussion complements the survey results to achieve triangulation.

A. Participants The study included 2nd year hospitality and tourism management student participants who were enrolled in a higher educational institution located in Manila, Philippines for academic year 2014-2015 in three major subjects offered for tourism and hospitality management namely Principles of Management, Hazard Analysis in Foods and Ecological Tourism.

The subject Principles of Management introduces the students to the fundamentals, theories, practices and concepts of Management. It emphasizes the functions and processes of planning, organizing, directing (leading) and controlling, as well as

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problem-solving and decision making that apply to the hospitality industry. It aims to equip the students with knowledge, skills and attitude in the management of hospitality establishments, organizations and institutions, vital to successful and professional career in Management in the hospitality industry.

Hazard Analysis in Foods as a core course deals with Food Safety and Sanitation and its significance to the food service industry. It focuses on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System, or HACCP – a food safety management approach used globally by accredited food service establishments. The main emphasis of the course is on the prevention of food-borne illnesses by means of responsible food handling and preparation.

Thus, the role of personal hygiene is also discussed in detail.

The course also gives an overview of microbiology, where the different types of microorganism are discussed, including modes of transmission, signs and symptoms, treatment and preventive measures. Other topics covered are Food Safety Hazards, Food Service Guidelines, and Pest Control.

As a major course, Ecological Tourism presents the general and specific perspective of the various theories and principles that describe the relatively new industry of Ecotourism. The course encompasses origins and trends that explain current government policies and regulations for industry development and control.

Actual documented cases and field immersions are integrated within the course to present realistic situations.

B. Evaluation of Digital Stories A modified evaluation framework for digital storytelling as suggested by McNeil and Robin, 2012 was used in the study. The framework has three main categories namely evaluation during the design and development, evaluation after the project is completed and peer evaluation carrying a grade percentage of thirty percent, fifty percent and 20 percent, respectively. Appropriate rubric for each category was used accordingly.

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C. Data Collection The researcher attended an online training and a digital story culminating activity to prepare for the research. Definition, samples of digital story telling including researcher’s own digital story telling on food poisoning, sustainability, popular software applications and guidelines for digital story making were presented to the class. An introductory lecture was conducted on the theoretical and pedagogical aspects of digital story telling.

Formative evaluation was conducted for project concept and story guide of the digital story. The digital stories made by students were based on the relevant topics included in the syllabus. Rubric for final evaluation was provided to each group on how they will be graded. Capstone project presentation was done during midterm or final examination with the whole class.

The data were collected from students through modified 5-point Likert-scale questionnaire based originally from Williams and Bedi, 2007. The scale starts from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree). The survey was conducted after reviewing all submitted digital stories as midterm or final examination instead of the traditional assessment tool like summative examination. The questionnaire sought to determine the appropriateness of digital story telling as an assessment tool and the questions were categorized into three sections: (1) introduction and preparation for digital storytelling, (2) digital story telling development process in the classroom setting and (3) perceptions on the appropriateness of storytelling as a tool of learning outcomes. Provision for comments for each question was also included.

D. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics was utilized to analyze the survey data.

Likewise, thematic analysis with the students’ comments in survey, rubric criteria and focus group discussion were done to achieve triangulation.

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In data analysis, the researchers began by examining missing survey data. All manually encoded responses using Microsoft Excel 2007 showed that a total of one hundred three participants attempted to participate in the study. However, five of them did not complete the survey. As such usable data was only set at ninety-eight.

A. Demographic Information of Participants The number of female student participants (68%, n=51) was larger than the number of the male participants (31%, n=47).

B. Introduction and Preparation for Digital Story Telling To provide an overview of the pedagogy of digital storytelling, the faculty in-charge presented a lecture supplemented by examples of digital story telling. The presentation consisted of the following: technology in teaching and learning, definition, benefits, purpose, story guidelines and specifications, story script (storyboards), and images. Likewise, to create an atmosphere of digital competency, the faculty in-charge showcased his digital stories as example.

Table 1: Inquiry on introduction and preparation for digital story telling.

Inquiry

Mean

Introductory lecture on digital story format was useful in creating digital story.

4.78

Introductory lecture on digital storytelling pedagogy and technicalities was useful in creating digital story

4.82

Digital storytelling should be a feature for introduction of subject matter by professors

4.90

Discussion and viewing of digital stories examples by the faculty in-charge were a straightforward process

4.80

Sample digital stories were helpful in the creation of the digital story capstone project

4.75

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The faculty in-charge conducted a lecture to introduce the concept and pedagogy of digital story. Based on Table 1, students strongly agreed of its usefulness in conceptualizing and creating their own digital story as capstone project. Likewise, the discussion and viewing of digital stories examples including faculty in-charge own example of digital story were useful and delivered in a straightforward process. Further, they strongly suggested that digital storytelling should be a feature for introduction of subject matter by professors.

