Fact Sheet on International Trends in Lifelong Learning by Vehbi Koç Vakfı

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

Bankalar Cad. Minerva Han No: 2 Kat: 5 Karaköy 34420, İstanbul/Turkey T +90 212 292 05 42 F +90 212 292 02 95 erg.sabanciuniv.edu

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Published by İmak Ofset Basım Yayın San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. Atatürk Cad. Göl Sok. (İtfaiye karşısı) No: 1 Yenibosna-Bahçelievler / İSTANBUL T 0212 656 49 97 F 0212 656 29 26 1.Print February 2012 2.Print August 2012 ISBN 978-605-4348-28-2

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

CURRICULUM VITAE Nihan Köseleci Nihan Köseleci received her bachelor’s degree from Galatasaray University Department of Economics and her master’s degree from Sorbonne University Development Economics Programme. In 2005, Köseleci served as research assistant in International Labour Organization’s (ILO) Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour. Between November 2006 and October 2010, Köseleci worked as policy analyst and researcher in the Understanding Children’s Work Programme, a collaborative effort between the World Bank, UNICEF and ILO. Köseleci has published various reports on the education systems and labour markets of a series of middle and low-income countries, including Senegal, Mali, Brazil, Indonesia, Egypt, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey. Since December 2010, Köseleci has been working in the ERI and Koç Group’s Cooperation for Quality in Vocational Education Project. Köseleci is currently pursuing her doctorate in Galatasaray University Department of Economics.

Vocational Education: A Crucial Matter for the Nation (MLMM) Project was kicked off in 2006 upon the collaboration of Vehbi Koç Foundation, Ministry of National Education and Koç Holding in order to create awareness in all segments of the society regarding the significance of vocational technical education, and to drive this process to sow the seeds of public-private partnerships. Over time, the project grew to encompass a total of 264 vocational high schools, 8,000 vocational high school students, 20 Koç Group companies of various scales and sectors, and more than 350 employees as volunteers. The project involved the matching of companies to vocational high schools which provided an educational program in the company’s respective field of activity with a view of promoting youth access to employment and foster qualified human capital required by enterprises. The matching process was expanded to cover a broad range of activities, including scholarships, internships, and voluntary coaching support to vocational high school students in line with the needs and resource of schools and workplaces. It also focused on curriculum, material and laboratory support to improve the school’s infrastructure and educational content to keep up with today’s technologies. In due course, the structure came to be known as “School-Workplace Matching Model” with all its components of support, including scholarships, curriculum, laboratory, internships, personal and vocational development, and employment. On the very foundation of this structure lies the idea of building bridges between education and business communities by means of conceiving sectoral collaboration between vocational schools and workplaces.

The Education Reform Initiative (ERI) focuses its efforts in two priority areas, the first of which is to develop education policies that will ensure the access of all children—boys and girls—to quality education, which is their fundamental right, and to raise Turkey’s economic and social development to higher levels. The other area of focus for ERI is to ensure that education policy processes are participatory, innovative, evidencebased, and transparent. Established within Sabancı University in 2003, ERI continues its work towards achieving these goals through research, advocacy and training, with the vision of achieving “quality education for all”. Since 2006, ERI has directed its efforts on restructuring vocational education so as to fulfil young peoples’ potential, meet the requirements of business, and help Turkey make use of its young population to advance in international competitiveness. ERI is supported by Mother Child Education Foundation, Aydın Doğan Foundation, Bahçeşehir University, Borusan Kocabıyık Foundation, Enerji-Su, Enka Foundation, Hedef Alliance, İstanbul Bilgi University, Kadir Has Foundation, Mehmet Zorlu Foundation, MV Holding, Nafi Güral Education Foundation, Sabancı University, The Marmara Hotels and Residences, Association of Private Education Institutions, Vodafone Turkey Foundation, Vehbi Koç Foundation, and Yapı Merkezi.

ABBREVIATIONS EU USA EQF CEDEFOP ÇSGB ECVET GDP İŞKUR SME KOSGEB LdV MEB MYK SVET OECD SQA TAFE TESK TOBB UMEM TQF TQS

European Union United States of America European Qualifications Framework European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training Ministry of Labour and Social Security European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training Gross Domestic Product Turkish Employment Agency Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Development Organization Leonardo da Vinci Ministry of National Education Vocational Qualifications Authority Strengthening Vocational Education and Training Project Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Scottish Qualifications Authority Technical and Further Education Confederation of Turkish Tradesmen and Craftsmen Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey Specialized Vocational Training Centers National Qualifications Framework of Turkey National Qualifications System of Turkey

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD 7 INTRODUCTION 9 GROWING IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN JOINT STRATEGY DOCUMENTS

PROMOTING INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY

REDUCING DISPARITIES BETWEEN GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL & TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN ASSOCIATE DEGREE LEVELS

LATERAL AND VERTICAL MOBILITY OPPORTUNITIES IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE OPPORTUNITIES IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILL ACQUISITION

DEVELOPMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION OF COMPETENCIES 29 SUPPORTING ADULTS FOR VOCATIONAL SKILL AND QUALIFICATION ACQUISITION

DEVELOPMENT OF FINANCE MECHANISMS FOR VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILLS ACQUISITION AS A PART OF LIFELONG LEARNING

INCLUSION OF DISADVANTAGED GROUPS IN EDUCATION OR LABOUR FORCE THROUGH VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILL ACQUISITION

CONCLUSION: A BRIEF EVALUATION OF TRENDS IN TURKEY

REFERENCES 39 APPENDIX 1: EDUCATION INDICATORS FROM EU MEMBER AND CANDIDATE STATES

APPENDIX 2: EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES IN EU MEMBER AND CANDIDATE STATES

FOREWORD The “window of opportunity”, defined as a scenario with decreasing population growth rate coupled with continued rapid increase in working-age population during a demographic transition period, presents Turkey with an opportunity to accelerate its economic development in the next 20 years. In order for Turkey to benefit from this demographic window of opportunity, all working-age individuals —women and men— that constitute its working-age population must participate adequately in the labour force, and carry the necessary skills to ensure their employability in labour markets. This places further emphasis on quality vocational and technical education, which needs to be restructured in order to allow young people to fulfil their potential, while equipping them with the skills needed by the businesses, thus enabling Turkey to leverage its young population as a means to gain international competitive advantage. While restructuring vocational and technical education, it is important for business, labour and education to reshape and adopt the proposals most suitable for their respective fields, acting on scientific analyses of concrete data and taking into consideration the inherent potential of the country as it advances towards European Union (EU) membership. We believe that the critical factor for success in such endeavours is to ensure that policy makers and researchers listen and understand the needs of the private sector, and that private sector bases its efforts on concrete data and analyses. In this context, and with the aim of increasing vocational and technical education quality, Education Reform Initiative (ERI) initiated the Cooperation for Quality in Vocational Education Project on December 20th 2010 in collaboration with Koç Group, which has been providing a valuable contribution to vocational education in Turkey since 2006 with its Vocational Education: A Crucial Matter for the Nation (MLMM) Project. This collaboration, realized within the scope of the MLMM Project, has the overall goal of increasing the quality of vocational education, and the specific objective of encouraging and facilitating the development of public-private-civil sector partnerships in line with its overall goal. Cooperation for Quality in Vocational Education Project delivers a series of researches and analyses aimed at driving new policies to increase vocational education quality. Vocational Skills Acquisition in the Context of Lifelong Learning: International Trends is an information document prepared within the scope of this effort, a literature review of vocational skills acquisition in the context of lifelong learning. While assessing vocational and technical skill acquisition and resulting trends in various countries, this information document also provides a brief assessment of current trends in Turkey. We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to Nihan Köseleci for her efforts in putting this report on paper, to Ceylan Ölçer for her contribution to the background research during the preparation of the report, to project’s Advisory Board members Bayram Akbaş, Serdar Sayan, Nurhan Yentürk, Murat Bey Balta, Necdet Kenar, Meltem Özturan and Emre Görgün for their valuable input, and finally, to Aylin Gezgüç, Burcu Gündüz and Seçil Kınay for their contributions, both during the project and the preparation of the document. It is our hope that this information document will serve as a contribution to Turkey’s efforts on lifelong learning, and that you will find it helpful.

Prof. Dr. Üstün Ergüder Director Education Reform Initiative 7

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

INTRODUCTION Transition to a knowledge-based economy and rapid developments in science, technology and globalization necessitate all individuals to acquire the information, mindset and skills that facilitate swift adaption to changes and developments. These skills include, above all else, adapting, communicating, accessing accurate information, decision making, taking responsibility, creativity, cooperation, problem solving, understanding complex systems and personal development.1 As such skills continue to become more important each day, they have also led to the inception and advancement of the lifelong learning approach. Lifelong learning covers all learning activities undertaken throughout life (from early childhood to post-retirement age) with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences.2 Lifelong learning covers all aspects of education from pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary (formal education); courses, lectures and seminars given by businesses, NGOs, trade unions and chambers (non-formal education); and non-structured learning activities undertaken in daily life (informal education). The aim of vocational and technical education is to impart to working-age individuals the knowledge, skills and competences required for a particular task or occupation. Acquisition of vocational and technical skills is central to the policies regarding poverty reduction, economic growth, employment and social inclusion, and is regarded as the key element of lifelong learning strategies. Different countries employ a variety of systems to handle the acquisition of vocational and technical skills. This study aims to assess the vocational and technical skills acquisition systems in place in different countries, as well as the resulting trends, within the context of lifelong learning. The study focuses on the vocational and technical education systems in place in Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) member countries due to the comparable economic structures and education systems of these countries with Turkey, and the presence of consistent databases (for labour, education, economy, etc.). Certain Latin American countries, which offer a wide variety of programs aimed at disadvantaged groups/individuals as well as accompanying impact assessments on most of those, are also included in the scope of the study. Differences in a country’s level of development, industrial organisation and production processes play an important role on determining its approach to vocational and technical skills acquisition within the scope of lifelong learning. As a result, there are significant disparities in terms of vocational and technical skills acquisition systems in the countries covered by this study. However, despite such differences, the countries have undertaken various reforms to renew their systems in line with the following common goals: • Creating high-level policies with the aim of developing joint strategies for improving vocational and technical education and training systems, • Encouraging international mobility to contribute to professional and technical skills development and to facilitate innovation transfer between countries, • Overcoming the strict boundaries between general and vocational education by reducing disparities in structure and content, • Providing vocational and technical education after secondary education, at undergraduate level,

1 Şimşek, 1999. 2 European Commission, 2000.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

• Permitting transfers between general and vocational education to allow individuals to reconsider their choices about education, • Restructuring theoretical education in schools and practical education offered by business to complement each other, • Identifying occupational standards of all stakeholders involved in vocational education, and ensure their implementation in training programs intended to convey occupational standards, • Providing adults with professional development opportunities as well as continuously updated knowledge and skills related to the profession, • Developing mechanisms to finance lifelong learning, • Ensuring inclusion of disadvantaged groups/individuals into education and professional life through the acquisition of vocational and technical skills.

