Phonology Basic concepts.
UNIT 1
Phonetics and phonology. Why is it necessary to learn this theoretical background? The same question arises in connection with grammar: at lower levels of study one is concerned simply with setting out how to form grammatical sentences, but people who are going to work with the language at an advance levels as teachers or researchers need the deeper understanding
Unit
provided by the study of grammatical theory and
related
areas
of
linguistics.
The
theoretical material in the present course is necessary
for
anyone
who
needs
to
understand the principals regulating the use of sounds in spoken English.
Phonemes We call phonemes; example, the vowels in the words ‘pin’ and ‘pen’ are different phonemes, and so are the consonants at the beginning of the words ‘pet’ and ‘bet’.
1
Because of the notoriously confusing nature of English spelling, it is particularly important to learn to think English pronunciation in terms of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet.
Accents: in talking about accents of
Stress.
English, the
Stress (which could be roughly described as the
foreigner should
relative strength of a syllable) and intonation (the use
be careful about
if the pitch of the voice to convey meaning).
the different
It’s the pronunciation of a word or syllable with greater force than other words in the same sentence.
accents between England and Britain; there are many different accents in England, but the range becomes very much winder if the accents of Scotland, Wales and North Ireland ( Scotland and Wales are included in Britain, and together with
Accents Languages
North Ireland have
different
accents:
they
are
from the United
pronounced differently by people from different
Kingdom) are
geographical places, from different social, classes, of
taken into
different ages and different educational backgrounds.
account.
The word “accent” is often confused with dialect.
Received Pronunciation
Vocabulary
It has for long time been identified by the name Received Pronunciation (usually abbreviated to it is initial, RP), but this name is old-fashioned and
IPA
misleading. Since it is most familiar as the accent used by most announcers and newsreaders on BBC and British independent television broadcasting channels, a
Abbreviation: international Phonetic
preferable name is BBC pronunciation. Alphabet.
this should not be taken to mean that the BBC itself
Graphemes:
imposes an “official” accent – individual broadcasters all have their own personal characteristic, and an
Alphabet, writing
increasing number of broadcasters with Scottish, welsh
language, letters
and Irish accents are employed.
Intonation Intonation is the sound changes produced by the rise and fall of the voice when speaking.
Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. Phonology often involves attempting to formalize, using a grammar.
Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the acoustics and physiology of speech production, speech perception and speech sounds.
Estuary English A spoken variety of
Phonemes Any of a small set of units, usually about n20 to 0 in
English influenced by cockney, London
number, and different for each language. speech, and Considered to be the basic distinctive units of speech sound by which morphemes words sentences are
received
represent. They are arrived at for any given language
pronunciation, used
by determining which differences in meaning, so that in English the difference in sound and meaning between pit and bit is taken to indicate the existence or different labial phonemes.
in London and Southeastern England in the area of the Thames
Transcribe Transcribe to make a written copy, especially a typewritten copy, of (dictated material, notes taken during a lecture, or other spoken material.)
Dialect Dialect linguistics a variety of a language that is distinguished from other varieties of the same language by features of phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, and by it is use by a group of speakers who are set off from others geographically or socially.
estuary.
Pronunciation Pronunciation is the act or result of producing the sounds of speech, including articulation, stress, and intonation, often with reference to same standard or acceptability.
THE PRODUCTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS. Articulators above the larynx All the sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles contracting. The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth.
After passing through the larynx, the air goes through what we call the vocal track, which ends at the mouth nostrils. Here the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. We have a large and complex set of muscles that can
produce changes in the shape of the vocal track, and in order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract. These different parts are called articulations, and the study of them is called articulatory phonetics.
the articulators:
The pharynx The pharynx is a tube which beings just above the larynx. It is about 7cm long in women and about 8 cm in men, and at it is top end it is divided into two, one part being the back of the mouth and the other being the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity. If you look in your mirror with your mouth open, you can see the back of the pharynx.
The velum or soft palate The velum or soft palate is seen in the diagram in a position that allows air to pass through the nose and through the mouth. Yours is probably in that position now, but often in speech it is raised so that air cannot escape through
the
nose.
