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Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery Potential, progress and the way forward…
Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery
Potential, progress and the way forward…
Nanotechnology offers an innovative platform for the development of multivalent therapeutic systems with advanced pharmaceutical properties. Nano-particulate drug delivery systems have gained a lot of attention due to their characteristic features such as sustained drug release, targeting capability along with reduced toxicity profiles. In recent years, this potential has translated into commercially available products for the management of various diseases.
Sai Akilesh M, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research Ashish Wadhwani, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research
The concept of nanotechnology was first described by Nobel laureate Richard Feynman in a popular lecture he gave entitled ‘There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom’ on 29 December, 1959. The initial applications conceived through nanotechnology were limited to atomic scale physics and information storage. Today, nanotechnology has reached far greater heights and is applied in diverse fields such as high-performance capacitors and batteries, optical imaging / contrast agents and most importantly, as drug delivery systems for the clinical management of various diseases such as cancer and HIV. The advancement of science and technology has made it possible for nanotechnology-based products to be commercially available; and since the early 1990’s, many nano-pharmaceuticals have gained US Food & Drug Administration (FDA) approval. Modern approaches combined with advances in genetic and molecular biology can eventually pave the way for personalised medicine and therapies in the future.
Need for nanotechnology
Nanotechnology refers to the applications of nanoscale materials to achieve innovation. Nanomaterials offer unique properties and characteristics, which are completely different from bulk matter. They range from nanoparticles which are simple and are about 1-100 nm in dimension to more complex structures such as dendrimers, solid lipid nanoparticles, core-shell nanoparticles, and conjugated drug delivery systems. The most fundamental aspect of nanomaterials is their nano-dimension. Its associated implications on the overall drug profile can be exploited in the way of new formulations and delivery systems. Their unique and intrinsic properties can be directly attributed to the increase in surface to volume ratio at the nanoscale. Surface functionalisation through suitable chemical moieties and specific markers helps in targeted drug delivery and masking from immune system. Their bio-compatibility can be improved; even anatomically reserved sites such as the
blood-brain-barrier can be accessed. (Figure 1 – Need for nanotechnology)
Potential and benefits of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems
Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems offer superior pharmaceutical properties when compared to conventional dosage forms, mainly through entrapment of the drug into a nano-system. The important pharmaceutical parameters such as bioavailability and bio-distribution can be regulated and limitations can be overcome through nano-pharmaceuticals. Increased circulation times and sustained release are also an accompanying feature of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. The nano-dimensions provide increased surface area and, as a consequence, bioavailability and drug permeability increases, achieving the desired therapeutic effect.
The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of a drug can be regulated through numerous approaches and one of the ways is through the design and synthesis of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. Targeted drug delivery and access to reservoir sites has been a long-standing hurdle to scientists and pharmacists in drug research and development. Specific chemical moieties and functional groups can be used as probes for targeting particular sites and receptors. This has been proved to be successful in the case of cancers, where there needs to be a distinction between normal tissue and tumour affected region. Through ligand based targeting mechanisms, intracellular drug accumulation and uptake by the targeted tissue can thus be regulated. Advances such as the development of pH- and thermo-sensitive polymers have enriched the targeting potential of nanotechnology. Therapeutic efficacy at the terminal site of action has been an important pharmaceutical parameter of drug molecules and anatomically privileged reservoir sites can be accessed and effectively treated through nanotechnology-based drug delivery.
Adverse effects and dose-related toxicities of many therapeutic agents may prove to be a hindrance in the effective management of diseases. However, by employing nanotechnology-based interventions, these issues can be easily overcome. Nano-particulate drug delivery systems have markedly improved permeability characteristics along with increased intracellular drug accumulation and hence, lower doses with reduced side-effects are possible through nano-based approaches. Importantly, reduced toxicity profile of drugs can be achieved while retaining therapeutic efficacy.