GROWING IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN JOINT STRATEGY DOCUMENTS In recent years, a variety of high-level policy papers have been published with the aim of developing joint strategies for improving education and training systems. Strengthening vocational and technical education systems constitutes a significant agenda item in such joint strategy papers. The Lisbon Strategy, Education and Training 2010 Work Programme; Copenhagen, Maastricht, Helsinki, Bordeaux and Bruges Treaties, Europe 2020, and Education and Training 2020 Work Programme are the most prominent examples of European Union’s (EU) joint strategy papers.

The Lisbon Strategy and Education & Training 2010 Work Programme In 2000, the Council of the European Union launched the Lisbon Strategy, which aimed to make the EU “the most competitive, knowledge-based economy in the world”. Adopted for a ten-year period, the Lisbon Strategy aimed to achieve sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion.3 In quantitative terms, Lisbon Strategy’s overall goals aimed at allocating 3% of gross domestic product (GDP) to research and development, reducing restrictions arising from EU regulations to support entrepreneurship, and increase employment to 70% (60% for women) by 2010. The Lisbon Strategy stressed that, achieving these goals would require not only a radical transformation of the European economy, but also a challenging programme for modernising social welfare and education systems.4 “The Council and the Commission request that an Education and Training Area now be explicitly recognised as a key priority domain in the Lisbon strategy. This would transmit the clear message that, however effective the policies in other areas, making the European Union the leading knowledgebased economy in the world will only be possible with the crucial contribution from education and training.”

A detailed joint work programme, identifying the education and training objectives and policies of the Lisbon Strategy was approved in Barcelona in 2002. The Education and

3 Çapanoğlu, 2010. 4 Council of the European Union, 2002, p.3.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

Training 2010 Work Programme was developed as a coordinated effort between Member States, and adopted for a period of 10 years. The programme had the “goal of making education and training systems in Europe a world-wide quality reference by 2010.”5 In order to ensure cooperation and coordination between Member States, a new method, named “Open Method of Coordination”, was devised as an instrument of the Lisbon Strategy. According to the method, Each Member State is responsible for the organisation, financing and operation of its education system, whereas the EU institutions set common goals for reform, supervise regulations and practices in Member States, and take necessary action to promote practices with a proven positive impact among other Member States. The mid-term review of the Lisbon Strategy in 2005 has shown somewhat disappointing results, particularly in terms of economic growth, productivity and employment. Poor coordination between the European Commission and Member States, overloaded agenda and conflicting priorities, ineffective implementation of the Lisbon Strategy and lack of determined political action by Member States to achieve set goals were listed as the primary reasons for this outcome.6 The European Commission used this review as a basis for its proposal in 2005 to renew the Lisbon Strategy.7 The Lisbon Strategy’s agenda was refocused on actions that promote stronger and sustainable growth as well as more and better jobs.8 In addition, the duties and responsibilities of Member States and the Union were clearly defined in the Revised Lisbon Strategy. In this context, Member States were tasked with creating and implementing national reform programmes, while a Community Lisbon Action Plan was devised at the Union level. Although the Revised Lisbon Strategy did not stipulate any significant changes in the Education and Training 2010 Work Programme, it emphasized the need for continued implementation and support.

Copenhagen Process; Maastricht, Helsinki, Bordeaux and Bruges Communiqués In 2002, the European Commission launched the Copenhagen process with the understanding that vocational and technical education is more than a national agenda, but a more comprehensive topic requiring policies and strategies developed at European level. The Copenhagen Process has three main goals: Improving the quality of vocational and technical education, increasing the demand for vocational and technical education, and creating employment by encouraging intersectoral and international mobility of students graduating from vocational and technical education. Increased cooperation between Member States, strengthened vocational guidance and counselling systems, recognition of competences and qualifications and enhanced quality assurance in vocational education were listed as areas of priority for achieving these goals.9 The Copenhagen process is reviewed on a biannual basis. The first progress review of the Copenhagen process was in 2004, identifying priorities at European and national levels for vocational and technical education with the Maastricht Communiqué (Table 1). At the national level, priority was given primarily to incentivize public-private partnerships in vocational and technical education, identifying the vocational and technical skills requirement of labour markets, continuing competency development of teachers and trainers and providing further opportunities to disadvantaged groups in particular. European level priorities, on the other hand, focused on the development of an open and flexible European Qualifications Framework to provide a common reference to facilitate the 5 6 7 8 9

Council of the European Union, 2004. Kok, 2004. European Commission, 2005. Yılmaz, 2010. European Commission, 2002.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

recognition and transferability of qualifications in vocational and technical education, as well as the development and implementation of the European Credit Transfer System for vocational and educational training. Following the Maastricht Communiqué, significant progress was made in the development of common frameworks and tools (Europass,10 European Credit Transfer System, European Qualifications Framework, and European Network of Quality Assurance) designed for vocational and technical education. The second evaluation of the Copenhagen process was made in 2006, and the Helsinki Communiqué was launched to review the priorities as part of the process. Accordingly, EU focused its work on the following priority areas for the 2006-2008 period: • Testing and implementation of common European tools under development since the Maastricht Communique, with the aim for the agreed tools to be in place by 2010, • Improving the attractiveness and quality of vocational and technical education, • Active involvement of all stakeholders (social stakeholders at European and national levels, private sector representatives, vocational and technical education institutions) in the Copenhagen process, • Strengthening mutual learning and cooperation between Member States to ensure consistent use of comparable data and indicators.11 TABLE 1: PRIORITIES HIGHLIGHTED IN THE MAASTRICHT COMMUNIQUE (AT THE NATIONAL AND EU LEVEL) EU Consolidation of priorities of the Copenhagen process and facilitating the implementation of the concrete results Development of an open and flexible European qualifications framework Development and implementation of the European credit transfer system for vocational and technical education Continuous updating of the professional skills of vocational teachers and trainers, based on their specific needs Improvement of the scope, precision and reliability of vocational education and training statistics Member States Supporting the reform and development of vocational and technical education through guidance throughout life, quality assurance and identification and validation of non-formal and informal learning Improving public and/or private investment in vocational and technical education, including by public–private partnerships and, where appropriate, by the “training incentive effects of tax and benefit systems” as recommended by the Council of the European Union Further development of vocational and technical education systems to meet the needs of people or groups at risk of labour market and social exclusion, in particular early school leavers, low skilled, migrants, persons with disabilities and the unemployed Supporting individuals through appropriate guidance and counselling Continuing competence development of teachers and trainers in vocational and technical education Further development of learning-conducive environments in training institutions and at the workplace Increasing the quality of vocational and technical education Use of the European Social Fund and the European Regional Development Fund to support the development of vocational and technical education Source: European Commission, 2004.

10 Established in 2005, Europass is a portfolio of documents (Curriculum Vitae, Language Passport, Europass Mobility, Certificate Supplement, and Diploma Supplement) to help individuals communicate their skills and qualifications effectively when looking for a job or training in the EU. 11 European Commission, 2006.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

Copenhagen process was reviewed for the third time in 2006, resulting in the announcement of the Bordeaux Communiqué, which aimed to refocus the priorities laid down in Helsinki so as to meet the needs of vocational and technical education labour markets (labour markets needs analyses, guidance and counselling services to ease the transition from training to employment, financial mechanisms aimed at promoting adult education in the workplace, and programmes in support of mobility, with particular regard to apprenticeship).12 The final review of the Copenhagen process was announced in 2010. The Bruges Communiqué set the following objectives for the 2011-2020 period, and proposed short and medium-term action plans in order to achieve those objectives.13 • Raising the quality, effectiveness and attractiveness of vocational and technical education in particular, by improving the quality and competences of teachers, trainers and school leaders, and strengthening the link between vocational education and labour markets, • Promoting adult participation in continued vocational and technical education, and improving international mobility , • Enhancing creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in all stages of vocational and technical education, and encouraging the use of information technologies, • Increasing the employability of vocational and technical education students; in particular, disadvantaged groups/individuals. With the Lisbon Strategy, education was no longer seen as an area of secondary importance for EU,14 but one of the key factors that play a decisive role in sustainable growth, employment and social cohesion. In this context, and in line with the Copenhagen process of 2002 and subsequent joint communiqués, enhanced cooperation on vocational and technical education will contribute significantly to EU’s successful growth, as well as its efforts towards achieving the goals set by the Lisbon Strategy.

Europe 2020 Strategy and Education & Training 2020 Work Programme In 2009, the EU launched the Education and Training 2020 work programme as an updated European strategic cooperation framework, based on the results of the Education and Training 2010 work programme.15 The Education and Training 2020 Work Programme aims to make lifelong learning and mobility a reality, improve the quality and efficiency of education and training, enhance creativity and innovation, including entrepreneurship, at all levels of education and training, and promote equity, social cohesion and active citizenship. These objectives are accompanied by a series of European performance benchmarks to be met by 2020, designed to monitor progress, identify challenges and enable evidence-based policy making. These performance benchmarks and EU trends for the 2000-2009 period are provided in Table 2:

12 13 14 15

European Commission, 2008. European Commission, 2010a. For a detailed study of Lisbon Strategy and its education aspect, see Öztürk (2008). Council of the European Union, 2009a.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

TABLE 2: EDUCATION AND TRAINING 2020 BENCHMARKS AND CURRENT SITUATION IN THE EU Goal

Current Situation

At least 95 % of children between 4 years old and the age for starting compulsory primary education should participate in early childhood education

From 2000 to 2009, pre-school participation increased from 85.6% to 92.3%.