The
other
important thing about the velum is that it is one of articulators that can be touched by the tongue. When we make the sounds k and g the tongue is in contact with the lower side of the velum, we call the velar consonants.
The hard palate The hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth�. You can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue.
The alveolar ridge The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate. You can feel its shape with your tongue. Its surface is really much rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges. You can only your see these if you have mirror small enough to go inside mouth (such as those used by dentist). Sounds made with the tongue touching here (such as t and d) are called alveolar.
The tongue The tongue is, of course, a very important articulator and it can be moved into many different places and different shape. It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though there are no clear dividing lines within the tongue. The tongue on a larger scale with these parts shown: tip, blade, front, back and root. (This use of the word “front� often seems rather strange at firs.)
The teeth The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in diagrams like Fig. I only at the front of the mouth. Immediately behind the lips. This is for the sake of a simple diagram, and you should remember that most speakers have teeth to the sides of their mouths, back almost to the soft palate. The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for many speech sounds. Sounds made with the tongue touching the front teeth are called dental.
The lips The
lips
speech.
are They
important can
in
pressed
together (when we produce the sounds
p,
b)
brought
into
contact with the teeth (as in f, v), or rounded to produce the lips–shape for vowels like u:. Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while those with lip–to–teeth contact are called labiodental.
PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND ALPHABET SYMBOLS. Consonant The words vowel and consonant are very familiar ones, but when we study the sounds of speech scientifically we find that it is not easy to define exactly what they mean. The most common view is that vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.
Places of Articulation Places articulation is defined in terms of the articulators involved in the speech gesture. It is common to refer to a speech gesture in terms of an active articulator and passive articulator.
Active articulators An active articulator is the articulator that does all or most of the moving during a speech gesture. The active articulator is usually the lower lip or same part of the tongue. These active articulators are attached to the jaw which is relatively free to move when compared to parts of the vocal tract connected directly to the greater mass of the pharynx.
Voiced
Passive articulators A passive articulator is the articulator that makes little or no movement during speech gesture. The active articulator moves towards the relatively immobile passive articulator. Passive articulators are often directly connected to the skull. Passive articulators of
Is when you pronounced a word and this word has
vibration.
the upper surface of the cavity, and the back wall of the pharynx.
Voiceless Is when you pronounced a word
Bilabial Bilabials are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. Bilabials may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulations of the consonant). Here is list of bilabials in present day English.
and this word doesn’t vibration.
Labiodentals Labiodentals are consonant for which the flow of air is restricted by the lips and teeth. Labiodentals may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). There are two labiodentals in present day English.
Interdentals Dental made with the tip of the tongue and the top teeth. English example ‘th” in “thing”.
Alveolars Alveolars are consonant for which the flow of air stopped or impeded by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Alveolars may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant). Here is a list of the alveolars in present day English.
Alveopalatal Mede with the tip of the tongue and there are just behind where the alveolar” consonant are pronounced. English example: “sh” in “short”
Velars Velars are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or impeded by creating a block or a small aperture between the tongue and the velum (“soft palate”). Velars may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant).
Glottal Made with the glottis (see definition in the glossary). In essence glottal consonant are made with the throat. English example: “h” in “hat”
Bilabial
/b/ /m/ /w/ /p/
labiodental
/f/ /v/
Interdentals
/o/ /ð/
Alveolar Alveopalapatals
/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ /d3/ /ts/ /Š/ /3/
velars
/k/ /g/ /n/
glottal
/h/
Phonology (a branch of linguistics) Branches of phonology
Phonetics
phonemics
(Production Articulation)
(Distribution Function)
Acoustic
Auditory
Articulatory
(Properties) (Perception) (Articulation)
MANNER OF ARTICULATION.
UNIT 2
Manner of articulation. In linguistics (articulatory phonetics) manner of articulation describe how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make contact. Often the concept is only used from the production, there may be several manners, and therefore several homorganic consonants.
Plosive or oral Stop: where there is complete occlusion (blockage) of both the oral and nasal cavities of the vocal tract, and therefore no air flow. Examples include English /p t k/ (voiceless) and /b d g/ (voice). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a plosive is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the affect that onset of the conclusion has on the preceding vowel, and well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel. The shape and position of the tongue (the place of articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different plosives their characteristic sounds. All languages have plosives.