Improved bioavailability and retention periods
Effectiveness even at reservoir sites
NEED FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY
Optimized and targeted delivery of drugs
Encapsulation to prevent detection by the immune system Decreased cytotoxicity and adverse effects
Chemical stability during systemic circulation
Figure 1: Nanotechnology-based drug delivery
Progress, trends and development
Nanotechnology-based drug delivery of pharmaceutical drugs has been attempted with varying degrees of success. The early objectives and benefits perceived through nanotechnology were limited to improved efficacy, PK-PD parameters and safety profile. The progress in science and technology has helped in the overall growth and evolution of nanotechnology-based drug delivery. Complex designs and mechanisms of fabrication are a reality and such nano-carriers conjugated with drug molecules are proving to be gamechangers in the pharmaceutical industry. Majority of FDA approved nano-drugs are liposomal or polymeric in nature or synthesized as nanocrystals and are currently available.
During the last three decades, close to 50 nano-based pharmaceutical drugs have gained FDA approval and marketed commercially. Also, more than 70 nanopharmaceuticals are undergoing clinical trials, with many of them initiated in 2014 or later (Bobo et al., 2016). FDA approvals of nano-drugs peaked between 2001 and 2005, followed by a substantial drop after 2006, possibly due to lower investment caused by the economic crisis
Micelles 2%
Nanocrystals 28%
Proteins 7%
Inorganic and Metal based 10%
Liposomes 21%
Polymers 32%
Figure 2: FDA approved nano-pharmaceuticals
of 2008. There has been a gradual rise in the number of nano-drugs that have received investigational new drug (IND) approval from the FDA to undergo clinical trials since 2007. The years from 2013 to 2015 had the highest number of nanoformulations entering clinical trials and this suggests an increase in the availability of FDA-approved nano-drugs in the future (Ventola, 2017).
Conventional methods and mechanisms of drug delivery have their own limitations and drawbacks such as limited efficacy and to an extent, a lack of selectivity. Many pharmaceutical drugs have variable absorption rate (oral administration) and also the digestive enzymes and acidic environment can break down some of the drugs before they enter blood circulation and become bio-available. Lack of specificity and selectivity of drug molecules arises due to poor bio-distribution and as a result, other tissues and organs can be damaged due to their toxicity.
Nanotechnology-based drug delivery approaches are ideal for the clinical management and treatment of various diseases. Such systems have primarily shown to increase the circulation and retention times, thereby improving the half-life and bio-availability of drugs and ultimately leading to their greater efficacy. Also, as most drugs are hydrophobic in nature, their solubility can be enhanced through nano-based approaches. Sustained, targeted, and controlled release of drugs can be achieved using nanotechnology. Many such nanotechnology-based drug delivery methods and systems have been approved for use in the management of various diseases.
Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells with the potential to spread to other parts of the body. According to the World Cancer Report, in 2018, the number of new cancer cases was estimated to be 1.16 million and around 784,800 cancer deaths in India. Treatment options for cancer include chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery. Primary treatment involves the administration of chemotherapeutic agents and most cancer drugs have dose limiting toxicities accompanied with severe adverse effects and can increase the risk of secondary cancers, especially due to alkylating agents.
Most nanotechnology-based drugs were granted approval by the FDA based on their lower toxicity compared with conventional formulations and many more are in clinical development and trials. Doxil (Janssen) was the first nanotechnology-based drug to be granted FDA approval in 1995. It is a liposomal formulation of doxorubicin hydrochloride. The traditional dosage form was reported for its cardiotoxicity and the nano-drug (Doxil) was approved on the basis of significantly lower adverse effects. It has been in use for more than twenty years and is still widely used for the treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma, ovarian, breast and other cancers (Ventola, 2017).
Emend (Merck) is the nano-crystalline form of the anti-emetic drug aprepitant and was granted FDA approval in 2003. It is mainly used to prevent chemotherapy associated nausea and vomiting. The absorption of aprepitant occurs in the upper gastro-intestinal (GI) tract and aprepitant is insoluble in water. Emend has its main advantages in increased absorption rates in the GI tract and improved bio-availability.
Drug molecules can be conjugated to biomolecules, polymers and nanoparticles to significantly increase their sitespecificity and subsequently, reducing the adverse effects. Onivyde (Merrimack Pharmaceuticals) is another nanotechnology-based liposomal formulation of irinotecan and is mainly used in the treatment of metastatic pancreatic cancer and received FDA approval in 2015. The main advantages are increased delivery to the tumour site and reduced systemic toxicity.