At least 15% of adults of ages 25 to 64 years should participate in lifelong learning

From 2000 to 2009, participation in lifelong learning increased from 7.1% to 9.3%.

The share of low-achieving 15-years olds in reading, mathematics and science should be less than 15%

From 2000 to 2009, the proportion of low performers aged 15 decreased from 21.3% to 20.0%.

The share of 30-34 year olds with tertiary educational attainment should be at least 40%

From 2000 to 2009, tertiary education attainment rate among 30-34 year olds increased from 22.4% to 32.3%.

The share of early leavers (aged 18-24) from education and training should be less than 10%

From 2000 to 2009, early leaving rate among 18-24 year olds decreased from 17.6% to 14.4%.

Source: European Commission, 2011.

2010 saw the launch of the Europe 2020: A European Strategy for Smart, Sustainable, and Inclusive Growth, superseding the Lisbon Strategy and identifying EU’s goals for 2020. The Europe 2020 Strategy aims to avoid the negative impact of current economic and financial crises, and deliver a roadmap for EU to achieve its objectives for growth, employment and environment.16 The strategy has three areas of priority: smart growth based on knowledge and innovation, sustainable growth, and inclusive growth with a strong emphasis on job creation, delivering social and territorial cohesion.17 In line with these goals, five targets have been agreed for the year 2020:18 • 75% of the population aged 20-64 should be employed, • 3% of GDP should be invested in R&D, and a new indicator should be developed to track innovation, • The share of early school leavers should be under 10% and at least 40% of the 30-34 age olds should have a tertiary degree, • The number of people at the risk of poverty should be reduced by 20 million, • Greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels, the share of renewable energy sources in EU’s energy consumption should be increased to 20%, and a 20% increase in energy efficiency should be achieved. In addition, seven initiatives have been proposed to assist Member States in their efforts to meet these objectives, two19 of which are directly related to vocational and technical skills acquisition. The first of these, the Youth on the Move20 aims to facilitate the employment of young people through internships, apprenticeships and other work experiences, and promote labour mobility between EU countries, while the second, named “An Agenda for New Skills and Jobs”21 aims to promote development of new skills in EU’s labour force, improving the quality of jobs and ensuring better working conditions. At EU level, the initiatives will provide a facilitated intra-EU labour movement, better matched labour supply and demand, improved capacity for social stakeholders, and better cooperation between labour market institutions.

16 17 18 19 20 21

Akbaş and Apar, 2010. Toygür, 2010. European Commission, 2010b. For an in-depth review of the other initiatives, see Akbaş and Apar (2010). European Commission, 2010c. European Commission, 2010d.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

Whereas at national level, the strategy proposes maintaining national policies with a view of providing flexibility and security, promoting active ageing policies and gender equality, and strengthening partnerships between vocational education institutions and business.

With these developments in recent years, general education, as well as vocational and technical education, came to be regarded as the key factors that play a decisive role in economic and social progress, and one of the main pillars of EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic and social development strategies.22

PROMOTING INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY International mobility programmes for education and skills acquisition play an important role in increasing employability as well as contributing to the personal development of individuals. Mobility programmes can help develop foreign language skills, a sense of responsibility, and adaptation to foreign cultures and working environments.23 International mobility also paves the way for the modernisation of education systems as well as facilitating the transfer of knowledge and innovation between countries.

In this regard, a significant trend observed in many countries covered in the scope of this research is the implementation of international mobility enhancement programs in vocational and technical skills acquisition.

EU Leonardo da Vinci Mobility Programme There are various programmes in place at EU level to enhance transnational mobility, aiming towards facilitating education and skills acquisition.24 Launched in 2007 and ran until 2013, the Lifelong Learning Programme,25 aims to unite all vocational and technical programmes and actions under a single structure as part of its integrated approach. The Lifelong Learning Programme is composed of Comenius (for schools), Erasmus (for higher education), Grundtvig (adult education) and Leonardo da Vinci (vocational and technical education) subprogrammes.26 Directly related to acquisition of vocational and technical skills, the Leonardo da Vinci (LdV) Programme27 aims to improve the skills and competences of individuals involved in vocational and technical education, and enhance participating countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; capacity to adapt to technological developments. The LdV Programme involves all initial and apprentice-level learners, working-age individuals, and professionals (teachers, specialized trainers, guidance counsellors and workplace human resource specialists) in vocational and technical education. The LdV Programme is composed of mobility projects aiming to provide transnational education and employment opportunities in EU countries, multilateral projects that support development and transfer of innovative practices, and other projects that propose to establish and develop networks within individual sectors or themes that propose to enhance communication between all stakeholders in vocational and technical education. The mobility projects involve the process of receiving vocational education or work experience via the institutions (vocational and technical education institutions or enterprises) in another

22 For up-to-date education indicators in EU Member States and candidate countries, see Appendix 1. 23 European Commission, 2010e. 24 The Europe 2020 Strategy and Youth on the Move initiative described in the previous section highlight the importance of transnational mobility, in particular for the youth. 25 Council of the European Union, 2006. 26 LdV Programme was initially launched with the Council decision of 1994. The first phase of the program ran from 1995 to 1995, while the second phase lasted from 2000 to 2006. 27 In addition to 27 EU Member States, Liechtenstein, Norway, Iceland and Turkey also participate in the LdV Programme.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

participating country. The potential benefits of mobility projects from the perspective of participating enterprises, vocational and technical education institutions and individuals are provided on Table 3 below: TABLE 3: POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF MOBILITY PROJECTS Competence development of employees Getting an international touch within the company Knowledge of new markets Enterprises

Knowledge of international developments in the sector Learning new approaches and new working methods Improving language attainment of staff Improving the profile and attractiveness of the enterpriseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s particular sector Improving attractiveness of vocational and technical education and the apprenticeship system Competence development of teachers and trainers

Vocational and technical education institutions

Exchange of ideas and experiences with other countries Greater openness of the institutions towards international cooperation Adaptation of curricula to the needs of the global labour market Redefining the institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role from a traditional school to a knowledge centre Improved vocational and technical skills, International skills and personal skills and competences Improvement of practical knowledge Improved career opportunities

Individuals

Increased vocational and technical knowledge Improved communication skills Increased cultural awareness Improved foreign language skills Improved self-confidence

Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers and CINOP, 2007.

Multilateral projects support the development and transfer of innovative approaches (materials, curricula, education/training methods, etc.) to vocational and technical education through International partnerships. Additionally, international partnerships allow multilateral projects to transfer these innovative approaches to different legal, sectoral, socioeconomic and geographical environments. Each year, the European Commission sets the priority objectives for multilateral projects. For example, the projects identified for financing in 2012 prioritize coordination between vocational education and business, improved competences for teachers and trainers, increased basic skills for learners and realization of common tools and frameworks (Qualifications Framework, Credit Transfer System, etc.). The scope of the projects that aim to establish and develop networks within individual sectors or themes involve bringing together vocational and technical education experts, sharing vocational and technical education experience and knowledge within EU and developing sector or field-based platforms to share innovation.

The EU continues to develop common tools and frameworks to support international mobility as part of lifelong learning, the most prominent elements of which are the Qualifications Framework and Credit Transfer System.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

European Qualifications Framework (EQF) In 2008, with an aim to facilitate the identification of personal qualifications28, and to ensure interrelation within national and sectoral qualifications frameworks29, the Council of the European Union launched the European Qualifications Framework (EQF)30. According the Council decision, the Member States are recommended to relate their national qualifications systems to the EQF by 2010, adopt measures, as appropriate, so that, by 2012, all qualification certificates contain a clear reference to the appropriate EQF level. EQF is expected to play an important role in the verification and translation of qualifications, promoting mobility for learners and workers, and increasing participation in lifelong learning. Applicable to all levels of qualifications ranging from general education, vocational and technical education and higher education31, the EQF focuses on learning output and outcomes (knowledge, understanding and capacity at the end of the education) instead of learning inputs (duration of the education programme, type of institution, etc.) in order to form a common framework between different education systems within the EU. Accordingly, EQF defines eight levels of qualifications indicating learning outcomes (Table 4), with each level described by three learning outcomes: • Knowledge means the combination of principles, theories and experiences associated with a particular area of study, learning or research. Knowledge is defined as theoretical and/or factual. • Skill means the ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems. Skills are described as cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking) or practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and instruments). • Competence means the ability to use knowledge, skills and resources in work or study situations and in professional and personal development. Competence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy.