The introduction on digital storytelling and digital story examples created by faculty in-charge to specifically address in anticipation of the common technical problems to be encountered by students proved to be helpful. It was thought sufficient for faculty in-charge to act as role model for the students in the creation of introduction in digital storytelling format (Williams and Bedi, 2007: 435) which was also articulated by students during focus group discussion. As such, the faculty in-charge should be competent of integrating technology in the classroom as it adds to his or her credibility in the pedagogy of digital storytelling and use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the classroom.

Students today are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet and are technically called digital natives while teachers (or older students) who were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point in their lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology are, and always will be compared to them are called digital immigrants (Pernsky, 2001: 1).

Zwaneveld and Bastiaens (in Avouters and Jans, 2009: 58-59) see five competences teachers should have when they want to integrate ICT in their teaching practice:

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• Individual media-competencies, this includes the basic knowledge and skills for handling the required hard-and software.

• Critical media-competencies, this includes the skills to select critically the media in the learning process of learners. The criteria are educational, human and social.

• A lifelong learning competence, this means that teachers have to be aware of all the new technologies that are developed and can be integrated in the daily teaching and learning practice. including PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), Android Phone and iPhone among others.

• “Supervising learning process”-competencies, this contains that teachers can optimize the learning processes of learners. Communication is a core element in learning.

ICT makes it possible to maintain communication between these learners. It is a competence for teachers to know this and have the necessary skills to organize these kinds of communication and manage and enhance the learning process.

• Educational-design competencies, this competence includes to develop in a right way the necessary learning materials and didactical activities by means of ICT and new media.

C. Digital Storytelling Development Process in the Classroom Setting The introductory lectures conducted were accompanied with fundamentals on building a story, composing visual designs, scoring, recording and using software for integration like iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, Audacity and Microsoft Photo Story 3.

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Table 2: Inquiry on digital story development and tools.

Inquiry

Mean

Creating and submitting of digital story were a straightforward process

4.82

Finding relevant images from the web for the digital story was a straightforward process

4.43

Recording the narration in the background for the digital story was a straightforward process

4.45

Uploading the completed digital story via MOODLE site was manageable

3.51

Students strongly agreed that creating, submitting, finding relevant images and recoding the narration of a digital story were straightforward process in which they encountered minimal problems in digital story development. Some of the direct comments made were: • We need an SLR camera and appropriate mobile phone.

• There are some pictures that took a longer time to find.

• We did not download pictures from the web --- we created and took pictures.

• I really hope that the school would have equipment to lessen the inconvenience of recording voices.

However, they encountered difficulty in uploading the file in a MOODLE (acronym for Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) which is a learning platform designed to provide educators, administrators and learners with a single robust, secure and integrated system to create personalized learning environments (MOODLE, 2015). The MOODLE’s file module has a maximum 200 megabytes capacity and uploading depend also on the internet performance. The file module enables a user to provide a file as a course resource which will be possibly displayed within the course interface for every learner to view and download.

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knowledge and enhance learning in which the process of writing a story, molding it to a specific audience, fitting it within technical and assigned constraints, researching and collecting supporting assets, and crafting it all together requires considering the topic from a number of angles, and promotes a deeper understanding of it. Moreover, research shows that the process of storytelling, based on reflection and communication of personal experience, can increase retention and promote meaning as well as bring clarity and understanding to complex topics. Digital storytelling provides avenues for experiential learning, reflective practice, effective communication, and building community in the classroom and beyond (Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, n.d.).

Multimodal literacy is about understanding the different ways of knowledge representations and meaning-making focusing on the design of discourse by investigating the contributions of specific semiotic resources, (e.g. language, gesture, images) codeployed across various modalities (e.g. visual, aural, somatic), as well as their interaction and integration in constructing a coherent multimodal text such as advertisements, posters, news report, websites, films (O’Halloran and Lim, 2011: 14-15).

D. Perceptions on the Appropriateness of Storytelling as a Tool of Learning Outcomes Digital storytelling is one mechanism for students to dig into research which they are reluctant to take on. Multimedia as a tool to substantiate and assess their learning empowers students to further acquire knowledge, comprehend concept and apply the learning in real world.

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Table 3: Inquiry on learning outcomes.

Inquiry

Mean

Digital story format was a good idea for capstone project assessment

4.88

Digital story format had improved student's learning environment through better understanding of concepts and its application

4.69

The submission of the capstone project in the digital story telling format had improved the presentation and communication skills

4.72

Each member of the group was integrally involved in the creation of the digital story

4.85

Digital storytelling should be a feature of tourism and hospitality management courses for at least one assignment or project

5.00

As a capstone project for assessment of learning, students strongly agreed that digital story format can be an alternative to the traditional achievement test as it was an opportunity for them to reflect on their learning. This was substantiated during the focus group discussion saying that digital story telling was a fresh approach and ‘kind of’ fun and interesting way of testing their learning and understanding of concepts and its application. Further, knowledge learned can be applied, integrated and summarized ‘not in a boring way’. Through digital story format, they believed that their presentation and communication skills had improved along with inculcating soft skills like cooperation, leadership, time management and creativity. One student emphasized his integral involvement in the creation of the digital story: «We were working in teams while having more fun and comfort. I am the storyline maker, videographer, editor and actor!»