Fricative:
sometimes
called
spirant,
there
is
where
continuous
frication (turbulent and noisy airflow) at /f, s/ (voiceless), (voiced), languages
/v, etc.
z/ most have
fricatives, though many have only a /s/. However, the indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind. Affricate: which beings like a plosive, but this release into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own. The English letters “ch” and “j” represent affricate are quite common around the world, though less common than affricate.
Approximants: where there is very little obstruction. Examples include English /w/ and /r/. in some languages, such as Spanish, there are sounds which seem to fall between fricative and approximant.
One use of the word semivowel is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence. In English, / w/ is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /u/, and /j/ (spelled “y”) is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /i/ in this usage.
Retroflex:
made with the tip of the tongue curved back ward behind the
alveolar ridge. English Examples: “r” in some dialects of American English.
Nasal:
usually shortened to
nasal, where there is complete occlusion of the oral cavity, and the air passes instead through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determinate the resonant
cavity
that
gives
different
nasal
stops
their
characteristic sounds. Examples include English /m, n/. Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island.
Lateral: The key feature of laterals is that the airflow passes to the sides (of the tongue, usually) when pronouncing them. If your native language uses the Latin alphabet, chances are that the L in it a lateral. The only sound in standard America English which h is a lateral, to my knowledge, is (also known as the ‘dark” L) and sometimes [i] (depending on who is pronouncing and of the position of the L in the syllable). Here a few examples in standard American English: lake and bell. Let’s now pronounced to the places of articulation.
Game Find the words: affricate, fricative, lateral, nasal, retroflex and approximants.
A D S D
Y
N
A
R
O P
F
P F
J H
C
C
A
B
K T
Y
J
P K G B
C
S
O S X
H
L
E
R L
I
F
G
J A
S
A
E I
O N G L
K
S
X
Z T
L
O C X
X A H A
L
D
O
P
C W A U E
L
B
J
Z
Y T N
M
J
S
Q T Q A
B
K
A
C
H R
J
K
E
R K
D S X
Z
E
T
P
W I
A B C R D
J
C
H
L
S
Z P P
A
C
O
P C
N A P A P
A
P
R
E
T
R O F
L
E
X
E
T W P L A
J
L
O
D
D
L B S
K N
M
S T
K W Q K
D
H
S A G
X B
R
Y E
I
D
L O
M O J
E
S Q U X
L
A W S A V
N
D N F
V H
D
C K G
S
K
Z Q X
A
R
V B L
F
G R
F
A
Examples H Glottal, Voiceless and Fricative.
K Velar, Voice and stop.
M bilabial, voiced and nasal.
UNIT Vowels We being the study of English sounds in this course by looking at vowels, and it is necessary to say something about vowels in general before turning to the vowels of English. We need to know in what ways vowels differ from each other. The first matter to consider is the shape and position of the tongue. It is usual to simplify the very complex possibilities by describing just two things: firstly, the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate and, secondly, the part of the tongue, between front b back, which is raised highest.
The distinction between long and short vowels cannot be illustrated in present day English because vowel length is no longer “phonemic” for speaker of English that is, there are no “minimal pairs” of the word that differ only with respect to the length of vowel, and so speaker of PDE typically do not “hear” differences in vowel length.
3
The distinction between long and short vowels was presumably phonemic in old English and Middle English. Vowel length is presumably a matter of duration: that is, how long the vowel sound is sustained articulation.