28 Qualification means a formal outcome of an assessment (degree, diploma, certificate, etc.) which is obtained when a competent body determines that an individual has achieved learning outcomes to given standards 29 Qualifications framework defines and classifies qualifications based on learning outcome (knowledge, skill, competence) 30 Council of the European Union, 2008. 31 Lifelong learning (non-formal and informal) education qualifications also fall under the scope of the EQF

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

TABLE 4: QUALIFICATION LEVELS ACCORDING TO THE EQF Level

Level 8

Level 7

Knowledge

Skills

Competence

Examples

Knowledge at the most advanced frontier of a field of work or study and at the interface between fields

The most advanced and specialised skills and techniques, including synthesis and evaluation, required to solve critical problems in research and/or innovation and to extend and redefine existing knowledge or professional practice

Demonstrate substantial authority, innovation, autonomy, scholarly and professional integrity and sustained commitment to the development of new ideas or processes at the forefront of work or study contexts including research

Doctorate degree

Highly specialised knowledge, some of which is at the forefront of knowledge in a field of work or study, as the basis for original thinking and/or research

Critical awareness of knowledge issues in a field and at the interface between different fields

Level 6

Level 5

Level 4

Advanced knowledge of a field of work or study, involving a critical understanding of theories and principles

Comprehensive, specialised, factual and theoretical knowledge within a field of work or study and an awareness of the boundaries of that knowledge

Factual and theoretical knowledge in broad contexts within a field of work or study

Specialised problemsolving skills required in research and/ or innovation in order to develop new knowledge and procedures and to integrate knowledge from different fields

Advanced skills, demonstrating mastery and innovation, required to solve complex and unpredictable problems in a specialised field of work or study

A comprehensive range of cognitive and practical skills required to develop creative solutions to abstract problems

A range of cognitive and practical skills required to generate solutions to specific problems in a field of work or study

Manage and transform work or study contexts that are complex, unpredictable and require new strategic approaches

Take responsibility for contributing to professional knowledge and practice and/or for reviewing the strategic performance of teams Manage complex technical or professional activities or projects, taking responsibility for decision making in unpredictable work or study contexts

Take responsibility for managing professional development of individuals and groups Exercise management and supervision in contexts of work or study activities where there is unpredictable change

Review and develop performance of self and others

Senior professional and senior executivelevel qualifications

(Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree)

Professional and executive-level qualifications

(Bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree)

Advanced professional qualifications

(Associate degree)

Exercise selfmanagement within the guidelines of work or study contexts that are usually predictable, but are subject to change

Fully competent, qualified personnel qualifications

Supervise the routine work of others, taking some responsibility for the evaluation and improvement of work or study activities

(Non-formal education certificate, vocational/ technical high school diploma)

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

TABLE 4: QUALIFICATION LEVELS ACCORDING TO THE EQF (CONTINUED)

Level 3

Level 2

Knowledge of facts, principles, processes and general concepts, in a field of work or study

Basic factual knowledge of a field of work or study

A range of cognitive and practical skills required to accomplish tasks and solve problems by selecting and applying basic methods, tools, materials and information Basic cognitive and practical skills required to use relevant information in order to carry out tasks and to solve routine problems using simple rules and tools

Take responsibility for completion of tasks in work or study

Adapt own behaviour to circumstances in solving problems

Semi-competent qualified personnel qualifications

Basic professional qualifications Work or study under supervision with some autonomy

(Non-formal education certificate) Pre-professional qualifications

Level 1

Basic general knowledge

Basic skills required to carry out simple tasks

Work or study under direct supervision in a structured context

(Primary education diploma)

Source: CEDEFOP, 2008.

European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) Regarded as a natural extension and complement to the EQF32, the ECVET is a tool developed to provide a common platform to communicate different national and/or sectoral qualifications systems. Based on the success of the Higher Education Credit Transfer System of 1989, pilot implementation of the ECVET began in 2009, and implementation of the system is expected to be finalized by 2012. When fully implemented, the ECVET is expected to pave the way for vocational and technical skills acquisition and development for individuals who wish to receive such education and training in other countries and institutions. ECVET, basically, intends to facilitate official validation and recognition of knowledge, skills and competence acquired through the otherwise rather fragmented vocational and technical education systems of the EU. Accordingly, ECVET utilizes a method involving learning outcomes (knowledge, skills and competence) which can be accumulated and transferred, and credits to determine qualifications.33 Thus, national qualifications frameworks for vocational education and training are able to integrate learning outcomes and credits from different countries into their own structure. Successful implementation of ECVET in EU would play a major role in improving transnational mobility for vocational and technical education, as well as enhance the flexibility of current education systems. In addition to improvements in transnational mobility and lateral and vertical transfer opportunities offered by education systems, ECVET is also expected to facilitate access to lifelong learning opportunities.

32 Council of the European Union, 2009b. 33 For a detailed study of ECVET methodology and pilot implementation, see CEDEFOP (2010).

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

REDUCING DISPARITIES BETWEEN GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL & TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES In the process of rapid changes in economy and labour force, differences between general and vocational skills that individuals are required to acquire continue to diminish. According to the results of a study in the US,34 due to rapid developments in technology (spread of information technologies in particular), problem solving and communication skills are now more in demand in the labour market compared to specific skills related to a particular profession. Thus, in many countries, the traditional strict boundaries between general and vocational education are beginning to break down, losing distinction in structure and content, which is particularly evident in secondary education. In addition, it is now necessary for students completing secondary education to possess the basic skills essential for lifelong learning, which also facilitates change of occupation. In this context, it is now essential to impart certain basic skills and competences (literacy and numeracy; mathematics; basic mastery of science and technology; problem solving; critical thinking; fluency in foreign languages; information and communication technology skills; ability to utilize technology; social skills; entrepreneurship and general culture) to secondary education graduates. It is possible to provide these skills through a common programme for all secondary students, laying the foundation for lifelong learning. Many of the countries covered in the scope of this study show the common trend of 9 to 10 years of compulsory general education for all students before vocational and technical skills acquisition, which helps develop basic skills as well as reduce differences between general and vocational education curricula. Such systems intend to alleviate the potential drawbacks that might be encountered by students who are forced to choose a specialization at an early age.35 For example, the Portuguese education system builds a strong connection between general and vocational education. Compulsory general education begins at the age of 6 and continues until the age of 15, divided into three stages of 4, 2 and 3 years, respectively.36 After the second stage, students are offered elective courses in arts and technology. After the nineyear compulsory education, students can continue to their secondary education vocational and technical education programmes, with a significant focus on compulsory general culture courses. Studies have shown that students who only receive vocational and technical courses struggle to cope with technological developments, and attempt to continue with their tasks without any making any changes in response to the developments37. Based on this assessment, the education reform in 2004 made Portuguese, foreign language, philosophy, information and communication technologies courses and physical education compulsory in secondary education institutions that provide vocational and technical education. On the other hand, institutions that focus on general education also offer courses that prepare students for higher education as well as professional life. Students attending general secondary education are able to select from ten different38 technology-oriented courses. Diversification of secondary education institutions encompassing general and vocational programs took place in the Swedish educational system following the educational reform in 34 35 36 37 38

Autor, Levy and Murnane, 2003. Ĺ&#x17E;imĹ&#x;ek, 1999. Eurydice, 2005. Hull, 1998 Civil engineering, electrical and electronic engineering, information technologies, equipment design, multimedia, management, marketing, land planning and environment, social affairs and sports.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

1994 with the establishment of multi-disciplinary high schools. 39 Almost all of the students (98%) who successfully complete the nine-year compulsory primary education (primary and secondary school first stage) continue into the second stage of secondary education with most of them completing this stage in three years. The second stage of secondary education involves multi-disciplinary schools, which offer courses in thirteen vocational and four academic fields. Approximately 50% of students who take the second stage of secondary education choose to specialize in a vocational field. 40 Nearly one third of the educational term of those who choose to specialize in vocational or technical fields consists of basic courses such as English, mathematics, physical education, arts, health, science and social sciences. The secondary education in the system has been found highly successful in latest evaluations.41 The rate of secondary school students who choose to specialize in vocational and technical fields in Sweden grows rapidly (see Figure 1). Moreover, school dropout rates are very low compared to international figures. Approximately 90% of young people of the age group between 20 and 24 complete the second stage of secondary education. FIGURE 1: RATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION STUDENTS WHO HAVE CHOSEN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SPECIALIZATION IN SWEDEN BETWEEN YEARS 1998 AND 2009 70 % 60 60 % 50 %

53.2

40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0% 1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Male

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Female

Source: Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

With the educational reform introduced in 1984, multi-disciplinary high schools came to the fore in Greece 42 where vocational and technical education is less developed compared to other EU countries. Unified multi-disciplinary lyceums (Eniaio Polykladiko Lykeio) followed by the nine-year compulsory education, are based on an educational approach that integrates academic and vocational disciplines.43 These schools offer education not in clearly defined, narrow professional fields but encompass as many professions as possible across main sectors. The purpose is to extend acquired knowledge and skills over a vast spectrum. Furthermore, the competencies developed at school are easily adjusted to various professions or new technological developments that emerge over time. Students at multidisciplinary schools may choose a technical field offering vocational education or a general education program preparing for higher education. 39 CEDEFOP, 2009. 40 15 weeks of internship is compulsory for vocational and technical education that lasts three years and is 85% school-based. Many of the municipalities in the country have Program Advisory Boards and Vocational Education Boards for vocational and technical education. These boards support educational institutions in finding places for students to gain professional experience, equipment purchases and updating information for vocational and technical teachers. 41 OECD, 2008a. 42 In Greece, the rate of vocational and technical education in secondary education is about 30%. 43 CEDEFOP, 2003.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Extension of general period of study commonly applied in secondary education may also form a strong basis for lifelong learning. One significant aspect of the Chilean education system is two years of general education applied in all secondary education institutions focusing on basic competencies. Compulsory education in Chile consists of eight years of primary and four years of secondary education. All students in the first year of secondary education receive the same curriculum whereas in the last years they are required44 to choose and specialize in either the general program (Enseñanza Media Científico-Humanista) or vocational technical program (Enseñanza Media Técnico Profesional) 45. Students who choose vocational and technical programs may choose any of the forty-six specialties across fourteen professional fields. Students continue to receive twelve hours of general knowledge even after they start specializing in vocational and technical fields.