Abraxane (Celgene) is a nanotechnology-based drug formulation containing paclitaxel bound to albumin NPs and was approved by the FDA in 2005 for metastatic breast cancer. Abraxane is significantly more tolerable than conventional dosage form of paclitaxel and can be administered at a much higher dose, giving rise to increased efficacy.
Thus, the dose-limiting toxicities associated with conventional chemotherapeutic and anticancer agents can be overcome through nanotechnology. Various cancer drugs are essentially hydrophobic and poorly soluble in aqueous solutions. Therefore, the need arises for solubilising agents which increase the overall toxicity and often these drugs require dose reduction to reduce systemic toxicity. To overcome the toxicity and solubility related issues, nanotechnology-based drug delivery offers an innovative and promising means (Farjadian et al., 2019).
HIV & AIDS
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) primarily targets the CD4+T cells and eventually weakens the immune system, leading to the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Since 1980’s, it has gradually become a devastating pandemic and caused significant burden to the global health scenario. There is no cure or vaccine yet and only suppressive therapeutic interventions are currently available, known as HAART (Highly Active Antiretroviral Thearpy). Also, the dosing regimen of HAART is an important criteria for its success. Nanotechnology based drug delivery approaches have been employed to circumvent these plaguing issues.
The antiviral efficacy of HAART therapy is limited by the distinct pharmacokinetic profiles of partner therapeutics which lead to varying bio-distribution and associated adverse effects. Li and colleagues developed a new cocktail-like drug delivery vehicle using biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles which contained a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and another HIV-1 fusion inhibitor conjugated to the surface. These nano-vehicles showed increased cellular uptake and circulation times and potent in-vitro activity against HIV (Li et al., 2016).
Kumar et al., attempted a triple drug combination of first line HIV drugs which were loaded into lactoferrin nanoparticles. The combination of zidovudine,efavirenz and lamivudine in lactoferrin nanoparticles exhibited greatly improved pharmaceutical properties with lesser tissue-related inflammation. The in-vitro activity against HIV virus was also appreciable and better when compared to the free drug combination (Kumar et al., 2017).
HSV
The herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes persistent HSV infections, which are characterised by the lesions or sores in the oro-labial region or the genitals. This infection if left untreated, can lead to severe conditions such as herpes keratitis or herpes meningoencephalitis. Nucleoside analogues such as acyclovir are generally prescribed to suppress the symptoms and offer relief. One main factor affecting the usage of acyclovir is its limited oral bio-availability and efficacy, due to its low permeability across the GI tract. To overcome this issue, Al-Dhubiab and co-workers used acyclovir loaded into nano-spheres, which were then incorporated into a film for buccal administration and such a nanotechnology-based drug delivery system showed significantly increased bio-availability, circulation times and greater efficacy (Al-Dhubiab et al., 2015).
The way forward…
The impact of nanotechnology-based drug delivery approaches and systems has transcended beyond the pharmaceutical industry and is currently felt in many more clinical applications such as imaging, diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. They have numerous advantages when compared with conventional drug delivery strategies. Nano-based systems are comparable in size with biomolecules and hence, their interactions can be tailor-made to suit clinical applications. Lately, a growing number of researchers and academicians are shifting their focus from simple nanoparticles to more evolved and complex systems.
Currently, most of the approved nanobased drugs are simple nano-formulations consisting of previously approved FDA drugs. The number of nanotechnologybased drugs entering clinical trials has increased in the recent years and the trend of many more nano-drugs gaining FDA approval is bound to increase. The translational potential of nanotechnology-based drug delivery will continue to grow and prove to be a game-changer for academics, researchers, clinicians and the overall pharmaceutical industry at large.
With progression of newer research and knowledge gained from the complex interactions between host-organ systems and nanomaterials, the future of more innovative nanotechnology-based pharmaceutical products being developed and gaining regulatory agencies’ approval also increases. The promise of personalised medicine can be realised through such nano-based multivalent therapeutic interventions and the ever-elusive cure for many complex and rare diseases can be found. However, for wider applications and usage of nanotechnology in the pharma industry, further research involving in-vivo studies and clinical trials are needed to understand their toxicity and long-term benefits.