Make a vowel like the I: in the English word ‘see’ and look in a mirror; if you tilt your head back slightly you will be able to see that the tongue is held up close to the roof of the mouth. Now make an ae vowel (as in the word çat’) and notice how the distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth is now much greater. The difference between i: and ae is a different of the tongue and height, and we would describe i: as a relatively close vowel and ae as a relatively open vowel. Tongue height can be changed by moving the tongue up or down, or moving the lower jaw up or down. Usually we use some combination of the two sorts of movement, but when drawing side of the head diagrams such as Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 it is usually found simpler to illustrate tongue shapes for vowels as if tongue height were altered by tongue movement alone, without any accompanying jaw movement. So we would illustrate the tongue height difference between i: ae as in Fig. 3
In making the two vowels described above, it is the front part of the tongue that is raised. We could therefore describe i: and ae as comparatively front vowels. By changing the shape of the tongue we can pronounce vowels in which a different part of the tongue is the highest point is called a back vowel. If you make the vowel in the word ‘calm’, which we write phonetically as a:, you can see that the back of the tongue is raised.
Extreme vowel positions for English However, this diagram is rather inaccurate. Phoneticians need a very accurate way of classifying vowels, and have developed a set of vowels, arranged in a close open, front back. These cardinal vowels are a standard reference system, and people being trained in phonetics at an advanced level have to learn to make them accurately and recognize them correctly. If you learn the cardinal vowels, you are not learning to make English sounds, but you are learning about the range of vowels that the human vocal apparatus can make, and also learning a useful way of describing, classifying and comparing vowels, they are recorded in Track 21 of CD 2 and at the end of cassette 2.
It has become traditional to locate cardinal vowels on a four sided figure (a quadrilateral) of the shape seen in Fig, 5 (the design used figure is the one recommended by the International Phonetic Association). The exact shape is not really important a square would do quite well but we will use the traditional shape.
The vowels on Fig. 5 are the so called primary cardinal vowels; these are the vowels that are most familiar to speakers of most European languages, and there cardinal vowels (secondary cardinal vowels). That sound less familiar. Cardinal vowel no I has the symbol [i], and defined as the vowel which is as close and as front as it is possible to make a vowel without obstructing the flow of air enough to produce frication noise; frication noise is the sort of hissing sound that one hears in consonants like s or f.
Cardinal vowel no 5 has the symbol [a], and is defined as the as the most open and back vowel that it is possible to make. Cardinal vowel no 8 [u], is fully close and back and no 4 [a], is fully open and front. After establishing these extreme points, it is possible to put in intermediate (vowels no 2, 3, and 7).
Many students when they hear these vowels find that they sound strange and exaggerated; you must remember that they are extremes of vowel quality. it is useful to think of the cardinal vowel framework like a map is to be useful to you are interested in. obviously, if the map of the to you it must cover the whole area of interest it must inevitably go a little way beyond that and include some places that you might never want to go to.
We have now looked at how we can classify vowels according to their tongue height and their frontness or backness. There is another important variable of vowel quality, and that is lip rounding. Although the lips can have many different shapes and position, we will at this stage consider only three possibilities. There are:
Rounded,
where the corners of the lips are brought towards and the lips
pushed forwards. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel [u.]
Spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each other as for a smile. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel [i].
Neutral,
where the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread. The noise
most English people make when they are hesitating (written “er�) has natural lip position.
English short vowels English has a large number of vowel sounds; the first ones to be examined are short vowels. The symbols for these short vowels are: I, e, ae, ^, u. short vowels are only relatively short; as we shall see later, vowels can have quite different lengths in different contexts. Each vowel is described in relation to the cardinal vowels.
Long and short vowels. The first to be introduced here are the five long vowels; these are the vowels which tend to be longer than the short vowels in similar contexts. It is necessary to say “similar contexts� because, as we shall see later, the length of all English vowel type of sounds varies very much according to their context (such as the type of sound that follows them) and the presence or absence of stress.
To remind you that these vowels tend to be long, the symbols consist of one vowel symbol plus a length mark made of two dots:.
You may have noticed that these five long vowels are different from the six short vowels described in chapter 2, not only in length but also in quality. If we compare some similar pairs of long and short vowels, for examples I with i:, or u with u: we can see distinct differences in quality.
Oral presentations. UNIT 4
Inflectional ending /s/ /z/ /iz/ Inflectional endings can indicate the tense of verbs, whether a noun is plural, and whether and adjective is comparing two things. This article discusses these and several other inflectional endings.
Why doesn’t the sounds of the plural “s” change? The goal for English speakers is to speak efficiently, to say the most the y can in the shortest amount of time. When there is a change in sound, the changed is often caused by the sound right before it. This allows the vocal chords in particular to be more efficient; to continue what they are doing.