The models from countries examined in this section highlight the fact that acquisition of general skills by students in vocational education will form a strong basis for lifelong learning.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN ASSOCIATE DEGREE LEVELS Taking vocational and technical education to associate degree level following secondary education is a trend especially observed in the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Singapore. In the USA, twelve years of compulsory education is to be completed before receiving vocational and technical education. Secondary education is academic and does not include vocational or technical education. Acquisition of vocational and technical skills in the USA takes place in community colleges for two years after secondary education (See Figure 2). Students graduating from community colleges become assistants in the professional team or qualified personnel in educational processes. Given lateral and vertical transfer options between institutions, those who choose to continue their education may start a four-year higher education institution under certain conditions with the credits they have earned. 46 Community colleges have agreements between universities in the same state with equivalent curricula, which entitles students to start the third year automatically. Those who would like to continue their education in another state may have to take certain classes anew. Moreover, community colleges play a major role in the vocational and technical skill acquisition of adults and their lifelong learning processes. Adults who wish to continue their education make effective use of community colleges. In Canada, vocational and technical education starts after secondary education. Vocational and technical skill education is offered in public community schools that work in strong cooperation with the private sector.47 Diploma programs in these colleges take two or three years with shorter certificate programs offered alongside. Community colleges provide educational programs aiming for vocational and technical skill acquisition organized with the representatives of the related sector. There is a very strong bond between universities and community colleges. Students who want to obtain a university degree receive the first

44 There is a noteworthy similarity between the vocational and technical education in Chile and the Turkish system. In Chile also, the socioeconomic status of the individual determines the secondary education institution in which they will study. Nearly 65% of vocational and technical education students come from households with the lowest income. 45 OECD, 2009. 46 The education system of the USA strongly promotes the transfer rates from community colleges to universities in an effort to eliminate the perception that vocational and technical education is a deadlock with no opportunities of vertical mobility for individuals (Grubb, 2006). 47 Grubb, 2006.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

two years of their education in community colleges and earn the required credits. Credits completed this way may be transferred to a mostly four-year undergraduate program accounting for the first two years of this new program. On the other hand, a number of university graduates go to community colleges to develop vocational and technical skills or to reinforce existing skills. With courses outside campuses, more spacious laboratories and an interactive education system, it might be argued that vocational and technical curriculum offered in community colleges is more intensive than those in universities. Community colleges aim at training experts who will join the labour force in fields such as information technologies, mining, environment and tourism. FIGURE 2: EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE USA Post-doctora studies and research

PhD or further professional degree

PhD degree

Master’s degree

Master’s studies

Vocational schools (Medicine, theology, law, etc.)

Undergraduate degree Associate degree or certificate

High school diploma

Vocational education

4 years high schools

3-4 4-4-4

Middle school

Associate degree or 3rd grade

Post-secondary education (College, university, vocational, vocational and technical and technicians schools)

Undergraduate programs

High school level 2

Integrated schools

High school level 1 6-3-3

Primary school

6-6

Secondary education (Academic, vocational, technical schools) Primary or elementary education

Preschool Kindergarten

Source: Özermen, (date unknown).

Australia has a similar educational system 48 where “Technical and Further Education - TAFE” 49 associate degrees schools serve as a steppingstone between high school and university. TAFE schools offer courses/ curricula across a great variety of fields from very basic literacy courses to advanced diploma programs that could be used to start university education. Many TAFE schools have connections with universities with some TAFE schools run by universities themselves, sharing their campuses while others cooperate with universities in their vicinity. With the courses they take at TAFE schools, students earn credits for related fields in higher education institutions. Therefore, a large majority of students in Australia first receive education at a TAFE school and then complete their university education with lateral transfer. The educational system in New Zealand does not distinguish between vocational and general education in middle school and high school levels either. Still, middle school or high 48 OECD, 2008b. 49 TAFE schools are either public or private.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

school students who wish to acquire vocational or technical skills may take elective courses in vocational education. However, vocational and technical education in New Zealand is usually received after secondary education. Vocational and technical skill acquisition is offered in polytechnic schools, technology institutions50 and private educational institutions. Institutes of Technical Education in Singapore, 51 a country lately cited for its educational system, play a significant role in vocational and technical skill acquisition in the country.52 Ten-year primary and secondary education is compulsory in Singapore. Nearly 95% of students graduating from secondary education institutions continue their education, with 30% of them going to junior colleges that focus on academic education and 40% going to polytechnic schools that train medium level labour force (Figure 3). Polytechnic schools aim at training medium level labour force to develop a command on both theoretical and practical knowledge.53 Institutes of Technical Education, meanwhile, train students to become qualified personnel for industry with a focus rather on practice and are seen as an attractive alternative by 25% of students. FIGURE 3: EDUCATION SYSTEM IN SINGAPORE Universities

Associate degree schools Further general education certificate % 25

Polytechnics

Technical education institutes

Diploma

% 40

Private secondary education (4years)

% 25

Fast secondary education (4 years)

Other vocational education institutes/ employment % 10

Normal secondary education (4-5 years)

Primary school (6 years)

Source: Law, 2008.

According to impact assessment for the vocational and technical educational system in Singapore,54 the success of institutes of technical education stems from their holistic education approach. Programs offered in institutes of technical education are based on three pillars: Practice-based hands-on programs, minds-on programs that aim at developing the mental capacity of students and hearts-on programs that focus on developing the social skills of students. General knowledge classes (English, mathematics) are limited in institutes of technical education, which offer more general courses with a focus on vocational skills such as computer, office management, arts and design and technical activities.

50 New Zealand has 20 technology institutes and polytechnic schools. 51 Singapore showed the highest performance levels according to PISA 2009 results announced in December 2010, alongside Korea, Finland and Hong Kong.(OECD, 2010a). 52 Institutes of technical education offer an alternative route to especially students with socioeconomic disadvantage. (Law, 2008). 53 Apayd覺n, 2009. 54 Law, 2008.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

LATERAL AND VERTICAL MOBILITY OPPORTUNITIES IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION Individuals and families decide upon education with a desire to go to schools that they believe will create the highest economic and social benefits and send their children to schools accordingly. It is highly unlikely for schools to attract qualified individuals and avoid being referred to a deadlock if they do not allow individuals the chance to make lateral transfers to different schools or vertical transfers to higher education institutions once they start secondary education. Therefore, in an effort to offer a chance to the individual to review their educational choices, educational systems in many countries work on lateral and vertical transfer opportunities between general and vocational education. For instance, the Polish educational system allows transfers between secondary education schools by introducing additional schools between vocational and technical secondary education institutions and general high schools. Basic vocational schools in Poland are institutions that cover the education of students of the age group between sixteen and nineteen.55 Those who are awarded vocational qualification certificates following an exam at the end of a three-year education are entitled to go to additional general high schools or three-year technical schools. Students graduating from additional general high schools or technical schools take maturity examinations. Another system that lays emphasis on mobility between general and vocational education is the Scottish educational system.56 Young people in Scotland who complete compulsory education until age sixteen have three options (Figure 4): • Direct entry to the labour market: Young people are offered the opportunity to develop their vocational skills in short-term or long-term programs offered in vocational and technical education schools. They may even obtain undergraduate degrees with a transfer to universities. • Application to vocational and technical colleges following secondary education completed between ages sixteen and eighteen: These colleges offer short or long-term courses, apprenticeship training or diploma programs. Young people who study at these colleges are awarded the National Vocational Qualification by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. Those who hold a National Vocational Qualification or start colleges offering further education following the higher fifth and sixth grades of secondary education are entitled to a Higher National Qualification after one year of education and a Higher National Diploma after two years of education. Those with Higher National Qualification are entitled to start the second year of universities with lateral transfers while Higher National Diploma holders may start third year in universities. Transition from vocational schools to universities is developed to help realize the full potential of a wide range of students. Furthermore, individuals may drop out at any level of certificate or diploma programs and start working with the competencies they have thus far developed. Colleges offering further education welcome both newly graduates and adults who want to acquire a profession or develop their skills in their professions. • Direct entry to university: Completion of fifth and sixth grades of secondary education is compulsory for university education. Universities evaluate applications according to the quotas they determine as well as rules and minimum conditions. 55 Particularly since the 2006-2007 academic year, there has been an upsurge of interest in vocational and technical education in Poland. This increase may be explained by the changes in the labour market following the country’s accession to the EU and emigration to other EU countries (CEDEFOP, 2011). 56 OECD, 2007.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

FIGURE 4: LATERAL AND VERTICAL MOBILITY IN THE SCOTTISH EDUCATION SYSTEM Vocational education programs

Employment

University diploma

Employment University 4th year University 3rd year Further education college 2nd year (Higher National Diploma) Further education college 1st year (Higher National Diploma)

University 2nd year University 1st year

Non-advanced vocational education programs

Ages 17-18 Secondary education upper level (5-6) Ages 12-16 Secondary education lower level (1-4) Source: YÄąlmaz, 2007.

Finlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s educational system is regarded as one of the most successful ones in the world. Following compulsory education, secondary education between ages sixteen and nineteen is divided into general and vocational education.57 More than 90% of the students continue education following the compulsory primary education. The flexibility of education as well as the opportunities that allow lateral and vertical transfers between various levels are the highlights of the educational system in the country. Students from general schools who change their decisions in the process and want to enroll in vocational schools do so by taking courses that are different from those in their previous schools. Similarly, students in vocational and technical educational institutions may take the university entrance exam and proceed into general education (Figure 5).

57 CEDEFOP, 2006.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

FIGURE 5: LATERAL AND VERTICAL MOBILITY IN THE FINNISH EDUCATION SYSTEM

PhD

Master’s degree

Polytechnic master’s degree 4

4 3

Undergraduate degree

Polytechnic degree

3 2

2 1

Work experience

Universities

Polytechnics

1 Special vocational qualifications

Work experience

High school exit examinations

Vocational qualifications exam

General high schools

Vocational schools

2 1

Grade/ Level 10

Work experience

1 Age 16

6 5

Advanced vocational qualifications

Compulsory Primary Education

12 11 10

1 Preschool

7 6

Source: Review of education statistics in Finland, 2005.

Educational systems examined in this section demonstrate how access to education and learning has been facilitated and democratized in the process of transition to information society. Provided that necessary conditions are met between educational and training programs, lateral and vertical transfers are easily carried out in these countries where vocational and technical education is of great importance. Individuals who wish to transfer from one program to another may benefit from their previous work and/or achievements and transfer applicable credits.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE OPPORTUNITIES IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILL ACQUISITION One of the fundamental problems observed in labour markets is the lack of qualified personnel for the related sector. One of the biggest underlying reasons is the absence of a systematic and fruitful relationship between educational institutions offering vocational and technical education, and the related sector.