References are available at www.pharmafocusasia.com
AUTHOR BIO
Ashish Wadhwani did his M. Pharm and Ph.D in Pharmaceutical Biotechnology from JSS University, Mysuru. After completing his Ph.D, he worked as Research associate at National AIDS Research Institute, Pune for DBT-ICMR joint project. He has handled six projects as PI/Co-PI from Government of India, published 65 research/review papers in peer reviewed high impact factor journals and published 02 Patents. He has received various awards at national and international conferences for his research findings.
Sai Akilesh M is a Doctoral Research Fellow pursuing his Ph.D. in the Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research – JSS College of Pharmacy, Ooty, Tamil Nadu, India. His research interests are mainly in the field of nanotechnology and biotechnology. He has published several papers in international peer reviewed journals and also presented his research findings in international conferences.
Quaternary ammonium compounds (Quats) such as Benzalkonium Chloride (BKC/BAK/ BZK) are well-known antiseptics, effective against bacteria, fungi (yeast and mold) and algae.
But what about viruses? Quats are indeed effective against enveloped viruses. To name a few, activity against adenoviruses, enteroviruses, rotavirus, norovirus, influ-enza virus, severe acute respiratory syn-drome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), rhinovirus, chlamydia, HIV, herpes simplex and hepatitis A and B virus have been reported.
In these pandemic times, we are being reminded of the importance of using effective, yet safe antisep-tics. This has tremendous significance in the healthcare sector, where exposure to viral agents is high, and keeping workers and patients free from these agents is paramount.
Benzalkonium Chloride is a wellestablished antiseptic ingredient in several ophthalmic, nasal, oral and topical formulations. In topical products, it is often reported to be effective against viruses at 0.5% concentration or less.
Benzalkonium Chloride is recommended by several national agencies as an effective compound against coronaviruses, and it presents several advantages compared to using alcohol. Quaternary ammonium compounds (Quats) such as Benzalkonium Chloride are well-known membrane-active agents interacting with the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria and the plasma membrane of yeast.
The Quats’ hydrophobic activity also makes them effective against lipid-containing viruses. Quats disrupt lipid membranes, thus are more potent against lipophilic, enveloped viruses than against hydrophilic, nonenveloped viruses. Quats also interact with intracellular targets and bind to DNA.
Benzalkonium Chloride (BKC) is a well-established antiseptic ingredient in several ophthalmic, nasal, oral and topical formulations. It is effective against bacteria, yeast, molds and enveloped viruses. For example, activity against enteroviruses1, rota-virus2, norovirus3 4, influenza virus5 , severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus SARS-CoV6 , rhinovirus7, chlamydia8, herpes simplex8 and hepatitis A virus9 have been reported.
1. WA Rutala, DI Weber, SL Barbee, MF Gergen, MD Sobsey. (2000) Evaluation of antibiotic resistant bac¬teria in home kitchens and bathrooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2000 21:132. 2. A. Bosch. Human enteric viruses in the water environment: a minireview. (1998) Int Microbiol 1998, 1:191 196. 3. S.L. Bolton, G. Kotwal, M.A. Harrison, E. Law, J.A. Harrison, Cannon JL. (2013) Sanitizer efficacy against murine no-rovirus, a surrogate for human norovirus, on stainless steel surfaces when using three application methods. Appl Envi-ron Microbiol 2013, 79:1368–1377. doi:10.1128/ AEM.02843-12 4. A.M. Wilson, K.A. Reynolds, L. Jaykus, B. Escudero-Abarca, C.P. Gerba. (2020) Comparison of estimated norovirus infec-tion risk reductions for a single fomite contact scenario with residual and nonresidu-al hand sanitizers. American Journal of Infection Control, Volume 48, Issue 5, May 2020, Pages 538-544 5. J.J. Merianos. (2001). In Block SS (ed), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. Surfaceactive agents, 2001, p 63–320 6. Ansaldi F., Banfi F., Morelli P., Valle L., Durando P., Sticchi L., et al.. (2004) SARS CoV, influenza A and syncitial respiratory virus resistance against common disinfectants and ultraviolet irradiation. J. Prev. Med. Hyg. 45, 5–8 7. Schmidbauer M. (2015). Dorithricin acts antiviral (in vitro). Pharm Ztg.160 (38):48-52. 8. Bélec L., Tevi-benissan C., Bianchi A., Cotigny S., Beumont-mauviel M., Si-mohamed A., et al.. (2000). In vitro inactiva-tion of Chlamydia trachomatis and of a panel of DNA (HSV-2, CMV, adenovirus, BK vi-rus) and RNA (RSV, enterovirus) vi-ruses by the spermicide benzalkonium chloride. J. Antimicrob. Chemoth¬er. 47 685–693. 9. J.N. Mbithi, S. Springthorpe, S.A. Sattar. (1990) Chemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environ-mental surfac-es. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990, 56: 3601–3604.