Practice and understand [z] Put your fingers on the front of your neck and say the [z] sound. What do you feel? You should feel the vibration of the vocal chords.
Rule Anytime a word has a sounds just before the plural “s” that has NO vibration in the vocal chords, plural “s” will continue the lack of vibration and sound like a [s].
UNIT UNIT 4 4
Anytime you have a sound before the plural “s” that has the vibration, the vibration will carry forward and transform the letter “s” into the [z] sound.
Inflectional endings /t/ /d/ /id/ This vibration or lack of vibration then carries forward to the following sound in the word. Therefore, this vibration or lack of vibration explains why we pronounce the past tense of verbs in three voiced or voiceless ways: [t], [d] or [id] You have noticed that in English, past tense verbs with an-ed ending are pronounced in three different ways:
[t] [d] Id]
UNIT 4
[t] Put your hand on the front of your neck and say the sound [t. what do you feel?
You should feel nothing at all, meaning, there is no vibration in the vocal chords when you say [t].
[d] Now, put your hand on the front of your neck and say the sound [d]. What do you feel?
You should feel a vibration now. That’s because the vocal chords vibrate when you say the sound [d].
Why are these rules import? Connected speech [c±v] These “-ed” pronuntation rules are particularly important, because in English we connect our speech when we have a word that:
Ends in a consonant; and Is followed by a word that begins with a vowel.
In this case, the way you say the verbs “-ed” ending will be heard loudly and clearly.
UNIT 4
Back vowels A back vowel Is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark vowels because they are perceived as sounding darker than the front vowels.
UNIT 4
The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages
The IPA prefers terms "close" and "open" for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms "high" and "low".
The vowels of present-Day English are the articulated near the rear the vocal cavity. Examples.
UNIT UNIT 44
Assimilation
UNIT Is when two sounds come together and change or melt into a new sound. Assimilations may happen inside a word, or between two words, when the final sound of a word touches the first sound of the next word (because when we speak we join all the words together). When speaking, people make many assimilations, most of them can only be noticed by the trained ear of an academic speaker and are not important for us. But there are 4 assimilations that are very important, because the sound changes a lot and the student of English can notice the difference and feel confused about it. 
In phonology, assimilation is a common phonological process by which one sound becomes more like a nearby sound. As in this example, sound segments typically assimilate to a following sound (this is called regressive or anticipatory assimilation), but they may also assimilate to a preceding one (progressive assimilation).
4
Types of assimilation
Assimilation
Progressive
Regressive
Double
Assimilate consonant
Assimilated
Adjacent
influenced by
consonant
proceeding
influenced by
consonant.
following consonant.
Consonant influence each other.
Schwa
UNIT In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa (/ʃ wɑː/, rarely /ʃ wɔ ː / or /ʃ vɑː /[1]) (sometimes spelled shwa)[2] refers to the mid central Vowel sound (rounded or unrounded) in the middle of the vowel chart, denoted By the IPA symbol ə, or another vowel sound close to that position. An example in English is the vowel sound in the 'a' of the word 'about'. Schwa in English is mainly found in unstressed positions, but in some other languages it occurs more frequently as a stressed vowel.
Schwa: stressed
Features:
monosyllabic words. Stressed syllable when there are More than syllable.
Spelling cases. “o”, “u”
4
UNIT UNIT Schwa unstressed
Features: unstressed Syllables More than one syllable. Spelling cases “a”, “e”, “i”,”o””u”
44
Linking When we say a sentence in English, we join or "link" words to each other. The Linking is a process by which groups of words are connected together within the same phrase or sentence in connected speech. The important thing in Linking is the sound, not the letter. Linking is the merging of multiple words together until they sound as if they are only one word.
Examples:
Save it = Save it = Savit Turn around = turnaround Team mate = teammate
Types of linking Consonant to consonant linking. When the same consonant sound is found at the end of the first word and the beginning of the next, the words are linked. The final sound of the first word is formed but used for the following word, pronounce them as one long sound.