In many of the countries examined, it is considered increasingly important to develop a cooperative approach that enables coordination between businesses (in the related sector) and vocational and technical education programs and practices. For instance, Germany and Austria are among countries in which theoretical education and applied training in workplaces are seen as complementary elements in vocational and technical skill acquisition. Students who wish to receive vocational and technical education work in businesses, learn the applied dimensions of the profession and go to school on certain days of the week for theoretical learning. Following full-time primary and compulsory education in Germany, nearly 60% of young people who want to continue their education start the dual vocational education system to acquire vocational and technical skills. Theoretical knowledge in the relevant specialty offered in vocational schools is applied in physical conditions in businesses. Just as in other countries with a strong dual vocational education system, the rate of graduation from higher education58 in Germany (23%) is far lower than the OECD average (39%).59 Dual vocational education programs last between two and three and a half years in which education is offered both at the workplace and at school. Accordingly, every student signs a training contract with a business60 which specifies the purpose and duration of training as well as the payment to be made to the student61 and the responsibilities of parties. Following the signing of the contract, young people are admitted to the business62 where they receive training for three to three and a half days. For one to one and a half days, students go to public vocational schools (Berufsschule). The education is completed with an exit examination63 and those who pass the examination are awarded a qualified worker certificate. Thanks to the right to participate in vocational education advisory boards enshrined in law, labour and employers’ unions have a great voice in determining the content of vocational education and the implementation of educational programs. Educational programs therefore are able to respond to both the demands of the labour market and offer young people the chance to develop their vocational and technical skills. Austria has a structure similar to the dual vocational education system in Germany. 64 Students aged between fourteen and fifteen who complete the nine-year compulsory education first go to a preliminary vocational school (Polytechnische Schule). This

58 In Germany, those graduating from general high schools and dual vocational education system may enter university. Those who wish to do so enter an examination called “Abitur” organized by the states and apply to universities with the grade obtained out of this examination. A university in Germany independently evaluates the applications of students according to their Abitur grades. 59 OECD, 2010b. 60 Chambers and vocational institutions are responsible for supervising and implementing training contracts. 61 Businesses pay students by calculating the costs of the vocational and technical education to be given to them. This payment rises every year. On average, it corresponds to approximately one thirds of an educated employee. 62 Aside from businesses, chambers and vocational institutions also offer training in certain professional fields. 63 These examinations organized by chambers and vocational institutions are carried out on the same day in Germany. 64 OECD, 2008c.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

one-year education prepares students for work life by reinforcing general education, introducing professions and establishing a basis for vocational knowledge. Courses for the establishment of vocational knowledge and skills are offered in various professional fields (metal, electricity, wood, construction, commerce-offices, services sector, tourism etc.). These fields are related to important professional fields in the Austrian economy and offer basic competencies, skills and knowledge to students in these fields. The apprenticeship training followed by this stage is given both in businesses (with nearly 80% of the term of study dedicated to applied education) and in vocational schools (Berufsschule). Apprenticeship training lasts between two to four years depending on the profession but is mostly a three-year training. At the end of the training, students enter the apprenticeship training exit examination organized by an exam commission comprising of related stakeholders in the vocational education. Approximately 40% of young people aged between fifteen and nineteen in Austria receive apprenticeship training. Following the training, 40 to 45% of apprentices continue working in businesses they have been trained in. In the educational systems of countries examined in this section, it is highly important for individuals to improve their competencies by complementing and supporting their theoretical knowledge and applied skills for vocational and technical skill acquisition. Furthermore, another crucial aspect that is worthy of notice is that students who receive academic education need to be given opportunities for hands-on experiences as well. These opportunities will give students the chance to observe the work environment in the private sector and non-governmental organizations, to contribute to the production process and develop their critical thinking skills.

DEVELOPMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION OF COMPETENCIES An occupational standard is defined as the minimum knowledge, skills, behaviours and attitudes required for a successful practice of a profession. In actual terms, occupational standards are texts that define occupational conditions in the labour market and summarize the duties and activities that employees have to perform. Research, examination, analysis and other works need to be undertaken during the process of developing occupational standards. Furthermore, related stakeholders in the field should be involved in every stage of these activities and occupational standards should emerge out of a consensus between the state, worker, employer and occupational institutions. A notable trend in the EU and North American countries in occupational standards is how educational programs for vocational and technical skill acquisition are developed on the basis of the occupational standards of the related profession. Boards made up of representatives by vocational and technical education groups set the standards of each profession, and education institutions employ programs that aim for the attainment of these standards. The aim with vocational standards is therefore to bridge the labour market and the education system. 65 Vocational standards are crucial for all players: â&#x20AC;˘ Employers gain preliminary information on the knowledge and the skills that the individuals they will hire need to be equipped with, thereby making better decisions in the determination of remunerations and promotions.

65 Kenar, 2002.

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

• Employees better manifest their competencies in job applications and have an idea about how to develop their vocational and technical skills. • Teachers and administrators responsible for vocational and technical education are informed of the expectations of the labour market from the education system. This section will focus on the Scottish system which is highly advanced in the development of occupational standards and their implementation in educational programs. 66 In Scotland, the only institution that is responsible for setting vocational standards across the country is the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA). SQA is made up of a board of directors, advisory council, industrial committees and professional competency development groups.67 These councils represent all social parties, chief of them being labour and employers’ unions. Following are the basic functions that SQA has to fulfil for the vocational and technical education system in Scotland: • Determination of professions for which standards will be specified, specifications of organizations and institutions that will prepare these standards and preparation and authorization of standards. • Cooperation with educational institutions offering vocational and technical education to ensure the education given meets vocational standards. • Specification of qualifications in vocational and technical fields on the basis of vocational standards. • Determination of bodies that will accredit educational institutions and programs that work within the vocational qualifications field. • Specification of bodies that will certify qualifications and ensuring that those who pass the examinations are awarded certificates. In Scotland, every level has a system in place for assessment and certification. SQA works on a qualifications system for vocational standards accepted by all stakeholders. A new trend is observed especially for vocational standards within the EU. Member states are working on vocational standards and qualification that will be valid across the entire EU. EQF and ECVET described in detail in previous sections aim at establishing a modern, flexible and quality vocational education system based on the principle of lifelong learning that is able to meet the needs of the labour market, integrated with other education systems. One very significant aspect of the vocational and technical skill acquisition systems in other countries examined is the opportunity given to any individual to start their education anew irrespective of their age or level of education.

Definition of vocational standards, certification of skill acquisition with certificates or diplomas and the transfer of earned credits to other formal and/ or non-formal educational institutions; all play a major role in these opportunities.

66 For further information on vocational and technical education system in Scotland, see İlter (2006). 67 SQA has established a quality assurance system to implement the qualifications it has developed and the certificates it awards. Efforts are made to standardize examinations for the qualifications developed in various educational institutions and certificate obtainment. Qualifications set by SQA as well as levels and certificates awarded are valid in both the United Kingdom and EU countries.

VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

SUPPORTING ADULTS FOR VOCATIONAL SKILL AND QUALIFICATION ACQUISITION Individuals must constantly acquire learning skills and regard learning not as a certain period of their lives but a lifelong process. Continuing education aims at providing adults with the chance to compensate for their shortcomings in general as well as vocational and technical skills. Furthermore, the goals include enabling professional advancement and updating knowledge and skills in the related professional field. Countries have different structures in terms of lifelong learning that encourage vocational and technical skill acquisition in adults. Public policies contribute to the creation of lifelong learning spaces with amendments to legislation. In France for instance, the vocational and technical skill acquisition of adults is ensured in law. According to a law adopted in 1971, all employees are entitled to the right to ask for leave to attend a training course. The content of this training does not need to be directly related to the profession exercised by the employee and may well be intended for personal growth. Moreover, businesses are obliged to contribute to financing of the training of their employees. The level of financing to be provided by businesses was increased as part of the law adopted in 1991. Accordingly, in France, the rate of contribution by individuals for continuing vocational training remains as low as 1% while businesses have to cover 50%, the state 40% and local governments cover 10% of the costs. In Denmark, the rate of participation by adults to lifelong learning is significantly high where labour market education authority, (Arbejdsmarkedsuddannelserne – AMU) plays an important position in developing the vocational skills of adults. Labour market education authorities are independent organizations with a separate board of directors. There are a total of twenty-four labour market education authorities across the country, offering courses to qualified or non-qualified workers above age twenty. The education offered is grouped under the following categories: • Certificate-awarding labour market training courses are organized as modular courses lasting one to six weeks. The content of these courses are constantly updated by education committees and are geared towards responding to the needs of the labour market. • Integrated training courses consist of up to 36 week-long integrated training courses for the employed and up to fifty-two week-long courses for the unemployed. • Company courses aim at meeting the educational needs of companies and are developed in cooperation with companies. • Labour market training courses at schools are aimed for young people aged between eighteen and thirty who have not been able to complete a regular education program due to social problems, difficulty in learning etc. • General training courses are those aimed at enhancing the general skills of adults (mathematics, science, social sciences and language.)

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DEVELOPMENT OF FINANCE MECHANISMS FOR VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILLS ACQUISITION AS A PART OF LIFELONG LEARNING Vocational and technical skill acquisition as part of lifelong learning is costly and in most cases, those who benefit from lifelong learning need to share the costs. Division of costs for vocational and technical skill acquisition varies between countries.