The alkyl (fatty) chains os Quarts have a good affinity for bacterial membranes
Figure 1: Illustration: Novo Nordisk Pharmatech A/S
Mode of action
The cationic ‘headgroup’ of BKC is progressively adsorbed to the negatively charged phosphate heads of phospholipids in the lipid bilayer, and as a result, increases in concentration.
The consistent increase of BKC concentration results in reduced membrane fluidity and thus, the creation of hydrophilic gaps in the membrane. In addition, the alkyl chain ‘tail’ component of BKC further perturbs and disrupts the membrane bilayer by permeating the barrier and disrupting its physical and biochemical properties. Protein function is subsequently disturbed, and the combina-tion of these effects results in the solubilisation of the bilayer constituents into BKC/phospholipid micelles. BKC also interrupts inter-cellular targets and compromises the conformational behavior of DNA10.(Figure 1)
Fazlara and Ekhtelat11 report that through membrane destruction, BKC is efficient to act against bacteria, some enveloped viruses, fungi, yeasts and protozoa.
10. A.P. Golin, D. Choi, A. Ghahary. (2020) Hand sanitizers: A review of ingredients, mechanisms of ac-tion, modes of deliv-ery, and efficacy against coronaviruses. American Journal of Infection Control: Volume 48, Issue 9, P1062-1067 11. A. Fazlara, M. Ekhtelat. (2012) The disinfectant effects of benzalkonium chloride on some important foodborne patho-gens. American-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 12 (1), pp. 23-29
The length of the alkyl chain groups can also greatly affect the antimicrobial activity. Methyl group lengths of C12 to C16 usually show the greatest antimicrobial activity12 .
Effective on a wide range of enveloped viruses
Enveloped viruses such as HIV, hepatitis B virus and influenza virus are all susceptible to BKC113. BKC was found to inactivate influenza, measles, vaccinia, canine distemper, meningo-pneumonitis, rabies, fowl laryngotracheitis, Semliki Forest, feline pneu-monitis and herpes simplex viruses after 10 min of exposure at 30°C or at room temperature14. Saknimit et al.15 investigated virucidal activity of BKC against the canine coronavirus (CCV) and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), Kilham rat virus (KRV) and canine parvovirus (CPV). BKC showed sufficient efficacy and could readily
12. C.P. Gerba. (2015) Review: Quaternary Ammonium Biocides: Efficacy in Application Applied and Envi-ronmental Microbiology. Volume 81 Number 2, page 464-469 13. G. McDonnell, A.D. Russell. (1999) Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance. Clin-ic. Microbiol. Rev., 12 (1) (1999), pp. 147-179 14. J.A. Armstrong, E.J. Froelich. (1964) Inactivation of viruses by benzalkonium chloride. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 12 (2), pp. 132-137 15. M. Saknimit, I. Inatsuki, Y. Sugiyama, K. Yagami. (1988) Virucidal efficacy of physicochemical treat-ments against coro-naviruses and parvoviruses of laboratory animals. Jikken Dobutsu, 37, pp. 341-345
Table 2: Ability of Different QACs to Inactivate Viral Loadings Based upon Literature findings21)
Figure 2: Comparing the viral envelopes (membranes) to that of bacterial membranes. Note that both influenza and SARS-CoV-2 have phospholipid membranes similar to that of mammalian phospholipids due to method of infectivity and replication. Figure made in Biorender. Illustration: Ref. 21)
inactivate coronaviruses, whereas the two parvoviruses (non-enveloped) were relatively less susceptible.