From the students’ perspective, digital storytelling was a venue for reflection through higher order thinking such as synthesis, application and evaluation using the general knowledge learned from the courses which are evident in their digital stories. The study conducted by LaFrance and Blizzard (2013:41) on student perceptions of digital storytelling as a learning tool for educational leaders who posits that to utilize technologically suffused - 127 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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pedagogy to meet course objectives by revealing the perceptions of the students about the assignment or project through reflective learning.

Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective (Boyd and Fales, 1983:99).

Digital story telling is the convergence of student-centered learning strategies (Barret, 2006:650) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Convergence of Student-centered Learning Strategies.

This figure graphically demonstrates that Digital Storytelling facilitates the convergence of four student-centered learning strategies: student engagement, reflection for deep learning, project-based learning, and the effective integration of technology into instruction.

Everybody agreed that digital storytelling as a format and alternative for capstone project should be a feature of tourism and hospitality management courses for at least one assignment or project. The following direct comments were quoted to substantiate their claim of learning and motivation:

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• It’s a great exercise of skills and teamwork. It let us be free and creative. We’re not just tied to do it as something obligatory but rather as something we want to do.

• I think it is better because students want something new rather than just discussing it.

• Though not all can make or edit videos, they can still learn.

• It is relevant to modern day trends.

Digital storytelling is a valuable tool for invigorating learning and motivating participants to construct collaborative and personalize narratives as authentic products of learning (Yang and Wu, 2012:350) and further suggested in their study that after twenty weeks of digital storytelling instruction; students demonstrated significant improvement in English proficiency, critical thinking and learning motivation. They posited that digital storytelling, as a transformative information technology integrated instructional strategy, takes advantage of technological advancements, a clear production process and an effective learning environment for fostering collaboration and co-construction of meaning.

Robin (2006) pointed out that digital storytelling positively affects student learning outcomes by encouraging them to clarify their own thinking and understanding in personally meaningful ways. Table 4 presents a list of application of digital story telling from a range of disciplines in higher education intended for a variety of purposes:

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Table 4: Sample of digital storytelling as applied to different discipline in higher education.

Discipline or Use

Author

Research Overview

Language and Education

Abdel-Hack and Helwa (2014:8)

English as foreign language (EFL) narrative writing and critical thinking skills were developed as a result of teaching through integrating digital storytelling instruction and weblogs.

Simsek (2012:28)

The paper explored the process of introducing Digital Storytelling workshop practice to Turkey through a project called “Digital Stories from Amargi Women".

The results indicated that the participating women defined new activist usages for digital stories, as well as their overall activated networking habits in the digital story telling workshop settings.

Women's Studies

Teaching and Learning

The article outlines how instructional technology and content-specific courses in the teacher education tandem to develop beginning teachers' Dreon, O., program work in of digital storytelling as an educational Kerper, R., understanding This coordination of efforts offers a framework & Landis, J. tool. for incorporating digital storytelling in the middle (2011:4) grades classroom and can also help practicing teachers understand the educational importance and cultural value of the digital storytelling medium.

Medical Education

Sandars and Murray (2009:441)

Digital storytelling can effectively engage undergraduate medical students in reflection. . The process of creating a digital story can stimulate students to carefully consider and reflect upon why they collect, select and present the various photographs.

Landscape Design

Jenkins and Lonsdale (2007)

Digital storytelling offered new ways for students to present their work and to reflect upon it. The digital nature of stories made them ideal for storage and easy retrieval, thus making them available for review at a regular intervals to make personal and group development explicit and become part of an organized collection of evidence for reflection.

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Teachers can utilize digital storytelling as a learner-centered instructional strategy for engagement, evaluation and assessment of students. Descriptive survey research method was used in the - 130 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - n° 7

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study. The data were collected from students through modified 5-point Likert-scale questionnaire. Focus group discussion complemented the survey results to achieve triangulation. The survey was conducted after reviewing all submitted digital stories as midterm or final examination instead of the traditional assessment tool like summative examination. The questionnaire sought to determine the appropriateness of digital story telling as an assessment tool.

The study highlighted that an introductory lecture on the use and pedagogy of digital story and discussion and viewing of digital stories examples were useful in conceptualizing and creating students’ own digital story as capstone project. Though students encountered difficulty in uploading the file in a MOODLE, they strongly agreed that creating, submitting, finding relevant images and recoding the narration of a digital story were straightforward process in which they encountered minimal problems in digital story development. As a capstone project for assessment of learning, students strongly agreed that digital story format can be an alternative to the traditional achievement test as it was an opportunity for them to reflect on their learning.

Research results obtained from this study can be used by institutions of higher education to review their curriculum for integrating digital story telling as an assessment option, to identify with the opportunities provided to students by their institution and to provide objective evidence of learning impact for accreditation, surveillance audit and award applications.

Aside from a study to be conducted on the evaluation of the use of digital storytelling for reflection in a larger sample of learners in different culinary arts, tourism and hospitality courses, it is highly recommended to compare reflective learning between digital storytelling and text-based reflective writing vis-a-vis with teachers’ training and perception on digital storytelling.

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Mai 2015

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