An effective finance system should provide sufficient financial resources for the realization of vocational and technical skill acquisition programs as well as boost the participation of disadvantaged individuals/ groups.68 Belgium and Austria have developed allowance programs to cover a certain part of the training costs of job seekers, employees and employers, which in turn led to a significant increase in levels of participation in training courses. Training allowances that were first distributed in 2002 in Belgium aimed at developing the vocational and technical skill development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SME). General training programs are geared towards developing knowledge and skills that the employee could transfer to other institutions whereas special training programs aim at improving the competencies of the employee for the position they hold in the institution they are currently working at. The allowances are valid only for courses offered by accredited training agencies which in turn guarantees the quality of the courses. A certain part of the allowances are financed by businesses while the state covers the rest. A similar allowance system is available in Austria where trade associations started allowances that enabled both employees and the unemployed to benefit from learning programs at a reduced price. The implementation gives priority to those with lower levels of education. These learning allowances are given for courses related to the development of foreign language, information and technology and communication skills. Allowances are entirely financed by trade associations. The taximeter system in Denmark which employees and job seekers benefit from are implemented in many vocational and technical education institutions. As part of the taximeter system, educational institutions receive grants from the central or local government for each individual registration to a course. The amount of the grant varies from the training program that the person registers at. The cost of the training depends on the number of students. As part of this system, institutions engage in a competition to attract a higher number of students, which in turn raises the quality of education. Meanwhile, the taximeter system encourages institutions to come up with more effective courses and be more efficient at lower costs because the upper limit of payments by those who benefit from the programs is predetermined. Another alternative finance mechanism for vocational and technical skill acquisition activities is accumulation accounts to be used for the learning initiatives of individuals. Personal learning accounts are usually created with the contributions of the individual, government and/ or employer. England (through individual learning accounts) and the USA (through individual development accounts) have covered the training costs of employees and job seekers. In England for instance, the training of more than 2.5 million persons have been supported with government subsidies and reductions in courses in addition to the personal savings of the individual. 32

68 OECD, 2004.

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In certain countries, public institutions support the training activities of businesses through tax policies. In Austria, tax reductions are introduced in an effort to encourage individuals and companies to invest in training. Tax reductions are applicable to those who work at a business or for freelancers. Additionally, the training needs to be related to the profession that is practiced. This system deducts the amount of costs for training programs from the tax base. Another trend observed is training funds to finance the training of employees and the unemployed. For instance, a large majority of training activities aimed for vocational and technical skill acquisition in Spain is financed by Vocational Training Fund administered by a board made up of representatives by the Labour Agency of Spain and the Spanish Confederation of Employersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Organizations. This fund finances the vocational training activities of employees and the unemployed as well as the training investments for the employees of businesses.69 In Korea,70 the Vocational Training Incentive Fund introduced in 1976 is used to subsidize the vocational and technical education of individuals in the public and private sector, to create a research fund for innovations in vocational training and to contribute to the Korean Human Resources Development Office. The public and social stakeholders in the countries examined aim at developing effective methods to support vocational and technical training activities as part of lifelong learning for individuals as well as providing financial support to serve this end. Furthermore, the private sector and businesses are encouraged to invest more in training with new methods developed such as equivalent financing for individual learning accounts and contribution allowances.

INCLUSION OF DISADVANTAGED GROUPS IN EDUCATION OR LABOUR FORCE THROUGH VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SKILL ACQUISITION In Latin American countries, the low quality of compulsory primary education and high dropout rates diminish the chances for young people to find qualified jobs. Latin American countries have developed numerous programs to overcome this situation. The most important trend observed in these countries is short-term vocational and technical skill acquisition programs which correspond to a second chance given to socio-economically disadvantaged young people who have not been able to complete their education. The main purpose of these programs is to help disadvantaged young people to acquire intermediate vocational and technical skills through courses and internships, raise their social and human capital and to place them in quality (paid and contract labour) jobs. This section will elaborate on the situations in four countries (Uruguay, Chile, Argentina and Columbia) which have carried out impact analyses of these programs. The program entitled Projoven run in Uruguay between 1996 and 2007 enabled underprivileged young people aged fifteen to twenty four to receive vocational and technical training and an opportunity to find a job afterwards. As part of the program, young people who have completed secondary education are offered courses that last three to five 69 Kenar, 2009. 70 Vocational and technical education reforms in Korea started after the labour shortage in heavy industry in the 1970s. In 1974, the government adopted a bill that obliged companies with more than five hundred members of personnel to offer in-house training. This system was modified with the establishment of the Vocational Training Incentive Fund two years later.

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months and those who complete primary education are offered seven-month courses with most underprivileged young people given one-year courses. It has been observed that the period of unemployment of those who have participated in the program has shortened and participants have shown greater propensity to return to the formal education system. The program entitled Joven implemented in Chile between 1991 and 2001 aimed at helping young people find paid works or create their own businesses. The program involved young people aged fifteen to thirty from low-income families who have completed or dropped out of secondary education. Young people were given two types of training as part of the Joven program: â&#x20AC;˘ In-service training aimed intermediate level skill acquisition consists of 250-hour theoretical education followed by three-month applied training (internship). Participants received cash allowances for meals and transport costs and benefited from health insurance. â&#x20AC;˘ Training for work consists of 250-hour vocational and technical training aimed at developing knowledge and skills for participants to establish their own business. The impact analysis for the Joven program reveals that young people who have participated in the program were able to find jobs at a 20% higher rate. Participation in the program created a positive and meaningful effect on remunerations and chances of finding contract jobs. 71 Proyecto Joven meanwhile is a vocational and technical skill training program run in Argentina between 1994 and 2001. As part of the program, 200-hour theoretical (six to eight weeks) and applied (eight weeks) vocational and technical training was offered to job-seeking young people from socio-economically disadvantaged families above age eighteen who have not been able to complete their education. Transportation and training costs of participants of the program were covered and women with young children were provided with conditional cash transfers. The program has not made a significant impact in remunerations or chances of finding a job. However, considering the high rate of grey economy in the country, young people who have participated in the program have showed greater chances of finding paid and contract jobs.72 The Jovenes en Accion program launched in Columbia in 2001 offers a three-month in-class theoretical training followed by applied training in a workplace to unemployed young people aged eighteen to twenty five from the lowest income segment. Those who benefit from the program are given daily cash allowances. Women with small children are given higher rates of conditional cash transfers. Vocational and technical education institutions are selected according to the quality of education they provide as well as the internship opportunities they offer afterwards. The chances of young people who have participated in the program to find a contract and paid job have risen significantly. Furthermore, young women have particularly benefited most from the Jovenes en Accion program. Young women who have participated in the program have received remunerations 20% higher than those who have not.73 These programs implemented in Latin American countries emphasize the importance of giving a second chance to young people from especially disadvantaged socioeconomic groups through vocational and technical skill acquisition.

It has been observed that programs have created a far greater impact in young people who have had to leave the education system early, those from low-income families and young women.

71 Ibarraran and Rosas Schady, 2006. 72 AlzĂşa and Brassiolo, 2006. 73 Attanasio, Kugler and Meghir, 2008.

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CONCLUSION: A BRIEF EVALUATION OF TRENDS IN TURKEY Vocational and technical skill acquisition as part of a lifelong learning approach has increasingly gained momentum in our country in recent years. Accordingly, the establishment of a qualified vocational and technical skill acquisition system has not only been a priority for the Ministry of National Education (MEB) but for all stakeholders. Published higher policy documents74 include provisions referring to laying greater emphasis on vocational and technical skill acquisition, strengthening the relationship between the labour market and vocational and technical education, preparation of modular training programs as part of lifelong learning; establishment, sustainability and updating the National Qualifications System. In this vein, all stakeholders, primarily public institutions, are making efforts to create policies and programs to raise the quality of vocational and technical skill acquisition under the leadership and with the coordination of MEB and Vocational Qualification Authority (MYK).

Reduction of school variety in secondary education In recent years, MEB has accelerated efforts to reduce the types of schools and to restructure the Ministry. Efforts to this end continue as part of projects undertaken as well as legislative amendments to reduce the variety of schools in general secondary education and vocational and technical secondary education. As part of the Secondary Education Project that ran between 2006-2011, the three-year period of study for general, vocational and technical schools was gradually increased to four years as of the 05-06 academic year. 9th grade level in general, vocational and technical schools has been transformed into a common level enabling lateral transfers. As part of the Secondary Education Project, the number of different type of schools was brought down from seventy-nine to fifteen in the 2009-2010 academic year, to be effective as of the 9th grade. For instance, vocational and technical secondary education institutions operating under thirty five different names under General Directorate for Technical Education for Boys were integrated under the name of “Technical and Industrial Vocational School”. Vocational and technical secondary education schools for girls operating under twenty-two different names were integrated under “Technical and Vocational School for Girls”. Additionally, it was envisaged that “multidisciplinary high schools” running both general and technical secondary education curricula under a single administration as well as Vocational and Technical Education Centers focusing solely on vocational and technical education programs would be founded in sparsely populated places as well as in places MEB found appropriate. Activities geared towards reducing school variety in secondary education have been accelerated since 2010. The circular published in 201075 envisaged that by the end of the 2012-2013 academic year, all general high schools should be turned into Anatolian high schools or transferred to general directorates for vocational secondary education to be turned into vocational high schools.

74 9. Development Plan 2007-2013, MEB Strategic Plan 2010-2014, Strategy Document for Lifelong Learning, Strategy Document of the Turkish Industry, National Employment Strategy, Action Plan to Strengthen the Relationship between Employment and Vocational Education. 75 MEB, General Directorate for Secondary Education Circular no: 2010/30 on the transformation of general high schools to Anatolian high schools.

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Lastly, Statutory Decree published in September 201176 completely amended the MEB Law. Accordingly, the number of general directorates responsible for secondary education institutions was reduced to three: General Directorate for Secondary Education, General Directorate for Vocational and Technical Education and General Directorate for Religious Teaching. Within this new framework, general directorates that the vocational and technical secondary education institutions were under (Technical School for Boys, Technical School for Girls, Commerce and Tourism) merged under the roof of General Directorate for Vocational and Technical Education. This new structure brings an end to the fragmented organization of vocational and technical secondary education and paves the way to diversify curriculum and not schools. Having been introduced only a short while ago, this regulation should be closely followed in terms of the impact it will create in vocational and technical education.