A BKC concentration of 0.1% was found virucidal for Adenovirus Ad19, Ad3, Ad7a, Ad5 and Ad3716 , which are strains causing ocular infections. Similar results were obtained at lower concentrations by other authors17 .
Belec et al.18 demonstrated in vitro inhibition of adenovirus at varying concentrations of BAK with greater inhibition seen over longer exposure times.
Testing methods and concentrations differ greatly between scientific publications. We have summa-rized some results in Table 1.
Coronaviruses
Numerous studies report a virucidal effect of BKC against coronaviruses, even if as pointed out by Schrank et al.21 in 2020, the cumulated data on BKC-based products against the family of known CoV’s is not uniformly asserted. This can be seen in their review of scientific papers: (Table 2).
In general, Quats are reported to be effective against influenza viruses21. Hence, Schrank et al. pos-tulate the potential efficacy of such compounds against SARS-CoV-2, based on the comparable outer membranes structure (relatively similar phospholipid bilayers) between influenza and SARS-CoV-2 virus. (Figure 2)
SARS-COVID: Quats are recommended by several governmental agencies
The use of Quats-based disinfectants to deactivate SARS-CoV-2 has been recommended by several jurisdictions. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has provided a list of suit-able disinfectant products: US Environmental Protection Agency ‘List N’: disinfectants for use against SARSCoV-2’ (US EPA, Washington, DC, 2020): https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/list-ndisinfectants-use-against-sars-cov-2
16. Romanowski E.G., Yates K.A., Shanks R.M., Kowalski R.P. (2019). Benzalkonium chloride demonstrates concentration-dependent antiviral activity against adenovirus in vitro. J. Ocu. Pharmacol. Therap., 35 (5), pp. 311-314 17. Lazzaro D.R., Khaled Abulawi, Ph.D., and Mohammedyusuf E. Hajee, M.D. (2009). In Vitro Cytotoxic Effects of Ben-zalkonium Chloride on Adenovirus. Eye & Contact Lens 6: 329_332 18. Meister T.L. et al.. (2020). Virucidal Efficacy of Different Oral Rinses Against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona-virus 2. J Infect Dis. 2020 Jul 29 : jiaa471 19. Rabenau H.F., Kampf G., Cinatl J., Doerr H.W. (2005). Efficacy of various disinfectants against SARS coronavirus. J Hosp Infect, 61, pp. 107-111 20. Wood A, Payne D. (1998). The action of three antiseptics/disinfectants against enveloped and non-en¬veloped viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection 38:283–95 21. Schrank C.L., Minbiole K.P., Wuest W.M. (2020) Are quaternary ammonium compounds, the work-horse disinfectants, ef-fective against severe acute respiratory syndromeCoronavirus-2? ACS Infect. Dis, 6 (7), pp. 1553-1557
As of 16th April 2020, List N contained 370 recommended products. Of these, 171 (48%) products contain Quats ingredients alone, and a further 33 products contain Quats formulated with at least one other class of active ingredient.
Quats up to 0.2% are also among proven disinfectants suggested by the US CDC against enveloped SARS-CoV-2.
BKC remains on the FDA list for hand sanitizers: https://chemicalwatch.com/76526/us-fda-bans-28substances-from-hand-sanitisers
Is Quats/BKC a good choice for healthcare sanitization?
Chemical-based disinfection is easily achieved by alcohol contact (ethanol or isopropanol) or other classic anti-viral and anti-bacterial compounds found in many commercial products. Alcohol offers momentary disinfection by contact and evaporation, while longer lasting effects that can be provided by less volatile active compounds such as Quats (BKC), remaining on surfaces. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) are less user-friendly on skin than Quatsbased, non-alcohol hand sanitizers (NAB-HS). ABHS predominate in healthcare settings given their low cost, however they are more worrisome due to their flammability and abuse potential.
AUTHOR BIO
Chantale Julien has a current position as Global Product Manager for Insulin Human AF for cell culture media and Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats) for use as APIs and excipients. Julien has a Masters degree in Life Sciences from Université Laval, Québec, Canada. She has experience from the food and pharmaceutical industries and has been working in the pharmaceutical industry for Novo Nordisk Pharmatech since 2006. Previous work experiences count the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Chr. Hansen A/S and William Cook Europe.
For more information
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