UNIT UNIT 4 4
Examples: Epidemic cholera That time At two Next time Guess some
team mate bad day unusual life put together finish shopping
Consonant to vowel linking. If a word ends in a consonant and the next word begins with a vowel, the consonant links up with the following word. Final consonants can also link with initial (w, h, y, r) of the following word, especially in faster speech.
Examples: Sweet oranges Fool around For admission That’s enough Why am I this busy? Stop it It’s an interesting idea Back out I need it Drop it Play a son Read a book It’s over in an hour It’s now or never
Vowel to vowel linking When one word ends with a vowel sound and the next word begins with a vowel sound, we link the words with a sort of /y/ or /w/ sound between them.
UNIT 4
UNIT To understand linking, it is important to know the difference between vowel sounds and consonant sounds. The important thing in linking is the sound, not the letter. Often the letter and the sound are the same, but not always.
For example, the word “pay” ends with: The consonant letter
“y”
The vowel sound
“a”
Clusters vs spelling cases. In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence
4
or consonant compound is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits. In linguistics, a consonant cluster (CC) is a group of two or more consonant sounds that come before (onset), after (coda), or between (medial) vowels. Also known simply as cluster.
Consonant cluster simplification (or reduction) sometimes occurs when one consonant (or more) in a sequence of adjacent consonants is elided or dropped
Spelling cases Two experiments were performed to explore the effects of one aspect of English phonology, syllabic consonants.
UNIT 4
Reduction In phonetics, vowel reduction is any of various changes
UNIT In the acoustic quality of vowels, which are related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or position in the word
Ellipsis In linguistics, ellipsis or elliptical construction refers to the omission from a clause of one or more words that are nevertheless understood in the context of the remaining elements. There are numerous distinct types of ellipsis acknowledged in theoretical syntax.
Ellipsis, or elliptical construction, is fine for a noun form, but often linguists need to talk specifically about the missing material.
4
Contractions Is a shortened version of the written and spoken forms of a word, syllable, or word group, created by omission of internal letters and sound. In linguistic analysis, contractions should not be confused with crisis , abbreviations nor acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions,. Contraction is also distinguished from clipping, where beginnings and endings are omitted.
UNIT 4
Derivations Derivation stands in contrast to the process of inflection, which is the formation of grammatical variations upon the same word, as with determine/determines/determining/determi ned
Air + port = Airport House + Boat =
UNIT
Houseboat Flower +Pot = Flowerpot Head+ Room = Headroom Smoke + Fog = Smog
Borrowing
4
A word adopted from another language and completely or partially naturalized, as very and hors d'oeuvre, both from French. a word in one language that has been borrowed from another language and use naturalized, as wine, taken into Old English from Latin vinum, or macho, taken into Modern English from Spanish. In linguistics, borrowing (also known as lexical borrowing) is the process by which a word from one language i s adapted for use in another. The word that is borrowed is called a borrowing, a borrowed word, or a loanword.
Minimal pairs Is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may confuse English learners, like the /f/ and /v/ in fan and van, or the /e/ and /ÉŞ / in desk and disk. In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a Particular language that differ in only one phonological element, such as A phoneme, toneme or chroneme, and have distinct meanings. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.
UNIT 4
Homophones & Homographs, Homophone A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, and may differ in spelling. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose (flower) and rose (past tense of "rise"), or differently, such as carat, caret, and carrot, or to, two, and too. Homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms
UNIT 4
Homographs A homograph is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a different meaning. However, some dictionaries insist that the words must also sound differently says that the
words should also be of "different origin" In this vein, various types of homographs, including those in which the words are discriminated by being in a different word class, such as hit, the verb to strike, and hit the noun a blow.
UNIT 4 Allophomes In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language Allophones Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realized by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual noncontrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.
UNIT Stress In phonetics stress is the degree of emphasis given a sound or syllable in speech. Also called lexical stress or word stress. Unlike some other languages, English has variable (or flexible) stress. This means that stress patterns can help distinguish the meanings of two words or phrases that otherwise appear to be the same
4
first ediction Veronica Elizabeth Garcia Guardado. #31-2750-2015