Revision of curricula and transition to the modular system The revision process of the vocational and technical secondary education curricula has started with the transition to a modular system. The â&#x20AC;&#x153;Strengthening Vocational Education and Training Systemâ&#x20AC;? (MEGEP) project supported by the European Commission was launched in September 2002 and completed at the end of 2007. The Labour Market and Skill Requirements Analysis, an important output of the project carried out in thirty-one provinces gave information on the labour markets in Turkey while industry and business analyses evaluated a total of 576 professions. Based on these vocational analyses, modular educational programs have been introduced and implemented in numerous professional fields and branches. The programs are still being updated. 145 schools in thirty provinces piloted the modular system between 2004 and 2006, and the system was generalized in all vocational and technical education institutions as of the 06-07 academic year. The modular system is based on students registering for courses not traditionally outlined in a curriculum but those within a more flexible framework that would help improve themselves. Along with the reduction of variety in vocational education institutions and vocational studies gathering under the same roof, this design aims to help students specialise within a more flexible framework. 77 Furthermore, specialization is delayed to further grades: 9th grade is made up of common courses for general secondary education, 10th and 11th grades introduce courses that help acquire common qualifications in all the branches of a specific field and the 12th grade includes courses for vocational qualification to obtain a diploma. This system offers a diploma for the student, a certificate and business license in the specialized field. Moreover, it is aimed that a transition to modular system will facilitate lateral and vertical transfers in secondary education.

Creation of the National Qualification System and the creation of Vocational Qualifications Authority A very important institutional development took place in 2006 with the creation of the Vocational Qualifications Authority (VQA)78 responsible for creating a qualifications system based on vocational standards. VQA is a legal entity with administrative and financial autonomy and a special budget under the Ministry of Labour and Social Security in Turkey. One of the most important purposes of the VQA is to found and run the National Qualifications System (NQS).

76 Statutory Decree Nr. 652 on the Organization and Duties of the Ministry of National Education published 14 September 2011 in the Official Gazette Nr. 28054 77 MEB, 2006. 78 Law Nr. 5544 on Vocational Qualification Authority dated 21 September 2006.

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NQS has the primary task of preparing vocational standards. Draft vocational standards are prepared by organizations that are competent and representative of industries and professions authorized by the VQA. The drafts are reviewed by the industrial committees within the VQA, authorized by the VQA Board of Directors and are published as national vocational standards in the Official Gazette. Following the publication of vocational standards, the process to prepare qualifications is launched with the participation of educational and training institutions, the labour market and other related parties. The qualification drafts are technically evaluated at the VQA (Department of Examination and Assessment) and also by an industrial committee. The drafts are then approved as national qualification upon the authorization of the VQA Board of Directors and are identified in the National Qualifications Framework79 (NQF) 80. Institutions81 whose applications are authorized by the VQA organize examinations, assessment and evaluation activities according to approved national qualifications. Those who pass examinations and assessment and evaluations are awarded the Vocational Qualification Certificate. In order to eliminate the legal loopholes that emerged during implementations since the introduction of VQA in 2006, certain amendments have been made to the Vocational Qualifications Authority Law Nr. 5544 with the Statutory Decree Nr. 665. The amendments stipulate that VQA would undertake all the duties of establishment, development and updating of NQF. Furthermore, main principles have been laid for the preparation of national vocational standards and national qualifications as well as accreditation of educational and training institutions that would organize examinations, assessment and evaluations. This regulation protects the quality assurance of the vocational qualification certificates and facilitates faster access for individuals. The amendments also ascertain that certificates approved by the VQA would be accepted as Vocational Qualification Certificate. In tandem with legislative amendments, many projects have been launched to strengthen the institutional capacity of VQA: Project to Strengthen Vocational Qualification Authority and National Qualification System in Turkey (2010-2013), Project to Develop, Reference and Raise Awareness for the National Qualification Framework within European Qualifications Framework (2010-2011); Project to Have National and International Institutions and Organizations Prepare Qualifications System, Vocational Standards and Question Banks and/or to Purchase Question Banks (2010-2011), Project to Support National Europass Center and to Raise Awareness (2010-2011).

Offering greater practical experience opportunities to students Various legal amendments have been made in order to facilitate practical experience in businesses for students in vocational and technical secondary education. The relationship between vocational and technical secondary education institutions and businesses have been defined within a legal framework with Law Nr. 3308 on Vocational Education and Regulation on Vocational and Technical Education. Article 18 of Law Nr. 3308 on Vocational Education provides that businesses with twenty or higher members of staff are required to offer skills training for vocational and technical education students the number of which should be equivalent to a minimum 5% of the number of their personnel. However, the Omnibus Bill82 effective as of February 2011amended various parts of the Law Nr. 3308 79 NQF designed to comply with European Qualifications Framework encompasses all qualification principles acquired in primary, secondary and higher education as well as vocational, general and academic education and training programs and other learning methods. 80 VQA Is the national coordination center for European Qualifications Framework. 81 Authorized institutions encompass personnel certification institutions and organizations accredited by accreditation organizations signatory to multiparty recognition agreements with the Turkish Accreditation Agency or the EU 82 Law Nr. 6111 on the Restructuration of Certain Receivables and Social Securities and General Health Insurance as well as on the Amendment of Certain Other Laws and Statutory Laws dated 13 February 2011.

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on Vocational Education, requiring all businesses with more than ten members of staff to offer skills training to vocational and technical education students. Unless they offer skills training, these businesses are obliged to pay an administrative fine. 83 Furthermore, cooperation protocols are signed between MEB and leading businesses in primarily automotive, electronics, construction, textile tourism industries in order to follow up with and inform students of technological advancements by transferring these innovations to schools. As part of these protocols, teachers are trained and introduced to new technologies in laboratories set up at schools which later serve as training space for teachers from other schools as well as students and employees in the related sector.

Supporting adults in vocational and technical skill acquisition A significant percentage of education offered by the state to adults and disadvantaged groups is run by Vocational Training Centers and Public Education Centers under MEB. These centres offer basic literacy as well as vocational and technical skill acquisition and general knowledge courses to individuals above age fourteen, mostly adults. Specialized Vocational Training Centers (UMEM) project run by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, MEB and Turkish Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges (TOBB), is a major step taken towards helping adults acquire vocational and technical skills. As part of the project, 111 schools were selected in 81 provinces of the country with the Turkish Employment Agency (İŞKUR) and MEB. The purpose of the project is to strengthen the technological infrastructure of selected high schools, educating trainers in these schools with new technological equipment, identifying the local labour market in the provinces and training and employing the unemployed registered at İŞKUR to become qualified labour force to meet the needs of the industry. As part of the project, these 111 schools started to offer courses after 4pm in fields necessary for employers. The training courses have been planned according to the labour market analysis results and the content was adjusted to the needs of the market. The aim is to provide internship at businesses for those who attend and succeed in the courses.

Financing lifelong learning activities The greater part of lifelong activities in Turkey is covered by the state. Furthermore, municipalities, foundations and associations offer courses and support lifelong learning activities as well. Businesses in the private sector also support vocational and technical skill acquisition by covering the training costs of their employers. Training services for SMEs are given by KOSGEB (Small and Medium Industry Development Organization) and TESK (Confederation of Turkish Tradesmen and Craftsmen). KOSGEB provides financial support for institutions training SMEs or cover certificate expenditures of the companies. Companies are thereby encouraged to engage in lifelong learning with costs reduced to a minimum.

83 Furthermore, the articles referring to businesses obliged to pay remunerations equivalent to at least 30% of the gross minimum wage to students, candidate apprentices and apprentices that receive vocational and technical training in businesses. According to new amendments, formal education students who receive vocational training in businesses will be paid remunerations equivalent to at least 30% of the net minimum wage.

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VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

APPENDIX 1: EDUCATION INDICATORS FROM EU MEMBER AND CANDIDATE STATES Participation of Participation of persons Early leavers from eduadults aged 25-64 in aged 15-24 in education cation aged 18-24 (%) lifelong learning (%) after compulsory school (2009) (2010) age (%) (2009) EU -27

60.1

14.4

9.1

Germany

65.1

11.1

7.7

Austria

55.1

8.7

13.7

Belgium

68.9

11.1

7.2

United Kingdom

48.4

15.7

19.4

Bulgaria

52.4

14.7

1.2

Czech Republic

61.6

5.4

7.5

Denmark

66.1

10.6

32.8

Estonia

60.7

13.9

10.9

Finland

69.9

9.9

23.0

France

57.8

12.4

5.0

Croatia

53.0

3.9

2.0

Netherlands

68.0

10.9

16.5

Ireland

61.7

11.3

6.7

Spain

56.3

31.2

10.8

Sweden

65.3

10.7

24.5

Switzerland

58.7

9.1

30.6

Italy

57.3

19.2

6.2

Iceland

65.8

21.3

25.2

Cyprus

46.6

11.7

7.7

Latvia

62.0

13.9

5.0

Liechtenstein

56.0

Lithuania

69.3

8.7

4.0

Luxembourg

42.5

7.7

13.4

Hungary

64.6

11.2

2.8

Macedonia

45.9

16.2

3.2

Malta

47.0

36.8

5.7

Norway

64.3

17.6

17.8

Poland

71.7

5.3

Portugal

58.9

31.2

5.8

Romania

56.9

16.6

1.3

Slovakia

57.5

4.9

2.8

Slovenia

70.4

5.3

16.2

Turkey

38.3

44.3

2.5

Greece

64.2

14.5

3.0

Source: Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

COOPERATION FOR QUALITY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

APPENDIX 2: EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES IN EU MEMBER AND CANDIDATE STATES Unemployment rate among 15-24 year olds (%) (2010)

Employment rate among 25-64 year olds (%) (2010)

EU -27

21.1

64.2

Germany

9.9

Austria

8.8

Belgium

22.4

64.2

United Kingdom

19.6

68.1

Bulgaria

23.2

64.2

Czech Republic

18.3

Denmark

13.8

59.7

Estonia

32.9

73.4

Finland

21.4

66.2

France

23.7

59.6

Croatia

32.6

78.6

Netherlands

8.7

55.4

Ireland

27.8

71.1

Spain

41.6

Sweden

25.2

58.8

27.8

58.6

Iceland

72.7

Cyprus

16.7

Latvia

34.5

56.9

69.5

Lithuania

35.1

69.7

Luxembourg

15.8

59.3

Hungary

26.6

57.8

Macedonia

Malta

65.2

Norway

8.9

78.2

Poland

23.7

74.7

Portugal

27.7

71.7

Romania

22.1

59.3

Slovakia

33.6

58.8

Slovenia

14.7

65.6

Turkey

19.7

Greece

32.9

Switzerland Italy

Liechtenstein

Source: Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu