Artillery steel and fire

BARRY WITHAKER & DOUGLAS KARASHUKY

PUBLICATIONS COMPANY

BARRY WITHAKER & DOUGLAS KARASHUKY

Copyright Š 2013 by CONCORD PUBLICATIONS CO. 603-609 Castle Peak Road Kong Nam Industrial Building 272, B 1, Tsuen Wan New Territories, Hong Kong.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Concord Publications Co. We welcome authors who can help expand our range of books. If you would like to submit material, please feel free to contact us.

We are always on the look-out for new, unpublished photos for this series. If you have photos or slides or information you feel may be useful to future volumes, please send them to us for possible future publication. Full photo credits will be given upon publication.

First published in the UK in 1997. Second edition in 2009. This book was revised by the authors in 2016. This work is owned by this last edition.

ISBN 968-361-937-7 Printed in Hong Kong

PUBLICATIONS COMPANY 2

Authors' Note This work is intended to present to the public interested in military subjects the specific topics of the artillery branch.

The work was assembled in the form of an illustrated encyclopedia, so that the reader can gain a more dynamic reading experience and can better understand the concepts covered.

This encyclopaedia primarily addresses weapons that have gained military conscription through their use and effectiveness on the battlefield.

At the end of each specific topic regarding the type of weapon, a technical sheet was assembled, outlining the characteristics of each weapon.

The authors would like to express their antagonism to any belligerent act among nations, noting that this work wishes to bring the technical knowledge of the engineering and planning capacity employed in this area.

Barry Withaker & Douglas Karashuky

The cover illustration shows U.S. soldiers of Battery C, 780th Field Artillery Battalion, fire an 8 inch howitzer at Kajon-Ni, Korea, near the 38th Parallel. The 780th, an Army Reserve unit from Roanoke, Va., served in Korea from April 1951 to December 1954.

2

Artillery originated for use against ground targets, against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships. During the 20th century saw the development of a new class of artillery, like anti-aircraft guns and missiles.

Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, and has been since at least the early Industrial Revolution. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery.

I do not have to tell you who won the war. You know, the artillery did.

Gen George S. Patton In many situations that seemed desperate, the artillery has been a most vital factor.

Gen Douglas MacArthur God fights on the side with the best artillery.

Napoleon Bonaparte Artillery is the god of war.

Stalin Ultima ratio regum. (The final argument of kings) Inscription on french cannons, on order of Louis XIV “St Barbara of the Artillery Corps, Be at the bursting of the doors of doom, And in the dark deliver us, Amen.�

Irish field Artillery poem With Artillery, War is made.

Napoleon Bonaparte

2

INTRODUCTION Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and firepower of infantry's small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an army's total firepower. In its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, the word ‘artillery’ has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, it usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets and guided missiles. In common speech, the word artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called ‘equipments’.

However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, and mortar, and so forth: the United States uses ‘artillery piece’, but most English-speaking armies use ‘gun’ and ‘mortar’. The projectiles fired are typically either ‘shot’ (if solid) or ‘shell’ (if not).

‘Shell’ is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.

By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies one arm has operated field, coast, anti-aircraft artillery and some anti-tank artillery, in others these have been separate arms and in some nation’s coast has been a naval or marine responsibility. In the 20th century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flashes spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms.

The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, in some armies provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm.

In 1742 a British mathematician and military engineer named Benjamin Robins published a book called New Principles of Gunnery. In it, he showed the results of experiments that he had conducted on numerous firearms to establish, for example, the relationships between gun caliber, barrel length, powder charge, and projectile muzzle speed. These measurements were made with a ballistic pendulum, a device that he invented to estimate muzzle speed.

The use of ballistic pendulums spread far and wide, and the original design lasted for more than a century before being superseded by an electronic measuring device, the chronograph, which operated on different principles. The ballistic pendulum, and Robins’ scientific approach, has led to his being widely acclaimed as the father of modern ballistics. Robins by no means solved all of the many and varied problems of internal ballistics, but he showed us how to proceed. Leon-Hard Euler, the famous Swiss mathematician of the late 18th century, critiqued and expanded upon Robins’ work. His mathematical approach did much to transform ballistics into the mathematical science that it is today. Between them, the two men turned a trial-and-error field into a scientific discipline. The word ‘artillery’ as used in the current context originated in the middle ages. One suggestion is that it comes from the old french “atellier”, meaning ‘to arrange’, and “attillement”, meaning ‘equipment’. From the 13th century, an artillier referred to a builder of any war equipment; and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word ‘artillery’ covered all forms of military weapons, hence come, the naming of the Artillery Company that was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century. Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian “arte de tirare” (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia.

Artillery Piece Although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity.

The first references in the western historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC, and these devices were widely employed by the Roman legions in Republican times well before the Christian era.

Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery depended upon mechanical energy to operate, and this severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, while also requiring the construction of very large apparatus to store sufficient energy. For comparison, a Roman 1st century BC catapult using stones of 6.55 kg fired with a kinetic energy of 16,000 joules, while a mid 19th century 12 pounder gun firing projectiles of 4.1 kg with a kinetic energy of 240,000 joules.

The Greeks and Romans both made extensive use of artillery for shooting large arrows or rocks. The names of the artillery pieces changed with time. Though all inventions in the field of artillery were made by the Greeks, the best known are the Latin names, “Ballista” and “Catapulta”.

Originally “Catapulta” (καταπέλτης ὀξυβελής) meant an arrow or bolt throwing engine, and a “Ballista” (καταπέλτης λιτοβολος or πετροβολος) was a more powerful machine primarily designed for throwing stones. At some time between 100 AC and 300 AC a change occurred in the nomenclature. Thus in the 4th century AC catapult indicates a one-armed stone-throwing engine, also known as “Onager”, while ballista means a two-armed piece which shoots bolts only.

The technology was developed quite rapidly, from the earliest “Gastraphetes” in about 399 BC to the most advanced torsion artillery in about 300 BC at the time of Demetrius Polyorcetes. No improvement, except in details, was ever made upon the catapults of Demetrius. The Romans obtained their knowledge from the Greeks, and employed the Greek specialists.

The main use of artillery was in the siege of fortified places. The heavy stone-throwing pieces were used to destroy the walls, while the lighter arrow-shooting pieces to clear the walls from the enemy defending them.

Sometimes ballistae were used to fire extraordinary projectiles, like pots with snakes, or even parts of dead bodies, with the purpose of terrifying the enemy. For example, the Romans catapulted to the camp of Hannibal the head of his brother Hasdrubal. Artillery was also used as flame carriers. During the last night of Demetrius attack on Rhodes the Rhodians fired 800 cylinders with some incendiary substance; the cylinders being subsequently collected and counted; they managed to set fire on Demetrius' armored tower.

Several attempts to use artillery in the field are recorded but they were mostly unsuccessful, except when the artillery could be deployed in some protected place. For example, in the Battle of Jaxartes, Alexander used catapults to clear the further bank of the river.

The artillery pieces were transported in disassembled state, and it took long time to assemble, install and adjust them. In many cases only few essential parts of artillery pieces were transported, the rest could be made on the place of a siege if timber was available.

Artillery was used in naval battles, as mentioned in Diodorus book. Both Alexander and Demetrius mounted catapults on ships for the purpose of attacking fortresses.

From the middle ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, though some of the largest were railway guns.

3

Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, made in a wide variety of shapes, and used different means of inflicting physical damage and casualties to defeat specific types of targets. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, and have become some of the most complex technological application today.

In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called ‘serving the gun’ by the ‘detachment’ or ‘gun crew’, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which artillery units or formations are employed is called artillery support, and may at different periods in history refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground, sea, and even air-based weapons platforms.

Ballista Romani “escorpium” (Roman ballista "scorpion") of 50 BC.

The Roman “Onager” of 300 AC.

2

By the early 15th century, both armies had a wide variety of gunpowder weapons. Large guns were developed, known as bombards (French “bombardes”), weighing up to 3 tonnes and firing stone balls of up to 150 kg (300 lbs), which seem to have been more prevalent among the French than among the English until 1420. Such bombards were often made by welding bars of wrought iron together and holding them inside circular bracelets, a process known as “à tonoille”; similar to that involving the manufacture of wine barrels “tonneaux”. “Veuglaires” (fowlers) were developed, up to 2 meters (8 feet) long, and weighing from 150 kg to several tonnes, while the “crapaudins” or “crapaudaux” were shorter (4 to 8 feet) and lighter than the “veuglaires”.

The first Western image of a battle with cannon goes back to the Siege of Orleans in 1429, in which both the English and the French side are depicted with firearms. French cannon killed the English commander Thomas Montagu in 1428. Joan of Arc used cannon effectively during the Loire campaign in 1429.

Portable hand cannons, the ancestors of modern firearms, continued to be used on a wide scale, sometimes even by mounted soldiers. Small portable arms were also developed such as “serpentines” and “couleuvrines”. They were not able, however, to replace the widespread longbows or crossbows during the Hundred Years' War. In contrast, cannon took on a major role in siege warfare, where they came to replace traditional wooden siege engines of the types used since antiquity.

From the 1430s, the artillery of Charles VII was managed by the Master Gunner Jean Bureau. Artillery was key to the French successes at Meaux (1439), Pontoise (1441), Caen and during the Norman Campaign (1449–1450).French artillery was used with great efficiency at the 1453 Battle of Castillon, in which grouped and entrenched cannons decimated the English army, killing the commander John Talbot.

Artillery also started to affect military architecture, leading to the development of lower, thicker walls in order to better resist the effect of cannonballs.

3

Crew The term ‘gunner’ is used in some armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either ‘crews’ or ‘detachments’. Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company.

In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with ‘1’ the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command. ‘Gunner’ is also the lowest rank and junior non-commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artillery arms.

Gun captain and senior gunner in a crew are aiming the gun with a sighting disk; in his left hand he is holding a gunner’s spontoon with two match-holders. Slung over his right shoulder is a powder horn holding the fine-grained priming powder that was poured into and around the touch-hole of the cannon. He is dressed in dark colours, which were obviously more practical when handling gunpowder which left a greasy black residue when fired.

Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) has artillery corps. The term ‘artillery’ is also applied to a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations the national armed forces that operate the weapons.

During military operations, the role of field artillery is to provide support to other arms in combat or to attack targets, particularly in depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also be used to suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.

Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or other observer, including manned and unmanned aircraft, or called onto map coordinates.

Military doctrine has played a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between delivered volumes of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late 19th century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conidial, better known as the “Minié ball”, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.

The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat.

4

Two distinct forms of artillery were developed, the towed gun, which was used primarily to attack or defend a fixed line; and the selfpropelled gun, which was designed to accompany a mobile force and provide continuous fire support. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organisations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part in is close quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.

The first documented record of artillery with gunpowder propellant used on the battlefield was on January 28, 1132, when General Han Shizhong of the Song dynasty used escalade and Huochong to capture a city in Fujian. Early Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This includes the ‘long range awe inspiring’ cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming Dynasty treatise Huolongjing. With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze ‘thousand ball thunder cannon’, an early example of artillery. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner. In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest.

By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out. As small smooth-bore tubes these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders. In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely bombardas, colebratas, and falconetes. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Moroccans brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta.

Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.

The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. By the end of the 14th century, cannon were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls. However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. The cannon during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before. These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.

5

The August 22, 1485 Battle of Bosworth gave England’s House of Lancaster victory in the War of the Roses (1455-85), displacing the House of York on the English throne.

Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves. As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.

Above, a painting of the Battle of Northampton (War of the Roses) showing the Yorkist gun line.

6

The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.

Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob An Der Birs of 1444. The new Ming Dynasty established the “Divine Engine Battalion”, which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, the Ming army used a three line formation of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation. Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used “Kunikuzushi” (Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and “Ōzutsu” (large size gun) as their largest firearms.

Smoothbores Bombards were of value mainly in sieges. A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighted 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps ‘the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery’ when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.

Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.

The use of the word ‘cannon’ marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in siege and static defences. The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of trunnions projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier.

7

Artillery pieces of 15th century.

The first land-based mobile weapon is usually credited to Jan Žižka, who deployed his oxen-hauled cannon during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418 -1424). However cannons were still large and cumbersome. With the rise of musketry in the 16th century, cannon were largely (though not entirely) displaced from the battlefield the cannon were too slow and cumbersome to be used and too easily lost to a rapid enemy advance. The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool a worm was introduced to remove them. Gustavus Adolphus is identified as the general who made cannon an effective force on the battlefield pushing the development of much lighter and smaller weapons and deploying them in far greater numbers than previously. The outcome of battles was still determined by the clash of infantry. Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were also developed in the 17th century. The development of specialized pieces shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ribauldequin (known as “organ guns”), were also produced.

The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz “Artis Magnae Artilleriae Pars Prima” was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual. One of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building. This led, among other things, to a frenzy of new bastion-style fortifications to be built all over Europe and in its colonies, but also had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were able to use their newfound artillery superiority to force any local dukes or lords to submit to their will, setting the stage for the absolutist kingdoms to come. Modern rocket artillery can trace its heritage back to the Mysorean rockets of India. Their first recorded use was in 1780 during the battles of the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars. The wars fought between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore in India made use of the rockets as a weapon. In the Battle of Pollilur, the Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and in Battle of Seringapatam in 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British. After the wars, several Mysore rockets were sent to England, and from 1801, William Congreve copied the rockets with minor modifications as the Congreve rocket which were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.

Artillery pieces of 18th century.

8

Napoleonic Artillery Cannons continued to become smaller and lighter. Frederick II of Prussia deployed the first genuine light artillery during the Seven Years' War. Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid 18th century.

He developed a 6 inch (150mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. Another major change at this time was the development of a flintlock firing mechanism for the cannons to replace the old method of igniting powder in the cannon touchhole. The flintlock was a far more reliable (and safe) mechanism. These improvements in the French artillery were essential for the later military successes of Napoleon. Napoleon, himself was a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' lines as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault.

Artillery was the most devastating weapon on the field during the Napoleonic era, and its use could leave the enemy troops demoralized.

Solid metal cannon ball (also known as a “round shot”) were commonly used artillery ammunition. They were effective against square formations and heavily packed columns when fired almost parallel to the ground for they would ‘bounce’ into enemy forces with gruesome results. Essentially, the round shot would bounce a few times and start to roll, ripping through anything in its wake. Taking this into consideration, artillery crews often sought out hard, flat, and open terrain. At extremely close range, artillery could use canister shot, large tin cans holding a large amount of small bullets. Another variation of this was scattershot, a canister or heavy cloth bag filled with nails and other scrap iron. Basically, the firing of canisters was the equivalent of using a giant shotgun to disintegrate incoming troops. Yet another variation was grapeshot, a heavy cloth bag packed well with larger ammunition, which got its name from its appearance as being a bundle of grapes. Napoleon employed a variation of this tactic to crush the Vendémiaire uprising. Besides cannons, artillery was made up of howitzers and other type of guns that used ammunition that packed an explosive punch (also known as “explosive shells”). Explosive shells had a reputation of being unreliable since they would often explode either too early or not at all. However, in the cases in which the shell exploded on the target, the results were devastating, especially towards cavalry units. During the Napoleonic period, field artillery consisted of foot artillery, horse artillery and mountain artillery.

Napoleonic Wars field artillery pieces.

9

10

11

12

13

The development of modern artillery occurred in the mid to late 19th century as a result of the convergence of various improvements in the underlying technology. Advances in metallurgy allowed for the construction of breech-loading rifled guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity.

After the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked the birth of modern artillery. Three of its features particularly stand out. First, the piece was rifled, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery was only available by the mid19th century. Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War. The cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's rifling grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of windage as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge. His gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism couldn't withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in metallurgy and precision engineering capabilities during the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.

What made the gun really revolutionary was the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The built-up method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter. The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube. When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the gun which was directed inward against the outward forces that the gun firing exerted on the barrel. Another innovative feature, more usually associated with 20th century guns, was what Armstrong called its ‘grip’, which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which cantered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities. Armstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initially for ‘special service in the field’ and initially he only produced smaller artillery pieces, 6 pounder (2.5 in/64mm) mountain or light field guns, 9 pounder (3 in/76mm) guns for horse artillery, and 12 pounder (3 inches/76mm) field guns.

Crew of a 110 pounder Armstrong Gun, firing it, aboard of the HMS Warrior. The Rifled Breech Loading guns made on Sir Armstrong’s original system of construction was adopted in 1859. Although manufacture was discontinued in 1864 they continued to be used for many years due to the number produced.

14

Above a typical American Civil War era cannon.

The first cannon to contain all ‘modern’ features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 8,500m (5 miles) away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew. These were rates that contemporary bolt action rifles could not match. The gun used cased ammunition, breech-loading, had modern sights, a self-contained firing mechanism and one hydro-pneumatic recoil dampening.

15

Indirect Fire Indirect fire, the firing of a projectile without relying on direct line of sight between the gun and the target, possibly dates back to the 16th century. Early battlefield use of indirect fire may have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when the Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees, and at the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of the Royal Horse Artillery fired Shrapnel indirectly against advancing French troops. In 1882, Russian Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published Indirect Fire for Field Artillery, which provided a practical method of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, ‘All the essentials of aiming points crest clearance, and corrections to fire by an observer’.

A few years later, the “Richtfläche” (lining-plane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect laying in azimuth, complementing the clinometers for indirect laying in elevation which already existed. Despite conservative opposition within the German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by the 1890s. In the early 1900s, Goertz in Germany developed an optical sight for azimuth laying. It quickly replaced the lining-plane; in English, it became the ‘Dial Sight’ (UK) or ‘Panoramic Telescope’ (US).

The British half heartedly experimented with indirect fire techniques since the 1890s, but with the onset of the Boer War, they were the first to apply the theory in practice in 1899, although they had to improvise without a lining-plane sight.

In the next 15 years leading up to World War I, the techniques of indirect fire became available for all types of artillery. Indirect fire was the defining characteristic of 20th century artillery and led to undreamt of changes in the amount of artillery, its tactics, organisation, and techniques, most of which occurred during World War I. An implication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target; this increased the time of flight and the vertex of the trajectory.

The result was decreasing accuracy (the increasing distance between the target and the mean point of impact of the shells aimed at it) caused by the increasing effects of non-standard conditions. Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions including a specific muzzle velocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propellant temperature.

The comparison table above shows the different ranges of the shots of the different types of artillery.

In practice, this standard combination of conditions almost never existed, they varied throughout the day and day to day, and the greater the time of flight, the greater the inaccuracy. An added complication was the need for survey to accurately fix the coordinates of the gun position and provide accurate orientation for the guns. Of course, targets had to be accurately located, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniques enabled this, and ground survey techniques could sometimes be used. In 1914, the methods of correcting firing data for the actual conditions were often convoluted, and the availability of data about actual conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, the assumption was that fire would always be ranged (adjusted).

British heavy artillery worked energetically to progressively solve all these problems from late 1914 onwards, and by early 1918, had effective processes in place for both field and heavy artillery.

These processes enabled ‘map-shooting’, later called ‘predicted fire’; it meant that effective fire could be delivered against an accurately located target without ranging. Nevertheless, the mean point of impact was still some tens of yards from the target-centre aiming point. It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages. These processes remain in use into the 21st century with refinements to calculations enabled by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.

Precision Artillery Modern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its long range, firing an explosive shell or rocket and a mobile carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights. Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I. However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitable for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression. Nevertheless, by the late 1970s precision munitions started to appear, notably the US 155mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152mm equivalent that had success in Indian service. These relied on laser designation to ‘illuminate’ the target that the shell homed onto. However, in the early 21st century, the Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled relatively cheap and accurate guidance for shells and missiles, notably the US 155mm “Excalibur” and the 227mm GMLRS rocket. The introduction of these led to a new issue, the need for very accurate three dimensional targets coordinates the mensuration process. Weapons covered by the term ‘modern artillery’ include ‘cannon’ artillery (such as howitzer, mortar, and field gun) and rocket artillery. Certain smallercaliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms. This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries. The term ‘artillery’ has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, preferring the term ‘missilery’, though some modern artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions have allowed large caliber guided projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.

16

Circular Error Probable (CEP) In the military science of ballistics, circular error probable (CEP) (also circular error probability or circle of equal probability) is a measure of a weapon system's precision. It is defined as the radius of a circle, centred on the mean, whose boundary is expected to include the landing points of 50% of the rounds. For example, if a given howitzer design has a CEP of 50 m (165 ft), when 30 shells are fired at the same target,15 of those, will hit the target within a 50 m circle, around their average impact point. (The distance between the target point and the average impact point is referred to as bias.)

CEP is not a good measure of accuracy when this distribution behaviour is not met. Precision-guided munitions generally have more ‘close misses’ and so are not normally distributed. Munitions may also have larger standard deviation of range errors than the standard deviation of azimuth (deflection) errors, resulting in an elliptical confidence region.

To incorporate accuracy into the CEP concept in these conditions, CEP can be defined as the square root of the mean square error (MSE). The MSE will be the sum of the variance of the range error plus the variance of the azimuth error plus the covariance of the range error with the azimuth error plus the square of the bias. Thus the MSE results from pooling all these sources of error, geometrically corresponding to radius of a circle within which 50% of rounds will hit.

Several methods have been introduced to estimate CEP from shot data. Included in these methods are the plug-in approach of Blischke and Halpin (1966), the Bayesian approach of Spall and Maryak (1992), and the maximum likelihood approach of Winkler and Bickert (2012). The Spall and Maryak approach applies when the shot data represent a mixture of different projectile characteristics (e.g., shots from multiple munitions types or from multiple locations directed at one target).

Ammunition One of the most important roles of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage and the provision of fuses, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell. A round of artillery ammunition comprises of four components: The fuze, the projectile, the propellant and the primer.

Fuzes Fuzes are the devices that initiate an artillery projectile, either to detonate its high explosive (HE) filling or eject its cargo (illuminating flare or smoke canisters being examples). The official military spelling is ‘fuze’. Broadly there are four main types: Impact (including graze and delay), mechanical time including airburst, proximity sensor including airburst (VT fuze) and electronic time including airburst.

Most artillery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used with armour piercing shells and for squash head (HESH or HEP) anti-tank shells. At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base. Impact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, the standard fuze for HE projectiles. Their default action is normally ‘super quick’, some have had a ‘graze’ action which allows them to penetrate light cover and others have ‘delay’. Delay fuzes allow the shell to penetrate the ground before exploding.

Armor or concrete-piercing fuzes are especially hardened. During World War I and later, ricochet fire with delay or graze fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat angle of descent, and was used to achieve airburst. HE shells can be fitted with other fuzes. Airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function. However, until the introduction of proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions for example, shrapnel, illumination, and smoke. The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst. Airburst fuzes have to have the fuze length (running time) set on them.

This is done just before firing using either a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to the required fuze length. Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar. The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery ‘unrotated projectiles’ (rockets) in World War II. Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (time) fuzes which they replaced. Mechanical time fuzes required an accurate calculation of their running time, which was affected by nonstandard conditions.

17

Projectiles The projectile is the munition or ‘bullet’ fired downrange. This may or may not be an explosive device. Traditionally, projectiles have been classified as ‘shot’ or ‘shell’, the former being solid and the latter having some form of ‘payload’. Shells can also be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection. The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I. Both base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes.

Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time. Payloads have included: Bursting - high-explosive, white phosphorus ("Willie Pete" or "Wilson Picket"), colored marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell.

Base Ejection - dual purpose improved conventional munitions (DPICM) bomblet, which arm themselves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from the projectile (this produces unexploded sub-munitions, or "duds", which remain dangerous), scatterable mines, illuminating, colored flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff (foil to jam radars: originally known as ‘window’) and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions.

Nose Ejection - shrapnel, star, incendiary and flechette (a more modern version of shrapnel).

Stabilization Rifled -Traditionally, artillery projectiles have been spin-stabilized, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a ‘driving band’ (UK) or ‘rotating band’ (U.S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have also been used.

Smoothbore/Fin-Stabilized - In modern artillery smoothbore tubes have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns.

Rifled/Fin-Stabilized - A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance or gliding.

Above left, the M485A2 projectile provides battlefield illumination for 155mm artillery systems. The projectile accepts standard mechanical and electric time fuzing and is compatible with all fielded U.S. 155mm artillery systems. The M485A2 projectile provides 1,000,000 candle power of illumination for 120 seconds and is capable to illuminate a circle of 1000 meters in diameter. The M485 Series Illumination Projectiles expels the Illuminate candle, which lights approximately 7 Seconds later.

Above right, the M795 is a 155mm high-explosive artillery projectile with a high-fragmentation steel body. It provides increased effectiveness against major ground-force threats at greater ranges for anti-personnel and anti-materiel targets when compared to older 155mm projectiles. The M795 projectile is ballistically similar to the M483A1 family of cargo projectiles and may be used as a registration round for the M483A1 family. The M795 projectile provides an increased effectiveness against major ground force threats at greater ranges for anti-personnel and anti-materiel targets when compared to the current M107 projectile.

18

The 30F39 “Krasnopol” is a Russian 152/155mm cannon-launched, fin-stabilized, base bleed-assisted, semi-automatic laserguided, explosive projectile. It automatically ‘locks on’ a point illuminated by a laser designator, typically operated by a ground-based artillery observer. It is intended to engage small ground targets such as tanks, other direct fire weapons, strong-points, or other significant point targets visible to the observer. It can be used against both stationary and moving targets (providing these remain within the observer's field of view).

The M982 “Excalibur” (previously XM982) is a 155mm extended range guided artillery shell developed by Raytheon Missile Systems and BAE Systems AB. It is a GPS-guided munition capable of being used in close support situations within 150-75 m (492-246 ft) of friendly troops. Excalibur was developed as a longer-ranged alternative to conventional artillery shells, with GPS guidance for improved accuracy. Excalibur has a range of approximately 40 to 57 km (25 to 35 mi) depending on configuration, with a circular error probable (CEP) of around 5 m (16 ft) to 20 m (66 ft). The extended range is achieved through the use of folding glide fins, which allow the projectile to glide from the top of a ballistic arc towards the target.

37mm US M3 anti-tank cannon projectiles types 1 Armour Piercing Capped (APC); 2 Armour Piercing; 3 High Explosive; 4 Canister (anti-personnel ammunition).

19

Propellant Most forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile at the target. Propellant is always a low explosive, this means it deflagrates instead of detonating, as with high explosives. The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant. This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor. Until the late 19th century, the only available propellant was black powder. Black powder had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns, and make aiming impossible. In 1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitro-glycerine was discovered at much the same time.

Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless. Early guncotton was unstable, however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear. Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant. Many other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant; low temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Broadly, modern gun propellants are divided into three classes: single-base propellants which are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine and nitro guanidine.

Artillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways: Rocket-Assisted Projectiles (RAP) - enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base.

Base Bleed - uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the lowpressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag.

Ramjet-Assisted - similar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120mm mortar shell could reach a range of 22 miles (35 km).

Propelling charges for tube artillery can be provided in one of two ways: either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases.

Generally, anti-aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to .30 or 7.62mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered, depending on the range to the target. It also makes handling of larger shells easier.

Each requires a totally different type of breech to the other. A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech; this is called obturation. With bagged charges, the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer. In either case, the primer is usually percussion, but electrical is also used, and laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech. Artillery ammunition has four classifications according to use: Service - ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as ‘war shot’ ammunition.

Practice - Ammunition with none or minimally explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high-explosive charge.

Dummy - Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display.

Blank - Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder), and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use.

Propellant arrangement types.

20

Field Artillery System Because most of the field artillery using indirect fire, the guns should be part of a system that allows them to attack targets in a condition of beyond the horizon, according to the battle plan, established between the other branches of the army. The main functions in the field artillery system are: Communications to create an interlink secure and reliable between the command and field personnel; Command authority to allocate resources; Target acquisition detects, identify and deduce the location of targets; Control authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack; Computation of firing data to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target; Fire units, like guns, launchers or mortars grouped together; Specialist services produce data to support the production of accurate firing data; Logistic services to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.

Organisationally and spatially, these functions can be arranged in many ways. Since the creation of modern indirect fire, different armies have done it many ways at different times and in different places. Technology is often a factor, but so are military–social issues, the relationships between artillery and other arms, and the criteria by which military capability, efficiency, and effectiveness are judged. Cost is also an issue because artillery is expensive due to the large quantities of ammunition that it uses and its level of manpower.

Target Acquisition Can take many forms, it is usually observation in real time, but may be the product of analysis. Artillery observation teams are the most common means of target acquisition. However, air observers have been use since the beginning of indirect fire and were quickly joined by air photography. Target acquisition may also be by anyone that can get the information into the artillery system. Targets may be visible to forward troops or in depth and invisible to them. Accurate fire control systems were introduced in the early 20th century.

Observation equipment can vary widely in its complexity: Unmanned air vehicles are the latest form of air observation, having been first introduced in the early 1960s.

The equipment available to observation teams has progressed from just prismatic compass, hand-held or tripod mounted binoculars and sometimes optical range-finders.

Special equipment for locating hostile artillery, flash spotting and notably sound ranging appeared in World War I the latter has been undergone increasing refinement as technology has improved. These were joined by radar in World War II. In the mid-1970s several armies started equipping their artillery observation teams with laser rangefinders, ground surveillance radars and night vision devices; these were soon followed by inertial orienting and navigating devices to improve the accuracy of target locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS) provided a smaller and cheaper means of quick and accurate fixation for target acquisition devices.

Specialized units with ground surveillance radars, unattended ground sensors or observation patrols operating in depth have also been used. Targets in depth may also be 'acquired' by intelligence processes using various sources and agencies such as HUMINT, SIGINT, ELINT and IMINT. Laser guided shells require laser target designators, usually with observation teams on the ground but UAV installations are possible.

Specialized artillery observation vehicles appeared in World War II and have greatly increased in sophistication since that time.

Above, a Surface Fire-Control Analog Computer Mk I. It’s an example of a fire control system. This was used by seacoast artillery for major-caliber seacoast guns. It computed continuous firing data for a battery of two guns that were separated by not more than 1000 feet. It utilized the same type of input data furnished by a range section with the then-current (1940) types of position-finding and firecontrol equipment.

21

Types of Artillery The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles. Types of artillery: Field Artillery - Mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include: Infantry Support Guns: Directly support infantry units; Mountain Guns - Lightweight weapons that can be moved through difficult terrain; Field Gun - Capable of long range fire; Howitzers - Capable of high angle fire, they are most often employed for fire; Gun Capable of high or low angle fire with a long barrel; Mortars - Typically short-barreled, high-trajectory weapons designed primarily for an indirect-fire role; Anti-Tank Artillery - Weapons, usually mobile, designed for attacking tanks; Anti-Aircraft Artillery - Weapons, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft from the ground. Some guns were suitable for dual-role anti-aircraft and field (anti-tank) use.

The World War II German 88mm gun was a famous example.

Rocket Artillery - Rocket-launched instead of shot or shell.

Motorized Artillery - Towed by Artillery tractors or APU installed.

Self-Propelled Artillery - Typically guns, mortars or gun howitzers mounted on a vehicle.

Railway Gun - Large-caliber weapons that are mounted or transported and fired from specially-designed railway wagons.

Naval Artillery - Guns mounted on warships and used either against other ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, but the advent of airpower and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete. They are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role.

Coastal Artillery - Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (for example, the Atlantic Wall in World War II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Modern coastal artillery (for example, Russia's A222 “Bereg” system) is often self-propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit.

Modern field artillery can also be split into two other categories: Towed and Self-Propelled. As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually a jeep or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Self-propelled howitzers are permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and are thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. There are also mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection.

Equipment Types The three main types of artillery are: Guns, Howitzers and Mortars.

During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60mm had become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length.

These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge.

The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed “gun-howitzers”. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer".

By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, was multi-charge, and had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns.

After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "base plate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading.

There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "Quick Firing" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "Breech Loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is “en portee”, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s.

Some SPs have no armor and carry little or no ammunition. Armoured SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armoured SPs were mostly a "casemate configuration”, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic.

22

A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a base plate. A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine.

Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.

Caliber Categories A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as light, medium, heavy and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons, field guns, mortars, antiaircraft guns and coast guns. Artillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber. The general role of artillery is to provide fire support ‘the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize or suppress the enemy’.

This NATO definition, of course, makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic. Unlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering close supporting fire. However, they are all suitable for providing deep supporting fire although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role. Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to direct supporting fire. Guns are used either for this or general supporting fire while rockets are mostly used for the latter. However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies. Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armor units. This means they generally do not have to concentrate their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies. However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO. In NATO armies’ artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to. It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used. The standard terms are: direct support, general support, general support reinforcing and reinforcing. These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: operational command, operational control, tactical command or tactical control. In NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions. However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation. Nevertheless, the batteries fire can be concentrated onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions.

Application of Fire There are several dimensions to this subject. The first is the notion that fire may be against an opportunity target or may be prearranged. If it is the latter it may be either on-call or scheduled. Pre-arranged targets may be part of a fire plan. Fire may be either observed or unobserved, if the former it may be adjusted, if the latter then it has to be predicted. Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other target acquisition system. NATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes: Counter battery fire - Delivered for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the enemy's fire support system; Counter preparation fire - Intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered; Covering fire - Used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms; Defensive fire - Delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action; Final Protective Fire - An immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas; Harassing fire - A random number of shells is fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale; Interdiction fire - Placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point; Preparation fire - Delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position. These purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of suppression in counter battery is an omission. Broadly they can be defined as either: Deep supporting fire - Directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation or; Close supporting fire - Is used on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit. Two other NATO terms also need definition: Neutralization fire - Delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and Suppression fire - That degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfil its mission. Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire.

There are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability: Ordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a "fire at" time. The disadvantage is that if the fire is concentrated from many dispersed fire units then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time. To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window.

Burst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight. Smaller caliber guns, such as 105mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it wasn't until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability.

Multiple round simultaneous impacts (MRSI).

Time on target, fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve. It can be used with both the previous two methods.

23

Counter-Battery Fire Modern counter-battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery. Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns. In World War I the latter required air observation. The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon. Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'fleshless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter. Once hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter-battery policy. Air strike is another option. In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff. In other situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy. Modern counter-battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging. Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can ‘follow’ a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example.

Counter-measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physically and electronically.

Time on Target A technique called Time on Target was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert. With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire. When each artillery unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time, all the rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.

Multiple Round Simultaneous Impacts (MRSI) This is a modern version of the earlier “time on target” concept in which fire from different weapons was timed to arrive on target at the same time. It is possible for artillery to fire several shells per gun at a target and have all of them arrived simultaneously, which is called MRSI (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). This is because there is more than one trajectory for the rounds to fly to any given target: typically one is below 45º from horizontal and the other is above it and by using different size propelling charges with each shell, it is possible to create multiple trajectories.

Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target and so if the shells are fired on these trajectories for the first volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and then after the correct pause more volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, the shells will all arrive at the same time. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional volleys along the same trajectory, anybody at the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to take cover between volleys. However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver several rounds in 10 seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target. To engage targets using MRSI requires two things, firstly guns with the requisite rate of fire and sufficiently different size propelling charges, secondly a fire control computer that has been designed to compute such missions and the data handling capability that allows all the firing data to be produced, sent to each gun and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order. The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire, for maximum rounds the range is limited to that of lowest propelling charge that will reach the target. Examples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS-90, South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least 25 km (16 mi) away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least 17 km (11 mi) away) Slovakia's 155mm SpGH ZUZANA model 2000. The Archer project (developed by BAE-Systems in Sweden) is a 155mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun.

The 120mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland), is capable of 7+7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was aimed as to have MRSI capability.

Illustration of different trajectories used in MRSI. For any muzzle velocity there is a steeper and a smaller trajectory. In these different trajectories, the shells have a different flight times, but the same time of impact.

24

Airburst The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuses or proximity fuses. Time fuses use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuse can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These embody a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuse to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. The proximity fuse itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare. This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open. This is even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position.

During World War II UK researchers concluded that the use of munitions with impact fuze against the troops, offered a severe mortality risk. The following data gives the relative risk of becoming a casualty to ground-burst shells on ‘average’ ground: Men stand – 1; Men lying down – 1/3; Men firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50; Men crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100.

Airburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men. Historically most casualties occur in the first 10-15 seconds of fire, i.e. the time needed to react and improve protective posture; however, this is less relevant if airburst is used. Shrapnel was widely used in World War I, but not in World War II, it was invented at the end of the 18th century. In its 20th century form a time fuze detonated a propelling charge in a carrier shell with a low angle of descent to fire a few hundred balls (called bullets) forwards and downwards in a narrow cone, like a shotgun. However, by WWII HE shells, which had started appearing at the beginning of the century, had replaced shrapnel. Like shrapnel bullets, shell fragment kinetic energy is the product of a fragment's mass and velocity (½ mass x velocity2), given equal initial velocity heavier fragments travel further because they have greater 'carrying power'.

The fragmentation of HE shells and fragment velocity varies depending on the amount and type of explosive, the design of the shell body and type of steel. Key parameters are the ratio of explosive weight to shell body weight and the ratio of internal diameter (i.e. explosive content) to shell wall thickness. A fragment of 1/8 oz (3, 54 gr) or more has a 50% probability of being lethal at 200 feet from the point of burst (providing it hits in the area of a vital organ). Of course actual fragment sizes vary quite a lot, in part due to the shape of the shell.

One indicator is the ratio diameter of the shell cavity/thickness of the shell wall, calculating this means ratios through lots of 'slices' of a shell to find the mean. For 25 pdr this ratio was about 4, the ideal is about 10. Fragments have more air resistance than streamlined rifle bullets, so lose their velocity more quickly. However, heavier fragments have more 'carrying power', but bigger fragments mean less of them from a particular size of projectile, which reduces the likelihood of a hit. Nevertheless, fragment's ‘un-aerodynamic’ shape means they are very efficient at transferring kinetic energy on impact with a soft material.

By 1941 British research determined that the best size for an anti-personnel splinter was under 1/25 oz (1,13 gr), significantly less than the then existing designs. The 1907 criteria, reputedly developed by France, was a force of 58 lbs/ft to create an incapacitating wound; however, 58 lbs/ft actually appears to have been the German criteria 8 kg/m or Newtons, the French one being only 4 kg/m, although 19 kg/m for horses. British research with small fragments suggested closer to 5 lbs/ft (0.7 Newtons of force or 6.8 Joules of kinetic energy) was all that was needed, and that it was energy not force or momentum that was the key. In contrast research into antiaircraft ammunition before WWII led to the 3.7 inch HE shell being designed to produce 2.5 oz (70, 9 gr) fragments. Larger fragments travel further and have greater effect on ‘harder’ targets, but there are less of them. Joules/mm2 is the modern measure of fragment lethality.

25

Differences between a bullet wound and a shrapnel wound. The shrapnel wounds are by far much more serious because of the large tissue damaged area.

The term shrapnel is often incorrectly used to refer to fragments produced by any explosive weapon. However, the shrapnel shell (named for Major General Henry Shrapnel of the British Royal Artillery) predates the modern high-explosive shell and operates via an entirely different process. A shrapnel shell consists of a shell casing filled with steel or lead balls suspended in a resin matrix, with a small explosive charge at the base of the shell. When the projectile is fired, it travels a pre-set distance along a ballistic trajectory before the fuse ignites a relatively weak secondary charge (often black powder or cordite) in the base of the shell. This charge fractures the matrix holding the balls in place and expels the nose of the shell to open a path for the balls, which are then propelled out of the front of the shell without rupturing the casing (which falls to earth harmlessly and can be retrieved and reused). These balls continue onward to the target, spreading out in a cone-shaped pattern to strike the earth, with most of their energy coming from the original velocity of the shell itself, rather than the lesser force of the secondary charge that freed them from the shell.

Since the cone of impact is relatively small (no more than 10 to 15 times the diameter of the shell itself), shrapnel shells needed to be carefully sighted and judiciously used in order to maximize their impact on the enemy. In contrast, a high-explosive shell contains a relatively large and energetic secondary charge of high explosive (known as a burster charge) which, when ignited by the fuse, produces a powerful supersonic shock wave that shatters the entire shell casing into many fragments that fly in all directions. The use of high explosives with a fragmenting case improves efficiency as well as propelling a larger number of fragments at a higher velocity over a much wider area (40-60 times the diameter of the shell); giving high-explosive shells a vastly superior battlefield lethality that was largely impossible before the Industrial Era. World War I was the first major conflict in which HE shells were the dominant form of artillery; the failure to adapt infantry tactics to the massive increase in lethality they produced was a major element in producing the ghastly subterranean stalemate conditions of trench warfare, in which neither side could risk movement above ground without the guarantee of instant casualties from the constant, indiscriminate hail of HE shell fragments.

26

Smaller flechettes were used in special artillery shells called "beehive" rounds (so named for the very distinctive whistling buzz made by thousands of flechettes flying downrange at supersonic speeds) and intended for use against troops in the open a ballistic shell packed with flechettes was fired and set off by a mechanical time fuse, scattering flechettes in an expanding cone. They were used in the Vietnam War by 105mm howitzer batteries and tanks (90mm guns) to defend themselves against massed infantry attacks.

There was also a flechette round for the M40 recoilless rifle, which was sometimes employed by American infantry.

Heavier artillery, including 155mm howitzers, 8 inch howitzers, and 175mm guns, did not have a flechette round.

M546 APERS-T rounds are intended primarily for antipersonnel use at close range. The round comes fuzed and set for muzzle action; however, it can be set for up to 100 seconds. The round is loaded with 8,000/8 gr steel flechettes. The APERS-T round is devastatingly effective against exposed infantry. There are two important cautions when using the M546 (APERS-T). First, the round may not be used over the heads of exposed friendly troops, even in combat emergencies. Second, the aluminum casing of the round is thin and easily damaged. Damaged rounds are unpredictable and should not be fired. The APERS-T round is available in only 105mm caliber.

Flechettes are fin stabilized steel projectiles similar in appearance to arrows. During the Korean War the Chinese army tactic of human wave attacks against US lines of defence, prompted interest in flechette projectiles in single and multiple projectile systems for small arms and antipersonnel (APERS) use. Flechettes have a performance criterion very different from the conventional rifle bullet. Typical modern flechettes are small light weight steel projectiles, and the velocity lost to air resistance is generally 114m/s (375 fps) per 100m of flight. Unlike rifle bullets, flechettes are not spin stabilized, but use fins to achieve level flight. The flechette's long body looses rigidity on target impact and bends into a hook, often breaking off the fin portion creating an additional wound.

A 70mm “Hydra 70” rocket flechette war head cut view. The 70mm “Hydra 70” rocket currently in service with the US Armed forces can be fitted with an anti-personnel (APERS) warhead containing 96 flechettes.

They are carried by attack helicopters such as the AH-64 “Apache” and the AH-1 “Cobra”.

27

Artillery in World War I The artillery of World War I was used to counter the trench warfare that set in shortly after the conflict commenced, and was an important factor in the war, influencing its tactics, operations and incorporated into strategies that were used by the belligerents to break the stalemate at the front. World War I raised artillery to a new level of importance on the battlefield. The years of the First World War had provided several developments in artillery warfare. Artillery could now shoot farther with more explosive shells. Because of this, enemies in trenches would no longer always be safe, and would constantly be fired upon. In some areas, artillery concentration would be common, several artillery firing onto an area, such as a line of trenches, each firing several rounds per minute lasting for hours.

Artillery barrages would also be used before an infantry battle, to create a distraction away from the place of attack, so that the enemy's numbers would be fewer, or they would fire at the paths going from the area that would be attacked so that the enemy reinforcements would not be able to reach the area without getting hit. Mortars were revived by the Germans because of their ability to shoot at an angle above 45°, and therefore could theoretically (although not often) land directly in an enemy's trench before exploding for maximum damage. Artillery shells were used for gas release by the German troops in 1915, and the Allies followed their example after the Second Battle of Ypres.

The artillery Arm developed several new methods and tactics of combat during the war, including: Box barrage; Chinese barrage; Clock method of calling fall of shot; Creeping barrage; Sound-ranging developed in United Kingdom by Lawrence Bragg.

A Canadian 6 inch howitzer supports British troops in the attack on Thiepval on July 16 1916 during Somme offensive.

WWI German “Krupp� 210mm Mortar.

28

On the figures below, examples of the WWI artillery pieces and respective ammunitions.

29

Artillery in World War II The use of artillery reached its zenith in World War II. The technical development between the world wars, particularly in the United States, created a system that was second to none. Time and time again in postwar interviews, German soldiers mentioned the fear that American artillery engendered along the front lines. They knew that as soon as an American spotter plane appeared over their positions, it would only take minutes before a massive barrage rained down death and destruction. There was no place to hide. The multitude of different caliber weapons combined with pre-configured firing tables meant no escape from its power. No matter how deep you tried to dig or how far you tried to run.

One of the keys to the success of the artillery branch in World War II lay in the structure of the battalion and its personnel. Whether it is within a ‘Division’ or as part of a ‘Corps Artillery’, the battalion was the primary unit structure for the artillery branch in World War II. Within those battalions were some of the most highly skilled personnel that the U.S. Army had throughout the war. Between the wars, there were important changes to the standard practices of the branch. Unit structure was evaluated, standard operating procedures were rewritten, and new technologies came on line. Regardless of the theater in which they operated, the artillery branch was able to put all of these innovations into use.

The German 88mm field gun in operation on the Russian front.

All of the major belligerent countries, except Japan and Italy, had important artillery arms. The German 88mm is one of the best known World War II artillery pieces. It was created as an anti-aircraft weapon, but became a multi-purpose gun, especially formidable as a tank killer. The “Nebelwerfer” multi-barreled mortar was also a very effective weapon. The Germans began the War, however, still dependent on horses to move artillery. This impeded their mobility and was a factor in the failure of Barbarossa. German draft animals were unable to withstand the rigors of the Russian winter. The Germans devoted substantial resources on giant guns. Artillery was a strong point of both the Soviet and American armies. The Germans also had excellent artillery. Erwin Rommel noted the effectiveness of the American artillery in his initial confrontation with the U.S. Army at Kaserine. Artillery cover allowed the Americans to quickly recover.

The West Allies and Soviets had a usage advantage over the Germans because of their larger industrial capacity. In addition, the Germans with the onset of the strategic numbing campaign were forced to deploy a substantial part of its artillery production in the Reich around major cities, instead of at the front. The expansion of air power to an extent cut into artillery operations. At the beginning of the War, the Germans used the “Stuka” as mobile artillery. The Allies beginning in North Africa followed the German example and won air superiority. The Allies were about to pound German positions well beyond the range of artillery. Japanese artillery was inferior, but effective enough to cause substantial casualties in several island campaigns. The Japanese became very adept at concealing their artillery pieces, necessary because as early as Guadalcanal they were forced to fight the war without air cover. The Germans were not impressed with American tanks, but American artillery was a very different matter. Not only were American artillery excellent weapons, but they were produced in great quantity. And the highly mechanized American Army had the ability to move its artillery rapidly. And even small American infantry unit had radios and other communications equipment to call artillery support.

Major developments in artillery occurred during World War II. Most of the major changes occurred because of the need to defend against armored and aerial attack. One of the major innovations was the self-propelled artillery gun. These guns reaching 8 inch (122mm) were mobile artillery mounted on tank chassis, but lacking the armored protection of a tank.

There were two types of self-propelled artillery: 1) the assault gun and 2) the light assault gun. For fight against ground attack fighter, is required, for this function, major improvements in the anti-aircraft guns.

30

Another major innovation was unguided rocket artillery. Several World War II combatants introduced rocket weapons. The German 15cm “Nebelwerfer” could fire six 70 lbs rockets in less than 3 seconds. The Soviet Katyusha, first at 90mm and then 122mm, fired over 40 rockets at once. The American rocket weapon was the “Calliope” which fired 60 rockets at a time. These weapons were not very accurate, but were effective s as area saturation weapons. They caused both psychiatric as well as physical casualties. The variable timed and proximity fuse introduced by the Americans, significantly increased the lethality of artillery fire. These shells contained a miniature radio transceiver within it that could be set so that the round exploded at a predetermined distance near a plane or above the ground. Thus instead of creating a large whole in a small area, it spread out shrapnel over a wide area. One source estimates that it increased the killing power of artillery by a factor of 10. It was first used in the Pacific in naval warfare where there was no danger of it dolling into enemy hand. It was not used in Europe until the Bulge (December 1944).

A WWII 25 pounder field gun of the British Royal Artillery read to fire, somewhere on the North Africa. Three of the best known guns were the German 88mm, the American M59 155mm “Long Tom” long range field artillery, and the British 25 pounder.

The "Sturmtiger" (Assault Tiger) was a World War II German self-propelled assault mortar built on the “Tiger I” chassis and armed with a 380mm rocket-propelled round. The official German designation was "Sturmmörserwagen 606/4 mit 38cm RW 61". Its primary task was to provide heavy fire support for infantry units fighting in urban areas. The few vehicles produced fought in the Warsaw Uprising, the Battle of the Bulge and the Battle of the Reichswald. The fighting vehicle is also known under a large number of informal names, among which the "Sturmtiger" became the most popular.

31

Types of Artillery Pieces

Mortar Is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally been used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, generally less than 15 times its caliber. Mortar bombs are often referred to, incorrectly, as ‘mortars’.

Modern mortars and their ammunition are generally much smaller and lighter than artillery, such as guns and howitzers, which allows light and medium (typically, 60mm and 81/82mm) mortars to be considered light weapons; i.e. capable of transport by personnel without vehicle assistance. They are short-range weapons, and often more effective than artillery for many purposes within their shorter range. In particular, due its high, parabolic trajectory with a near vertical descent, the mortar can land bombs on nearby targets, including those behind obstacles or in fortifications, such as light vehicles behind hills or structures, or infantry in trenches or spider holes.

The British M252 81mm mortar in use by American Army on the Afghanistan.

The US M224 is the smallest standard mortar, but it is superior to the Vietnam era 81mm. It can be configured for patrol (left) or employed for direct and indirect fire from a prepared or hasty position (right).

32

Field Gun Is an artillery piece, commonly with a long barrel. Originally the term referred to smaller guns that could accompany a field army on the march and when in combat could be moved about the battlefield in response to changing circumstances (field artillery), as opposed to guns installed in a fort (garrison artillery/coastal artillery), or to siege cannon or mortars which were too large to be moved quickly, and would be used only in a prolonged siege.

Perhaps the most famous use of the field gun in terms of advanced tactics was Napoleon's use of very large wheels on the guns that allowed them to be moved quickly even during a battle. By moving the guns from point to point during the battle, enemy formations could be broken up to be handled by the infantry wherever they were massing, dramatically increasing the overall effectiveness of the infantry.

German WWII K5 towed railroad field gun.

British WWII QF MkII 25 pounder field gun.

33

M59 “Long Tom”

Type…………………………... Towed Field Gun Place of Origin………………

United States Wars…………………………... World War II, Korean War and Croatian War of Independence Designed……………………..1930s Weight Travel………………..13,880 kg (30,600 lbs) Barrel Length…………………6.97 m (22 ft 10 in) L/45 Crew………………………….. 14 Caliber……………………….. 155mm (6.10 in) Breech………………………...Asbury mechanism Carriage………………………M1 Carriage Elevation…………………….. −2°/+65° Traverse……………………… 60° Rate of Fire………………….. 40 rounds per hour Muzzle Velocity…………….. 853 m/s (2,799 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range…...23.7 km (14.7 mi)

34

The 155mm “Long Tom” field gun was developed and used by the United States Army. It was produced in M1 and M2 variants (later known as the M59). Developed to replace the Canon de 155mm GPF, the gun was deployed as a heavy field weapon during World War II and the Korean War, and also classed as secondary armament for seacoast defense. The gun could fire a 45.36 kg (100 lb) shell to a maximum range of 22 km (13.7 mi), with an estimated accuracy life of 1,500 rounds. The “Long Tom” was also adopted by a number of other nations, including the United Kingdom, Austria, Israel, and the Netherlands.

Before entering World War I, the United States was poorly equipped with heavy artillery. To address this problem a number of foreign heavy artillery guns were adopted, including the Canon de 155mm GPF. After the end of the war the Westervelt Board was convened to assess the artillery experience of the combatant powers and map out future directions for the US Army artillery. The conclusion of the Board was that the French 155mm GPF should be adopted as the standard heavy field piece but further development work should occur to achieve a heavy field gun with a max. range of 25,000 yards, a vertical arc of fire from 0° to 65°, a projectile not exceeding 100 lbs and the capability to be mounted on a caterpillar mount or a rubber tired towed mounting.

A number of prototypes were produced in the 1920s and 1930s, but the projects were put on hold due to lack of funds. In 1938 the 155mm Gun T4 on Carriage T2 was finally adopted as 155mm gun M1 on Carriage M1. The new gun design used a barrel similar to the earlier 155mm GPF, but with an Asbury mechanism that incorporated a vertically-hinged breech plug support. This type of breech used an interrupted-thread breech plug with a lock that opened and closed the breech by moving a single lever. The ammunition for the 155mm gun was "separate-loading", that is with the shell and the powder charge are packaged, shipped and stored separately. The shell is lifted into position behind the breach and then rammed into the chamber to engage the shell's rotating band into the barrel rifling. Ramming the shell home is followed by loading a number of powder bags, as required for the desired range. The powder charge could be loaded in up to seven charge settings. Once the powder is loaded, the breech plug is closed and locked, and a primer is placed in the breech plug's firing mechanism. After setting the elevation and azimuth, the gun is ready to fire. The firing mechanism is a device for initiating the ammunition primer. The primer then sets off the igniter which ignites the propelling charge of the ammunition.

The “Long Tom” saw combat for the first time in North African Campaign on December 24, 1942, with “A” Battery of the 36th Field Artillery Battalion. Eventually it equipped about 49 battalions, including 40 in the European Theatre and 7 in the Pacific. The preferable prime mover was initially the Mack NO 6x6 7½ ton truck; from 1943 on it was replaced by the tracked M4 High Speed Tractor.

A small number of “Long Tom” guns were authorised for supply via lends lease channels, to the United Kingdom (184) and France (25).

The gun was also mounted on a modified M4 medium tank chassis, in mount M13. The resulting vehicle was initially designated 155mm Gun Motor Carriage T83 and eventually standardized as 155mm Gun Motor Carriage M40. 155mm Gun Motor Carriage T79, based on T23 Medium Tank chassis, never advanced past proposal stage. A portable "Panama mount" M1 was also provided. The gun utilized separate loading, bagged charge ammunition. The propelling charge consisted of base (9.23 kg) and increment (4.69 kg). The data in the table below is for supercharge (base and increment). The gun was developed into M1A1 and M2 variants. After World War II, the United States Army re-organized, and the gun was re-designated as the M59.

After the gun was placed in a firing position with the gun pointing in the desired direction, the trails were lowered to the ground and the limber was removed. The carriage wheels would then be raised using built-in racketing screw-jacks, lowering the gun carriage to the ground. Once on the ground, the limber-end of the trail legs was separated to form a wide “V” with its apex at the center of the carriage pivot point. A recoil spade at the limber-end of each trail leg required a correctly positioned hole to be dug for the spade, which was attached to the trail end, to transmit the recoil from gun carriage through the trails and into the earth. This made the gun very stable and assisted its accuracy. The removable spades were transported in brackets on the trail legs.

Former Operators Italy; Pakistan;

France; Croatia;

Australia; South Africa;

Austria;

Japan;

United Kingdom;

Jordan;

South Korea;

United States;

Israel;

Republic of China;

Turkey;

Netherlands.

35

M65 “Atomic Annie”

Type……..........................Towed Field Gun Place of Origin……………

United States Weight…...........................83.3 tonnes (gun and carriage) Length……………………...84 feet (26 m) Width……………………….16.1 feet (4.9 m) Height……………………...12.2 feet (3.7 m) Crew………………………..5-7 Caliber……………………..280mm Effective Firing Range…...20 miles (30 km)

36

The M65 atomic cannon, often called “Atomic Annie”, was a 280mm towed artillery piece built by the United States and capable of firing a nuclear device. It was developed in the early 1950s, at the beginning of the Cold War, and fielded, by 1953, in Europe and South Korea. Picatinny Arsenal was tasked to create a nuclear capable artillery piece in 1949. Robert Schwartz, the engineer who created the preliminary designs, essentially scaled up the 240mm shell (then the maximum in the arsenal) and used the German K5 railroad gun as a point of departure for the carriage. (The name “Atomic Annie” likely derives from the nickname "Anzio Annie" given to a pair of German K5 guns which were employed against the American landings in Italy). The design was approved by the Pentagon, largely through the intervention of Samuel Feltman, chief of the ballistics section of the ordnance department's research and development division. A three-year developmental effort followed. The project proceeded quickly enough to produce a demonstration model to participate in Dwight Eisenhower's inaugural parade in January 1953.

The cannon were transported by two specially designed tractors, both capable of independent steering in the manner of some extralong fire trucks. Each of the tractors was rated at 375 hp, and the somewhat awkward combination could achieve speeds of 35 miles an hour and negotiate right angle turns on 28 ft wide, paved or packed roads. The artillery piece could be unlimbered in 15 minutes, and then returned to travelling configuration in another 15 minutes.

On May 25, 1953 at 8:30am, the atomic cannon were tested at the Nevada Test Site (specifically Frenchman Flat) as part of the “Upshot-Knothole” series of nuclear tests. The test codenamed “Grable” was attended by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Arthur W. Radford and Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson; it resulted in the successful detonation of a 15 kt shell (W9 warhead) at an altitude of about 150 m (490 ft) above the ground and a range of about 11 km (7 mi). This was the first and only nuclear shell to be fired from a cannon (the Little Feller 1 test shot of an M388 used a Davy Crockett weapon system which was a recoilless smooth bore gun firing the warhead mounted on the end of a spigot inserted in the barrel of the weapon.)

After the successful test, there were at least 20 of the cannons manufactured at Watervliet and Watertown Arsenals, at a cost of USD 800,000 each. They were deployed overseas to Europe and Korea, often continuously shifted around to avoid being detected and targeted by opposing forces. Due to the size of the apparatus, their limited range, the development of nuclear shells compatible with existing artillery pieces (W48 for the 155mm and W33 for the 203mm), and the development of rocket and missile based nuclear artillery, the M65 was effectively obsolete soon after it was deployed. However, it remained a prestige weapon and was not retired until 1963.

280mm “Atomic Annie” field gun in fire position.

Former Operators United States.

37

D-20

Type…………………………... Towed Gun-Howitzer Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union Weight………………………... 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) Length………………………… 8.69 m (28 ft 6 in) Barrel Length…………………5.195 m (20 ft) Width…………………………..2.35 m (7 ft 9 in) Height………………………… 1.93 m (6 ft 4 in) Crew..................................... 8 Caliber.................................. 152.4 mm (6 in) Breech………………………...Vertical semi-automatic sliding wedge Recoil………………………… Hydraulic buffer and hydropneumatic recuperator Elevation.............................. -5° to 45° Traverse……………………….58° Rate of Fire…………………... Burst: 5-6 rpm; Sustained: 1 rpm Muzzle Velocity…………….. 650 m/s (2,132 ft/s) (typical) Effective Firing Range……... 17.4 km (11 mi) Maximum Firing Range…… 24 km (15 mi) (rocket assisted projectile) Sights…………………………. PG1M indirect sight and OP4M direct fire sight

38

The 152mm gun-howitzer M1955, also known as the D-20, (152mm пушка гаубица Д-20) is a manually loaded, towed 152mm artillery piece, manufactured in the Soviet Union during the 1950s. It was first observed by the west in 1955, at which time it was designated the M1955. Its GRAU index is 52-P-546. The 152mm has been a Russian caliber since World War I, when Britain supplied 6 inch Howitzers and Russia purchased 152mm guns from Schneider (probably derived from the French 155mm Gun Mle 1877/16) for the Imperial Army. The new gun-howitzer, was a replacement of the pre-war ML-20 gun-howitzer (the 152 mm howitzer M1937) and various World War II era 152mm field howitzers, Model 09/30, Model 1910/30, Model 1938 M10 and Model 1943 D1. By Soviet definition, a 152mm howitzer is ‘medium’ caliber artillery. It was designated a ‘gun-howitzer’ because its muzzle velocity exceeded 600 m/s, and its barrel length exceeded 30 calibers. It equipped battalions in the motor rifle division artillery regiment and army level artillery brigades.

The D-20 has a 34 calibers (5.195 m) barrel, with a double baffle muzzle brake and a semi-automatic vertical sliding block breech, with a tied jaw and the block moving down to open. The barrel is mounted in a long ring cradle with the trunnions just forward of the breech. The recoil system (buffer and recuperator) is mounted on the cradle above the barrel. Compression balancing gear is attached behind the saddle support, passing through the complex shaped saddle to connect to the cradle just forward of the trunnions. This can be manually re-pressured by a pump below the breech. The breech has a projectile retaining catch to prevent the shell sliding out at higher elevations before it is pushed with a manual rammer. Top traverse totals 58° and the vertical elevation range is -5° to 45°. The non-reciprocating sights are standard Soviet pattern, designed for one-man laying. Included are a direct fire anti-tank telescope (OP4M), a panoramic periscopic indirect-fire sight, a dial sight, (PG1M) in a mounting, an angle of sight scale, and a range drum for each charge engraved with the range (distance) scale, coupled to an elevation levelling bubble mounted on dial sight mount. The range drum enables the standard Soviet technique of semi-direct fire when the piece is laid visually on the target and the range set on the range drum. Like most Soviet artillery, the gun fires separate ammunition using metal cartridge cases that also provide obturation. The ammunition is interchangeable with that used with other 152mm guns, although the more modern ones also have a third, much larger cartridge. The D-20 uses two types of cartridge; one has a base charge and up to five increments, the other is a single ‘super’ charge cartridge. The standard shell weight is 44 kg with a muzzle velocity of 655 m/s, but some projectiles are more or less than this. The basic shell is HE-Fragmentation; other projectiles include smoke, illuminating, chemical and probably incendiary.

Later projectiles include bomblet, anti-personnel mine, flechette, “Krasnopol” precision munition, communications jammer, and extended range HE using rocket assistance (RAP). The normally maximum range is 17.4 km, RAP being greater. Two direct-fire anti-tank projectiles have been used, HEAT and APHE, the latter being 5.2 kg heavier and with a lower muzzle velocity.

The maximum rate of fire is usually stated as 5 rounds/minute, and 65 rounds/hour sustained. In Soviet service, the 5,700 kg gun was usually towed by a URAL-375 6x6 truck or, in some regions, an AT-S or AT-L medium tractor.

Current Operators Angola;

Albania;

reserve forces;

Azerbaijan;

Armenia;

Georgia;

Belarus;

People's Republic of China - Type 66;

Bulgaria;

Croatia - 18 M84 “Nora” kept operational for the

Cambodia;

Iraq - All were destroyed in the 2003 invasion, new models bought from Bulgaria in 2015; Myanmar - 35; Russia; Vietnam;

North Korea;

Serbia - 20;

Moldova;

Singapore;

Nicaragua;

Sri Lanka;

Syria;

Congo;

Egypt;

Kazakhstan;

Nigeria - 4 from Romanian Army stocks; Turkmenistan;

Turkey;

Hungary;

Iran;

Lebanon;

Ukraine;

Romania; Uzbekistan;

Yemen.

Former Operators East Germany - Passed on to Germany after the German unification; 55;

Soviet Union - passed on to successor states;

Germany;

Finland - Ex-East German. Known as 152 H-

Yugoslavia - passed on to successor states.

39

D-74

Type……...............................Towed Field Gun Place of Origin….................

Soviet Union Wars…………………………..Vietnam War; Sino-Vietnamese War; Sino-Soviet border conflict; Indo-Pakistani War of 1965; Sino-Indian War; Yom Kippur War; Lebanese Civil War; South African Border War. Produced…………………….1955 Weight…………………………5, 62 tonnes (12,390 lbs) Length…………………………9.87 m (30 ft) Barrel Length………………...6.45 m (21 ft 2 in) Width…………………………..2.35 m (7 ft 9 in) Crew…………………………..7-9 Caliber………………………..122mm (4.8 in) Breech………………………...Horizontal sliding wedge Carriage………………………Same as D-20 152mm gun-howitzer Elevation……………………...+45° to -5° Traverse……………………….45º Rate of Fire…………………...8-10 rpm Muzzle Velocity……………..885 m/s (2,907 ft/s) Effective Firing Range……...Indirect: 23.9km (15 mi) Direct: 1,080 m (1,181 yds) Maximum firing Range…….24 km (15 mi)

40

The 122mm D-74 towed gun is a Soviet built gun. Developed in the late 1950s it provided direct and indirect fire for the Soviet Army.

Today it is in reserve units with the Russian Army. It is in active service with the Sri Lankan Army, the Egyptian Army and the Pakistani Army.

The 122mm guns have been in Russian service since the early 20th century. After World War II the Soviet Union developed two new long range guns to replace existing 122mm and 152mm guns such as 122mm gun M1931/37 (A-19), 122mm gun Model 1931, 152mm gun Model 1910/30 and 152mm gun Model 1935 (BR-2). The two new guns were the 122mm D-74 and the 130mm M-46. The D-74 design was probably initiated in the late 1940s and it was first seen in public in 1955. It was designed by the well established design bureau at Artillery Plant No. 9 in Sverdlovsk (now Motovilikha Plants in Yekaterinburg), led by the eminent artillery designer Fëdor Fëdorovich Petrov who was also responsible for several World War II and later artillery designs. The design team also developed the 152mm gun howitzer D-20 at much the same time, and both D-74 and D-20 use the same carriage.

Both the 122mm D-74 and 130mm M-46 entered Soviet service, but the heavier shell and greater range of the M-46 meant that it outlasted the D-74. The D-74 has a 52 calibers barrel, with a double baffle muzzle brake and a semi-automatic vertical sliding block breach, with a tied jaw and the block moving down to open. The barrel is mounted in a long ring cradle with the trunnions just forward of the breach. The recoil system (buffer and recuperator) is mounted on the cradle above the barrel. Compression balancing gear is attached behind the saddle support, passing through the complex shaped saddle to connect to the cradle just forward of the trunnions. This can be manually re-pressured by a pump below the breach. The breach has a projectile retaining catch to prevent the shell sliding out at higher elevations before it is pushed with a manual rammer. Top traverse totals 60° and the vertical elevation range in -5° to +50°.

As was normal for the period the gun has a shield, including a folding piece below the cradle support. The centre section of the upper shield both slides up and down and folds to accommodate the barrel at higher elevation angles of fire. The shield may offer some protection against muzzle blast to the sights and layer, although it is usually shown being fired with a long lanyard, but is probably mostly for defence against machine gun fire.

The non-reciprocating sights are designed for one-person laying. Included are a direct fire anti-tank telescope (OP4M), a panoramic periscopic indirect-fire sight, a dial sight, (PG1M), an angle of sight scale, and a range drum for the single charge engraved with the range (distance) scale, coupled to an elevation levelling bubble mounted on dial sight mount. The range drum enables the standard Soviet technique of semi-direct fire when the piece is laid visually on the target and the range set on the range drum.

Maximum rate of fire is usually stated as six rounds per minute. The detachment was either eight or nine men, probably differing between armies and period. In Soviet service the 5,600 kg gun was usually towed by a URAL-375 6x6 truck, AT-S or AT-L medium tractor in some regions.

The gun fires separate ammunition using a metal cartridge case that also provides obturation. The ammunition is different to that used with 122mm howitzers. There is a single charge without increments. The shell weight is 25 kg with a muzzle velocity of 900 m/s although the slightly lighter APHE shell has a higher muzzle velocity.

Current Operators Angola; Zimbabwe;

People's Republic of China;

Sri Lanka;

Pakistan;

Iran;

Egypt;

Syria;

North Korea;

Cambodia.

Former Operators Soviet Union.

41

M-46

Type…………………………... Towed Field Gun Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union Produced……………………..1951-1971 Weight………………………... 7.7 tonnes (16,975 lbs) Length………………………… 11.73 m (38 ft 6 in) Barrel Length…………………6.76 m (22 ft 2 in) L/52 Width…………………………..2.45 m (8 ft) Height………………………… 2.55 m (8 ft 4 in) Crew………………………….. 8 Shell…………………………… Separate-loading charge and projectile Caliber……………………….. 130mm (5.1 in) Breech……………………….. Horizontal sliding wedge Recoil………………………… Hydropneumatic Carriage………………………Split-trail Elevation…………………….. -2.5° to 45° Traverse……………………… 50° Rate of Fire…………………... 5 (sustained); 6 (normal); 8 (burst) Muzzle Velocity…………….. 930 m/s (3,051 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range…… 27.5 km (17 mi) (unassisted) 38 km (23.61 mi) (assisted)

42

The 130mm towed field gun M-46 (130mm пушка M-46) is a manually loaded, towed 130mm artillery piece, manufactured in the Soviet Union in the 1950s. It was first observed by the west in 1954. For many years, the M-46 was one of the longest range artillery systems around, with a range of more than 27 km. The order was given in April 1946 to design a "duplex" artillery system to replace the obsolete 122mm gun M1931/37 (A-19), 152mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20) and other World War II era field guns, such as 122mm Model 1931, 152mm Model 1910/30, 152mm Model 1935 (BR-2). The new systems, designed by the factory No. 172 (MOTZ), shared the same carriage and were given the designators M-46 (130mm) and M-47 (152mm). The respective GRAU designators are 52-P482 and 52-P-547. The development phase was finished in 1950 and one year later series production started. Many M-46s were exported.

A second ‘duplex’ artillery system was subsequently designed by FF Petrov's design bureau at Artillery Factory No. 9. This comprised a 122mm gun and a 152mm Howitzer. The D-74 was a competitor to the M-46; and while many were produced; the M-46 became the only long range gun in Soviet service until new 152mm guns in the 1970s.

The M-46 was developed from the M-36 130mm naval gun used on ships and for coast defence. It is a true gun, being unable to fire much above 45° and having a long barrel and a single propelling charge. In contrast, most Western field guns of this period had a dual high and low angle fire capability, a gun-howitzer.

It has a 52 caliber barrel with a tied jaw horizontal sliding block breach and “pepperpot” muzzle brake. The latter is not notably efficient, but subjective reports suggest that it is quite effective in reducing muzzle flash. The hydro-pneumatic recoil system comprises a buffer below the barrel and a recuperator above the barrel. The long barrel enables a substantial propelling charge by providing more length in which to achieve ‘all-burnt’ and hence projectile acceleration space and thus achieve its 930 m/s muzzle velocity.

The barrel is mounted on a split-trail carriage, with deep box section trails and foam filled road wheels on the ground when firing and 50° of top traverse. The small shield protects little more than the sights, possible including from the effects of muzzle blast, and some protection from machine gun fire in anti-tank engagements. The gun has long and robust trails to provide stability when firing, a large detachable spade is fitted to the end of each when the gun is brought into action.

Non-reciprocating sights are standard Soviet pattern, designed for one-man laying. Included are a direct fire anti-tank telescope, a panoramic periscopic indirect-fire sight (a dial sight) in a reciprocating mounting, an angle of sight scale, and a range drum engraved with the range (distance) scale, coupled to a mounted elevation levelling bubble. The range drum enables the standard Soviet technique of semi-direct fire when the piece is laid visually on the target and the range set on the range drum. An APN-3 was later provided for direct fire at night in place of the day telescope.

For travel, the gun is towed via a two-wheeled limber fitted to the end of the closed trails, with the spades removed and carried on each trail. Simple jacks on the trails just behind the main wheels are used to lift and support the closed trails so that the limber can be connected. The barrel and recuperator are pulled back between the closed trails and locked in a travelling position. There is a large bicycle chain arrangement on the right trail for this, and a compressed air cylinder, charged by the gun firing, is used to bring the barrel forward when the gun is brought back into action. It takes about four minutes to bring the gun into action; the normal detachment is eight strong.

Propelling charges are in metal cartridge cases and loaded separately from the projectile. Projectiles originally included HE fragmentation, Armour Piercing solid shot, smoke, illuminating and chemical. HE shells weigh some 33 kg. Illuminating shells have a substantially lower muzzle velocity. APHE and extended range shells were introduced later. Maximum rate of fire is probably 6-7 rounds/minute, and about 70 rounds/hour. The standard Soviet unit of fire was 80 rounds.

The M-46 was first seen openly at the 1954 May Day Parade in Moscow. It initially replaced the 100mm BS3 field and anti-tank gun.

However, its long range made it well suited for counter-battery actions - some western troops on its receiving end have reported poor fragmentation, and large fragments would be consistent with the counter-battery purpose. Its Soviet use with an integrated fire control system including SNAR-2 radars has also been reported. In Soviet service, M-46 battalions were in Army and Front artillery brigades.

It is or has been in service with at least 25 countries and has been license manufactured in China as the Type 59. It was replaced in Soviet/Russian inventory by the 2A36 “Giatsint-B” and the self-propelled 2S5 “Giatsint-S”. Several companies, like Soltam and RDM Technology BV, have presented upgrade packages for the gun. These include, for instance, an upgrade to a 45 caliber 155mm gun.

The M-46 saw extensive use by the NVA in Vietnam War, especially at the siege of Khe Sanh. It was regarded by both sides as the best all-round field artillery of the Vietnam War. A version of this gun, possibly the Chinese-manufactured Type 59-1, is suspected to have been used by North Korea for shelling the South Korean island of Yeonpyeong in the Yellow Sea on 23 November 2010.

The Egyptian M-59-1M is similar to the Type 59-1.

43

Above, the Chinese version of the M-46, which is called Type 59-1.

Current Operators Algeria - 10 M-46;

Angola - 48 M-46;

Herzegovina - 61 M-46, Type 59-1 and A412;

Armenia;

Azerbaijan – 36;

Cambodia - Type 59-1;

36 A412 known as Top 130mm M46H1 kept operational for the reserve forces; Type 59;

Bangladesh - 72 Type 59-1;

Cameroon - 112 Type 59-1; Cuba;

Bosnia and

Ivory Coast;

Croatia -

Democratic Republic of the Congo - 8

Egypt – 420; M-46 locally produced under license, 150 Chinese copy Type 59-1;

Eritrea - 9 M-46 (via Bulgaria);

Finland - Army: 72 units, Navy: 72 units, known as 130 K-54. Now being phased out of service. Also used for coastal defence; Guyana - 6 M46; Islamic State;

India - 550 M-46 including self-propelled guns Catapult; Libya - 330 M-46;

Morocco - 18 M46; Type 59-1; Army;

Mozambique - 20 M-46;

Iran - 1,100 units M-46 and Type 59-1;

Lebanon - 25 M-46;

Myanmar - 80 from DPRK;

North Korea – M-46, Type 59 and Type 59-1, some self-propelled; People's Republic of China - Type 59-1;

Serbia - two battalions; 59-1.

Laos - 10 M46;

Tanzania - 30 M-46;

Peru - 30 M-46;

Sri Lanka - 12 Type 59-1;

Sudan – M-46;

Thailand - 18 Type 59-1;

Mongolia - unknown number M-46; Nigeria - 7 M46;

Oman - 12 M46 and 12

Pakistan - 410 Type 59-1 in service with the Pakistan

Russia – reserve;

Republic of the Congo - 5 Type 59;

Syria - 800 M46 and Type 59-1;

Vietnam – M-46 and Type 59-1;

Taliban;

Yemen - 70 M-46;

Zambia - 18 Type

Former Operators Afghanistan - Status unknown;

Albania - 100 Type 59 (known as M-59) and Type 59-1 (known as M-59/1);

Czechoslovakia - Phased out in the early 1990s; Israel - 100 captured;

Bulgaria;

Iraq - Status unknown of its M46 and Type 59-1;

Lebanese Forces - Unknown number of M46 and Type 59-1 guns in service during the 1980s;

Romania - 75 M1982 in reserve; Reserve;

Ethiopia - Status unknown;

South Africa - 6 on loan from Israel;

Soviet Union - Passed on to successor states;

Somalia - Status unknown;

United Arab Emirates –

Yugoslavia - passed on to successor states.

44

ML-20

Type…………………………... Towed Gun-Howitzer Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union Weight………………………... Combat: 7,270 kg (16,027 lb); travel: 7,930 kg (17,482 lb) Length………………………… 8.18 m (26 ft 10 in) (with limber; barrel pulled back) Barrel Length…………………Overall: 4.412 m (10 ft) L/29 (without muzzle brake) Width..................................... 2.35 m (7 ft 9 in) Height………………………… 2.27 m (7 ft 5 in) Caliber……………………….. 152.4mm (6 in) Breech……………………….. Interrupted screw Recoil………………………… Hydropneumatic Elevation…………………….. -2° to 65° Traverse……………………… 58° Rate of Fire…………………... 3-4 rounds per minute Maximum Firing Range…….17.23 km (10.7 mi)

45

The 152mm gun-howitzer ML-20 (152mm гаубица-пушка МЛ-20), was a Soviet heavy gun-howitzer. The gun was developed by the design bureau of the plant No 172, headed by F. F. Petrov, as a deep upgrade of the 152mm gun M1910/34, in turn based on the 152mm siege gun M1910, a pre-World War I design by Schneider. It was in production from 1937 to 1947. The ML-20 saw action in World War II, mainly as a corps / army level artillery piece of the Soviet Army. Captured guns were employed by German “Wehrmacht” and the Finnish Army. Post World War II, the ML-20 saw combat in numerous conflicts during the mid to late 20th century.

The ML-20 was officially classified as gun-howitzer, i.e. an artillery system which combines characteristics of a howitzer and (to lesser extent) of a gun and therefore can be used in both roles. This universality was achieved by wide range of elevation angles and by using separate loading with 13 different propellant loads. The gun was fitted with both telescopic sight for direct fire and panoramic sight for an indirect one. For ballistic calculations and meteorological corrections a special mechanical device was developed. The device, called meteoballistic summator, consisted of a specialized slide rule and a pre-calculated table. After World War II similar devices were introduced for other types of guns.

The barrel was either monobloc or built-up. Some sources indicate that a third type with loose liner also existed. To soften recoil, a large slotted muzzle brake was fitted. The breechblock was of interrupted screw type, with forced extraction of cartridge during opening. A safety lock prevented opening of the breechblock before the shot; if there was a need to remove a shell, the lock had to be disabled.

To assist loading when the barrel was set to high elevation angle, the breach was equipped with cartridge holding mechanism. The gun was fired by pulling a trigger cord.

The recoil system consisted of a hydraulic buffer and hydropneumatic recuperator. Each held 22 litres of liquid. Pressure in the recuperator reached 45 atm.

The carriage was of split trail type; with shield and balancing mechanism, leaf spring suspension and steel wheels with rubber tires (some early production pieces received spoked wheels with solid tires from M1910/34). During transportation the barrel was usually retracted. The gun could also be towed with the barrel in its normal position, but in this case the transportation speed was limited, about 4–5 km/h (compared to 20 km/h with barrel pulled back). The gun could be set up for combat in 8–10 minutes. The carriage, designated 52-L504A, was also used in the 122mm gun model 1931/37 (A-19).

In the early stage of the German invasion of the Soviet Union hundreds of ML-20 were captured by the “Wehrmacht”. The gun was adopted by Germans as 15.2cm KH.433/1(r). From February 1943 Germans manufactured ammunition for the gun.

The Finnish Army captured 37 guns of the type in 1941–44 and received additional 27 from Germany. These guns were adopted as 152H37. A number of barrels were mated with carriages of A-19 to create 152H37-31. While the gun was generally liked, the Finnish Army didn't possess enough prime movers suitable for towing such a massive piece. As a result, some of the guns were assigned to coastal artillery. Two pieces were captured back by the Red Army. A number of these guns were modernized in 1988 and as of 2004 still remain in reserve as 152H88-37 (all of the 152H88 series are being withdrawn as of 2007).

Self-Propelled Versions SU-152 - KV-1 Heavy tank chassis, in production from February to December 1943, 670 units built.

ISU-152 - IS-1 Heavy tank chassis, in production from November 1943 to 1946, 3,242 units built.

ISU-152 model 1945 A single prototype was built with an IS3 heavy tank chassis.

After the war the ML-20 was widely exported to Warsaw Pact allies and too many states in Asia and Africa (in some of those states the gun still remains in service). It was adopted by Egypt and Syria and therefore saw action in Arab-Israeli conflict. In 2002 a TV documentary featured ML-20 employed by the Afghan Northern Alliance forces against the Taliban fighters; it seems likely that the guns were initially supplied to the Najibullah's regime.

46

The ML-20 was one of the most successful Soviet artillery pieces of World War II. Its characteristics positioned it between classical shortrange howitzers and special long-range guns. Compared to the former, the ML-20 has better range (e.g. the German 15cm sFH18 had range of 13.3 km), which often allowed it to shell positions of enemy artillery while remaining immune to enemy fire. Its advantage over the latter was in weight and cost, and therefore in mobility and production rate.

Of other guns with more or less similar characteristics, there were French 155mm guns model 1917 and 1918 with longer range, but some 3.5 tons heavier (as was the US 155mm “Long Tom”). The Czechoslovakian howitzer K4 (used by Germans as 15cm sFH37(t)) was about 2 tons lighter, but with range more than 2 km shorter and only 178 pieces were built. The British BL 5.5 inch (140mm) Medium Gun probably had the closest characteristics; weight slightly over six tonnes and range of 18,100 yd (16,600 m) with an 82 lb (37 kg) shell.

The main shortcomings of the ML-20 were its weight and limited mobility. As the experience of the ML-15 project suggests, the gun could be made somewhat lighter and more suitable for high-speed transportation. The use of a muzzle brake can be seen as a minor flaw: while softening the recoil and thus allowing the use of a lighter carriage, a muzzle brake has the disadvantage of redirecting some of the gases that escape the barrel toward the ground, where they can raise dust, potentially revealing the gun position. But when the ML-20 was developed, muzzle brakes were already a common design element in artillery pieces of that class.

Former Operators WWII Soviet Union; evaluation;

Nazi Germany (German Army);

Finland;

UK - small number of captured German pieces was used for

USA - small number of captured German pieces was used for evaluation.

Post-War Soviet Union; Egypt;

Afghanistan;

Finland;

Poland – 135;

Georgia;

Romania – 154;

Albania;

Algeria;

East Germany; Syria;

Ukraine;

Bulgaria -165; Iraq;

China;

North Korea;

Cuba;

Libya - 25;

Czechoslovakia; Mongolia;

Namibia;

Vietnam.

47

Howitzer Is a type of artillery piece characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small propellant charges to propel projectiles in relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent.

In the terminology of artillery pieces used by European (and European-style) armies in the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, the howitzer stood between the "gun" (characterized by a longer barrel, larger propelling charges, smaller shells, higher velocities, and flatter trajectories) and the "mortar" (which was meant to fire at even higher angles of ascent and descent). Howitzers, like other artillery equipment, are usually organized in groups called batteries.

US M2 105mm Towed Howitzer.

The modern howitzers were invented in Sweden towards the end of the 17th century. These were characterized by a shorter trail than other field guns, meaning less stability when firing, which reduced the amount of powder that could be used; armies using these had to rely on a greater elevation angle to achieve a given range, which gave a steeper angle of descent.

Originally intended for use in siege warfare, they were particularly useful for delivering cast-iron shells filled with gunpowder or incendiary materials into the interior of fortifications. In contrast to contemporary mortars, which were fired at a fixed angle and were entirely dependent on adjustments to the size of propellant charges to vary range, howitzers could be fired at a wide variety of angles.

Thus, while howitzer gunnery was more complicated than the technique of employing mortars, the howitzer was an inherently more flexible weapon that could fire its projectiles along a wide variety of trajectories.

In the middle of the 18th century, a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field. Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability. Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely on momentum for their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the 18th century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells. Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges.

Types of Howitzers: A Self-Propelled Howitzer is mounted on a tracked or wheeled motor vehicle. In many cases, it is protected by some sort of armor so that it superficially resembles a tank. Although, mostly, it's not designed for the front line, and cannot withstand direct anti-armor fire.

Instead, it acts, primarily, to protect the crew from shrapnel and small arms.

A Pack Howitzer is a relatively light howitzer that is designed to be easily broken down into several pieces, each of which is small enough to be carried by mule or pack-horse.

A Mountain Howitzer is a relatively light howitzer designed for use in mountainous terrain. Most, but not all, mountain howitzers are also pack howitzers.

A Siege Howitzer is a howitzer that is designed to be fired from a mounting on a fixed platform of some sort.

A Towed Howitzer is a howitzer that is mobile enough to accompany a field army on campaign. It is, invariably, provided with a wheeled carriage of some sort.

48

M102

Type……………………………Towed Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

United States In service……………………..1964-present Wars……………………………Vietnam War, Invasion of Grenada, Gulf War and Iraq War Designed……………………..1962 Manufacturer…………………Rock Island Arsenal Weight…………………………1.496 kg (3.298 lb) Length…………………………Travel: 5.18 m (20 ft) Barrel Length…………………32 calibers Width…………………………..Travel: 1.96 m (6 ft 5 in) Height…………………………Travel: 1.59 m (5 ft 3 in) Crew…………………………..8 Caliber………………………..105mm (4.1 in) Action…………………………Vertical sliding-wedge Recoil………………………….Hydropneumatic Elevation……………………..-5 ° to + 75 ° Traverse……………………….360 ° Rate of Fire……………………Maximum: 10 rpm; Normal: 3 rpm Effective Firing Range………11.5 km (7.1 miles) Maximum Firing Range…….15.1 km (9.4 miles) with rocket-assisted projectile

49

The M102 was a light-towed 105mm howitzer used by the United States Army in the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and the Iraq War. The M102 105mm howitzer is used in air mobile (helicopter), attack plane, and light infantry operations. The weapon carriage is lightweight welded aluminum, mounted on a variable recoil mechanism. The weapon is manually loaded and positioned, and can be towed by a 2t truck or High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), can be transported by UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, or can be dropped by parachute with airborne units. When emplaced, the howitzer's high volume of fire compensates in large measure for the lower explosive weight of the projectile compared to the Army's 155 mm and 8 inch howitzers. Since 1964, the Army acquired 1,150 M102 towed howitzers. The weapon is being replaced by the M119 series 105mm howitzers.

Units were initially equipped with the M101A1 howitzer, virtually the same 105mm howitzer that had been used to support U.S. forces since World War II. In 1966 a new 105mm towed howitzer, the M102, was received in Vietnam. The first M102s were issued to the 1st Battalion, 21st Field Artillery, in March 1966. Replacement of the old howitzers continued steadily over the next four years.

The first production versions were displayed with a muzzle brake, most likely to allow long range 105mm rounds to be fired, but was discontinued before shipment to Vietnam.

The panoramic telescope has a four power, fixed focus optical system, with 178 mils field of view. It contains dry nitrogen gas to retard fogging and condensation. The parallax shield used during bore sighting protects the lens.

The M102 is also used on the United States Air Force's Lockheed AC-130 gunship. The M102 105mm cannon was modified to be fired from the left rear side door of the AC-130. To accommodate the cannon, the rear side-firing 40mm guns were replaced by the radome that formerly had been installed in the door cavity.

That change provided enough space for the 105mm gun to be mounted in the doorway in place of the radome. The gun was first used in the later stages of the Vietnam War and is still used in the AC-130U gunship. The latest AC-130J “Ghostrider” gunship was not originally planned to include the 105mm, but designed with enough spare power and room to mount it at some later point. The Air Force decided to include it in January 2015, starting installation on the third aircraft, then having the first two be retrofitted when guns become available; M102s will be pulled off retiring AC-130Us and put into the AC-130Js.

The 105mm howitzer M102 is a light-weight towed howitzer, which has a very low silhouette when in the firing position. The M102 howitzer fires a 33 lb (15 kg) projectile of semi fixed ammunition and at charge 7 will fire 11,500 meters. It has a muzzle velocity of 494 m/s (1,620 ft/s). The maximum rate of fire is 10 rounds per minute for the first 3 minutes, with a sustained rate of 3 rounds per minute.

Current Operators Brazil 19; Turkey;

El Salvador 24;

Jordan 50;

United States – AC-130 gunship;

Malaysia 40; Tunisia 50;

Oman 36; Uruguay 15;

Philippines 24; South Korea;

Saudi Arabia 140; Belgium.

Former Operators Khmer Republic;

South Vietnam – unknown number was used by the Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division.

50

M114

Type…………………………... Towed Howitzer Place of Origin………………

United States In Service……………………..1942–present Designed…………………….. 1939–1941 Manufacturer……………….. Rock Island Arsenal Produced……………………..1941–1953 Weight………………………... Travel: 5,800 kg (12,800 lb); Combat: 5,600 kg (12,300 lb) Length………………………… Travel: 7.315 m (20 ft) Width…………………………. Travel: 2.438 m (8 ft) Height………………………… Travel: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) Crew………………………….. 11 Shell…………………………… Separate-loading bagged charge Caliber……………………….. 155mm (6.1 in) Breech……………………….. Slow-cone interrupted screw Recoil………………………… Hydropneumatic system Elevation…………………….. -2°/+63° Traverse……………………… 25° left or right Rate of Fire…………………... Burst: 4 rpm; sustained: 1 rpm Muzzle Velocity…………….. 563 m/s (1,847 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range…… 14,600 m (16,000 yd)

51

The M114 155mm howitzer was a towed howitzer developed and used by the United States Army. It was first produced in 1942 as a medium artillery piece under the designation of 155mm Howitzer M1. It saw service during World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Cambodian Civil War, Laotian Civil War and Lebanese Civil War. The gun was also used by the armed forces of many nations. In some countries, the M114 still remains in service.

A new carriage was under development for much of the 1930s for the existing World War I era M1918 155mm howitzer, which was a license-built French gun “Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider” until 1939 when it was realized that it did not seem logical to put a new carriage underneath an obsolete howitzer. So development began a new with a carriage designed to be used for either the 155mm howitzer or the 4.7 inch (120mm) gun. This was completed by 15 May 1941 when the Howitzer M1 on the Carriage M1 was standardized. The howitzer itself differed from the older model by a lengthened barrel of 20 calibers and a new breech mechanism.

Uniquely it was the sole 'slow-cone' interrupted screw mechanism to enter service after 1920. This meant that two separate movements were necessary to open the breech, versus the single movement of the 'steep cone' mechanism that simultaneously rotated and withdrew the breech. The M1A1 was redesignated as the M114A1 in 1962.

The howitzer was experimentally mounted on a lengthened chassis of the M5 light tank. The resulting vehicle received the designation 155mm Howitzer Motor Carriage T64. A single prototype was built before the T64 project was abandoned in favor of T64E1, based on the M24 Chaffee light tank chassis. This was eventually adopted as the M41 Howitzer Motor Carriage and saw action in the Korean War. Towards the end of the Korean War the US Army replaced the M41 self-propelled howitzer with the M44 self-propelled howitzer.

The gun fired separate loading, bagged charge ammunition, with up to seven different propelling charges, from 1 (the smallest) to 7 (the largest). On the US Army the M114 saw service during World War II, Korean War and Vietnam War before being replaced by the M198 howitzer.

Current Operators Afghanistan; Iran;

Argentina;

South Korea;

Philippines;

Laos;

Portugal;

Vietnam;

Tunisia;

Bosnia and Herzegovina;

Lebanon;

Morocco;

Republic of China;

Brazil;

Cameroon;

Chile;

Ecuador;

Pakistan: 144 in service with the Pakistan Army;

Thailand: In reserve;

Turkey;

Uruguay;

Peru;

Venezuela;

Indonesia.

Former Operators Austria; Italy;

Belgium; Japan;

United States;

Khmer Republic; Jordan;

Libya;

Republic of Vietnam;

Canada; Norway;

Croatia; Netherlands;

Denmark;

France;

Saudi Arabia;

Greece;

Singapore;

Israel; Spain;

Yugoslavia (passed on to successor states).

52

D-30

Type…………………………... Towed Howitzer Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union In service…………………….. 1963–present Wars…………………………... Cold War, Syrian Civil War, Yemeni Civil War (2015-present), Saudi-led intervention in Yemen Produced……………………..1963–present Weight………………………... Combat: 3,210 kg (7,080 lb) Length………………………… Transport: 5.4 m (17 ft 9 in) Width…………………………..Transport: 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) Crew………………………….. 1+7 Caliber……………………….. 122mm (4.8 in) Recoil………………………….Hydropneumatic Elevation……………………... −7° to +70° Traverse……………………….360° Maximum Rate of Fire……...10–12 rpm; Sustained: 5–6 rpm Effective Firing Range……....15.4 km (9.6 mi); 21.9 km (13.6 mi) (with rocket-assisted projectile)

53

The 122mm howitzer D-30 (GRAU index 2A18) is a Soviet howitzer that first entered service in the 1960s. It is a robust piece that focuses on the essential features of a towed field gun suitable for all conditions. The D-30 has a maximum range of 15.4 kilometers, or over 21 km using RAP ammunition.

With its striking three-leg mounting, the D-30 can be rapidly traversed through 360°. Although no longer manufactured in the nations of the former Soviet Union, the D-30 is still manufactured internationally and is in service in more than 60 countries' armed forces.

The barrel assembly of the 2A18 gun is used by the 2S1 self-propelled howitzer. There are also Egyptian, Chinese, Serbian and Syrian selfpropelled variants and conversions. The Syrian conversion utilizes the hull of a T-34 tank.

Distinctive features of the D-30 include its low mobile mounting and above-barrel recoil system. The three-legged mobile mount is unusual for field artillery, with stabilizers that are clamped together for towing and deployed when in action. A large tow linkage is fixed to the muzzle; in transport the barrel serves as a trail. Similar mounts were a feature of several 76mm pre-war (1931–1935) universal (both field and anti-aircraft) guns designed by Leningrad`s Kirov Plant (L-1, L-2 and L-3). Other examples were the 1939 French 47SA39 APX, and 1943 German 105mm light field howitzers designs by Skoda and Krupp; neither entered service. The Bofors 105mm L28 Light Field Howitzer 4140 was similarly arranged with four legs and did enter Swedish service. The 1930s designed British 2 pdr. anti-tank gun was another piece featuring a three-legged mounting.

Compared to the M-30, the new howitzer had a significantly longer 35 caliber gun barrel, just short of being a gun-howitzer by Soviet definition. Like other guns of the period, it had a high efficiency muzzle brake; this improved muzzle velocity by 175 m/s to a total of 650 m/s for HE, and raised maximum range by 3,500 m beyond the similar M-30. Maximum range was 2 km better than the 76mm M1942 at 15.3 km. Weight increased by 650 kg over the M30, to 3,150 kg; the D-30 is over twice the weight of the 76mm M1942. Accuracy improved, with mean error at about 10 km dropping from 35 m with the M-30 to just 21 m.

Effective stabilization length is a fundamental aspect of a gun mount, and yours legs of 120° apart need to be longer than those with a smaller angle. The D-30's design minimizes this problem in several ways. Trunnions are close to the ground, as a result of placing the recoil system and cradle above the barrel. The trunnions are also at the very rear of the breech; this maximizes the recoil space when firing at higher elevation angles. Their rearward position also pushes the recoiling element forward on the mount, maximizing relative rearward span of the stabilizers and so stability during recoil. Additionally there is a very efficient muzzle brake, which absorbs about half the recoil. There is no mechanism to reduce recoil length as the angle of elevation increases.

Some of the design decisions have a price. The muzzle brake produces about twice the overpressure in the area around the gun that is acceptable to Western armies, and is the reason it is often seen being fired with a long lanyard, which reduces rate of fire. Furthermore, the maximum elevation angle is restricted to 18° (early versions) or 22° (later versions) when the breech is over a trail leg. This is enforced by a mechanical cam that prevents the piece firing for about 60% of the total top traverse, and limits range to about 12 km, with full maximum range only possible in the central arc of about 48° between each pair of legs. The extreme rearward location of the trunnions means the elevating mass is unbalanced, requiring a strong balancing mechanism to enable manual elevation. To do this, the D-30 uses compression balancing gears.

Soviet 122mm howitzers used different ammunition to 122mm guns, although there was some compatibility. In the case of ammunition for the D-30, the standard 122mm howitzer shell weight of 21.8 kg was retained, with a metal cartridge case holding variable propelling charges. Cartridge and shell are loaded separately; this means that the shells have to be hand-rammed by a man to the right of the breech with a ramming rod.

The D-30 could fire the older M-30 ammunition; however, new shells were also introduced, eventually including a rocket assisted projectile with a range of 21.9 km. The M30’s range of propelling charges, comprising base and eight increments, was replaced by a new set comprising base and four increments; single base propellant was retained. A more effective High Explosive (HE) shell was developed, as well as smoke, illumination and chemical filled projectiles.

In keeping with Soviet doctrine, the anti-tank role is important; there is a HEAT shell capable of penetrating 460mm of steel armour plate.

Self-Propelled Versions 2S1 “Gvozdika” was developed on basis of MT-LB tracked vehicles that were often employed by Soviet forces for towing instead of trucks. Combining the gun D-30 with the chassis of the MT-LB, the 2S1 “Gvozdika” was made. This was the first Soviet enclosed turret selfpropelled artillery gun, going into service in the early 1970s.

The 2S1 is very light and mobile, and amphibious without preparation. Good mobility and the quick reaction abilities of the 2S1 enhance the flexibility of the D-30, reducing its vulnerability in maneuver battles.

“Sora” 122mm is most modern self-propelled version of the D-30 with automatic loader, inertial navigation system (INS) and fire control system, mounted on a modified FAP 2026 chassis designed by Military Technical Institute Belgrade.

SH-2 Chinese wheeled version developed by Norinco. It has modern fire control system and howitzer is elevated by electric motors.

PLZ 07 is a Chinese version of tracked D-30 122mm. It has NBC protection system, Nigh/Day driving vision, firing control system.

There are more self-propelled versions developed by other countries by mounting D-30 on some tracked or wheeled vehicles at disposal of their armed forces. Most of them do not have any complex fire control system and are manually loaded and elevated.

Cuba, Sudan, Syria and Egypt have produced such simplified variants.

Syrian D-30 Self-Propelled Artillery is a conversion on the hull of a T-34 tank.

Post 1973, Syrian and Egyptian armed forces fielded D-30 guns fitted to the hulls of obsolete T-34 tanks, similar to Israeli conversions of Sherman hulls. This rather crude modification improves the speed of divisional artillery, allowing for the ability to match speed with frontline mechanized forces. A major drawback is the lack of protection for the gunners.

54

The Soviet D-30 122mm Howitzer has the maximum rate of fire of the D-30 is 6–8 rounds per minute, and about 75 rounds per hour.

There is disagreement as to whether this maximum rate of fire is achievable for indirect fire. Based on reloading speeds of similar guns using separate charges, solo re-laying, and given a stable emplacement, semi-automatic breech and no long lanyard, (examples are the 25 pdr. and 105mm L118), and assuming concurrent lay adjustment during reloads, then it probably is when in the hands of a competent detachment. However, 5-6 rounds per minute may be more realistic with a poorly trained gun crew. The D-30 is noted for simplicity of maintenance by its users; reputedly there are no special tools, all jobs can be done with a wrench and large hammer.

However, like any other gun, routine maintenance is essential.

55

Current Operators Afghanistan;

Albania – about 200 units;

Bangladesh;

Belarus;

units (D-30 HR M94);

Benin;

Estonia – 42 units;

Czech Republic;

Macedonia;

Kosovo – in reserve;

propelled systems; Korea;

Armenia – 80;

Azerbaijan – 195 units;

Cambodia;

Congo;

Nicaragua;

Egypt – 600 units (locally produced);

Georgia – 98–120 units;

Iraqi Kurdistan;

Kyrgyzstan – 72 units; Mongolia;

Djibouti;

Peru;

India - 850 units;

Indonesia;

Laos;

Lebanon;

Libya;

Morocco;

Madagascar;

Mozambique;

Tajikistan – 12 units;

Iran – 400–600 units;

Mali- 8 units;

Myanmar – Imported from North

Pakistan – 143 delivered by China between 2003 & 2004. Used by the Pakistan Army; Nigeria;

Russia;

Rwanda;

Singapore;

mounted on a modified 6x6 Kamaz 43118 truck, this self-propelled system being designated the Khalifa-1; Zambia – 25 units;

Ethiopia;

Kazakhstan – 183 units, will be partially converted into Semser self-

Montenegro – 30 units;

North Korea;

People's Republic of China; Syria;

Croatia – 52

Finland – 486 units (Finnish designation was originally 122 H 63 after certain modernizations its current

designation is 122 H 63A);

Mauritania;

Angola;

Cuba – 100 mounted on T34, 55 mounted on T55 chassis and 25 mounted on KrAZ-255 6x6 trucks. (D30 are

made locally in small quantities);

Iraq;

Algeria;

Bosnia and Herzegovina – 86 units;

Ukraine – 443 units;

Slovakia;

Uzbekistan – 540 units;

Sudan – some units Serbia – 303 units; Vietnam;

Yemen;

Zimbabwe.

Former Operators East Germany;

Soviet Union – Passed on to successor states;

Yugoslavia;

Kosovo Liberation Army(KLA).

56

M198

Type…………………………... Towed Howitzer Place of origin……………….

United States In Service……………………..1979 to present Wars…………………………... Gulf War Designed…………………….. 1968–1977 Manufacturer……………….. Rock Island Arsenal (US) Produced……………………..1978–1992 Weight………………………... 7,154 kg (15,772 lb) Length………………………… Combat: 11 m (36 ft 2 in); Travel: 12.3 m (40 ft 6 in) Barrel Length…………………6.09 (19.98 ft) Width…………………………..Travel: 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) Height………………………… Travel: 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in) Crew………………………….. 9 Caliber……………………….. 155 mm (6.1 in) Elevation…………………….. -5° to +72° Traverse……………………… 45° Rate of Fire…………………... Maximum: 4 rpm; Sustained: 2 rpm Muzzle Velocity…………….. 684 m/s (2,240 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range…… Conventional: 22.4km (14 mi); RAP: 30km (18.6 mi)

57

The M198 howitzer is a medium-sized, towed 155mm artillery piece, developed for service with the United States Army and Marine Corps. It was commissioned to be a replacement for the WWII era M114 155mm howitzer. It was designed and prototyped at the Rock Island Arsenal in 1969 with firing tests beginning in 1970 and went into full production there in 1978. It entered service in 1979 and since then 1,600 units have been produced and put into operation.

The M198 is being replaced in US and Australian service by the M777 howitzer.

The M198 155mm howitzer weighs less than 16,000 pounds (7,300 kg), allowing it to be dropped by parachute or transported by a CH53E Super Stallion or CH-47 Chinook. The M198 is a towed howitzer that is transported tail first. The gun tube can be rotated over the howitzer's trail legs to reduce its length, though this requires removal of the muzzle brake, or left in the firing position for faster deployment. When firing, the weapon is lowered onto its base plate rather than being anchored to the ground, allowing for rapid emplacement.

The breech is operated manually via a screw type mechanism that rests low in an ergonomic position. The M198 fires non-fixed ammunition and can be loaded with a variety of propellants and projectiles. The effective range is 18,100 meters when firing standard projectiles, which increases to 30,000 meters when firing rocket-assisted projectiles and guided ammunition. With the 52 calibers modification the range can surpass 40,000 meters. The weapon system requires a crew of 9 and is capable of firing at a maximum rate of four rounds per minute, two sustained.

The M198 is deployed in separate corps- and army-level field artillery units, as well as in artillery battalions of light and airborne divisions.

It also provides field artillery fire support for all Marine Air-Ground Task Force organizations.

The first 10 M198 Howitzers were delivered to the 10th Marine Regiment in January 1982. Even as work efforts toward acquiring a light weight 155mm Towed Howitzer continue, progress and improvements continue in support of the existing M198 155mm Medium Towed Howitzer.

58

Current Operators Bahrain 18 in service with Royal Bahraini Army;

Ecuador: 12;

Honduras 12;

Iraq 120 howitzers supplied from U.S., 52

of them captured by ISIS; Lebanon Total is 219 pieces. 36 Howitzers operated by the LAF since the 80's, 41 Howitzers received in 2008, followed by 30 M-198 Howitzers in January, 2010, 72 pieces delivered on 8/2/2015,and a batch of 40 pieces on 8/9/2016 ; Malaysia;

Morocco: 35 units;

service with Somali Armed Forces;

Pakistan: 148 in service with the Pakistan Army; Tunisia: 57–60 units in service;

Saudi Arabia 42;

Somalia 18 in

Thailand: 116 units in service with Royal Thai Army.

Former Operators Australia 36;

United States 358.

59

Autocannon or Automatic Cannon Is a large, fully automatic, rapid-fire projectile weapon that fires armour-piercing or explosive shells, as opposed to the bullet fired by a machine-gun, autocannons often have a larger caliber than a machine gun (e.g., 20mm or greater), but are usually smaller than a field gun or other artillery pieces. When used on its own, the word ‘autocannon’ indicates a single-barrel weapon. When multiple rotating barrels are involved, the word ‘rotary’ is added, and such a weapon is referred to as a ‘rotary autocannon’. Modern auto cannons are typically not single soldier-portable or stand-alone units, rather they are usually vehicle-mounted, plane-mounted, or boat-mounted, or even remote-operated as in some naval applications.

As such, ammunition is typically fed from a belt to reduce reloading or for a faster rate of fire, but a magazine remains an option. They can use a variety of ammunition; common shells include high-explosive dual-purpose types (HEDP), any variety of armour-piercing (AP) types, such as composite rigid (APCR) or discarding sabot types (APDS). Although capable of generating a high rate of fire, auto cannons overheat if used for sustained fire, and are limited by the amount of ammunition that can be carried by the weapons systems mounting them. Both the US 25mm Bushmaster and the British 30mm Rarden have relatively slow rates of fire so as not to use ammunition too quickly.

The rate of fire of a modern autocannon ranges from 90 rounds per minute (in the case of the British Rarden), to 2,500 rounds per minute with the “GIAT 30”. Systems with multiple barrels can have rates of fire of over 10,000 rounds per minute (the Russian GSh-6-23 for example). Such extremely high rates of fire are effectively employed by aircraft in air-to-air combat and close air support attacks on ground targets, where the target is and time is short and weapons are typically operated in brief bursts.

“Flak Panzer” Gepard of german army is equipped with two anti-aircraft autocannons Oerlikon KDA 35mm.

The ZU-23-2, also known as ZU-23, is a Soviet towed 23mm anti-aircraft twin-barrelled autocannon. “ZU” stands for “Zenitnaya Ustanovka” (Зенитная Установка) meaning anti-aircraft gun. This weapon was used by “Mujahideen” too on the Soviet-Afghan War, like shown on the figure above.

60

ZU-23-2

Type…………………..........Towed Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……...........

Soviet Union In Service…………............1960–present Weight………………..........0.95 tonnes (2,094 lbs) Length………………...........4.57 m (10 ft) Barrel Length………...........2.008 m (79.1 in) (87.3 calibers) Crew…………………..........2 - gunner and commander Shell…………………...........23x152B Caliber………………..........23mm Action………………….......Gas operated Traverse………………........360° Rate of Fire…………..........2000 rpm cyclic, 400 rpm practical Effective Firing Range.......2.5 km (2 mi)

61

The ZU-23-2 (‘ZU’ stands for “Zenitnaya Ustanovka” Зенитная Установка, meaning ‘anti-aircraft gun’) was developed in the late 1950s, and entered service with the Soviet Army in 1960. It was designed to engage low-flying targets at a range of 2.5 km as well as armoured vehicles at a range of two kilometres (km) and for direct defense of troops and strategic locations against air assault usually conducted by helicopters and low-flying airplanes. In 1955, KBP presented the single-barrel ZU-1 and the twin-barrel ZU-14. While the former was eventually dropped, the ZU-14 was selected and, after some modifications, entered series production. In the Soviet Union, some 140,000 units were produced. The ZU-23 has also been produced under license by Bulgaria, Poland, Egypt and the People's Republic of China.

Development of this weapon into a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) led to the ZSU-23-4 “Shilka”. The ZU-23-2 (2A13) mounts two 23mm autocannons on a small trailer which can be converted into a stationary mount for firing the guns. While in this position the wheels are moved aside. The autocannon can be prepared for firing from the travel position in 30 seconds and in emergency can be fired from the travelling position. The weapon is aimed and fired manually, with the help of the ZAP-23 optical-mechanical sight which uses manually entered target data to provide limited automatic aiming. It also has a straight-tube telescope T-3 for use against ground targets such as infantry as well as unarmored or lightly armoured vehicles.

The ZU-23-2 is often mounted on trucks or pickup-trucks for use in both anti-aircraft and fire support roles. It can also be mounted on the roof of the “MT-LB” multi-purpose tracked APCs. Specially modified three-legged ZU-23-2 is used in “BTR-DG” based airborne SPAAG. The ammo is fed by a conveyor belt from two ammunition boxes. Each of the ammunition boxes is located on the side of the twin autocannon and each carries 50 rounds. The fumes created by firing the weapon are partially removed through the side openings in the barrels. Normally, once each barrel has fired 100 rounds it becomes too hot and is therefore replaced with a spare barrel. Each weapon is normally provided with two replacement barrels as part of its standard equipment.

Tulamashzavod Joint Stock Company is offering to upgrade the 2A14 guns to the 2A14M standard with a barrel life of 10,000 rounds instead of 8,000 rounds. The cannon carriage is based on the earlier ZPU-2 anti-aircraft twin heavy machine gun, which mounted two KPV 14.5 mm heavy machine guns.

ZU-23-2 can be identified by different placement of the ammunition boxes (at right angles to the gun carriage) and by muzzle flash suppressors. In another similarity to the ZPU series, single-barrel and four-barrel versions of the ZU-23 were also developed. However, these versions never entered service. ZU-23-2 can be towed by a number of different vehicles. In USSR and later Russia the most frequently used towing vehicles for it were GAZ-66 4x4 trucks and GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks.

The 23mm AA gun utilizes the same 23x152B case as the wartime VYa aircraft autocannon. Due to different loadings and primers the ammunition is not interchangeable, however: ammunition of the anti-aircraft cannon can be identified from its steel casings, ammunition for the aircraft cannon having brass cases instead.

Cheap, easy to operate and still effective, the ZU-23-2 is still used by the Russian Army and by more than 20 other armies.

From 1965 onward, the Soviet Union began supplying the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with large shipments of weapons. The 23mm ZU-23-2 was, along with the 37mm M1939, the most frequently encountered anti-aircraft gun in Vietnam. Given that 83% of the USAF losses came from ground fire, the ZU-23 was probably responsible for shooting down hundreds of aircraft.

During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet forces put ZU23-2 sets to secure the air defense of occupation area and used as fire support.

In the later Afghan War, the belligerents including Taliban and Northern Alliance used ZU-23-2, along with the SA-7 or Stinger Missile, as their primary air-defense weapons.

In late 1983, the ZU-23M was used in attacks against U.S. Marine ground forces fighting with the Multinational Force in Lebanon. At the time, a Marine spokesman described such antipersonnel use of the weapon as a violation of the laws of war; however, writing for the Marine Corps Gazette in 1988, Maj. W. Hays Parks dismissed this allegation as incorrect. The type has seen widespread use by both sides in the Libyan Civil War often mounted on technical pickup trucks. The weapon has been heavily used in the Syrian Civil War.

ZU-23 of the Soviet Navy.

62

The following table lists the main characteristics of some of the available 23x152B ammunition used in 23mm AA guns:

Designation

Type

Projectile Weight (g)

Bursting Charge (g)

Muzzle Velocity (m/s)

Description

BZT

API

190

-

970

Blunt AP steel core, with incendiary charge inside windshield cap. Penetration 15 mm RHA at 1000 m range and 30 degree impact angle (from perpendicular), tracer burn time 5 seconds.

OFZ

HE

184

19

980

HE fragmentation round with nose fuzes incorporating selfdestruct mechanism.

OFZT

HE-T

188

13

980

HE fragmentation round with a reduced HE charge due to the space taken by the tracer; tracer burn time 5 seconds.

APDS-T

APDS-T

103

none

1220

A Polish sub-caliber armour-piercing round with tracer.

Penetration 30mm RHA at 100 m range and 30 degree impact angle (from perpendicular), tracer burn time >2.5 s.

BTR-ZD (ZU-23-2) Airborne Air Defense Gun Vehicle.

63

During the 1991 Gulf War, the ZU-23 was heavily used by the Iraqi army, both against aerial targets as well as ground targets.

One of the most common uses of this weapon is shown in the figure above, on light or armored vehicles, in this case a GAZ-66 truck.

Current Operators Afghanistan;

Algeria – 60;

Bulgaria – 128; Cyprus; guidance;

Armenia;

Cambodia; Djibouti;

Azerbaijan;

Bangladesh;

Ecuador - Type 80;

Greece – 523;

Cape Verde – 8;

Ethiopia – 10;

Guinea-Bissau – 16;

Finland - 1,100;

India – 800, to be upgraded;

Gabon – 24;

Indonesia - 4 systemZUR-

23-KG-I as part of the "Kobra" AD system for the TNI-AU + 18 Type 80 as part of the Giant Bow II AD system for the TNI-AD; Iraq - Use on Polish and Bulgarian built MT-LB; Hungary;

Laos – 2;

ISIL;

Morocco – 160;

Mozambique – 150; Peru – 230;

Lebanon - 1,000+ mostly mounted

Libya - 450 most captured by Free Libyan Army and mounted

Moldova - Small number, some mounted on BTR-D;

Myanmar - 380 Type 87;

Namibia;

Poland - 444 ZUR-23-2 series + some naval versions;

Nicaragua – 20; Russia;

Mali;

Syria;

Tanzania – 40; Vietnam;

Uganda – 5; Yemen – 200;

Ukraine;

Mongolia;

Nigeria – 20;

Pakistan - 5,200;

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic – 50;

South Africa - 36 "Zumlac" on an armoured SAMIL 100 heavy truck. Captured in Angola in the 1980s; 23ZOM 1-4;

Iran;

Israel Captured from Arab Armies over the Arab-Israeli Conflict;

Latvia - 3 ZU-23-2MR Wróbel II on Imanta and Viesturs ships;

on M113 APC's for fire support on ground targets and air defense; on light trucks;

Cuba;

Egypt - 220 as Nile 23 and Sinai 23, and 650 upgraded with radar

Estonia - 198, some mounted on MAN 4520 6x6 trucks;

Georgia – 200;

Bosnia and Herzegovina – 150;

China - Type 85, Type 87(25 183mmB, not 23 152mm);

United States - Testing only;

Somalia;

Sri Lanka;

Venezuela - up to 300 ZU-

Zimbabwe – 5.

Former Operators Soviet Union - Passed on to successor states; militants during the Rhodesian Bush War.

East Germany;

Rhodesia - 12 were captured from Soviet-supplied

64

ZSU-57-2 “Sparka”

Type……………………. Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……….

Soviet Union In service……………... 1955-early 1970s (USSR); 1957-present (other countries) Produced……………... 1948-1955 (prototypes); 1957-1960 (serial production) Number Built…………. More than 2,023 (USSR); 250 (North Korea, old turrets on new hulls) (PLA, Type 80) Weight………………… 28.1 tons Length………………… 8.46 m with gun in forward position (6.22 m hull only) Width…………………... 3.27 m Height…………………. 2.71 m; 2.75 m (with a tarpaulin top) Crew…………………… 6 (commander, driver, gunner, sight adjuster, and two loaders) Armor ..........................8-15mm Main Armament……………. 2 x 57mm L/76.6 S-60 anti-aircraft autocannons (57mm S-68A variant) (300 rounds) Engine…………………. V-54, 4-stroke, airless (mechanical)-injection, water-cooled 38.88 liter V12 diesel 520 hp (388 kW) at 2,000 rpm Power/Weight………...18.5 hp/tonne (13.81 kW/tonne) Suspension…………… Individual torsion bar with hydraulic shock absorbers on the first and last road wheels Fuel Capacity………...830 l (including two externally mounted fuel tanks, 95 l each) Operational Range…………………. 420 km (road); 320 km (off-road) Speed…………………. 50 km/h (31 mph) (road) 30 km/h (off-road)

65

The ZSU-57-2 “Sparka” (Ob'yekt 500) is a Soviet self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG), armed with two 57mm autocannons. ‘ZSU’ stands for “Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka” (Зенитная Самоходная Установка), meaning “anti-aircraft self-propelled gun” and ‘57’ stands for the bore of the armament in millimetres and ‘2’ stands for the number of gun barrels.

It was the first Soviet mass-produced tracked SPAAG. In the USSR it had the unofficial nickname “Sparka” (pair), referring to the twin auto cannon with which the vehicle is armed. For several years after World War II there were no new SPAAG models in the USSR except for the BTR-152A (which were armed with two or four 14.5mm KPV heavy machine guns, designed ZTPU-4) and the BTR-40A (ZTPU-2) wheeled SPAAGs. Two of the USSR's potential enemies the United States and Great Britain, had high-quality air forces with substantial ground-attack experience. The need for a new tracked AA vehicle was apparent.

In February 1946, the Design Bureau of Works No. 174 in Omsk and the Research Institute No. 58 in Kaliningrad, Moscow Oblast submitted a joint project for a SPAAG based on the T-34 tank chassis, to be armed with four 37mm AA guns, to the Technical Council of the Ministry of Transport. However, the project did not proceed due to the desire to concentrate attention on the newest tank chassis available. The Design Bureau of Research Institute No. 58 (NII-58) (formerly known as the Central Artillery Design Bureau, TsAKB), under the supervision of V.G. Grabin, began the development of a twin 57mm S-68 automatic anti-aircraft gun based on the 57mm S-60 in the spring of 1947. The first S-68 prototype (with ESP-76 diesel-electric drive), was ready in 1948.

It was initially mounted on an S-79A four-wheel carriage; that system passed various tests but did not go into production.

The final project of the ZSU-57-2 (Ob'yekt 500) armed with twin S-68s and based on a light-weight T-54 tank chassis, was finished in 1948.

The first prototype ZSU-57-2 was built in June 1950, the second in December 1950. After official tests, taking place between 27 January and 15 March 1951 in which the vehicle was driven for 1,500 km and 2,000 rounds were fired from its guns, six more prototypes were built for service tests. These prototypes had some improvements included, such as an increased ammunition load (300 rounds), but development stopped again due to the absence of improved S-68A guns.

Various updates continued in 1952 and 1953. The service tests, in which two vehicles participated, took place in December 1954. This was due to delays in the development of drives for the S-68 guns. The ZSU-57-2 officially entered service in the Soviet Army on 14 February 1955.

The ZSU-57-2 consists of three compartments: driver's in the front, fighting in the middle and engine-transmission at the rear. The hull is more spacious in comparison with the T-54 because of the thinner armour and has different locations for some equipment. The general layout, with transverse mounting of the engine, is the same.

The driver's compartment is located on the left hand side of the front of the hull. The driver's seat is moved forward and to the left in comparison with its location in the T-54.The compartment is equipped with a single-piece hatch cover opening to the left and two periscopic vision devices. One of them can be replaced by the TVN-1 infrared vision device which is operated together with the infrared headlamp (active night vision), which is mounted on the right track board. A fire-fighting equipment signal panel and a spare parts case are also located in the driver's compartment. The open-topped box-type welded turret has a ball-bearing race ring 1850mm in diameter. The turret rear can be removed which makes replacement of the guns easier. The turret can be covered in the travelling position by a tarpaulin which has 16 Plexiglas windows.

To aim the guns, base data such as the target's speed, direction and range must be entered into the sighting system by the sight adjuster, who sits to the left of the guns at the rear of the turret. The target's speed and direction is determined by visual estimation, while range can also be estimated visually or with the rangefinder. The upper front of the turret has two small ports with armoured covers meant for collimators of the sight.

Based on past experiences with SPAAG designs, Soviet engineers designed a vehicle that used a modified T-54 chassis, with four twin road wheels per side instead of five, and much thinner armour. The vehicle was armed with twin 57mm S-68 autocannon in a new, large, rotating, open-topped turret.

66

To fire the guns, the breeches must first be opened. The left and right loaders, located in the forward part of the turret on both sides of the main armament, load the clips into the magazines of their respective weapons. The loaders' travel seats should be stowed in clamps on the turret sides before opening fire. The gunner, seated on the left hand side in the middle of the turret, aims the gun and opens fire using an electric trigger, which fires both barrels, or two foot pedals, which can fire either barrel independently. If manual mechanical backup gun lying is used instead of electro-hydraulic drive, three crew members instead of two should work with the sight.

The commander, who sits on the right hand side in the middle of the turret, lays the gun in azimuth, the gunner in elevation and the sight adjuster enters data into the sight. The loaders feed clips into the twin auto cannon manually as needed, similar to the Bofors 40mm. The twin S-68s are recoil-operated and weigh 4,500 kg. Their construction was based on two 57mm S-60 AA autocannons.

The guns have recoil of between 325 and 370mm. The individual weapons cannot be swapped from one side to the other as they are mirror images. Each air-cooled gun barrel is 4365mm long (76.6 caliber) and is fitted with a muzzle brake. They can be elevated or depressed between -5° and +85° at a speed of between 0.3° and 20° per second, the turret can traverse 360° at a speed of between 0.2° and 36° per second. Drive is from a direct current electric motor and universal hydraulic speed gears (a manual mechanical drive is also provided in case of electro-hydraulic failure; with the use of mechanical drive, elevation speed is 4.5° per second and the turret traverse speed is 4° per second).

The guns firing together are capable of firing up to 210-240 fragmentation and armour-piercing tracer (AP-T) shells per minute, with a practical rate of fire of between 100 and 140 rounds per minute. Muzzle velocity is 1,000 m/s. Each clip has 4 rounds, each of which weighs 6.6 kg; the charge in each round consists of 1.2 kg of 11/7 nitrocellulose powder, a projectile weighs 2.8 kg. Maximum horizontal range is 12 km (with an effective range against ground targets of up to 4 km / 2.5 miles. Maximum vertical range is 8.8 km with a maximum effective vertical range of 4.5 km / 14,750 ft). Fragmentation rounds have a safety-destructor which activates between 12 and 16 seconds after being fired to ensure the shells won't fall back to ground, so the maximum slant range of anti-aircraft fire is 6.57 km. BR-281 armour-piercing rounds are able to penetrate 110mm armour at 500 m or 70mm armour at 2,000 m (at 90° impact angle).

The S-68 auto cannon were the most powerful AA gun installed on SPAAGs at that time.

According to the statistical data of the Air Defence Research Institute, a direct hit of a single 57mm shell could destroy a contemporary jet aircraft. In order to shoot down a jet bomber of the Canberra type, an average of 1.7 hits were deemed necessary.

The vehicle carries 300 rounds, and the ammunition is stowed as follows: 176 rounds in clips inside the turret, 72 rounds in clips in the hull front, and 52 separate (unclipped) rounds in special compartments under the turret floor. Armour-piercing rounds in clips are placed in the rear part of the turret to the left and right of the guns. Empty shell cases and clips are removed via a conveyor belt through a special port in the turret rear into an external metal wire basket on the back of the turret.

A ZSU-57-2 used in the Vietnam War by the Vietnam People's Army (VPA). The ZSU-57-2s electrical power unit partially differs from the T-54, in that it consists of a more powerful G-74 direct current generator which develops 3 kW (108 A at 27–29 V) at 2100 rpm and six 24 volts 6-STEN-140M or 6-MST-140 accumulator batteries (total battery capacity is 420 A/h), the batteries are used for starting the engine and an electrical power supply when the generator is shut down.

67

The ZSU-57-2 is equipped with an automatic anti-aircraft sight of the plotter type with two collimators which can supervise a target with a speed of up to 350 m/s, a dive angle of between 0° and 90° and a slant range of up to 5,500 m; a simple mechanical sight is provided in case of failure. There is also an optical sight for direct fire at ground targets.

The 10RT-26E portable radio transceiver is located on the right hand side of the turret interior. It has a range of 9 to 20 km when the vehicle is stationary and from 7 to 15 km when the vehicle is on the move. It was later replaced by R-113 or R-113 radio transceivers. The TPU-4-47 intercom system was later replaced by R-120 or R-124 intercom systems.

Small arms for the crew members include two 7,62mm AK-47 assault rifles and a 26mm signalling pistol. The main weakness of the ZSU57-2 was the lack of a search or fire-control radar; the vehicle was equipped with an optical mechanical computing (analog) reflex sight as the sole fire control system, so it could engage visible targets only. Night firing was also impractical. Also, the manual gun laying and manual clip loading was not good enough, the rate of fire is not high enough, particularly considering that air-cooled barrels require quite long pauses for cooling at high rates of fire and the turret traverse is not fast enough to effectively intercept high-speed attack jet aircraft at low altitudes. The vehicle cannot perform aimed fire on the move.

Although the ZSU-57-2 had the highest firepower among production SPAAGs of its time, the anti-aircraft fire efficiency of a battery of four vehicles was even lower than that of a battery of six towed 57mm S-60 anti-aircraft guns controlled by the PUAZO-6 (Pribor Upravleniya Artilleriiskim Zenitnym Ognyem - device to control AA artillery fire) anti-aircraft artillery director with the SON-9 fire control radar or later by the RPK-1 Vaza radar.

It became obvious that the hit probability on a jet aircraft of the era was very low using only determination of target speed by aircraft type and determination of distance to the target by eye or by rangefinder; the ZSU-57-2 was designed to defend tank units against NATO attack aircraft flying at subsonic speeds, but it entered service ten years too late. Aircraft technology had improved to the point that a SPAAG required a much higher rate of fire, turret traverse speeds of 50° to100° per second and a fully automatic radarcontrolled fire control system.

Works No. 174 started a modernization programme for the ZSU-57-2 in parallel with the beginning of its serial production in 1957, but this programme was rejected due to the development of new radar-guided SPAAG “Shilka”; armed with small-bore autocannons and another tracked chassis.

The ZSU-57-2 still retained some of the features of its predecessor, the ZSU-37. One of them was the lack of an armoured roof on the turret. The advantages of an open turret for SPAAGs, such as very high elevation angle for AA autocannons, excellent visibility of the combat situation by the gunners and no need for induced ventilation of the fighting compartment during intense fire were significantly over-shadowed by the disadvantages. The open turret of the ZSU-57-2 made it vulnerable from above, and prevented operations under NBC conditions. This flaw was partially nullified in the modified Bosnian Serb ZSU-57-2s, which had improvised overhead armour protection.

A “Sparka” exemplar on duty in the Soviet Army.

68

Nevertheless, its Western counterparts that were operationally available in the 1950s, such as the US M19 GMC (based on the M24 “Chaffee” light tank) and the M42 “Duster” SPAAGs (both armed with the famous 40mm Bofors M2A1 twin AA gun) and the British ‘AA’ SPAAG which was armed with a single 40mm Bofors AA gun, had similar problems and were armed with less powerful weapons. The M42 was tested with a T50 radar system in 1956 though it was a failure (production of the ZSU-57-2 had not started at this point).

The ZSU-57-2 officially entered service with the Soviet Army in 1955.

The first vehicles began replacing BTR-40As and BTR-152As in the anti-aircraft batteries of tank regiments in 1957. It was first shown publicly during the military parade in Moscow on 7 November 1958.

Initially, tank regiments had a single battery equipped with four SPAAGs, later increased to two batteries, each equipped with four SPAAGs. The vehicle was also used by some motor (which in the 1960s had one battery equipped with four SPAAGs or, more likely, with six 23mm ZU-23 towed twin AA guns). The anti-aircraft performance of the ZSU-57-2, however, was quickly found to be unsatisfactory and, because of rapid air force development, the vehicle was deemed obsolete by the early 1960s. ZSU-57-2s were gradually replaced by radar-guided ZSU-23-4 Shilka at the beginning of 1965. Towards the end of the 1960s, a frequent configuration was one battery of an AA battalion in a tank regiment equipped with ZSU-23-4s and another battery equipped with ZSU-57-2s. Unpopular in the Soviet Army, the ZSU-57-2 was replaced by ZSU-23-4s by the early 1970s.

The ZSU-57-2 was used in combat for the first time in the Vietnam War by the Vietnam People's Army (VPA), beginning with the Easter Offensive in 1972. It also saw action during the Ho Chi Minh Campaign in 1975. Several batteries of ZSU-57-2s were used for the air defence of the 201st and 202nd tank regiments during the Easter Offensive of 1972. ZSU-57-2s were used by the VPA against US aircraft but it proved to be more effective against ground targets. South Vietnam also used captured ZSU-57-2s. About 500 ZSU-57-2s survived the war. 200 are still in service.

ZSU-57-2s were used during several conflicts in the Middle East including the Six Day War in 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in 1973, in both cases by Egypt and Syria. A battery of Egyptian ZSU-57-2s together with T-34s defended El-Arish airstrip. These were defeated by a company of Israeli M48 “Patton” MBTs belonging to the 7th Armored Brigade during an intense action on 6 June 1967. ZSU-57-2s were not generally successful and a number fell into Israeli hands. Syria used ZSU-57-2s during the 1982 Lebanon War during which they unsuccessfully engaged Israeli air force aircraft over the Beqaa Valley. However, the vehicles fared better when used against land targets. During the Iran–Iraq War, ZSU-57-2s were used by both Iraq and Iran. Iraq also used Chinese Type 80s during this conflict and the First Persian Gulf War. Iraqi ZSU-57-2s, which could receive information from the radar on ZSU-23-4s or 9K31 “Strela-1” (SA-9 Gaskin)/9K35 “Strela-10” (SA-13 Gopher) surface-to-air missile systems were employed against Iranian AH-1J “Sea Cobra” attack helicopters.

On 16 January 1991, during the First Persian Gulf War, Iraqi ZSU-57-2s shot down a “Tornado GR1” strike aircraft during an attack by four British aircraft on the Iraqi Shaibah air base.

The same day in the late evening one more “Tornado GR1” was shot down and three other British Tornados were badly damaged by AA fire near Shaibah. ZSU-57-2s were also used in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. When the Syrian Civil War started, only 10 (from the 250) ZSU57-2 was in active duty in the Syrian Army. During the war this vehicle was rarely seen and not documented in its use. However, there is at least footage that this vehicle has been used by the Syrian Army in the spring of 2014, in the fights at Harasta, Rif Dimashq Governorate. The purpose of these vehicles probably has changed to ground support only.

ZSU-57-2s saw service during the Yugoslav Wars, usually in light batteries used by Serbs and Montenegrins of the JNA for attacking ground targets. They were used during the war when Croatian forces captured two ZSU-57-2s from the JNA. They were also used in the air defence role in 1999 during the NATO air raids against Yugoslavia when the Yugoslavs operated 54 of these vehicles.

A modified Bosnian Serb ZSU-57-2 at a cantonment area in Zvornik, Republika Srpska, on 28 February 1996 during Operation Joint Endeavor.

69

Soviet ZSU-57-2 with a canvas above the turret.

Polish ZSU-57-2 late 1970s.

North Vietnamese ZSU-57-2. About 500 were deployed, and it was quickly discovered like the M42 “Duster�, that it was just as effective in providing fire support for infantry attacks.

Serbian ZSU-57-2 in the 1990s. These were modified with extra storage acting as armour and fitted with a hard top made of armour plates.

Finnish ItPsv SU-57-2. Some were given an additional front machine gun.

70

The Type 80 is a Chinese reverse engineered ZSU-57-2. An identical ZSU-57-2 turret is installed on a Type 69-II chassis. The Type 80 can be identified by its five wheel chassis and track skirts. The performance of the Type 80 is slightly more effective than the ZSU-57-2 as proximity fuzed ammunition is used. Only a small number was produced as in the 1980's the ZSU-57-2 was already obsolete technology.

Current Operators Algeria -45 ordered in 1974 and delivered between 1975 and 1976 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service); Angola -40 ordered in 1975 from Soviet Union (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). All 40 ZSU-57-2s are currently in service;

Bulgaria -100 ordered in 1965 from Soviet Union (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service). Dozens are currently in

service;

Cambodia;

People's Republic of China – Received a few from Iraq for reverse-engineering. The PRC operates small

numbers of Type 80 SPAAGs;

Cuba -Received 25 ZSU-57-2s stationed on the island ordered in 1963 from Soviet Union (the vehicles

were previously up to few years in Soviet service); 1962. 40 remain in service;

Egypt – 100 ordered in 1960 from Soviet Union and delivered between 1961 and

Eritrea – Received a number from Ethiopia;

delivered in 1978 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service);

Ethiopia -10 ordered in 1977 from Soviet Union and

Hungary - 24 received between1964-1970. These vehicles into

service in Tank Brigades (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service); Indonesia; North Korea – 250 ZSU-57-2 turrets ordered in 1967 and delivered between 1968 and 1977 (the turrets were previously mounted on Soviet ZSU-57-2s). They were fitted in North Korea onto Type 59 hulls;

Mozambique -20 ordered in 1982 from Soviet Union and delivered between 1983 and 1984 (the

vehicles were previously in Soviet service); Union. 10 in service as of 2005; in service.

Somalia;

Sudan;

Syrian Arab Republic -250 ordered in 1966 from Soviet

Vietnam – At peak there were 500 ZSU-57-2s in service with the Vietnamese army. Currently 200 are

Former Operators Bosnia & Herzegovina – Delivered many in 2012;

Finland –12 ordered from Soviet Union in 1960 and delivered between 1960

and 1961.withdrawn from service in 2006; East Germany – 129 ordered in 1957 from Soviet Union. All was replaced by ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" SPAAGs between 1967 and 1974. It was completely removed from East German service in 1979. Some were converted into the FAB 500U driver training vehicle. They were passed on to the unified German state; Germany's Army;

Germany – FAB 500U taken from East

Iran –100 ZSU-57-2s ordered in 1966 from Soviet Union (the vehicles were previously up to few years in Soviet

service).Around 90 remained in service until 2002; Iraq – 100 ZSU-57-2s ordered in 1970 from Soviet Union and they were delivered between 1971 and 1973 (the vehicles were previously up to few years in Soviet service). Iraq also operated a number of Chinese built Type 80s. All ZSU-57-2s and Type 80s were destroyed or scrapped prior to 2003;

Poland – 129 ZSU-57-2s ordered in 1957 from Soviet

Union and delivered between 1957 and 1961. Replaced by the ZSU-23-4 "Sziłka"; Republika Srpska – 25 in 2002; Romania –60 ordered in 1965 from Soviet Union and delivered between 1965 and 1966 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service).Phased out in the 1990s and replaced with Gepard SPAAGs;

Slovenia – Slovenia operated 12 ZSU-57-2 from 1991 until they were retired in early

2000s. Some were donated to museums, but few may remain in storage;

Soviet Union – Replaced with the ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" at the

beginning of the 1970s; training units used the ZSU-57-2 at least until the end of the 1970s; North Vietnam – 500 including 100 ordered in 1971 from Soviet Union and delivered between 1971 and 1972 (the vehicles were previously in Soviet service).Passed on to the successor state;

South Vietnam – A number captured from the VPA;

Yugoslavia – 100 delivered between 1963 and

1964; Croatia - Captured several units during the Yugoslav wars and operated them during the rest of the wars; Israel – Captured a number of ZSU-57-2 SPAAG’s from the Egyptians or the Syrians during the Six-Day War and operated them during the rest of the war.

71

ZSU-23-4 "Shilka"

Type……………………. Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin………..

Soviet Union In Service……………... 1962-present Produced…………….. 1964-1982 Weight………………… 19 tons Length…………………. 6.535 m Width………………….. 3.125 m Height…………………. 2.576 m (3.572 m with elevated radar) Crew…………………… 4 (commander, driver, gunner, radar operator) Armor…………………..Welded steel, 9.2mm turret, up to 15mm hull Main Armament……………. 4x23mm 2A7 autocannons (520 rounds per each upper cannon and 480 rounds per each lower cannon) Engine…………………. V-6R, 6-cylinder 4-stroke airless-injection water-cooled 20 liter diesel 280 hp (209 kW) at 2,000 rpm Power/Weight……….. 14.7 hp/tonne (11.0 kW/tonne) Suspension…………… Individual torsion bar with hydraulic shock absorbers of 1st, 5th left and 6th right road wheels Fuel Capacity……….. 515 l Operational Range…………………. 450 km (road), 300 km (off-road) Speed…………………. 50 km/h (road), 30 km/h (off-road)

72

The development of the ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" began in 1957 along with ZSU-37-2 "Yenisei" and the vehicle was brought into service in 1965, replacing all ZSU-57-2s in air defense units toward the beginning of the 1970s. The ZSU-23-4 was intended for AA defense of military facilities, troops, and mechanized columns on the march; originally, the more powerful guns of "Yenisei" were judged to be effective at covering the inner dead-zone of Soviet surface-to-air missile systems despite the increased weight of the vehicle, but commonality prevailed. Initially, tank regiments should have had the anti-aircraft artillery battalion of "Shilka" (consisting of two batteries, four ZSU-234s in each).

The previous Soviet self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG), the ZSU-57-2, was armed with two 57mm autocannons; it was aimed optically using a basic tracking and lead calculating system. The ZSU-57-2 was not particularly successful despite its very powerful autocannons; it could only carry a relatively small amount of ammunition, was inaccurate as it lacked radar and could not fire while on the move.

The ZPU series armed with 14.5mm heavy machine guns carried on a towed mount for stationary; point air defence had a much higher rate of fire. The 23mm version of this weapon system was known as the ZU-23-2, a towed mount carrying two 23mm cannons. However, these towed or improvised truck-mounted weapons had similar disadvantages. At the end of the 1960s, one battery was equipped with ZSU-23-4s and the other with ZSU-57-2s. Motorized rifle and tank regiment standard anti-aircraft batteries consisted of two platoons later (one platoon was equipped with four ZSU-23-4s and another with four mobile surface-to-air missile systems 9K31 “Strela-1” or 9K35 “Strela-10”). The ZSU-23-4 combined a proven radar system, the non-amphibious chassis based on GM-575 tracked vehicle, and four 23mm autocannons. This delivered a highly effective combination of mobility with heavy firepower and considerable accuracy.

The ZSU-23-4 outclassed all NATO anti-aircraft guns at the time, and it is still regarded as posing a major threat for low-flying fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.

The system was widely fielded throughout the Warsaw Pact and among other pro-Soviet states. Around 2,500 ZSU-23-4s, of the total 6,500 produced, and was exported to 23 countries. The Soviet Union's successor states continue to manufacture and supply variants of the ZSU-23-4, notably the Ukrainian "Donets" and Polish "Biala" variants.

ZSU-23-4 units saw active service in the Yom Kippur War (1973) and other Arab-Israeli conflicts, the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), and the First Gulf War (1990). During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the system was particularly effective against the Israeli Air Force. Israeli pilots attempting to fly low in order to avoid SA-6 missiles were often shot down by ZSU-23-4s as in Operation Dogman five. During the SovietAfghan War ZSU-23-4 units were used widely and to great effect against mujahedeen positions in the mountains, the ZSU-23-4s guns being able to elevate much higher than the weapons on BMPs, BTRs, T-55s, or T-62s. They were also used to suppress defensive positions around the presidential palace during the initial coup in Kabul at the start of the Soviet-Afghan war. The Russian Army used the ZSU-23-4 for mountain combat in Chechnya.

Initially fielded by the loyalist forces of the Syrian Arab Army as a fire support vehicle, a number of them were captured by different factions in the Syrian Civil War and they are normally fielded in a fire support role by all sides. There were no or at most very limited, attempts by the different opposing forces to use the Shilka in its original anti aircraft role against loyalist and international air forces operating in the area.

The radar-guided ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" SPAAG, with its four 23mm (0.90") autocannons, was a revolutionary SPAAG, proving to be an extremely effective weapon against enemy attack aircraft and helicopters under every weather and light condition. The ZSU-23-4 has a very high density, rate and accuracy of fire, as well as the capability for each of the four autocannons to fire its own type of projectile from separate belts.

While it is technically possible that each cannon shoots different type of ammunition, there were two types commonly used in late 1970s: OFZT incendiary fragmentation and BZT armour-piercing tracer, which were to be loaded in 3:1 ratio three OFZT, then one BZT, every 10th BZT round equipped with so-called "copper remover" and marked. It was strongly recommended against shooting from a single barrel. Each water-cooled 23mm 2A7 autocannon has a cyclic rate of 850-1,000 rounds per minute for a combined rate of fire of 3,400-4,000 rounds per minute. The welded turret has a race ring transplanted from a T-54 medium tank with a 1,840mm (6') diameter.

The 360° rotating turret is fully stabilised and capable of firing on the move. The turret rotation and autocannon elevation mechanisms provide very good speed and guidance accuracy. The hydraulically driven aiming mechanisms have been proven to be very reliable.

Manual aim is used against ground targets. The quad automatic anti-aircraft gun AZP-23 "Amur" has a range of elevation from -4° to +85°. The GRAU designation for ZSU-23-4 turret with 23mm (0.9") AZP-23 "Amur" quad automatic gun is 2A10. An armoured plate inside the turret protects crew members from fire and explosive gas during intense firing. Ammunition capacity is 2,000 rounds stowed aboard (520 rounds per each upper autocannon and 480 rounds per each lower autocannon) loaded in 50 rounds or shorter belts. The watercooled 2A7 23mm guns of ZSU-23-4 fire the same 23x152mm caliber ammunition as the 2A14 guns of the twin-barrel ZU-23-2 towed gun.

The appearance of the "Shilka" caused significant changes in NATO tactics in aircraft use at low altitude over the battlefield. Despite its present obsolescence as a modern short-range anti-aircraft weapon, the ZSU-23-4 is still deadly for enemy light armoured vehicles, infantry and firing points as an infantry-support vehicle.

With its high rate of accurate fire, the ZSU-23-4 can even neutralize tanks by destroying their gun sights, radio antennas, or other vulnerable parts. ZSU-23-4s, especially late models have excellent performance and good systems reliability.

Based on the GM-575 tracked vehicle chassis, which used components from the PT-76 light amphibious tank, the ZSU-23-4 mounts an armored turret holding four liquid-cooled 23mm (0.9") 2A7 autocannons linked to an RPK-2 "Tobol" radar (NATO designator: "Gun Dish").

The vehicle weighs 19 tonnes (late modifications up to 21 tonnes), has a movement range of 450 km (280 mi) and a top speed of 50 km/h (31 mph).

Additional firepower of late modifications can be supplied by a roof-mounted pod of six short-range SA-18 SAMs, or side mounted SA16s. The crew numbers four: driver, commander, gunner and radar operator. The driver's compartment is located in the nose part of the vehicle. The fighting compartment is in the center, and the engine compartment is in the rear part of the vehicle. The transmission consists of a multi-plate metal-contact main clutch, a manual gearbox with five forward gears, two planetary two-step steering gears with locking frictions and two final drive groups. The vehicle chassis has six single rubber tired road wheels, a rear drive sprocket with detachable sprocket rings (lantern-wheel gear) and one idler wheel per side. The first and fifth left and sixth right road wheels have hydraulic shock absorbers. The track is 11.904 m long, 382mm (15") wide and has 93 links.

Because of a large number of different pipes and tubes to detach during maintenance, the repair procedure for some of the vehicle's mechanisms is hard (for example, replacement or repair of a starter). The electric drive of an air outlet hatch of a gas turbine engine (part of the vehicle's electric power supply system) has an inconvenient location (at the bottom of the hull) which causes overheating and sometimes, jamming of the electric drive. On the other hand, the construction of the electric power supply system is very reliable.

Changing the main engine oil and coolant is easy, as is replacement of fuel and oil filters, and sections of the air filter.

73

The ZSU-23-4 can cross vertical obstacles 0.7 m (2.3') high, trenches 2.5 m (8.2') wide, has a 1.0 m (3.3') fording depth and can climb 30° gradients. The ZSU-23-4 has good maneuverability and cross-country ability, but its diesel engine's power is insufficient for a vehicle of its weight. As a result, off-road acceleration capabilities are sub-par, and the vehicle lags behind MBTs and IFVs on up-hill terrain.

The ZSU-23-4 is equipped with an NBC system with an air filtration unit, fire-fighting equipment, TNA-2 navigational system, infrared vision device, R-123 radio set, R-124 intercom and electric power supply system consisting of a DGChM-1 single-shaft gas turbine engine (70 hp at 6,000 rpm) and a direct-current generator (which provides 27 volts and 54 volts direct current or 220 volts 400 Hz alternating current).

While the 23mm “Volkov-Yartsev” VYa-23 aircraft gun used in the Second World War era IL-2 “Sturmovik” also fired ammunition of the same cartridge case dimensions, the rounds differed in loading and primer, and are thus not interchangeable with the post-war AA gun ammunition. Compared to the VYa and its ammunition, the air defence guns have slightly higher muzzle velocity, and explosive rounds also have slightly larger HE fillings. The VYa ammunition has brass cases, while 2A7/2A14 ammunition has steel cases. Three main types of 23mm anti-aircraft ammunition were manufactured post-war: API-T, HEI and HEI-T. Additionally to the original Soviet rounds, a number of ammunition manufacturers have since begun to produce ammunition for what is still a widely used caliber; these include also new ammunition types such as sub-caliber armour-piercing rounds and frangible ammunition.

The 23mm 2A7 autocannons cut view.

74

An Egypt Army “Shilka”.

The following table lists the main characteristics of some of the available 23x152mm ammunition used in 23mm AA guns:

Designation

Type

Projectile Weight (g)

Bursting Charge (g)

Muzzle Velocity (m/s)

BZT

API

190

none

970

OFZ

HE

184

19

980

Blunt AP steel core, with incendiary charge inside windshield cap.

Penetration 15mm RHA at 100m range and 30º impact angle, or 25mm at 400m and 0º impact angle. Tracer burn time 5 seconds.

HE fragmentation round with nose fuzes incorporating self-destruct mechanism.

OFZT

HE-T

188

13

980

HE fragmentation round with a reduced HE charge due to the space taken by the tracer; tracer burn time 5 seconds.

APDS-T

APDS-T

103

none

1220

Description

A Polish sub-caliber armour-piercing round with tracer. Penetration 30mm RHA(Rolled Homogeneous Armor) at 100m range and 30º impact angle (from perpendicular), tracer burn time >2.5 s.

A typical loading of each ammunition belt contains 40 OFZT and 10 BZT rounds. They can be fired to a maximum horizontal range of 7 km (4.3 mi), and a vertical range of 5.1 km (3.2 mi). The effective vertical range is 1.5 km (0.93 mi) at a direct range to target of 2.5 km (1.6 mi) and target speed of 250 m/s (up to 500 m/s if a modern fire control system is used). The usual auto cannon burst consist of 3-10 projectiles and target lead angle is calculated for each burst (fire without adjustment) by computer. In attacking targets on the ground, its effective range is around 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The short range of its 23mm autocannons and relatively low explosive effect of its small-calibre projectiles mean it is less able to engage threats such as jet attack aircraft and cruise missiles than modern systems like the 9K22 “Tunguska” armed with more powerful 30mm autocannons and integrated missile armaments. A special 23mm round with composite projectiles was developed for a modern variant of SPAAG (ZSU-23-4M4) to be used against cruise missiles.

The RPK-2 "Tobol" a.k.a. 1RL33 radar operates in the J band (10-20 GHz) and can detect aircraft up to 20 km (12 mi) away. It has excellent target tracking capability and is relatively hard to detect by the enemy. However, the radar picks up many false returns (ground clutter) under 60m (200 ft) of altitude. The radar antenna is mounted on collapsible supports in the top rear of the turret. There is an optical alignment sight. The RPK-2 radar proved to have good protection against enemy passive electronic radar countermeasures.

Nevertheless, the radar system of the ZSU-23-4 has a short detection range during target search, depending on weather conditions (mainly dependent on rain and snow conditions). It is hard to automatically track the target at ranges less than 7–8 km (4.3-5.0 mi) because of the high angular speed of the target at close distances. The radar needs to be reset quite often because of the unstable parameters of electronic cathode-ray tubes of the target selection system. The absence of an automatic laser range finder requires a skilful commander and gunner.

Early versions of the ZSU-23-4 sometimes had problems with ‘runaway guns’: After long firing periods, the guns were so hot that the cartridges were overheated, even if the operator was not pulling the trigger, the gun continued to fire, so raising the temperature more and more, and the new fire cycle was repeated. This would sometimes continue until the entire belt of ammunition had been expended. Overheating barrels could jam and even break away from the vehicle. The problem resulted from a deficient cooling system and made the early ZSU-23-4s dangerous even to friendly troops standing nearby if this happened. Despite the fact that this seldom happens, Soviet operators learned to give these machines a wide berth.

75

It was not recommended to perform continuous fire (bursts longer than 15 seconds without pause) on earlier models until the problem with auto cannon reliability and overheating during intense fire was solved on ZSU-23-4M (welded tubes of coolant outlet were replaced with flexible pipes). After the autocannon cooling system was improved, the autocannons became extremely reliable. The ZSU-23-4 has a 1A7 SRP electro-mechanical fire solution calculator, weighing 180 kg, which occupies all of the space before the commander.

It contains 60 electric motors driving 110 axles over different potentiometers, shafts, rods, cams, gears and linkages to mechanically calculate ammunition flight time till impact, elevation lead angle, and azimuth lead angle using the target parameters received from the 1RL33 RPK-2 (“Gun Dish”) radar, and the correction angle received from the GAG (gyroscope) unit.

Soviet doctrine supplied the vehicle since 1965 in an anti-aircraft artillery battery of two, four-vehicle platoons for anti-aircraft defence of motor rifle and tank regiments. At the end of the 1960s one platoon was equipped with ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs while another one was still equipped with ZSU-57-2 SPAAGs. ZSU-57-2 was completely replaced with ZSU-23-4 by the beginning of the 1970s. In the 1970s, Soviet motor rifle and tank regiments were equipped with an anti-aircraft missile artillery battery consisting of two platoons, one equipped with four ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs and the other with four 9K31 “Strela-1” (SA-9 “Gaskin”) or later with four 9K35 “Strela-10” (SA-13 “Gopher”) short-range surface-to-air missile systems which cover the dead zones of 2K12 “Kub” (SA-6 “Gainful”) surface-to-air missile systems belonging to the divisional level. Since the 1980s Soviet motor rifle and tank regiments were equipped with an anti-aircraft artillery battalion of three batteries (one was equipped with ZSU-23-4 or 9K22 “Tunguska” SPAAGs, the second one was equipped with 9K35 “Strela-10” (SA-13 “Gopher”) short-range surface-to-air missile systems and the third battery with 9K38 “Igla” man-portable surface-toair missiles on IFVs or APCs. The ZSU-23-4 is very vulnerable to enemy anti-tank missiles, cannons and heavy machine guns; the armour is thin (not exceeding 15mm) and the exposed wheels, tracks, radar, and gun barrels can easily be damaged in combat. Firing positions of ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs are typically placed near the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA) but behind the main forces, usually 600–1000 m behind objectives when on the defensive or 400–600m behind the leading tanks on the offensive. ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs are divided evenly along the troop columns on the march. At first each ZSU-23-4 operated in combat autonomously, without target marking from regimental or divisional air defence. In 1978, the PPRU-1 (mobile reconnaissance and control post) was passed into service of the Soviet Army. The PPRU-1 ("Ovod-M-SV") vehicle is based on MT-LBu armoured tracked chassis and it was intended for control of motor rifle or tank regimental anti-aircraft unit equipped with ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs and 9K31 "Strela-1M" mobile surface-to-air missile systems. The PPRU-1 is equipped with "Luk-23" radar and an automatic fire control system associated with the divisional air defence system. The guns are useful against lowflying aircraft and lightly protected ground targets. Due to its effectiveness against ground targets, ZSU-23-4s have been used in urban environments (e.g., Afghanistan, Abkhazia, Chechnya, Syria and Lebanon). This is primarily because the guns can elevate much higher than a tank or APC cannon, enabling armored units equipped with ZSU-23-4s to return fire against ambushes from above. A small number of ZSU-23-4 SPAAGs are still in use by the Russian Naval Infantry (specifically the 61st and 175th Brigades of the Northern Fleet and the 336th Brigade of the Baltic Fleet).

The figure shows all parameters evaluated (Parametric Data) by the fire control computer of the “Shilka” before shooting.

The 1RL33 RPK2 “Tobol” (Gun Dish) radar tracks the target six parameters:

ε Target elevation and its change in time Δε β Target azimuth and its change in time Δβ R Target slant range and its change in time ΔR From the above data, the 1A7 SRP electro-mechanical fire solution calculator calculates the fire solution:

Ty Flight time of the projectile till impact H Target altitude at the impact time

Φ Gun elevation required to hit the target at H altitude, including the projectile drop during the Ty flight βy Calculated target azimuth of the calculated point of impact 76

Versions (Soviet Union) ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" (1964): pre-production and then initial production models.

ZSU-23-4V "Shilka" (1968): modernized variant with enhanced reliability of some details, ventilation system case located on the hull.

Commander vision device was added.

ZSU-23-4V1 "Shilka" (1970): modernized variant with enhanced reliability of radar system and other details, ventilation system cases located on front bilges of the turret. Guidance-system computer was improved (as well as accuracy and efficiency of anti-aircraft fire on the move at 40 km/h). It is fitted with a slightly improved diesel engine V-6R-1.

ZSU-23-4M1 (1973): armed with modernized autocannons 2A7M. The pneumatic loading was replaced with pyrotechnic loading (unreliable compressor was removed), welded tubes of coolant outlet were replaced with flexible pipes which increased auto cannon barrel life from 3500 rounds to 4500 rounds.

ZSU-23-4M3 "Biryusa" (1977): equipped with identification friend-or-foe system "Luk". All ZSU-23-4M were upgraded to ZSU-23-4MZ level during scheduled repairs. It should be noted that army unofficially continued to use the name "Shilka" for all variants of ZSU-23-4.

ZSU-23-4M2 (1978): so-called "Afghan" variant. Re-equipment performed during the Soviet–Afghan War for mountain combat. The radar system was removed and a night-sight was added. Ammunition increased from 2,000 to 4,000 rounds.

Combat History 1966–1989: South African Border War; 1968–1970: Egypt-Israeli War of Attrition;1973: Yom Kippur War; 1975: Vietnam War, during the last stage of Ho Chi Minh Campaign in 1975 by battery of 237th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment; 1975–1990: Lebanese Civil War; 1975– 2002: Angolan Civil War; 1975–1990: Western Sahara War; 1977: Libyan-Egyptian War; 1977–1978: Ogaden War; 1979–1988: Soviet War in Afghanistan; 1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War; 1982: Lebanon War; 1990: Gulf War; 1990-1994: Nagorno-Karabakh War; 1992–1993: Georgian– Abkhazian conflict; 1994–1996: First Chechen War; 1999: Second Chechen War; 2003: Iraq War; 2008: Russo-Georgian War; 2011: Libyan Civil War; 2011–present: Syrian Civil War.

Above, an ZSU-23-4 of the East Germany Army.

77

Current Operators Afghanistan: 20 were delivered from USSR; Angola: 20 were delivered from USSR;

Algeria: 210 in 1995. According to another sources 310 were delivered from USSR; Armenia;

Azerbaijan;

Belarus;

Cameroon: 200 ordered from Russia. 128

were delivered from Russia, but a new contract was certified with Russia in 2011 for 300-350; (delivered from Russia);

Ecuador: 34 from Nicaragua in 1997;

Ethiopia: 60;

Hungary: 22 1970-1990. 14 were delivered from USSR; IS: operates small numbers captured from Syrian army; Lebanon;

Libya: 250;

were delivered from USSR; 4MP Biała standard; USSR;

Turkmenistan: Vietnam: 100;

Congo: 8;

Cuba: 36 in 1995

Egypt: 350 in 1995. 330 were delivered from USSR; also a new contract was signed with Russia in 2005;

Mali; Peru: 36;

Somalia: 4; 28;

Ukraine;

Mongolia;

Georgia: 38;

Guinea-Bissau: 16 were delivered from USSR;

India: 100 were delivered from USSR;

Iran: 100;

Iraq: 200;

Jordan: 16 in 1995 (delivered from USSR)and 45 in 2008; Morocco;

Mozambique;

Nigeria: 30;

Laos: 10;

North Korea: 100

Poland: 44 to 87.150 were delivered from USSR. Most of them will be modernized to ZSU-23Russia: 133 in active service in 2011 (used by Marines);

Syria: 400 were delivered from

United Kingdom: 2 Electronic Warfare training plus several others for use as static targets;

Yemen: 30 to 40 in 1995 (delivered to South Yemen from USSR).

Former Operators East Germany: 131 were delivered from USSR, passed on to Germany after the collapse of East Germany; on from East Germany, decommissioned;

Nicaragua: Sold to Ecuador;

Germany: Passed

Soviet Union: Passed on to member states.

78

M42 “Duster”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……………….

United States Weight…………………………24.8 t (loaded) Length…………………………5.82 m (19 ft 1 in) Width…………………………..3.23 m (10 ft 7 in) Height…………………………2.85 m (9 ft 4 in) Crew…………………………..4-6 Armor………………………….9-25 mm Main Armament……………………M2A1 40mm twin anti-aircraft gun with 336 rounds Secondary Armament……………………1xM1919A4 7.62mm machine gun or 7.62mm M60 machine gun Engine…………………………6-cylinder air-cooled gasoline 500 hp (375 kW) Power/Weight………………..22.2 hp/tonne Suspension…………………..Torsion bar Operational Range…………………………160 km (99 mi) Speed…………………………72 km/h (45 mph)

79

The M42 40mm Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun, or “Duster”, is an American armored light air-defense gun built for the United States Army from 1952 until December 1960, in service until 1988. Production of this vehicle was performed by the tank division of the General Motors Corporation. It used components from the M41 light tank and was constructed of all-welded steel.

A total of 3,700 M42s were built. The vehicle has a crew of six and weighs 22,500 kg (49,500 lb) fully loaded. Maximum speed is 45 mph (72 km/h) with a range of 100 miles (160 km). Armament consists of fully automatic twin 40mm M2A1 Bofors, with a rate of fire of 2x120 rounds per minute (rpm) and either a .30 caliber Browning M1919A4 or 7.62mm M60 machine gun. The 500 hp, six-cylinder, Continental (or Lycoming Engines), air-cooled, gasoline engine is located in the rear of the vehicle. It was driven by a cross-drive, two-speed Allison transmission. Although the M42 “Duster” was initially designed for an anti-aircraft role, it proved highly successful when used in the Vietnam War against unarmored ground forces.

During the course of the Korean War, the U.S. Army decided to phase out all vehicles based on the M24 “Chaffee” chassis, such as the M19 Gun Motor Carriage 40mm Anti-Aircraft, in favor of designs that utilized the chassis of the M41. Since the 40mm guns were still seen as an effective anti-aircraft weapon, the turret of the M19 was simply mounted to the M41 chassis with few changes except a partial redesign to accommodate the larger turret ring of the M41 and designated as the M42.

Initially, the 40mm guns were aimed with the assistance of a radar fire control system housed in a secondary vehicle of similar design but this idea was scrapped as development costs mounted.

Production of the M42 began in early 1952 at GM's Cleveland Tank Plant. It entered service in late 1953 and replaced a variety of different anti-aircraft systems in armored divisions. In 1956, the M42 received a new engine and other upgrades along with other M41 based vehicles, becoming the M42A1. Production was halted in December 1960 with 3,700 examples made during its production run.

Sometime in the late 50s, the U.S. Army reached the conclusion that anti-aircraft guns were no longer viable in the jet age and began fielding a self-propelled version of the “HAWK” SAM instead. Accordingly, the M42 was retired from front line service and passed to the National Guard with the last M42s leaving the regular Army by 1963, except for the 4th Battalion, 517th Air Defense Artillery Regiment in the Panama Canal Zone, which operated two batteries of M42s into the 1970s.

The “HAWK” missile system performed poorly in low altitude defense. To ensure some low altitude anti-aircraft capability for the ever increasing amount of forces fielded in Vietnam, the Army began recalling M42A1s back into active service and organizing them into ‘Air Defense Artillery’ (ADA) battalions. Starting in the fall of 1966, the U.S. Army deployed three battalions of Dusters to the Republic of Vietnam, each battalion consisting of a headquarters battery and four Duster batteries, and each augmented by one attached Quad .50 caliber battery and an artillery searchlight battery.

Despite a few early air kills, the air threat posed by North Vietnam never materialized and ADA crews found themselves increasingly involved in ground support missions. Most often the M42 was on point security, convoy escort or perimeter defense. The "Duster" (as it was called by U.S. troops in Vietnam) was soon found to excel in ground support. The 40mm guns proved to be effective against massed infantry attacks.

The three M42A1 equipped ADA units (1/44th, 4/60th and 5/2nd) deactivated and left Vietnam in late December 1971. Most if not all of the in-country “Dusters” were turned over to ARVN forces. Most of the training M42s at Ft. Bliss were returned to various National Guard units. The U.S. Army maintained multiple National Guard M42 battalions as a corps level ADA asset. 2nd Battalion/263 ADA headquartered in Anderson, South Caroline was the last unit to operate the M42 when the system was retired in 1988.

The 1st Battalion, 44th Artillery was the first ADA battalion to arrive in Vietnam on November 1966. A self-propelled M42A1 unit the 1st of the 44th supported the Marines at places like Con Thien and Khe Sanh Combat Base as well as Army divisions in South Vietnam's rugged 1st Corps region. The battalion was assigned to First Field Force Vietnam (IFFV) and was located at Đông Hà. In 1968 it was attached to the 108th Artillery Group (Field Artillery). Attached to the 1/44th was G Battery 65th Air Defense Artillery equipped with Quad-.50s and G Battery 29th Artillery Searchlights. The 1/44th served alongside the 3rd Marine Division along the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) in 1st Corps thru December 1971. Between the three “Duster” battalions and the attached Quad .50 and Searchlight batteries over 200 fatalities were recorded.

80

Current Operators Taiwan: Used by Marine Corps; Thailand: Thailand’s light tank variant produced by combining turrets of decommissioned M18 tank destroyers with surplus M42 hulls. Compartments over the track guards for spare Bofors gun barrels were replaced with storage boxes of the stock M41 tank. One battalion worth of conversions was made; “Aselsan Korkut” 35mm SPAAG. At this time all in storage;

Turkey: 262, pending replacement by a new

Tunisia: 18 M42.

Former Operators Austria: After the end of the Cold war, all 38 M42A1 “Dusters” were phased out in 1992; from surplus of West German Army stocks;

Army, US National Guard and finally retired in 1988;

Jordan;

United States: Was in US

Japan: Replaced by Type 87 from 1987;

M42A1 was in service with the Lebanese Army (1958-1984) later passed on several armed groups; Army;

Greece: Was used by Hellenic Army,

West Germany: Replaced by “Gepard” from 1976;

Lebanon: 15

Pakistan: 123 was in Pakistan

Venezuela: Retired in 1989, however about 10 converted to AMX-13/M41E1 “Ráfaga” (1998).

81

“Flakpanzer Gepard”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……………….

West Germany Weight…………………………47.5 tonnes (46.7 long tonnes) Length…………………………Overall: 7.68 m (25 ft 2 in) Width…………………………..3.71 m (12 ft 2 in) Height…………………………Radar retracted: 3.29 m (10 ft 10 in) Crew…………………………..3 (driver, gunner, commander) Armor………………………….Conventional steel Main Armament……………………2x35mm Oerlikon KDA autocannon, each with 320 rounds anti-air ammunition and 20 rounds anti-tank Engine………………………...10 cylinder, 37,400 cc (2,280 cu in) MTU multi-fuel engine 830 PS (819 hp, 610 kW) Power/Weight……………….17.5 hp/tonne Suspension…………………...Torsion bar suspension Operational Range…………………………550 km (340 mi) Speed…………………………65 km/h (40 mph)

82

The “Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer Gepard” (Anti-Aircraft Cannon Tank Cheetah, better known as the “Flakpanzer Gepard”) is an autonomous, all-weather-capable German self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG). It was developed in the 1960s and fielded in the 1970s, and has been upgraded several times with the latest electronics. It constituted a cornerstone of the air defence of the German Army “Bundeswehr” and a number of other NATO countries. In Germany, the Gepard was phased out in late 2010 to be replaced by "SysFla", a mobile and stationary air defence system using the “LFK NG” missile and the new “MANTIS” gun system. The mobile platform of “SysFla” will likely be based on the “GTK Boxer”.

The vehicle is based on the hull of the “Leopard 1” tank with a large fully rotating turret carrying the armament a pair of 35mm Oerlikon KDA autocannons and the two radar dishes a general search radar at the rear of the turret and the tracking radar, and a laser rangefinder, at the front between the guns.

The electrically driven turret is powered by a 40 kW generator. Since the eighties, Stinger teams have been accompanying the “Gepard” units to take advantage of their long-range scanning capacity.

To combine this capacity in a single unit, a missile system upgrade that mounts the NATO Man Pad Stinger surface-to-air missile (in twin packs) to the autocannons was developed. The system was tested by the German “Bundeswehr” but not bought due to budget restrictions and the fielding of the “Ozelot” Light Flak (leFla) System.

The “Gepard” was developed from 1963 onwards. In 1969, construction began with four ‘A’ type prototypes testing both 30 and 35mm cannons. On 25 June 1970, it was decided to use the 35mm type. In 1971, twelve second phase ‘B’ prototypes were ordered; the same year the Dutch army ordered a ‘CA’ pre-series of five vehicles based on a parallel development that had used a German ‘0’ series “Leopard 1” vehicle made available by the German government in March 1970 as the ‘C’ prototype.

The Germans made a small pre-series of both the B1and B2R. On 5 February 1973, the political decision was made to produce the type; in September 1973 the contract was signed with Krauss-Maffei for 432 ‘B2’ turrets and 420 hulls with a total value of DM1,200,000,000. Each vehicle would thus be about three times the price of a normal “Leopard 1”. The first was delivered in December 1976. Belgium ordered 55 vehicles, which were identical to the German version.

The Dutch ordered 95 vehicles, split into three batches (‘CA1’, ‘CA2’ and ‘CA3’), which were equipped with Philips radar systems. The “Gepard” is based on a slightly modified chassis of the “Leopard” 1 main battle tank, including the complete drive unit with a 37.4 liter 10 cylinder multi-fuel engine MB 838 CaM 500 with two mechanical superchargers built by MTU. The V-engine with a cylinder angle of 90º has 610 kW (819 hp) at 2,200 RPM (830 PS) and consumes, depending on the surface and driving style, around 150 litters/100 km. To ensure a steady supply of oil, even in difficult terrain and under extreme skew, the engine is provided with dry sump forced lubrication.

Even the gearbox model 4 HP-250 from ZF Friedrichshafen and the exhaust system with fresh air admixture to reduce the infrared signature was taken from the “Leopard 1” MBT. From 1985 a total of 382 “Flakpanzer 1 Gepard” Type ‘B2’ were refitted with a laserrangefinder. Vehicles modernized in this manner received the designation ‘B2L’ and thus become the “Flakpanzer Gepard 1A1”.

Between 1998 and 2003, 140 “Flakpanzer 1A1Gepard” were modernized to ‘A2’ standards. This measure included the introduction of a digital fire-control system, more sophisticated communication system type SEM 93 to link “Gepard” to the Army Air-Defence Command-And-Control Circuit, the modification of the armament to accept modernized ammunition types and, last but not least, the integration of an air-conditioning system for the crew and onboard electronics.

Now, the full designation for this ‘new’ vehicle was “Flakpanzer Gepard 1A2”. Easiest external differentiation feature to the ‘A1’ are the ‘A2’ typical large stowage boxes on the turret and on the hull rear, and the cannons muzzle brake type cage.

The cannons are 90 calibers, that is, 3.15 m (10 ft 4 in) long, have an effective range of 5,500 m. The KDA autocannon can take two different ammunition types; Anti-Aircraft (AA) and Armour Piercing (AP). The usual loading is a mix of 320 AA and 20 AP rounds per cannon. Combined rate of fire is 1,100 rounds/min. Each cannon have a rate of fire of 550 rounds/min, a muzzle velocity of 1,175 m/s (3,850 ft/s) (HEI-T) and a recoil force of 2,650 kg.

The autocannons uses 35x228mm NATO standard ammunition. The weapon was originally designated 353 MK and is now designated as the KD series.

83

Cut view showing tracking radar and sub-assemblies.

The “Gepard” is also equipped with a Daimler-Benz OM 314 4 cylinder diesel auxiliary engine for the energy supply system. This engine is on the front left of the vehicle, located where the “Leopard 1” has an ammunition magazine. The engine, which has a 3.8 litter capacity, is designed as a multi-fuel engine and produces 66 kW (90 PS). It consumes, depending on the operational status of the vehicle, between 10 and 20 litters per hour (l/h). The auxiliary engine is coupled with five generators to operate at different speeds.

Two Metaldyne machines in tandem with a flywheel (which is used to store energy during the acceleration and deceleration of the turret) for the power of the elevation and traverse drives, two 380 Hz three-phase generators with a capacity of 20 kVA for the ventilation, fire control and radar systems, and a 300 A/28 VDC generator for the electrical system. The fuel capacity is 985 litters, which ensures a combined operating time of approximately 48 hours.

The chassis and the track were taken directly from the “Leopard1”. It has torsion bar spring mounted road wheels with seven roadwheel pairs per side. They are connected to the torsion bars on swing arms, whose deflection is limited by volute springs. Drive is through the drive sprockets located at the rear. The Rubber-mounted shocks were modified to achieve better stability during firing.

The track is manufactured by the company Diehl; rubber track pads fitted, and are "live" track with rubber bushings between the track links and pins (type D640 A). Grouser/ice cleats can replace the rubber pads on some track links to increase traction on slippery surfaces.

Above, vehicle’s turret inside view. Note the circular orange screen of the search radar, and the rectangular green screen of the tracking radar.

84

The chassis and the tracks of “Gepard” (at left) were taken directly from the “Leopard 1” (at right). In the pictures can be seen the similarity between the chassis of these vehicles. The hull only had slight modifications, i.e. a modified roadwheel distance (80mm increased distance between the third and fourth roadwheel) and the transfer of additional batteries in battery boxes at the rear. The batteries and the electrical system operate at 24 VDC.

This “Gepard A2” is illustrated here with a ‘cheetah coat style camouflage’ and has side skirts installed, which have never been effectively used in normal service in the German Army. This vehicle was painted in this way to commemorate the end of its service time at the “Bundeswehr”.

85

In the figure above, the comparison between the engagements patterns of the “Gepard”.

To search targets, the “Gepard” has on the rear part of the turret, a foldable acquisition radar model MPDR 12, manufactured by Siemens, with six selectable frequencies and high data rate (60 rpm). This radar operates in S-band (2-4 GHz), pulse Doppler, horizontal polarization, with side lobe suppression and integrated secondary radar type MSR 400 Mk XII, for the IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) system. The range is 16 kilometers. The search radar can be used even during movement of the vehicle, in order to ensure constant control of the surrounding airspace. In front of the turret between of the two cannons, is located the tracking radar. This in turn operates in the Ku-band (12-18 GHz), pulse Doppler and has a range of 16 km.

The radar uses two distinct frequencies and a phase detector. It is designed as a mono-pulse type system, in which the operating principles is based on comparison of the signal received by the four quadrants of the antenna, dividing the beam into four parts, and then send the two resulting signals out of the antenna in slightly different directions. When the reflected signals are received they are amplified separately and compared to each other, which indicates that has a stronger return direction and thus the direction of the target in relation to the signal transmitter. The tracking radar set, with its fragile antenna radar and laser rangefinder can be rotated toward the turret, to protect against debris. As the two radars operate completely independently of each other, and with pulse Doppler, they have a good suppression against electronic noise and electronic countermeasures (ECM). Both systems have a computer for fault diagnosis.

Cut view showing the chassis components.

86

Cut view showing search radar and sub-assemblies.

Versions There are two variants of “Gepard” in service; the Dutch has a different radar installation.

Germany Search radar: S band, 15 km range; Tracking radar: Ku band, 15 km range; Laser rangefinder above search radar installation.

Netherlands Search radar: X band, 15 km range; Tracking radar: X/Ka band, 13 km range.

The Dutch version was officially called the PRTL (“Pantser Rups Tegen Luchtdoelen” Armour Track Against Air targets), pronounced as "pruttel" (meaning 'to sputter') by the soldiers. The Dutch series version was made public through a photograph of a vehicle from a ‘C’ Company, the first to be equipped with the new weapon. Traditionally all Dutch vehicles in a company have names beginning with the company designation letter and this vehicle happened to have the individual name Cheetah painted in bold type on its turret.

Inevitably the international press assumed "Cheetah" was the Dutch name for their “Gepard” version and this mistake found its way into most armour publications on the subject. In 2000 the Dutch military authorities, tired of constantly having to explain all this and considering "pruttel" was hardly a martial name anyway, conformed themselves to common error and made "Cheetah" the official designation, when the system was upgraded.

The Dutch version of the “Gepard”.

87

Current Operators Brazil: 36 ordered from the “Bundeswehr”;

Jordan: 60 have been bought from withdrawn Dutch surplus for 21 million dollars;

Romania: 43 delivered (36 + 7 for spares), all ex-“Bundeswehr” stocks.

Former Operators Belgium: 55 delivered, withdrawn from service; Chile: Former user. Four vehicles delivered in 2008, and returned in January 2011. Equipment originally operated by the “Bundeswehr”. Order of 30 vehicles cancelled due to high overhaul/upgrade costs; Germany: 377 originally built for the “Bundeswehr”, 94 remained in service until 2010 and are currently stored; 95 delivered, withdrawn from service.

Netherlands:

88

Type 87

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin………………

Japan In Service…………………….1987 to present Weight………………………..44 tones Length…………………………6.7 m (20 ft) (Hull) Width………………………….3.2 m (10 ft 6 in) Height…………………………4.10 m (13 ft 5 in) (radar up-erected) Crew…………………………..3 Main Armament……………………2x35mm Oerlikon KDA autocannon Engine…………………………Mitsubishi 10ZF Type 22 10 cylinder air-cooled diesel engine 750 hp (560 kW) Power/Weight………………. 17 hp/tonne Operational Range…………………………300 km (190 mi) Speed…………………………53 km/h (33 mph)

89

The Type 87 self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (87式自走高射機関砲 ) is a Japanese air defense weapon built around the Oerlikon KDA 35mm twin autocannon system used on the “Gepard” SPAAG. The system uses a modified Type 74 tank chassis. It is also nicknamed by field officers as Gun-Tank after the similar-looking mobile suit in the Mobile Suit Gundam series. As the JSDF began to seek a replacement for the M42 “Duster” SPAAGs provided by the United States, the Japanese Defense Agency began to issue requirements for the production of a local SPAAG unit to replace the M42. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries had been eventually awarded the contract to produce a SPAAG unit to replace its old M42s. It had been developed in 1987, given the Type 87 designation status, with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries providing the chassis and Japan Steel Works providing the cannon system. Initially, the chassis of the Type 61 tank would be used. Later, it had been rejected and had the chassis of the Type 74 tank used instead as a basis for producing the Type 87 SPAAG. Prior to its development, tests had begun underway in 1982 with a prototype SPAAG unit manufactured in 1983. In 2010, it was reported that the Japan Self-Defense Forces had 52 of these vehicles in service.

The Type 87 self-propelled anti-aircraft gun was produced by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries for the Japan Ground Self-Defence Forces (JGSDF). The SPAAG replaced the ageing M42 “Duster” SPAAGs, supplied by the USA.

Current Operators Japan.

90

ItPsv 90 “Marksman”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……………….

United Kingdom/ Poland Manufacturer………………...Marconi Electronic Systems No. built……………………….7 Weight…………………………41 tonnes Crew…………………………..3 (driver, gunner, commander) plus back-up crew Armor………………………….Turret: ballistic immunity from 14.5mm heavy machine guns and 155mm air bursts Main Armament…………………….2x35mm Oerlikon KDA autocannon 460 fragmentation rounds and 40 anti-tank rounds Secondary Armament…………………….Eight smoke grenade dischargers Engine…………………………V-55 V-12 diesel engine620 hp (462 kW) Suspension……………………Torsion bar

91

“Marksman” is a British anti-aircraft weapon system developed by Marconi, consisting of a turret, Marconi Series 400 radar and two Swiss 35mm Oerlikon KDA autocannons. It is similar to the German “Gepard” system in terms of engine performance, ammunition carried and effective range of the ammunition.

The turret could be adapted to many basic tank chassis, creating a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG). The only known major operator of the system to date is the Finnish Army, which ordered 7 units in 1990. The turrets were fitted on Polish T-55AM tank chassis.

The system is known as the ItPsv 90 in Finnish service (“IlmatorjuntaPanssarivaunu 90”, Anti-Aircraft tank 90, the number being the year the tank entered service). It is considered a very accurate anti-aircraft artillery system, having a documented hit percentage of 52.44%.

In 2010, the “Marksman” systems in service in Finland were moved to war-time storage. In 2015 work began to install the system on the Leopard 2A4 chassis in order to make up for the loss of mobile anti-aircraft coverage when the “Marksman” was originally retired. The new “Leopard 2 Marksman” is to enter service in 2016.

Finland has seven ItPsv 90 “Marksman” anti-aircraft systems, providing low-level air-defense for tank battalions. The SPAAGs are organically tied to the headquarters company and form teams of two. The vehicles have an all-day capacity, and there is also a back-up crew to ensure combat survivability. The ItPsv 90 “Marksman” is primarily meant to fight helicopters, low-flying aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). It is also possible to engage surface and armored targets.

The chassis of the ItPsv 90 “Marksman” is a Polish T-55AM tank, which has been modified to fit the turret. The AM version was chosen due to the increased weight of the system (a T55AM weighs 36 tonnes, while a T-55AM “Marksman” weighs 41 tonnes) and the AM has more power (620 hp) than a regular T-55.

The weapon system is guided by a British Marconi 400 series frequency agile surveillance and tracking X/J-band radar, which is able to detect targets out to 12 km in search mode and 10 km in tracking mode. The laser distance measure device functions up to 8 km. The commander and the gun operator both have gyro-stabilized optical aiming devices.

The armament consists of two Swiss 35 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns, with a rate of fire of 18 rounds per second. The fragmentation round has a muzzle velocity of 1,175 m/s. The effective range is 4,000 meters. The vehicle is also equipped with eight Wegmann 76mm smoke dischargers, a 7.62mm assault rifle, and a flare gun. The turret can traverse a full 360° and has an elevation range of −10 to +85°.

The magazines hold 460 fragmentation rounds and 40 anti-tank rounds.

There are three communication radios in the vehicle for fire guidance and communications.

The vehicle is operated by three crew; commander, gunner, and driver.

In 1994, Marconi and South African Denel group announced plans to install a “Marksman” turret on a G6 howitzer chassis; Marconi also offered conversions for existing users of T-54/55, Type 59, “Centurion”, M48 “Patton”, “Vickers”, “Chieftain”, “Challenger 1” and “Leopard 1” tanks. None of these variants were picked up for deployment. In 2015 work began to install the system on the “Leopard 2A4” chassis in order to make up for the loss of mobile anti-aircraft coverage when the “Marksman” was originally retired.

Former Operators Finland: 7 “Marksman” turret on a Polish T-55AM chassis. All retired in 2010.

92

9K22 “Tunguska”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Place of Origin……………….

Soviet Union/ Russia In Service……………………..1982-present Designed……………………..1970-1980 Variants……………………….9K22 (“Tunguska”), 9K22M (“Tunguska-M”), 2K22M1 (“Tunguska-M1”) Weight…………………………35,000 kg (77,000 lb) Length…………………………7.90 m (25 ft 11 in) Width…………………………..3.25 m (10 ft 8 in) Height…………………………4 m (13 ft 1 in) or 3.35 m (10 ft) (radar stowed) Crew…………………………..4 (vehicle commander, driver, gunner, radar operator) Armour………………………..Protects the vehicle from 7.62mm small arms fire and shell splinters Armament…………………… 2x30mm 2A38 autocannons (1,950 to 2,500 rpm for each gun); 8x9M311 anti-aircraft missiles Engine…………………………V-46-6-MS centrifugal turbocharged V-12 direct fuel injection water cooled multi-fuel 840 hp maximum Suspension…………………...Hydropneumatic Operational Range…………………………500 km (310 mi) Speed…………………………65 km/h (40 mph) maximum on the road

93

The 2K22 “Tunguska” (2К22 "Тунгуска") is a Russian tracked self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon armed with a surface-to-air gun and missile system. It is designed to provide day and night protection for infantry and tank regiments against low-flying aircraft, helicopters, and cruise missiles in all weather conditions. Its NATO reporting name is SA-19 "Grison".

Some of these early versions of the "Tunguska" system were known as "Treugol'nik" (“Треугольник” Triangle). This system is mounted on the 2S6 integrated air defence vehicle.

Development of the 2K22 anti-aircraft system began on 8 June 1970. At the request of the Soviet Ministry of Defence, the KBP Instrument Design Bureau in Tula, under the guidance of the appointed Chief Designer A. G. Shipunov, started work on a 30mm antiaircraft system as a replacement for the 23mm ZSU-23-4.

The project, code-named "Tunguska", was undertaken to improve on the observed shortcomings of the ZSU-23-4 (short range and no early warning) and a counter to new ground attack aircraft in development, such as the A-10 “Thunderbolt II”, which was designed to be highly resistant to 23mm cannons. Studies were conducted and demonstrated that a 30mm cannon would require from a third to a half of the number of shells that the 23mm cannon of the ZSU-23-4 would need to destroy a given target, and that firing at a MiG-17 (or similarly at, in case of war, NATO's “Hawker Hunter” or Fiat G.91) flying at 300 m/s, with an identical mass of 30 mm projectiles would result in a kill probability 1.5 times greater than with 23mm projectiles. An increase in the maximum engagement altitude from 2,000 to 4,000 m and increased effectiveness when engaging lightly armoured ground targets were also cited.

The initial requirements set for the system were to achieve twice the performance in terms of range, altitude and combat effectiveness of the ZSU-23-4, additionally the system should have a reaction time no greater than 10 seconds. Due to the similarities in the fire control of artillery and missiles, it was decided that the Tunguska would be a combined gun and missile system. A combined system is more effective than the ZSU-23-4, engaging targets at long-range with missiles, and shorter range targets with guns.

An electromechanically scanned parabolic E-band (10 kW power) target acquisition radar is mounted on the rear top of the turret that when combined with the turret front mounted J-band (150 kW power) monopulse tracking radar forms the 1RL144 (NATO: Hot Shot) radar system, which can detect and track targets flying high as 3,500 m. Alongside the 1A26 digital computer and the 1G30 angle measurement system form the 1A27 radar complex. “Tunguska-M” has the 1RL144M radar with detection range 18 km and tracking range 16 km-near of the original systems. The mechanically scanned target acquisition radar for the “Tunguska-M1” offers a 360° field of view, a detection range of around 18 km and can detect targets flying as low as 15 m, the target acquisition radar can be stowed when in transit. Its tracking radar has a range of 16 km. A C/D-band IFF system is also fitted and designated 1RL138. The radar system is highly protected against various types of interference, and can work if there are mountains on the horizon, regardless of the background. The radar can sees due to the rotation the helicopter of screws. The system is able to fire on the move using 30 mm cannons, although it must be stationary to fire missiles. The maximum target speed can be up to 500 m/s; reaction time 6-8 seconds.

Each 2S6 has all facilities for independent warfare.

Standard equipment of the 2S6 and 2S6M includes a computerized fire control system, heating, ventilation, NBC system, an automatic fire detection and suppression system, navigational equipment, night vision aids, 1V116 intercom, external communications system with an R-173 receiver -modernized in the 2S6M for better communication with the command post- and monitoring equipment. The vehicle also has protection against the effects of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons.

The dual 2A38 30mm cannons (as well as the later 2A38M) were designed by the KBP Instrument Design Bureau and manufactured by the Tulamashzavod Joint Stock Company. The cannons are fired alternatively with a combined rate of fire of between 3,900 and 5,000 rounds per minute (1,950 to 2,500 rpm for each gun), and have a muzzle velocity of 960 m/s. Bursts of between 83 and 250 rounds are fired as determined by the target type, with an engagement range between 0.2 and 4.0 km and to an altitude of about 3 km. The 2K22 is reported to have a kill probability of 0.8 with cannon. The height of defeat for guns is 0-2000 meters-for missiles 10-3500 meters.

The system is able to fire on the move using 30mm cannons, although it must be stationary to fire missiles, the maximum target speed can be up to 500 m/s, reaction time 6-8 seconds. Each 2S6 has all facilities for independent warfare.

Variants of the 2K22 system have continued to serve in the Soviet and later Russian armed forces since their initial introduction in 1984.

The 2K22 has also been inducted into the armed forces of a number of foreign states, most notably India. The 2K22 has been used in the 2008 South Ossetia war by Russian armed forces.

94

The rocket system uses the same 9M311 (NATO: SA-19/SA-N-11) missile family as the naval CIWS “Kashtan” which can engage targets at a range of 1.5-8 km and to an altitude of 5 m to 3.5 km, the “Tunguska-M1” uses the improved 9M311-M1 missile with an increased range of 2.5-10 km and an altitude of 15 m-3.5 km. The missile has two stages, a large booster stage with four folding fins, which boosts the missile to a velocity of 900 m/s, before falling away. The second stage has four fixed fins, and four steerable control surfaces. The complete missile is around 2.56 meters long with a weight of 57 kg.

Guidance is performed by the target tracking radar, it constantly relays target range, elevation and bearing to the fire-control computer and on the basis of this data the computer generates the laying commands for the guns or the trajectory corrections for the missiles.

Current Operators Belarus: unknown number of 2S6; 2К22М; units;

Myanmar;

India: according to various data, from 20 to 92 2S6 units;

Russia: more than 250 complexes 2К22;

Morocco: 12 complexes

Syria: 6 2S6М1 units delivered in 2008;

Ukraine: 70 2S6

Yemen: unknown number of 2S6М1.

Former Operators Soviet Union: passed on to successor states.

95

Self-Propelled Gun/Howitzer (SPG/H) Is a form of self-propelled artillery, and in modern use is usually used to refer to artillery pieces such as howitzers. Self-propelled guns are mounted on a motorised wheeled or tracked chassis. As such the gun can be manoeuvred under its own power as opposed to a towed gun that relies upon a vehicle or other means to be moved on the battlefield. Self-propelled guns are combat support weapons; they are employed by combat support units fighting in support of, or attached to, the main combat units: infantry and armour. Self-propelled guns are best at providing indirect fire but can give direct fire when needed. It may be armoured, in which case it is considered an armoured fighting vehicle (AFV).

Typically, self-propelled guns are more lightly armoured and may not have turrets and their purpose is distinct from that of tanks. The greatest tactical advantage in the case of artillery guns is clearly the greater degree of mobility they have compared to towed artillery. Not only is it important in offering military forces greater flexibility, but it is critical in avoiding attack from the enemy (counterbattery fire) by allowing the guns to change position immediately after firing one or more salvos and before their position can be located (shoot-and-scoot tactics).

A secondary advantage in the case of even lightly armoured guns is the increased protection offered to the gun crews. The first attempts to give artillery a greater degree of manoeuvrability was in World War I. Although mechanical tractors had been used to tow some artillery, most were still towed by horses. The Gun Carrier Mark I was an artillery piece that was transported by and could be fired from a tracked chassis. Between the periods of the World Wars, during the development of their combat tactics with armored vehicles, the British put the Birch Gun (the first self-propelled artillery gun practice in the world) in limited use. It carried an 18 pounder gun on a chassis derived from their then medium tank and as such was able to keep up and cross the same ground as the tanks it was intended to support. As well as use as a field gun, the gun could be elevated sufficiently for use against aircraft.

The M109 is one of the many examples of SPH.

96

ISU-152

Type…………………………... Self-Propelled Heavy Assault Gun Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union In Service……………………..1943 -1970s Wars…………………………... World War II; Korean War; Hungarian Revolution; Egyptian-Israeli Wars Weight………………………... 47.3 metric tons (maximum) Length………………………… 9.18 m (30 ft 1 in) Width…………………………..3.07 m (10 ft 1 in) Height………………………… 2.48 m (8 ft 2 in) Crew………………………….. 4 or 5 Armour……………………….. Steel 120mm (maximum) Main Armament ……………………152.4mm ML20S gun-howitzer; 21 rounds (ISU-152-2) Secondary Armament…………………….12.7x108mm DShK anti-aircraft machine gun (max. 300 rounds) Engine V-54K diesel engine 520 hp (382 kW) Power/Weight………………. 11 hp/tonnes Suspension………………….. Torsion bar Fuel Capacity………………. 920 litres (ISU-152K, ISU-152M); (internal fuel tanks. External fuel tanks not connected) Operational Range…………………………120 km (cross terrain with the internal fuel); 670 km (on road with the internal fuel) (ISU-152K, ISU-152M) Speed…………………………15-20 km/h cross terrain; 40 km/h on a road (ISU-152K, ISU-152M)

97

The ISU-152 was a Soviet self-propelled gun developed and used during World War II. It was unofficially nicknamed “Zveroboy” (Зверобой; “Beast killer”) in response to several large German tanks and guns coming into service. Since the ISU-152 has no turret, aiming the gun was awkward which had to be done by repositioning the entire vehicle using the tracks, therefore it was used as mobile artillery to support more mobile infantry and armor attacks. It continued service into the 1970's and was used in several campaigns and countries.

The beginnings of the ISU-152 came on January 24, 1943, when the first prototype of the SU-152 was unveiled. This was a fully enclosed 152mm gun-howitzer on the KV-1S tank chassis. It was designated Object 236. Object 236 was completed in Factory No. 100 in Chelyabinsk, and was successfully tested from January 24 February 7, 1943. On February 14 the vehicle was adopted and put into production under the KV-14 (КВ-14) designation; in April 1943 the designation was changed to SU-152 (СУ-152).

Although the SU-152 was successful in combat, production of the KV-1S tank chassis was ending, which made the modernisation of the vehicle necessary, using the new IS tank chassis. On May 25, 1943, the administration of Factory No. 100 ordered the modernisation of the SU-152, which included increased armour protection and other improvements. Development began in July 1943, under the supervision of Joseph Yakovlevich Kotin (the chief designer of Soviet heavy tanks) and G. N. Moskvin as the main designer.

The new design, designated IS-152 (ИС-152), was tested from September to November, 1943. Testing revealed a large number of deficiencies, which sent it back for further improvement. On November 6, 1943, an order was issued for adoption of the improved variant, under the ISU-152 (ИСУ-152) designation, and in December production began at the Chelyabinsk Kirovsk Plant, replacing the SU-152.

The ISU-152 followed the same design as other Soviet self-propelled guns, except the SU-76. The fully armoured hull was divided into two compartments: fighting compartment for the crew, gun and ammunition in the front of the hull, and engine and transmission in the rear. The gun was mounted slightly to the right of centre with a limited traverse of 12º left and right. The crew consisted of 4 or 5 men placed in the superstructure. Three of the crew were to the left of the gun: driver to the front, then gunner and last the loader. The vehicle commander and lockman were to the right: commander to the front and the lockman behind. When the crew consisted of 4 men, the loading was carried out by the lockman.

The suspension consisted of twelve torsion bars for the six road wheels on either side. The drive sprockets were at the back, and the front idlers were identical to the road wheels. Each track was made up of 90 links. There were three internal fuel tanks, two in the crew area and one in the engine compartment. These were usually supplemented with four unconnected external fuel tanks. Twelve and 24 volts electrical power supplies came from a 1 kW generator feeding four accumulator batteries.

For observation from the interior, all roof hatches had periscopes and there were two gun sights: telescopic ST-10 (СТ-10) and panoramic. For crew communication a TPU-4-BisF intercom was fitted, and for inter-vehicle communication there was a single 10R or 10RK radio. These were better than Soviet equipment at the start of the war but still inferior to German equipment.

The crew were given two PPSh submachine guns with 1491 rounds and 20 F-1 grenades for short-range self-defence.

The ISU-152 was armed with the same gun as the SU-152, but it used the hull of the IS-1 tank instead of the KV-1S. Later in the war the ISU-152 was further improved. It used the hull of the IS-2 or IS-2 model 1944 tank, the armour of the mantlet was increased, the gun was replaced by newer variants, a 12.7x108mm DShK anti-aircraft machine gun was installed by the right forward hatch and later its ammunition capacity increased, the 10R radio set was upgraded to a 10RK and the fuel capacity was increased.

Some ISU-152s were equipped with even larger external fuel tanks, two tanks on the rear hull deck, in addition to the four external fuel tanks (90 litres each, maximum), or with two smaller additional external fuel tanks, on the hull rear. This option was probably available for the post-war ISU-152 variants. Between December 1943 and May 1945, 1,885 ISU-152s were built. Mass production ceased in 1947, with 3,242 vehicles produced in total.

The post-war ISU-152 modernisation included installation of night vision sights, replacing of the V-2IS engine with the V-54K, the 12.7mm machine gun was replaced by a newer variant, the ammunition capacity increased to 30 rounds, additional armor, automotive improvements and significant increase of the main fuel capacity.

The ISU-152 self-propelled gun combined three battle roles: Heavy Assault Gun, Heavy Tank Destroyer and Heavy Self-Propelled Artillery.

Heavy Assault Gun As a heavy assault gun, the ISU-152 was an extremely valuable weapon in urban combat operations such as the assaults on Berlin, Budapest and Königsberg. The vehicle's excellent armour protection finally provided the 152.4mm platform with good protection from most German anti-tank guns, allowing it to advance into the face of direct anti-tank fire, while the huge low velocity high-explosive rounds were excellent at blasting open even the most heavily fortified and reinforced enemy strong points. Such actions would be much more dangerous and much less effective for a conventional towed artillery piece, with their high crew exposure and low mobility, or even a tank, with their smaller main guns. When supporting tanks, the usual tactics of the ISU-152 were to be used in the second line of the attack order, 100 to 200 metres behind the attacking tanks, which were usually ‘IS’ tanks with equal mobility.

Heavy Tank Destroyer The ISU-152 could also operate as an effective heavy tank destroyer. Though it was not designed for the role, the vehicle inherited the nickname “Zveroboy” (beast killer) from its predecessor, the SU-152, for its ability to reliably kill the best protected German fighting vehicles; the “Panther” tank, the “Tiger” and King “Tiger” tanks, and even the rarely fielded “Elefant” and “Jagdtige”r tank destroyers.

The sheer weights of the 152.4mm shells resulted in an extremely low rate of fire, only one to three rounds per minute, and were not as accurate at long range as high-velocity tank antitank guns. However, the massive blast effect from the heavy high-explosive warhead was capable of blowing the turret completely off a “Tiger” tank. A direct hit usually destroyed or damaged the target's tracks and suspension, immobilizing it. While the low-velocity 152mm shell did not generally penetrate heavy armor, it frequently killed or severely wounded the crew through spalling (splintering) inside the hull as well as injuries caused by blast concussion. Surviving crew was often left with an immobilized vehicle which had to be hurriedly abandoned before being destroyed. For anti-tank operations following the Battle of Kursk, armour-piercing ammunition was developed, with an eye towards giving the howitzer a more traditional anti-tank capability. However, these rounds were expensive, in short supply, and only moderately more effective than the standard nonpenetrating high-explosive round. As a howitzer the ML-20s exchanged velocity and accuracy for throw weight and distance, and was not intended to compete with true anti-tank guns. Sometimes the concrete-piercing ammunition was used for the anti-tank role.

Primitive shaped charge ammunition, with a 27.44 kg shell, was also developed. It had a maximum penetration of 250mm of RHA at 90°, but it was not used during the war.

98

Heavy Self-Propelled Artillery The ISU-152 was also sometimes used as self-propelled artillery for support on the battlefield and preparatory bombardments, though it had a medium range of fire and a slow speed of reloading. The Soviet army had not developed specialized vehicles for this purpose.

Their armoured and mechanized units were well equipped with towed artillery, but the towed guns were very vulnerable while moving and they could not support tanks and motorized infantry during rapid advances into enemy positions, especially when they lack the armored fully enclosed design of the fighting vehicles like ISU-152.

The 152.4mm gun used a number of powerful (shell and charge) ammunition. Some of these ammunition had a 43.56 kg high-explosive shell, or a 48.78 kg armour-piercing shell, or the heaviest of all, the 53-G-545 (53-Đ“-545) long-range concrete-piercing ammunition with a 56 kg shell. The ISU-152 was used for infantry and tank support, and attack on fortified positions in a direct fire role, for support on the battlefield in an indirect fire role, and for fight against tanks with a direct fire.

Former Operators Finland: In June 1944, during the Continuation War, a captured ISU-152 was used by the Finnish military. Another captured one was repaired in Varkaus, Finland, but it was never used in combat; Poland: In 1944, more than 30 ISU-152s were delivered to the People's Army of Poland. Shortly afterwards, the Polish military created the 25th Polish Self-Propelled Artillery Regiment, which consisted of 10 ISU-152s and 22 ISU-122s. ISU-152s remained in the Polish military until the early 1960s; China: In 1955,the Soviet Union sold to the Chinese People's Liberation Army, including 67 ISU-152s, 45 of which were given to the newly created 1st Mechanized Division of the PLA; Czechoslovakia: As part of the Soviet Union's military assistance to friendly or pro-Soviet countries around the world, a few ISU152s were transferred to the Czechoslovakian military after World War II, which operated them until the later part of the 1950s; North Korea: During and after the Korean War, ISU-152s were operated by the Korean People's Army of North Korea; Egypt: In the early 1960s the Egyptian military received at least one regiment of ISU-152s. They were used during the 1967-1973 Egyptian-Israeli Wars. They were mostly ineffective and several were captured by the Israeli Defence Forces;

Iraq: A few surviving

examples were operational during the Iran-Iraq War and First Gulf War; Yugoslavia: One was captured by Yugoslav Army. The vehicle was abandoned by units of the Soviet Red Army 2nd Ukrainian Front in 1944. As a unique vehicle it was used by the Tank School at Bela Crkva. After it was withdrawn from service, the only remaining Yugoslav ISU-152 was used for target practice at the ManjaÄ?a fire range; Romania: The Romanian Army received ISU-152s in the 1950s; they were assigned to the artillery units of the 6th, 7th and 57th tank divisions.

99

M40 “Big Shot”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Artillery Place of Origin……………….

United States Weight…………………………36.3 metric tonnes (80,000 lb) Length………………………....9.1 m (29 ft 10 in) Width…………………………...3.15 m (10 ft 4 in) Height………………………….2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) Crew……………………………8 (Commander, driver, 6 gun crew) Armor………………………….12mm Main Armament……………………155mm M2 gun, 20 rounds Engine…………………………Wright (Continental) R975 EC2, 340 hp (253 kW) Power/Weight……………….9.36 hp/tonnes Suspension…………………..HVSS (Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension) Operational Range…………………………170 km (106 mi) Speed…………………………38 km/h (24 mph) on road, 23 km/h (14 mph) off road

100

The M40 “Big Shot”155mm Gun Motor Carriage was a self propelled gun based on a modified M4A3 “Sherman” chassis. It arrived too late to see significant service during the Second World War, but as used in large numbers during the Korean War. The M12 155mm Gun Motor Carriage had been designed in 1941 and tested in 1942. After some debate within the US Army a total of 100 were ordered in two batches, with the final deliveries in March 1943. Army Ground Forces, the section of the US Army responsible for the home-based development of the army, was never keen on the M12, and after being built most of them went to training units or into storage.

Late in 1943 the Artillery decided that it wanted the M12 for the upcoming invasion of Europe and in December work began on modernizing the M12. The Artillery also requested additional M12s, but supplies of the French M1917 and M1918 155mm guns used in the M12 had now run out. The American M1 155mm gun was heavier and more powerful, and so on January 1944 work began on a stronger vehicle that could cope with the newer gun.

The new vehicle, with the designation T83, was largely based on the M4A3 “Sherman” medium tank. It used the horizontal volute spring suspension introduced on later M4A3s, and had a wider hull than the gun tank. The T83 used 23 inches wide tracks. As on the M12 the engine was moved forward to make space for the gun compartment. The drivers stayed in their normal position in the front of the vehicle. A new open fighting compartment was designed, with a folding rear wall that could be lowered to serve as a fighting platform. Production of five T83s was authorized on 18 March 1944. The first T83 was completed on 28 July 1944 and went to the Aberdeen Proving Grounds for tests. The tests with the 155mm gun were successful. The 155mm gun was then replaced with an 8 inches howitzer, which also performed well. The fourth and fifth vehicles were completed as the T89 8 inches Howitzer Motor Carriage, and became the prototypes for the M43 8 inches Howitzer Motor Carriage.

The second and third T83 were completed in October and were used for tests at the Field Artillery Board, Fort Bragg. A number of changes were made after these trials, and production began in February 1945. A total of 418 T83s were delivered during 1945, and in May it was standardized as the M40 155mm Gun Motor Carriage. Twenty four were later converted into M43s.

The M40 made its combat debut early in 1945. One of the first T83 was taken to France as part of the Zebra mission, along with one T89 and a number of “Pershings”. The T83 and T89 went to the 991st Field artillery Battalion, which promptly replaced the 8 inches howitzer with a 155mm gun. The two 155m armed vehicles then took part in the battle for Cologne. The T89 later had its howitzer restored and was tested in that configuration.

One lesson of this first test was that the open fighting compartment left the gun crews very exposed to enemy fire. General Barnes, commander of the Zebra mission, suggested that some effort should be put into produced some sort of armour to protect the crews, and also that secondary machine gun armament be installed. An armoured cabin was designed, but it wasn’t considered suitable.

A handful of M40s reached the front where they replaced worn-out M12s, but their main combat use came during the Korean War, where both the M40 and M43 proved to be invaluable during the long stalemate on the 38th Parallel. After the Korean War the M40 was withdrawn from front line service in the US Army. A handful of M40s were used by the British after the Second World War.

After the Korean War the M40 was withdrawn from front line service in the US Army. A handful of M40s were used by the British after the Second World War.

Former Operators United Kingdom;

United States.

101

M41 “Gorilla”

Type……………………………Self-propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

United States Weight…………………………42,500 lb (19.3 tonnes) Length…………………………230 in (5.8 m) Width…………………………..112 in (2.8 m) Height………………………….94 in (2.4 m) Crew……………………………5 Rate of Fire…………………… 4 rpm (sustained) Muzzle Velocity……………..1,847 ft/s Maximum Firing Range……14,600 m Armor………………………….rolled steel 13mm (max.)

Main Armament……………………155mm Howitzer M1 Engine…………………………Two Cadillac 4T24 V82x110 hp (82 kW) Operational Range…………100 or 150 miles Speed…………………………35 mph (56 km/h)

102

The 155mm Howitzer Motor Carriage M41 (also known as the M41 “Gorilla”) was an American self-propelled artillery vehicle built on a lengthened M24 “Chaffee” tank chassis that was introduced at the end of the Second World War. Out of a planned run of 250, only 85 were produced before cancellation of the order at the end of 1945. The M41 went on to serve extensively in the Korean War, its success influencing the design of later U.S. self-propelled artillery. The type was retired after the conclusion of that conflict, but went on to serve briefly in the French Army.

In December 1942, work began on a 155mm self-propelled howitzer based on the newly introduced M1 155mm howitzer and the chassis of an M5 “Stuart” light tank. This resulted in the production of a single prototype designated the T64. However, the approval of the superior M24 “Chaffee” light tank whose chassis was expected to be a standard used for other vehicles, such as self-propelled guns, and specialist vehicles (collectively known as "Light Combat Team") led to the scrapping of the T64 in favour of a new design designated the T64E1 using the M24 chassis.

Equipped with a M1 155mm howitzer with a heavy recoil-absorption spade at the back, the T64E1 was intended to the supplement the earlier M12 Gun Motor Carriage. It had two 110 hp (82 kW) Cadillac V8 engines centrally mounted and a crew of five, including a driver in the hull and gunners mounted in an open-top compartment in the back in an arrangement similar to the 155mm M12 Gun Motor Carriage already in service in the war. The howitzer had limited side-to-side traverse and up to 45º vertical traverse and a total of 22 rounds could be stored in the vehicle. Additional ammunition was carried by M39 Armored Utility Vehicles.

The hull had only 13mm of armor all around, sufficient to protect only against small arms, while the shielding around the gun compartment was only 6.5mm thick.

After the T64E1 underwent trials at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in December, 1944, minor modifications were made and production began by the Massey Harris agricultural equipment company in May 1945. The type was re-designated the M41 in June, 1945.

However, the M41 arrived too late to see action in World War II, and the initial order of 250 was reduced to 85. These M41s served in the peacetime army; where they received the appellation “Gorilla”, and went on to serve in the Korean War before being retired. Some M41s were also passed on to the French Army, but they were soon replaced by other designs.

M41s were used in action in the Korean War, where they were useful in providing support during the early mobile phase of the conflict.

Once the war ground down to static engagements, the M41s employed their mobility to evade counter-battery fire. The 92nd Field Artillery Battalion and the 999th Armored Field Artillery Battalion were among units that employed M41s in Korea.

The African-American 999th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, fought at the Battle of the Imjin River, where it provided artillery support for the 1st Republic of Korea Infantry Division. During the battle, Battery B was forced to evacuate its position after neigh boring units withdrew. During the evacuation, it was ambushed by Chinese forces and consequently suffered seven crew killed and 31 wounded, with a loss of 2 M39s, and 2 M41s damaged. However, the unit soon routed the ambush, inflicting an estimated 100 casualties on the ambushing forces, and promptly resumed providing artillery support.

The Chinese People's Liberation Army captured two M41s during the Korean War, employing them against U.S. forces in the Battle of Maryang San. One of them can be seen on display at the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution in Beijing.

Compared to the contemporary 155mm M40 Gun Motor Carriage, the M41 was lighter and faster, but had inferior range. Like other contemporary US Army self-propelled artillery, the open-topped gun compartment left the crew vulnerable to small arms fire and shrapnel, and the engines were sometimes criticized for being underpowered. Nonetheless, in a conflict in which enemy units frequently infiltrated or overran forward positions, the battlefield mobility, defensive firepower, and armor of the M41 was seen as being greatly preferable to that of towed artillery pieces, and the performance of the 105mm M7 Howitzer Motor Carriage and M41 in the war influenced the U.S. Army to develop new self-propelled artillery in the 1960s, such as the M109 Paladin, that would almost entirely replace towed field howitzers.

Above, an M41 of the African-American 999th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, on Korean War.

Former Operators Chinese Army (2 captured on Korean War);

French Army;

United States Army (85 produced).

103

M55

Type…………………………...Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of origin……………….

United States Wars…………………………...Vietnam War Manufacturer………………..Pacific Car and Foundry Co. Produced…………………….1950s Weight………………………...44 metric tonnes Length…………………………9.75 m Crew…………………………..6 Armour………………………..25mm (maximum) (welded rolled steel) Main Armament……………………203.2mm M47 howitzer (10 rounds) Secondary Armament……………………12.7mm (.50) cal M2HB machine gun (900 rounds) Engine………………………...Continental AV-1790-5B (12 cylinder, 4 cycle, 90° vee gasoline) 810 hp at 2800 rpm (gross) Operational Range…………………………160 mi (260 km) Speed…………………………30 mph (48 km/h)

104

The M55 was an American fully enclosed and armored self-propelled artillery based on the M53 155mm self-propelled artillery. It had a 203.2mm (eight-inch) howitzer which can traverse 30° left or right, carrying 10 rounds of ammunition when fully combat loaded. The gun has a maximum range of 16,916 meters (10.51 miles) with a rate of fire of one round every two minutes. The M55's armor is light, 25mm maximum, but sufficient to protect the crew from indirect artillery hits and small arms fire.

In 1950 and 1951, Pacific Car & Foundry Company was awarded contracts to develop a new self-propelled 155mm gun and a new self-propelled 8 inch howitzer. Designated the T97 and T108 respectively, they were built using components from the existing M47 medium tank. The first vehicles came off of the production line in August 1952. Production of both vehicles ended in April 1955. By that time, the T97 had been standardized as the 155mm self-propelled gun M53 while the T108 became the 8 inch self-propelled howitzer M55.

Both the M53 and M55 were nearly identical to each other with only the main armament and ammunition stowage being different. In 1956, the Army started converting its M53's into M55 by changing out the gun and ammunition stowage. By the time the U.S. deployed ground troops to Vietnam, the M55 had already been replaced in the Army by the M110 8 inch self-propelled howitzer. However, the M55 was used by the USMC in Vietnam until replaced by the M110. It also saw service with the Belgium, Spain, Turkey and West Germany armies.

The M55 uses components of the M47 “Patton� tank, but the automotive aspects are reversed. The engine is mounted in the front and is driven through a front-drive sprocket capable of a top speed of 30 mph. The driver's cupola is visible on the front left of the turret, and spare track blocks are stored on the turret front. Because the driver's seat is in the turret, a special seat is used to keep the driver facing forward, independent of the turret facing.

The M55 was deployed in NATO areas during the Cold War and used during the Vietnam War, and subsequently withdrawn from service in the US military.

Former Operators Belgium;

West Germany;

United States;

Turkey;

Spain.

105

M110

Type…………………………...Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

United States Wars…………………………...Vietnam War; Iran-Iraq War; 1982 Lebanon War; Gulf War Weight………………………...28.3 metric tonnes (62,390 lb) Length…………………………10.8 m (35 ft 5 in) Width…………………………..3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) Height…………………………3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) Crew…………………………..13 (driver, 2 gunners, 2 loaders, 8 support crew in other vehicle) Armor………………………….13mm (.51 in) Main Armament…………………….8” (203mm) M201A1 howitzer Engine…………………………Detroit Diesel 8V71T, 8-cylinder, turbocharged diesel 405 hp (302 kW) Suspension……………………Torsion bar Operational Range………………………….523 km (325 mi) Speed………………………….54.7 km/h (30 mph)

106

The 8 inch (203mm) M110 self-propelled howitzer was the largest available self-propelled howitzer in the United States Army's inventory.

Consisting of a M115 203mm howitzer installed on a purpose built chassis, it was deployed in division artillery in general support battalions and in separate corps and army level battalions. Missions include general support, counter-battery fire, and suppression of enemy air defense systems. The M110 was exported to a number of countries.

According to the operator's manual, the M110's typical rate of fire was three rounds per two minutes when operated at maximum speed, and one round per two minutes with sustained fire. The M110 featured a hydraulically operated rammer to automatically chamber the 200 pound projectile. These rammers were prone to breakdown and generally slowed operation of the gun, because the rammers required crews to completely lower the massive barrel before using it. Highly trained and motivated U.S. Army crews could achieve two to four rounds per minute by using the hand-operated manual rammer, which was essentially a heavy steel pole with a hard rubber pad on one end. Using the manual rammer was physically demanding, but crews were not required to lower the barrels nearly as much as with the hydraulic rammer.

The M110's range varied from 16,800 meters to approximately 25,000 meters when firing standard projectiles, and up to 30,000 meters when firing rocket-assisted projectiles.

The heritage of the M110 goes back to the British 8 inch (203mm) howitzer of World War I. A number of these were used by the American forces and the design was used as the basis for their howitzer. The M110A2 is the latest version with a double muzzle brake; the earlier A1 version had a plain muzzle. It first entered service with the U.S. Army in 1963. It was used in the Vietnam War by the United States Army and in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm by Romeo Battery 5th Battalion 10th Marines, and the British Army. The 2nd Battalion 18th Field Artillery and the 5th Battalion 18th Field Artillery served in Desert Storm with the M110A2 Howitzer. Most of the U.S. Army and USMC relied on the M109 series 155mm gun systems during this conflict; sending remaining M110s to reserve or National Guard units. These units then took possession of M109s as they returned from service in the Gulf. M110s were still in service with the 3/92 FA (USAR) and running fire missions at Camp Atterbury as late as the summer of 1994.

The gun system has been retired from U.S. Army service; howitzers above 155mm caliber are no longer effective as technology has closed the range and firepower gap, and heavier weapon systems require more resources to operate. Gun barrels from retired M110s were initially used as the outer casing in the manufacture of the GBU-28 bunker buster bomb.

The M110A2s were made from refitted M110s or M107 175mm SP guns “Hunnicutt�.

At the end of the Cold War under U.S. Division Plan 86, all armored and mechanized infantry divisions included a battalion of heavy artillery that included two batteries of M110A2 8" SP howitzers with six guns each for a total of 12 guns, plus one battery of nine MLRS rocket artillery.

Above, the M107 175mm self-propelled gun was used by the U.S. Army from the early 1960s through to the late 1970s. It was part of a family of self-propelled artillery that also included the M110.

The M110 can stop and fire the first round from travelling within one minute. This artillery system carries no defensive armament, except individual weapons carried by the crew. M110A1, improved variant of the M110, fitted with a longer M201 203mm / L37 howitzer. It entered service in 1971. Maximum range of fire was increased to 27 km. The M110A2 is an improved variant of the M110A1. It entered service in 1978 and was fitted with double muzzle brake. Maximum range of fire was increased to 29 km.

Ammunition includes M14 dummy; M106 HE; M650 HE rocket assist projectile (RAP); M509 ICM; M404 ICM anti-personnel (airburst); M426 agent GB Sarin; M422A1 W33 (nuclear) and W79 (nuclear artillery shell). This howitzer system was designed to provide medium-range, general support artillery fire. The M110A2 was built by Bowen McLauchlin York of York, Pennsylvania. Widely used in Vietnam, the Army received this howitzer in 1963. There were 1,023 M110A2s in the Army inventory in the early 1990s, prior to the system being phased out of service.

107

Versions of the M110 with the longer barrel are the M110A1 (no muzzle brake) and the M110A2 (fitted with muzzle brake). In 1977, the first M110A1s entered service; these were armed with the longer 8" howitzer M201. The M201 allowed greater range over the shorter M2A2 howitzer.

The M110A2 was an M110A1 equipped with a double-baffle muzzle brake. The M110A1s had been limited to zone 8 of the M188A1 propelling charge, but the muzzle brake alleviated excessive recoil forces and allowed the howitzer to fire zone 9, which permitted greater range.

Current Operators Egyptian Army Received 144 M110A2 as aid in 1996; Israeli Army 36 M110;

Greek Army 145 as M110A2;

Japan Ground Self-Defense Force as 91 M110A2;

Moroccan Army 60 as M110A2;

Pakistan Army 60 in service as of 2010;

delivered in 1994,25 M110A2 from US delivered in 1996; out 219 M110A2 in favor of T-155 “Fırtına”.

Islamic Republic of Iran Army 30;

Jordanian Armed Forces 120 as M110A2; Royal Bahraini Army 13 M110A2 from Netherlands

Republic of China Army 60 as M110A2;

Turkish Army, currently phasing

Former Operators Army of the Republic of Vietnam; Germany (BSD); Army M110 until 2008;

Belgian Army 11 M110A2 between 1972 and 1993 used by the 20 Artillery Regiment in

German Army M110A2 until 1993;

Italian Army M110A2, phased out by 1998;

Republic of Korea

Royal Netherlands Army M110A1 and M110A2, replaced by the M109 in the 1990s;

Spanish Army as 64

M110A2, deployed in divisional fire support regiments until 2009; British Army as M110A2 firing high explosive and nuclear shells only. (The FV433 “Abbot” SPG, the M109A2, and the M110A1 were replaced by the AS-90 in the early-mid-1990s.) Used in Operation Granby/Gulf War;

United States Army and United States Marine Corps.

108

FV433 “Abbot”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Gun Place of Origin……………….

United Kingdom In Service…………………….1965-1995 (UK) Weight………………………..16.56 t (loaded without crew) Length………………………...Gun forward 5.8 m (20 ft) Width…………………………..2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) Height…………………………2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) Crew…………………………..6 Armour………………………..10 and 12mm plate Main Armament……………………105mm L13A1 gun, 40 rounds (including 6 rounds HESH) Secondary Armament…………………….7.62mm L4A4 MG with 1,200 rounds; smoke dischargers Engine………………………….Rolls-Royce K60 Mk 4G multi-fuel opposed piston engine 240 bhp Power/Weight………………..14.5bhp/tonne Suspension……………………Torsion bar: 5 units per side Operational Range………………………….480 km (300 mi) Speed………………………….47 km/h (29 mph)

109

FV433 Field Artillery, Self-Propelled "Abbot" is the self-propelled artillery variant of the British Army FV430 series of armoured fighting vehicles, using much of the chassis of the FV430 but with a fully rotating turret at the rear housing the 105 mm gun and given the vehicle designation of FV433.

Its correct designation was Gun Equipment 105mm L109 "Abbot"; L109 was little used, probably to avoid confusion with 155mm M109 that entered UK service at about the same time. The name "Abbot" continued the Second World War style of naming self-propelled artillery after ecclesiastical titles. The FV433 used a different configuration of power pack from other vehicles in the FV430 series.

A completely new ammunition family, comprising shells, fuzes and cartridges, was designed for FV433's L13 gun, designated 105mm Field (105mm Fd). Compared to US 105 mm M1 type ammunition, it uses electrical instead of percussion primers, and has longer shells.

The widely used US M1 type round was called "105mm How" in UK service. The 105mm Fd Mk 1 was used initially, it had a UK produced 105mm how shell, mostly US pattern fuzes and reduced charge 105mm cartridges with their electrical primers (105mm M1 uses percussion primers).

Maximum range with 105mm Fd Mk 1 ammunition was 15 km, the Mk 2 gave 17.4 km. Maximum rate of fire was 6-8 rounds per minute.

The gun was able to elevate to 70º and depress to -5º, sufficient to engage enemy AFVs if necessary. Traverse and shell ramming were powered by electrical servo mechanisms; elevation and cartridge ramming were by hand.

Due to the number of charges and its compact turret, the Abbot did not have calibrating sights. Instead, the sight mount had both Tangent Elevation (TE) and Angle of Sight Scales and a separate gun Rule to convert range into TE, corrected for the muzzle velocity variation from standard. The dial sight had all scales internal, illuminated and viewed through a single eyepiece.

The “Abbot” in the British Army was replaced by the AS-90 self-propelled gun in the mid 1990s. It is still in service with the Indian Army, though they are looking for a replacement. No sources refer to Abbots ever being used in combat.

Current Operators India: Indian Army uses 80 vehicles being replaced by the K9 VAJRA-T. Former Operators United Kingdom: British Army received 146 for use by Royal Artillery regiments (1965-95).

110

PLZ 05

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

People's Republic of China Weight…………………………35 tonnes Length…………………………11.60 m Width………………………….3.38 m Height…………………………3.55 m Crew…………………………..4 Caliber………………………..155mm Rate of Fire…………………..10 rounds/min (PLZ 05); 8 rounds/min Maximum Firing Range……..20km (laser-homing); 39km (ERFB-BB); 53km (ERFB-BB-RA) 100km (WS-35) Main Armament……………………155mm howitzer Secondary Armament……………………1x12.7mm (.50) anti-aircraft machine gun / 2 sets of 4 barrel grenade launchers Engine…………………………8V150 cooled turbocharged diesel 800 hp (PLZ 05) Suspension…………………...Torsion bar Operational Range………………………...550 km (PLZ 05) Speed...................................56 km/h (PLZ 05)

111

The PLZ 05, also referred as the Type 05, is a recent Chinese development. It was developed to replace to the Type 59-1 130mm.

The PLZ 05 evolved from the PLZ 45 that was intended for the export market. The first prototype was completed in 2003 and it was revealed in 2005. The PLZ 05 was adopted by Chinese Army in 2008. As of 2015 nearly 300 of these artillery systems are in service with Chinese Army.

The PLZ 05 is armed with a 155mm/L52 howitzer. Its predecessor, the PLZ 45, was fitted with a 155mm/L45 howitzer. The PLZ 05 has a longer barrel, as well as longer range of fire. Turret of the PLZ 05 was enlarged and resembles that of the Russian 2S19 Msta-S. It has a semi-automatic ammunition loading system. Some sources claim, that this autoloader has been copied from the 2S19. It is worth mentioning, that the Chinese Army was unsatisfied with indigenous semi-automatic loader of the PLZ 45.

The PLZ 05 is capable of firing a full range of Chinese 155mm munitions. Range of a standard projectile is estimated to be around 30 km. Rocket assisted projectile has a range of 39 km. The PLZ 05 is also capable of firing Chinese precision guided projectiles. In the 1990s China obtained the Russian “Krasnopol� laser-guided projectile technology. Later it successfully developed its own precision guided munitions. This projectile has a maximum range of 20 km. It has been reported that China developed a GPS-guided 155mm projectile. It is claimed that this projectile has a whooping maximum range of 100 km and accuracy of 40 m. Secondary armament consists of a 12.7mm machine gun, mounted on top of the roof.

Armor of the PLZ 05 protects against small arms fire and artillery shell splinters. NBC protection and automatic fire suppression systems are fitted as standard. This artillery system uses a tracked chassis, which is very similar to that of the PLZ 45. It is most likely that it is powered by a Deutz turbocharged diesel engine, developing 517 hp. This engine is license-produced in China and is used on a number of military machines.

This self-propelled howitzer is supported by an associated ammunition resupply vehicle, which carries ammunition under armor on the battlefield. The resupply vehicle carries about 90 rounds. Automated delivery is 8 rounds per minute. This support vehicle is fitted with a crane, which is used for ammunition handling operations and can be also used to replace the power pack.

Versions PLZ 05 / Type 05 Is a self-propelled howitzer with a 52 caliber barrel, 800 hp diesel engine and a gross weight of 35 tonnes. It is deployed only with the People's Liberation Army The PLZ 05 can fire the WS-35 shell, a 40 lb (18 kg) guided munition with accuracy of 40 m (130 ft) and a max range reported to be 100 km (62 mi). It is guided using Beidou Navigation Satellite System, the Chinese version of global positioning system, and inertial guidance.

PLZ 52 The PLZ 52 is a 155mm/52 caliber tracked self-propelled howitzer similar in appearance to the PLZ 45, but based on a slightly different hull. Having a gross vehicle weight of 43 tonnes, the PLZ 52 features a new power pack, which consists of a diesel engine developing 1,000 hp at 2,300 rpm coupled to a fully automatic transmission. This gives a maximum road speed of up to 65 km/h and an operational range up to 450 km. The PLZ 52 howitzer has a maximum firing range of 53 km (with ERFB-BB-RA projectiles), maximum firing rate of eight rounds per minute, a burst firing rate of three rounds per fifteen seconds, and a multiple-round simultaneous impact capability of four rounds. The driver and power pack are at the front of the hull with a fully enclosed turret at the rear. It has torsion bar suspension with six dual rubber tyred road wheels, a drive sprocket at the front, idler at the rear and track return rollers. The PLZ 52 is offered for export.

PLZ 04 Self-propelled howitzer with a 54 calibers barrel and apparently offered for export.

PLZ 05 characteristics: Armament The main armament of the PLZ 05 is composed by a 155mm gun, with a barrel length of 52 or 54 calibers. A 12.7mm machine gun is mounted to the roof of the turret as anti-aircraft protection. Four smoke grenade launchers are mounted on the turret front on each side of the main gun.

Protection The hull and the turret of the PLZ 05 is made of high hardness armor steel, which provide a protection against small arms firing and shell splinters of the battle field.

Propulsion The PLZ 05 is motorized with a Diesel engine power pack mounted at the front of the vehicle. The torsion bar suspension is composed to each side with six rubber-tyred road wheels and two track support rollers on each side, drive sprocket at the front and idler at the rear.

Accessories The PLZ 05 is equipped with an NBC protection and automatic fire suppression system.

PLZ 05 showing the digital camouflage typical of the modern PLA vehicles. The PLZ 05 has a longer barrel, as well as longer range of fire. Turret of the PLZ 05 was enlarged and resembles that of the Russian 2S19 Msta-S. It has a semi-automatic ammunition loading system. Some sources claim, that this autoloader has been copied from the 2S19.

112

The PLZ 05 is equipped with an NBC protection and automatic fire suppression system.

Current Operators People's Republic of China. As of 2015, at least 276 units are in service with the People's Liberation Army (PLA).

113

Type 83

Type…………………………...Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin………………

People's Republic of China Weight………………………..30 tonnes Length…………………………9.8 m (32 ft 2 in) Width………………………….3.24 m (10 ft 8 in) Height…………………………3.50 m (11 ft 6 in) with AAMG Crew…………………………..5 Traverse……………………….360° Main Armament……………………152mm howitzer Secondary Armament……………………1x12.7mm (.50) anti-aircraft machine gun Engine…………………………WR4B-12V150LB 12 cylinder diesel 520 hp (382 kW) Suspension…………………...Torsion bar Operational Range…………………………450 km (280 mi) Speed………………………...55 km/h (35 mph)

114

The Type 83 is a 152mm self-propelled howitzer used by the People's Liberation Army of China. This self-propelled gun system was developed by Factory 674 (Harbin First Machinery Building Group Ltd) and based on a tracked chassis. The project's development started in the late 1970s and the prototype was completed in February 1980, followed by a second in 1981. Production was authorized in 1983 under the designation Type 83. The first production run started in May 1983 and the first public display was on 1 October 1984. This self-propelled gun is similar to the 2S3, with a modified version of the Type 66 gun and a Type 321 utility tracked chassis and is the first modern self-propelled gun in service with the People's Liberation Army. Production ended in 1990, after only 78 examples were built. Manufacturing also involved the factory 5318 (artillery), 298 (aiming), 754 and 843. Unlike the U.S. M109 howitzer, this self-propelled gun is made from steel and not aluminum alloy. It has six wheels on each side with the engine is in the forward hull. There is stowage for 30 shells, included a Chinese version of the Krasnopol laser ammunition. The elevation is 0° to 62° giving a range of 17 km. There is also base-bleed ammunition with improved range, cluster and fragmentation projectiles.

The engine is a 520 hp (382 kW) WR4B-12V150LB four-stroke, liquid-cooled diesel engine. The maximum speed is 55 km/h and range 450 km. The typical Chinese artillery regiment (one for each armoured division) has 18 SPG organized as one battalion with three batteries. Not long after entering service it was determined to be obsolescent and China started to develop new systems, like the PLZ45 (mainly for international market) and the real Type 83s replacement, the PLZ 05.

A secondary weapon, a 12.7mm machine gun and a hand-held Rocket-propelled grenade launcher completes the weaponry set.

Current Operators People's Republic of China.

115

Vz. 77 DANA

Type…………………………...Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………....

Czechoslovakia In Service…………………….1981-present Weight………………………...29.250 t (32.243 short tons) Length………………………...11.156 m (36.60 ft) Width…………………………..3 m (9.8 ft) Height…………………………3.63 m (11.9 ft) (with AA DShKM) Crew…………………………..5 Elevation……………………..-4° to +70° Traverse………………………±220° Rate of Fire……………………4 rounds/min (semi-automatic loading) 2 rounds/min (manual) Muzzle Velocity……………..693 m/s (2,274 ft/s) (HE) Maximum Firing Range…….20 km (66,000 ft) Main Armament……………………152mm howitzer (approx. 36.6 caliber) (60 rounds) Secondary Armament……………………1x12.7mm (.50) DShKM (2,000 rounds) Engine…………………………Tatra T2-930-34 253.7 kW (340.2 hp) Operational Range…………………………600 km (370 mi) Speed…………………………80 km/h (50 mph)

116

The Vz. 77 DANA (the name being derived from “Dělo Automobilní Nabíjené Automaticky”, gun on truck loaded automatically) is a 152mm wheeled self-propelled artillery piece. It is also known as the ShKH Vz. 77 (Samohybná Kanónová Húfnica Vzor 77, Self-Propelled Gun Howitzer Model 77); and was designed by Konštrukta Trenčín and built by ZTS Dubnica nad Váhom in the former Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia). Introduced in the 1970s it was the first wheeled 152mm self-propelled artillery gun to enter service. It is based on a modified 8x8 Tatra 813 chassis with excellent cross-country mobility. Currently it is in service with the Czech Republic, Libya, Poland, Georgia and Slovakia.

Wheeled vehicles have the advantage of being cheaper to build and easier to maintain with greater mobility. Tire pressure can be regulated to allow good mobility off-road and there is power-assisted steering on the front four wheels. It lowers 3 hydraulic stabilizers into the ground prior to firing, and has a roof mounted crane to assist with ammunition loading.

The crew of the DANA consists of the driver (operates the hydraulic stabilizers) and commander sitting in the front cabin, the gunner (aims the gun and opens fire) and loader operator (selects the appropriate amount of powder charges) are on the left side of the turret, the ammo handler (sets the shells' primers) is on the right side turret.

The DANA was designed in the late 1970s by Konštrukta Trenčín to provide the Czechoslovak People's Army with an indigenous selfpropelled indirect fire support weapon without having to resort to purchasing the Soviet 2S3 “Akatsiya” SPG. Design work was completed in 1976 and the DANA project was handed off to production at ZTS Dubnica Nad Váhom. It was accepted into service in 1981, and by 1994 over 750 units had been built. The DANA was also exported to Poland and Libya.

The DANA was a significant departure from contemporary self-propelled guns as it used a wheeled chassis and featured an innovative automated loading system which was the first of its kind at the time of its introduction to service. The vehicle has a driving cabin at the front, an open-topped fighting compartment at mid-length and the engine compartment in the rear. The front crew cabin seats both the driver/mechanic and vehicle commander. The left half of the turret is occupied by the gunner and first loader and houses the various fire control optics, electro-mechanical gun laying controls, the automatic propellant charge feeding device as well as an auxiliary ammunition magazine. The right side of the turret contains a mechanized projectile delivery system which is operated by a second loader at this position.

The DANA's primary weapon is a 152mm howitzer with a monolithic barrel (with a fixed rifling pitch) equipped with a single expansion chamber. The howitzer has a semi-automatic, vertically-sliding wedge-type breech which opens to the left side. The recoil assembly consists of a hydraulic buffer, two pneumatic return cylinders and a controlling plunger which governs the displacement of the buffering system.

The gun laying is carried out by an electro-hydraulic drive system or an emergency manual control. DANA's unique feature is that its autoloader is able to load a shell and a cartridge in any elevation of the barrel.

As there is no gyroscopic or similar system for independent, automated and autonomous gun laying in the DANA, the gunner of howitzer uses a ZZ-73 panoramic telescope with a PG1-M-D collimator for indirect gun laying. This sight has a horizontal scale used to set the appropriate horizontal laying via aiming at reference points.

This means that the DANA is not an autonomous system there needs to be an additional device to assist in gun laying (in fact, the firing positions of such artillery systems are usually prepared before the guns are positioned there). For direct fire engagements, the gunner uses an OP5-38-D telescopic sight.

The first Czechoslovak People's Army began to rearm units of 152mm towed howitzer artillery regiments, divisions alert, namely: the first and ninth tank divisions and the 2nd, 19th and 20th Infantry Divisions. The first self-propelled artillery DANA was adopted by first in 1980 by 1st Artillery Regiment in the Terezin (Terezin), belonging to the 1st Armored Division. SPH Vz.77 DANA was presented to the public May 9, 1980 at a military parade in Prague. The largest number of SPH DANA, 408 pieces, there were armed Czechoslovak People's Army on December 31, 1992. After the division of Czechoslovakia into two independent states, the Army of the Czech Republic (ACR) got 273 units, and re-made army of the Slovak Republic 135 pieces. At today army The Czech Republic has 209 DANA, most of which are in storage. The embattled DANA is in the 13th Artillery Brigade in Jince.

There is an interesting story with the Vz.77 DANA in the Soviet Army service, which had acquired 126 units. It was almost the only weapon system, used by the Soviet army, which was not designed and produced in the Soviet Union. This one was used in moderate amounts.

In 1979, two copies of the DANA were tested in the Rzhevsky range of Leningrad to study the possibility of adopting. The tests showed no advantage over the Soviet analogue tracked SPH “Akatsiya". In 1983, despite the USSR Ministry of Defense with a degree of opposition it was purchased about 10 machines for trial operation. A year later, they were returned to Czechoslovakia.

In 1985, the Minister of Defense of the USSR Marshal of Soviet Union S.L. Sokolova was oriented to make a report on the results of the trial operation with DANA. Following its review, the Council of Ministers of the USSR issued in October 25, 1986 an order to acquire the Vz.77.

In 1988, again despite the USSR Defence Ministry's objection, more than 100 vehicles were purchased, which greatly facilitates the logistics.

Deliveries were carried out in 1988-1989, and vehicle went in to service with 211th Artillery Brigade of the Central Group of Forces, located in Zhesenike (Jeseník), after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, August 21, 1968.

Until the moment of re-equipment of 211th Brigade, this unit consisted of four divisions, equipped with towed guns D-20 and selfpropelled howitzer 2S5. Now it consisted of 5 divisions, each of which had three artillery batteries with 8 guns.

As of February 02, 1990 the brigade possessed 104 units of DANA. Apart from the Artillery Brigade, Vz.77 was used in Artillery Training Center.

In the opinion of the officers who served in the 211th Brigade, DANA was very sensitive to the operating conditions, and did not have a high robustness. For this reason, there were many failures. Particular praise awarded maneuverability eight-chassis, which was even higher than that of the BTR-70. Turning radius artillery system allowed her to travel in very narrow places at once, where armored personnel required driving with the inclusion of a reverse gear in two steps. In 1990, with the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Czechoslovakia the use of DANA was discontinued.

Combat history 4-9 Vz.77s were thought to have been destroyed by a Russian air strike in South Ossetia. According to Russian sources 3 were captured.

Five Polish guns had been used in Afghanistan in Ghazni Province since 2008.

117

In the case of necessity, beyond of 12.7mm DShK on tower roof, the vehicle is also equipped internally with portable anti-tank missiles to self-defence against tanks and others armored vehicles.

The Vz.77 uses the standard high-explosive shells. DANA is completely unified with the Soviet munitions 152mm of howitzer D-20.

118

The armoured turret is installed on a traversable mount adapted to the Tatra 815 wheeled chassis (8x8) and is divided into two halves, divided by the howitzer's recoil mechanism and a pathway for the reciprocating action during firing.

Current Operators Czech Republic - 164 M-77 (to 1 July 2008) of original 273; 77 and 16 M2000;

Libya - 120 M-77;

Georgia - 47 M-77 delivered by the Czech Republic from 2004;

Poland - 111 M-77;

Slovakia - 135 M-

Cyprus - 12 M2000G “Zuzana� via Greece.

Former Operators Czechoslovakia - 408, passed on to successor states; Czechoslovakia the use of Vz. 77 was discontinued.

Soviet Union - in 1990, with the withdrawal of Soviet troops from

119

2S19 “Msta-S”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union / Russia In Service…………………….1989 – present Wars…………………………..Second Chechen War; War in Donbass Weight………………………..42 tonnes (92,593 lbs) Length…………………………7.15 m (23 ft 5 in) Width………………………….3.38 m (11 ft 1 in) Height…………………………2.99 m (9 ft 10 in) Crew…………………………..5 Elevation……………………..-4° to +68° Traverse………………………360° Rate of Fire……………………6-8 rounds per minute Maximum Firing Range…….Base bleed: 29km (18 mi) RAP: 36 km (22 mi) Main Armament……………………152mm 2A65 howitzer Secondary Armament……………………1x12.7mm (.50) NSVT anti-aircraft machine gun Engine…………………………Diesel V-84A 840 hp (626.39 kW) Power/Weight……………….20 hp/tonne Suspension……………………Torsion bar Operational Range…………………………500 km (311 mi) Speed…………………………60 km/h (37 mph)

120

The 2S19 "Msta-S" (Мста, allusion to the river Msta) is a self-propelled 152mm howitzer designed by Soviet Union/Russia, which entered service in 1989 as the successor to the SO-152. The Msta is a modern howitzer designed for deployment either as an unarmored towed gun, or to be fitted in armored self-propelled artillery mountings. Current production of the towed model is designated “Msta-B”, while the self-propelled model is the “Msta-S” (also known by the GRAU index 2S19). Development of the 2S19 started in 1980 under the project name “Ferma”. The prototype was known as Ob'yekt 317. The 2S19's standard equipment consists of a semi-automatic laying system 1P22, an automatic loader, an NBC protection system, passive night vision device for the driver, a wading kit, a dozer blade, a smoke generator and 81mm smoke launchers, 1V116 intercom system and a 16 kW generator AP-18D. In 2008 the Russian armed forces ordered an improved model with an automated fire control system. The 2A64 ordnance of the 2S19 can fire the following types of ammunition, among others: HE (24.7 km), HEAT-FS, HE-BB (28.9 km), HERA (36 km), smoke, chemical, tactical nuclear, illumination and cargo (ICM). The laser-guided round “Krasnopol” (of the 9K25 system) can also be launched, as well as the shorter "Krasnopol-M” which fits into the automatic loader. Msta-S howitzers were used by Russian Army to deliver artillery strikes against Chechen separatists during the Second Chechen War. “Msta-S” howitzers have also been used in the War in Donbass by the Ukrainian Army as well as pro-Russian rebels who captured one machine during the conflict. It is fitted with a 152mm/L47 howitzer, which is similar to that used on the 2A65 “Msta-B” towed howitzer, additionally fitted with a semi-automatic loader and fume extractor.

This gun can be loaded at any angle. Maximum rate of fire is 7-8 rounds per minute. The “Msta-S” is compatible with all standard 152mm projectiles used by the D-20 towed gun-howitzer and 2S3 “Akatsiya” self-propelled howitzer.

The 2S19 fires a wide range of munitions, including standard and rocket-assisted HE-FRAG projectiles, cluster projectiles with anti-tank submunitions, jammer carrying projectiles. It is capable of firing “Krasnopol” precision guided munitions. Maximum range of fire is 24.7 km with standard HE-FRAG projectile and 28.9 with rocket-assisted projectile. The “Krasnopol” projectile has a maximum range of 20 km and a hit probability of 90%. It can also hit moving vehicles. A total of 50 rounds are carried inside the “Msta-S”. This artillery system has a brief reaction time. It can stop and fire its first round within 1-2 minutes from travelling. A separate conveyer in the rear of the turret allows loading of ground ammunition. Two additional crew members are required in order to fire using ground ammunition. Secondary armament of the 2S19 “Msta-S” SPH consists of remotely controlled 12.7mm machine gun mounted on top of the roof. Vehicle is also fitted with smoke grenade dischargers. Hull and turret of the “Msta-S” are welded from steel armor. It provides protection for the crew against small arms and artillery shell splinters. This artillery system is fitted with NBC protection and automatic fire suppression systems.

Tracked chassis of the “Msta-S” SPH uses many components of the T-72 and T-80 main battle tanks. The hull of the “Msta-S” resembles that of the T-72 MBT; however it has significantly thinner armor. The vehicle is powered by a rear-mounted V-46-6 diesel engine, developing 780 hp. Some howitzers were fitted with a more powerful V-84A diesel engine; developing 840 hp. Additionally it is equipped with auxiliary power unit, which powers all systems, when the main engine is turned off. The “Msta-S” self-propelled howitzer is fitted with a deep wading kit. With preparation it fords water obstacles up to 5 m deep. Vehicle is also fitted with a self-entrenching blade.

Versions 152mm howitzer 2A65 - a towed version of the same gun.

1K17 “Szhatie” - a "laser tank" armed with a battery of lasers meant to disable optoelectronic systems; uses “Msta-S” chassis and turret.

2S19M1 (2000) - Improved version with automatic laying system and “Glonass”.

2S19M2 (2013) - Improved version equipped with a new automatic fire control system which increases the rate of fire. Digital electronic maps are now available which significantly speeds up the terrain orientation in difficult geographical conditions and allows performing faster and more efficiently firing missions.

2S19M1-155 (2006) – A 155mm export version of the 2S19M1, fitted with an L/52 gun with a range of 40 km.

2S27 "Msta-K" (Kolyosnij) - Wheeled variant, based on an 8x8 truck chassis. There were several different prototypes, including one based on a KrAZ-ChR-3130 and two based on the Ural-5323 (with and without turret).

2S30 "Iset" – An Improved version of the vehicle. Prototype only.

2S33 "Msta-SM" – An Improved version of the vehicle. No details available.

2S35 "Koalitsiya-SV" - Project for a new artillery system for the Russian land forces (SV; Sukhoputniye Voyska). Early prototypes consisted of a 2S19 chassis with modified turret, fitted with an over-and-under dual autoloaded 152mm howitzer. Development of this variant was abandoned in favour of an entirely new artillery system using the same designation.

“Msta-S” fires a variety of ammunition like, HE-FRAG (high-explosive fragmentation), HE-FRAG with base gas bleed, cluster projectiles with fragmentation submunitions and the “Krasnopol” laser-guided 152mm projectile. It can also fire the 3RB30 jammer carrying projectiles which set up radio intereference to disrupt enemy communications. These have a range of 22km and can jam frequencies between 1.5 MHz to 120 MHz to a radius of 700m.

121

There is a 12.7mm anti-aircraft machine gun on turret, which is remotely controlled by the commander. Three smoke grenade dischargers are mounted on each side of the turret. Fifty rounds of ammunition for the howitzer and 300 cartridges for the machine gun are carried onboard.

The design of the ammunition rack allows different types of projectiles to be stored in the same rack. The automatic loading mechanism can select the type of ammunition and control the loading and the number of rounds.

Used ammunition cases are ejected automatically to reduce the build-up of waste gases. There are separate conveyers in the rear of the turret that allow the loading of ground ammunition. Before the howitzer starts off, the projectile conveyer is folded and fixed on the turret and the charge conveyer is folded inside the turret.

Current Operators Azerbaijan – 18; 2014; “Msta-S”.

Ukraine – 40;

Belarus – 13;

Ethiopia – 12;

Georgia- 1;

Venezuela - Received a number of “Msta-S”;

Russia - 550 2S19 and 2S19M1, 108 2S19M2 since Morocco - Received an undisclosed number of

Former Operators Soviet Union.

122

2S1 “Gvozdika”

Type…………………………...Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of origin……………….

Soviet Union In Service…………………….1972–present Weight………………………..16 tonnes (35,273 lbs) Length…………………………7.26 m (23 ft 10 in) Width………………………….2.85 m (9 ft 4 in) Height…………………………2.73 m (8 ft 11 in) Crew…………………………..4 Caliber……………………….122mm Elevation……………………..-3° to +70° Traverse……………………….360° Rate of Fire……………………Maximum: 5 rpm; Sustained: 1-2 rpm Muzzle Velocity……………...680 m/s (2,200 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range…….Conventional: 15.3 km (9.5 mi); extended: 21.9 km (13.6 mi) Main Armament……………………122mm (4.8 in) 2A18 howitzer Engine…………………………YaMZ-238N Diesel 220 kW (300 hp) Operational Range…………………………500 km (310 mi) Speed…………………………Road: 60 km/h (37 mph); Off-road: 30 km/h (18 mph); Swim: 4.5 km/h (2.8 mph)

123

The 2S1 “Gvozdika”, ( 2С1 Гвоздика) “Carnation”; is a Soviet 122mm self-propelled howitzer that resembles the PT-76 but is a modified version of the MT-LB APC, mounting the 2A18 howitzer. ‘2S1’ is its GRAU designation. An alternative Russian designation is SAU-122 but in the Russian Army it is commonly known as Gvozdika. It was designated like M1974 by the U.S. Army in Cold War. Although the 2S1 has been variously referred to as a gun, a gun-howitzer, or a howitzer, the Soviet press called it a howitzer. The vehicle is amphibious if the ammunition load is reduced to 30 rounds. On water vehicle is propelled by its tracks. Maximum amphibious speed is 4.5 km/h. The light weight and low profile also make air-lifting easier. The 2S1 can be airlifted by An-12 or Il-76 transport aircraft. A variety of wider tracks are also available to allow the 2S1 to operate in snow or swamp conditions.

The first prototype was ready in 1969, and the 2S1 entered service with the Soviet Army in the early 1970s and was first seen in public at a Polish Army parade in 1974. The vehicle was deployed in large numbers (72 per tank division, 36 per motorized rifle division). The vehicle was manufactured in Bulgarian, Polish and Russian state factories. The 2S1 has seven road wheels on each side; the running gear can be fitted with different widths of track to match terrain. The interior is separated into a driver's compartment on the left, an engine compartment on the right and a fighting compartment to the rear. Within the fighting compartment the commander sits on the left, the loader on the right and the gunner to the front. The all-welded turret is located above of the fighting compartment. The 2S1 utilizes a 122mm howitzer based on the modified version of towed D-30 howitzer. The gun is equipped with a power rammer, a doublebaffle muzzle brake and a fume extractor.

It is capable of firing HE (high explosive), leaflet, HE/RAP, armor-piercing HE, flechette and chemical rounds.

The 2S1 is found in the howitzer battalion of BMP equipped motorized rifle regiments and some tank regiments. Since it is tracked and amphibious, it has the cross-country capability necessary to keep pace with supported BMPs and tanks. It has a maximum range of 15,300 meters and is also used extensively in a direct fire role against armored vehicles or to breach minefields and other obstacles.

The vehicle has a relatively light weight of less than 17 tons, with a ground pressure of approximately 0.5 kg/cm2. This enables it to operate in swamps and deep snow and also contributes to its amphibious capability. It’s NBC protected due tightly sealed hull with its filtration system that enables the 2S1 to operate in radioactive or contaminated zones as well as under heavy dust conditions. The turret is mounted with a ball-bearing race and has an electric drive for rapid traverse, although precise aiming is performed with a manual drive. A ramming mechanism speeds up the loading process, and fired cases are ejected automatically.

Since the 2S1 was seen in public for the first time in 1974. It also has been referred to as SP-74 and SAU-122.

Its introduction coincided with the expansion of the Soviet motorized rifle regiment's artillery battery to a battalion and with the introduction of the ACRV M1974, which is associated with self-propelled artillery units. The self-propelled howitzer 2S1 provided the Soviet Army with highly mobile firepower that fit neatly into its doctrine of the offensive. It also was found in some non-Soviet Warsaw Pact armies.

To aim the cannon are mounted on the commander's cupola, the TKN-3B sight, with a combined illuminator sight DU-3GA2 and TNPO170A observation prismatic periscopes. It’s has infra-red night-vision capability. The gunner is equipped with 1OP40 sight for indirect targets and an OP5-37 sight for direct firing. On the right side of the tower, a rotating MK-4 monitoring device is mounted near the loader’s hatch.

The driver's cabin is equipped with TNPO-170A mechanical prismatic observation periscopes as well as TVN-2B night vision equipment for night driving. The driver's periscopes are electrically heated and have an armored protective cap. The radio equipment is model R123M. The transceiver operates in the VHF range and provides stable communication band of the same type at a distance of up to 28 km depending on the height of the antenna. Communication between crew members is made via the P-124 intercom system.

Versions (Soviet Union/Russia) MT-LBu – This larger variant of the MT-LB that has the longer chassis and stronger engine of the 2S1 could be considered a derivative of the 2S1.

UR-77 "Meteorit" (Ustanovka Razminirovaniya) – A mine clearing vehicle with a turret superstructure type bearing two launch ramps.

The ramps are used to fire rockets towing hose type mine clearing line charges. A single charge can clear an area of 90 m by 6 m. The UR-77 is the successor to the BTR-50 based UR-67. UR-77 vehicles were used in mass in the Battle of Komsomolskaya during the Second Chechen War- the one-ton mine-clearing charges were used to blow away entire houses.

The UR-77s were delivered to the Syrian Army by Russia in 2014 to serve in the Syrian Civil War, where they have been used in action against the Free Syrian Army.

RKhM "Kashalot" (Razvedivatel’naya Khimicheskaya Mashina) – Chemical reconnaissance vehicle with detection, marking and alarm devices. This model has the hull shape and single rear door of the 2S1, but with the short chassis and machine gun turret of the MT-LB. Former Western designation: ATV M1979/4.

RKhM-K – Command version with additional signal equipment but without sensors or markers.

2S15 "Norov" – A prototype tank destroyer equipped with a radar-based fire control system and a 100mm gun.

2S34 "Hosta" – Modernization of the 2S1 with the 122mm 2A31 gun replaced by the 120mm 2A80 gun. Further improvements include a new fire control system, a battlefield observation system and the ability to fire the Kitolov-2M guided ammunition. One unit, the 21st Mechanized Brigade in Totskoye is currently being equipped with the system.

A 2S1 on the cut view.

124

The thickness of the 2S1 armor is very thin, its 20mm steel doesn’t provide great protection against anti-tank weapons, but well supports firing of lighter weapons and granade shrapnel. On the other hand, thanks to its top speed of 60 km/h and its powerful engine, the “Gvozdika” is faster and accelerates better than its American counterpart, the M109.

Current Operators Algeria – 145; Herzegovina – 5;

Angola; Belarus – 246;

Armenia;

Azerbaijan – 81 2S1 and unknown number of UR-77;

Bulgaria – 506;

15 “Panzerhaubitze” 2000 from German Army stock); Georgia 48; Rak);

India – 110;

South Ossetia; Uruguay – 6;

Iran;

Serbia – 72;

Uzbekistan;

Cuba – 150; Eritrea – 20;

Iraq;

Croatia – 9 (to be used alongside Ethiopia;

Kazakhstan – 10;

Slovakia – 49;

Vietnam;

Bosnia and

Syria – 400;

Finland – 72 (known as 122 PsH 74);

Libya;

Poland – 324 (to be replaced by SMK

Russia – 622;

Ukraine – 638;

Yemen.

Former Operators Czech Republic – Phased out in early 2000s (decade); Phased out in 1990 after German reunification; Romania – 48 reserve status since 2005;

Czechoslovakia – Passed on to successor states;

East Germany –

Hungary - Phased out in 2004. Original there were 144 pieces of “Gvozdikas”; Slovenia – 8 reserve status;

Soviet Union – Passed on to successor states;

Yugoslavia – Passed on to successor states.

125

2S3 “Akatsiya”

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of origin………………

Soviet Union Produced……………………1967–1993 (2S3, 2S3M and 2S3M1) Weight………………………..Maximum: 28 metric tons Length………………………..Total: 8.4 m (27 ft 7 in) Hull: 7.765 m (25 ft 5.7 in) Width…………………………3.25 m (10 ft) Height………………………..3.05 m (10 ft) 2.615 m (8 ft 7.0 in) without a machine gun Crew………………………….4 Elevation…………………….−4° to +60° Maximum Firing Range…...Conventional: 18.5 km (11.5 mi) RAP: 24 km (15 mi) Armor…………………………15mm (hull) 30mm (turret and hull frontal plate) Main Armament…………………..152mm D-22 L/27 howitzer (46 rounds, maximum) Secondary Armament…………………..1x7.62mm (.30) remotely controlled PKT tank machine gun (1,500 rounds) Engine………………………..V-59(12-cylinder 4-stroke V-shaped water-cooled diesel) 520 hp (382.7 kW) at 2,000 rpm Power/Weight………………18.9 hp/tonne (13.92 kW/tonne) Operational Range………………………..500 km (310 mi) Speed………………………..On-road: 63 km/h (39 mph) Off-road: 45 km/h (28 mph)

126

The 2S3 “Akatsiya” (2C3 Акация) “Acacia” is a Soviet 152mm self-propelled artillery developed in 1968. It was a response to the American 155mm M109. The development started in 1967 according to the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union from July 4, 1967.

In 1968 the SO-152 (2S3) was completed and in 1971 entered service. Its GRAU designation is 2S3 (2С3). The fighting vehicle also received the additional designation “Akatsiya”, which is Russian for acacia. Designated M1973 by the U.S. Army, the Akatsiya is armed with a 152mm howitzer based on the Soviet 152mm D-20 howitzer and is sometimes confused with the M109 self-propelled artillery. The artillery system was developed at the design bureau No. 9 of Sverdlovsk. The factory designation of the howitzer is D-22 and the GRAU designation, 2A33. The chassis was developed by Uraltransmash.

The driver's and engine-transmission compartments are located in the front part of a hull, the fighting compartment with rotatory turret in middle and rear parts of the hull. The armor is welded rolled steel.

The SPG is equipped with an R-123 radio set, an R-124 intercom, an automatic CBRN defense system with filtration unit and fire-fighting equipment. The V-59 12-cylinder four-stroke water-cooled diesel engine connects to a mechanical two-gear transmission. The gear box is combined into one block with a planetary steering gear. The 2S3 has self-entrenching equipment which allows it to prepare a trench within 20–40 min.

The crew consists of 4–6 men: a driver, a gunner, a loader, a commander, and two ammunition bearers, which are positioned to the rear of the vehicle feeding rounds through two hatches in the hull rear when in masked firing position. The 152mm L/27 howitzer D-22 (2A33) can be elevated from −4° to +60° with a turret traverse of a full 360°. Rate of fire is 2.6 – 3.5 rounds/min depending on firing conditions.

The howitzer is equipped with a double-baffle muzzle brake, a semi-automatic vertical wedge breechblock and an ejector. The 2S3 has a periscopic sight for laying the howitzer, and telescopic sight for engaging targets with direct fire. The howitzer has separate type of loading with ammunition (35 rounds, later increased to up to 46) arranged in two mechanized stowages (in the turret and in the rear of the hull). The “Akatsiya” can fire OF-540 and OF-25 HE-Frag 43.56 kg projectiles (also all types of rounds developed for 152mm towed howitzer-guns ML-20 and D-20, and for towed howitzer D-1) at a maximum range of 18.5 km depending of used charge or rocket assisted projectiles to a maximum of 24 km.

Other projectiles available to the “Akatsiya” include BP-540 HEAT-FS (sight distance is 3 km, 250mm armor penetration), Br-540B and Br540 AP-T (115–120 mm armor penetration at a 1000 m), OF-38 “Krasnopol” laser-guided rocket-assisted projectiles, S1 illuminating, ZH3 smoke, nuclear projectiles (with explosive capacity of 2 kt). Secondary armament consists of a remotely controlled 7.62mm PKT tank machine gun on commander's cupola for anti-aircraft defence and self-defence at close range.

Versions 2S3 (SO-152) – Basic variant, developed in 1968 and produced in 1970–1975. Two modifications used D-11 and D-11M howitzers.

2S3M (SO-152M) – Equipped with a mechanized drum-type stowage for 12 rounds, the amount of hatches in rear armored plates of the hull and the turret was reduced, the configuration of those hatches was changed, antenna of R-123 radio set was transferred on a turret top. Ammunition was increased from 40 to 46 rounds (usually consists of 42 OF-540 and OF-25 HE-Frag projectiles, and of 4 BP540 HEAT-FS projectiles). Much more powerful OF-29 HE-Frag projectiles and OF-38 “Krasnopol” laser-guided rocket-assisted projectiles were developed for SO-152M. The modernized howitzer has a designator 2A33. Produced in 1975–1987.

2S3M1 (SO-152M1) – Equipped with a command data acquisition and display equipment, and with a new SP-538 sight. OF38 Krasnopol laser-guided rocket-assisted projectiles were added to standard ammunition. Produced in 1987–1993. All 2S3s and 2S3Ms were modernized to 2S3M1 level.

2S3M2 (SO-152M2) – Modernized variant equipped with an automatic fire control system, a satellite navigational system, and smoke grenade launchers. Developed in 2000.

2S3M2-155 – An export-oriented variant of 2S3M2 equipped with a new 155mm M-385 howitzer. Developed in 2000.

2S3M3 – An experimental variant of 2S3M2 equipped with a further improved fire control system and a modernized howitzer 2A33M that can fire ordnance of a more powerful 2A65 howitzer that equips the 2S19.

Combat history The 2S3 became a well-known self-propelled artillery after combat operations in Afghanistan where it proved to be an effective and reliable artillery system. 2S3s were used quite successfully during two Chechen wars and military conflicts on the territory of former USSR. Soviet War in Afghanistan (1979–1989); Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988); Gulf War (1991); Civil War in Tajikistan (1992–1997); First Chechen War (1994–1996); Second Chechen War (1999); South Ossetia War (2008); Libyan Civil War (2011); Syrian Civil War (2011–present); War in Donbass.

Unlike the 2S1, the “Akatsiya” was never license-produced outside of Russia and was exported outside of the Soviet Union only in relatively small numbers. The exception would be Iraq, with its 150 purchased vehicles, and East Germany with approximately 95 vehicles.

127

Despite its generally low export numbers, the “Akatsiya� found its way into numerous militaries across the world and participated in several notable conflicts such as the Soviet-Afghan war and the series of conflicts connected with the break-up of the Soviet Union, as well as in the Gulf War and later on the Iraq War. It was recently seen in Syria and it is being used by both sides in Ukraine. Throughout its service, it gained a reputation as a solid and rugged vehicle that can be operated in even the harshest conditions.

The 152mm caliber was not selected randomly, on the older vehicles, including the legendary ISU-152, were already using it, and the raw firepower of the massive 152mm rounds was enough to knock down even hardened structures. But there was another thing to consider: the Americans were already using the 155mm M109 SPG at the time this decision was made, with one particular type of shell; the 0.1 kiloton M454 nuclear round. A 152mm self-propelled howitzer would be ideal to deliver the same kind of ammunition while remaining relatively mobile and, more importantly, relatively resistant to NBC threats (unlike its towed counterparts).

128

A 2S3 with parade decoration.

Current Operators Algeria – 10 in 1995, originally 40 were purchased; Ukraine, first shown in 2008 military parade; Georgia – 32 in 2012; according to other sources – 36; in 1995 and in 2006;

Angola – 48;

Belarus – 168;

Armenia – 28;

Cuba – 200;

Hungary – 5 in 1995, originally 18 were bought;

Azerbaijan – 16 bought from

Ethiopia – 10 were bought from Russia in 1999; Kazakhstan – 150;

Russia – 931 in active service, more than 1,600 in storage in 2007;

Turkmenistan – 16;

were transferred from Ukraine in 2000 for tests);

Ukraine – 501; Uzbekistan – 17;

Libya – 55 in 1995, Slovakia;

Syria – 100

United States – 7 (4 were transferred from Germany in 1993, 3 Vietnam – 30.

Former Operators Bulgaria – 20; East Germany – 95; passed to the member states.

Iraq – 35 (status unknown, probably scrapped);

Soviet Union – units were

129

2S7 “Peony”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Gun Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union In Service…………………….1976 – present Produced…………………….1975 – 1990 Weight…………………………46.5 tons Length………………………...10.5 m (34 ft 5 in) Width………………………….3.38 m (11 ft 1 in) Height…………………………3 m (9 ft 10 in) Crew…………………………..7 Armor………………………….10mm max.

Main Armament……………………203mm 2A44 gun Engine…………………………V-46-I V12 turbocharged diesel 840 hp Operational Range…………………………Road: 650 km (400 mi) Speed…………………………50 km/h (31 mph)

130

The 2S7 “Peony” (2C7 пеони) or “Malka” (Малка) is a Soviet self-propelled gun. 2S7 is its GRAU designation. It was identified for the first time in 1975 in the Soviet Army and so was called M1975 by NATO (the 2S4 “Tyulpan” also received the M1975 designation); whereas it’s official designation is SO-203 (2S7).

Its design is based on a T-80 chassis carrying an externally mounted 2A44 203mm gun on the hull rear. It takes the crew of seven men 5–6 minutes to come into action and 3–5 minutes to come out of action. It carries four 203mm projectiles for immediate use. It is capable of firing nuclear ammunition. The gun has a range of 37,500 m, but this can be extended to 55,500 m by using RAPs (Rocket Assisted Projectiles). The “Peony” has been the most powerful conventional artillery piece since entering service in 1983.

The vehicle carries a crew of fourteen; seven are carried by the 2S7 and seven are with an auxiliary vehicle. The system carries four rounds of ammunition; four more rounds are carried by the support vehicle. Due to the long range, the crew can fire one or two rounds and leave position before the first round hits the enemy position over 40km away. This makes the 2S7 less susceptible to return fire, from an enemy without an anti-artillery system such as ARTHUR. The 2S7 was first used in combat by the Soviet Union in Soviet-Afghan War. Later, Russian forces used it in the First and Second Chechen Wars. The Georgian Army used 2S7s in the Russo-Georgian War in 2008, one of which was captured by Russian forces. 2S7s were brought back into service by the Ukrainian army during the War in Donbass in late 2014, and were used in combat just outside the 'buffer' zone stipulated by the Minsk Protocol, as they had long enough range to still provide artillery support.

Versions 2S7M “Malka” - An improved variant, which entered service in 1983, that improved the gun's fire control systems, increased the rate of fire to 2.5 rounds per minute, and increased the ammunition load to eight projectiles.

BTM-4 – Is a trench digger version.

One interesting feature of the “Peony” is the firing alarm. Because the blast of the weapon firing is so powerful it can physically incapacitate an unprepared soldier or crew member near it from concussive force the “Peony” is equipped with an audible firing alarm that emits a series of short warning tones for approximately five seconds prior to the charge being fired.

Current Operators Angola - 12; (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic); Belarus – 36;

Georgia;

Russia – 12;

Azerbaijan - 12; (3 acquired in 2008 and 9 acquired in 2009);

Slovakia - 3; (1 used for testing, 2 military museum);

from reserve and restored to active service due to the War in Donbass;

Uzbekistan – 48;

Ukraine - 99 brought

North Korea – unknown number.

Former Operators Soviet Union - Passed on to successor states;

Czechoslovakia - 12 vehicles operated by 17th Large Caliber Artillery Division

in Žamberk, 1984 - 1994. One machine is kept in Military museum Lešany; Poland - 8 guns. Military designation "Piwonia". Entered service in 1985 and withdrawn in 2006. Served first in the 5th Artillery Brigade in Głogów then with the 23rd Silesian Artillery Brigade in Bolesławiec.

131

ASU-85

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Gun Place of Origin……………...

Soviet Union In Service…………………….1959 - 1993 Wars…………………………..Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, Soviet War in Afghanistan Designed…………………….1951-1959 Weight………………………..15.5 tonnes (34,171 lbs) Length………………………..6 m (19 ft 8 in) Width………………………….2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) Height………………………...2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) Crew………………………….4 Armor………………………...40-45mm Main Armament…………………..85mm main gun D-70 (2A15) Secondary Armament…………………..7.62mm PKT or SGMT coaxial machine gun Engine……………………….YaMZ-206V V-6 inline water-cooled diesel 210hp (154 kw) Suspension………………….Torsion bar Fuel Capacity………………400 l Operational Range………………………..230 km (161 mi) Speed………………………..45 km/h (28 mph)

132

The ASU-85 (Авиадесантная Cамоходная Yстановка АСУ-85, ‘Airborne Self-Propelled Gun ASU-85’) is a Soviet-designed airborne selfpropelled gun of the Cold War Era. From 1959, it began to replace the open-topped ASU-57 in service. It was, in turn, replaced by the BMD-1 beginning in 1969.

Development of a new assault gun for the armed forces started at the OKB-40 design bureau of the Mytishchi Machine Building Plant (MMZ), under the supervision of chief designer Nikolaj Aleksandrovich Astrov. The first Ob'yekt 573 prototype was ready for factory tests in the second half of 1953. This first vehicle was followed by a small batch of three improved vehicles that were evaluated by the armed forces in 1956-1957. The improved vehicles were powered by a new, horizontal six cylinder diesel engine, the YaMZ-206V, instead of the original V6 of the PT-76. In 1958, the order to start series production of the SU-85 as it was initially known (although there was already a vehicle with that same name, based on the T-34) was given. However, as a result of an order from the Ministry of Defense to add an armoured roof (the initial vehicles were still open-topped), series production could only begin in 1961. By then, the configuration was already out of date and in the second half of the 1960s, the VDV became the main operator of the SU-85 and renamed it the ASU-85.

The SU-85/ASU-85 is based on the PT-76 tank chassis, but without the amphibious capabilities and fitted with a new engine. The vehicle has three compartments: the driver's in front, the combat compartment in the center, and the engine compartment at the rear.

The armament consists of a D-70 (2A15) 85mm gun, derived from F.F. Petrov's D-48. The L/67 ordnance has a total weight of 1,865 kg and an elevation range from -4.50° to +15°. Traverse is 15° either side. The D-70 fires the same ammunition as the D-48 (3BK-7 HEAT, BR-372 HVAPT and OF-372 HE); the combat load is 45 rounds. The gun has an effective range of 1,150 m and a maximum range of 10 km. It can penetrate 192 mm (7.6 in) of steel armor from an angle of 60° at a maximum distance of 1 km. The coaxial machine gun is either the SGMT or the PKT with a combat load of 2,000 rounds.

Both the main gun and the coaxial machine gun are aimed by means of the TShK-2-79 sight. For nighttime fire, the TPN1-79-11 sight is used in combination with the L-2 IR searchlight. Indirect fire is conducted with the help of the S-71-79 and PG-1 sights. Furthermore, the commander is provided with two observation devices; TNPK-20 (day) and TKN-1T (night).

All ASU-85s were provided with an R-113 radio and an R-120 intercom system. In the early 1970s, some vehicles were fitted with a DShK-M 12.7mm heavy machine gun with 600 rounds. These vehicles had a reduced combat load of 39 main gun rounds and received the NATO designator ASU-85 M1974. The original designation was SU-85M or ASU-85M. The ASU-85 could also be equipped with smoke generators BDSh-5.

The Soviet Airborne Forces used the ASU-85 in airborne operations. Its primary role was light infantry support or assault, with limited anti-tank capability. Each Airborne Division had one assault gun battalion with 31 ASU-85.During the Soviet-Afghan War; Soviet Airborne troops used ASU-85s in combat.

There are no variants of the ASU-85, but its chassis served as the basis for other designs, such as the GM-575 chassis of the ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" and the GM-568 and GM-578 chassis' of the 2P25 launch vehicle and 1S91 radar vehicle of the 2K12 "Kub" system.

Current Operators Vietnam.

Former Operators Poland;

Soviet Union.

133

GCT

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin………………

France In Service…………………….1977-present Weight………………………..42 tonnes Length………………………..10.25 m Width………………………….3.15 m Height………………………...3.25 m Crew…………………………..4; Commander, Driver, Gunner and Loader Armor………………………….20mm Main Armament……………………155mm howitzer Secondary Armament……………………1x7.62mm (.30) or 12.7mm (.50) anti-aircraft machine gun Engine…………………………Hispano-Suiza HS 110 12-cylinder water-cooled multi-fuel engine 720 hp Operational Range…………………………450 km Speed…………………………60 km/h on-road

134

The GCT (“Grande Cadence de Tir”) 155mm AUF1 is a modern self-propelled artillery vehicle currently in use by the armies of France and Saudi Arabia. It replaced the former Mk F3 155mm in French Army service. The GCT 155mm primary advancement is that it incorporates and provides full armor and Nuclear-Biological-Chemical (NBC) protection for its crew of four, while the former Mk F3 155mm offered no protection and could carry only two of its four crew members. Though 60% heavier than the American M109, the GCT 155mm is faster, fires faster and incorporated a more sophisticated fire control system. The GCT 155mm saw combat with the Iraqi Army in the IranIraq War. Though the French Mk 3 155mm would remain in production through the 1980s, by the early 1970s the French Army realized there was an urgent need for its replacement. The Mk. 3 155mm lacked a traversable turret and Nuclear-Biological-Chemical (NBC) protection for its crew, and could carry only two of the four crew members needed to operate it (the remaining two having to be transported in support vehicles). Development of the GCT 155mm began in the early 1970s, and the first production version, known as the AUF1, was introduced in 1977. About 400 have been produced, with 70 having been upgraded to the AUF2 variant.

The GCT 155mm AUF1 is based on the AMX-30 main battle tank (MBT) chassis and equipped with a 155mm 39 calibers gun with an auto-loading system, giving a rate of fire of 8 rounds per minute, and a sustained rate of fire of 6 rounds per minute. It is also equipped with a roof-mounted 12.7mm anti-aircraft gun. The AUF1 has an effective range of 23,500 meters firing conventional rounds and 28,000 meters using Rocket Assisted Projectiles (RAPs).

The first production AUF1s were delivered exclusively to the Saudi Arabian Army, while the French Army received their first deliveries in 1980, deploying the GTC 155mm AUF1 in regiments of 18 vehicles each. In addition, the Iraqi Army received a small number of GTC 155mm AUF1 variants in 1980, which they employed during the Iran-Iraq War. A battery of 8 AUF1s from the French Army's “Quarantième Regiment d'Artillerie” (40th Artillery Regiment) was deployed in support of the Rapid Reaction Force on Mount Igman during the 1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The battery provided rapid counter-battery fire against Serb artillery units, during the siege of Sarajevo, the long range of its guns allowing it dominate the surrounding terrain.

AUF 2 The AUF2 is an improved turret for the GCT 155mm designed and built by GIAT. The AUF2 155mm howitzer and turret are designed for integration onto a wider range of armored chassis such as AMX30, “Leopard 1”, “Arjun” and T-72. It was initially developed to upgrade the GTC 155mm AUF1 self-propelled howitzers then in service with the French Army. The French Army has procured approximately 70 AUF2 turrets and mounted them on the AMX30B2 chassis.

Improvements in the AUF2 include an all-new automatic round and charge feed system and a new 52 calibers artillery tube. New charges and rounds are also available for the AUF2. The AUF2 is equipped with a 7.62mm anti-aircraft machine gun located at the roof of the turret. The AUF2 turret, including the gun and loading systems, weighs nearly 19 tonnes. Compared with the AUF1, the AUF2 offers a significantly improved range of 42 km, a higher rate of fire of 10 rounds/minute and multiple rounds simultaneous impact. In use, the weapon system has been found to have greater reliability, accuracy and ease of maintenance.

French GCT 155mm AUF1 SPH based on T-72 hull.

135

French GCT 155mm AUF1 SPH.

It entered service with the French Army in July 1979. It was decided to use the hull and chassis of the existing AMX-30 Medium Battle Tank, which was deployed with the French Army. This meant a quicker development, savings in operational and manufacturing costs as it used the same engine and suspension. The vehicle can be brought in to action within 2 minutes and in case of counter battery can move off within 1 minute.

French Forces were deployed as part of IFOR in the Siege of Sarajevo. The vehicle served as a counter battery against Serb artillery that attacked the city. France has also contributed to the Peace Keeping efforts in Lebanon and the vehicle has been deployed with those forces. It was deployed with the French Army in the Gulf War.

136

Current Operators France - 253 units (70 upgraded to AUF2);

Kuwait - 18 units;

Saudi Arabia - 51 units.

Former Operators Iraq - 85 received between 1983 and 1985, derelict after the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

137

PzH 2000

Type……………………………..Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin…………………

Germany Combat Weight………………..55.8 t (61.5 short tonnes) Length…………………………..11.7 m (38 ft 5 in) Width…………………………….3.6 m (11 ft 10 in) Height…………………………...3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) Crew…………………………….5 (commander, driver, gunner, and two loaders) Armour………………………….Welded steel, 14.5mm resistant additional bomblet protection Main Armament………………………Rheinmetall 155mm L52 howitzer (60 rounds) Secondary Armament………………………1x7.62mm (.30) MG3 machine gun Engine……………………………MTU 881 Ka-500 1,000 PS (986 hp, 736 kW) Power/Weight………………….17.92 hp/tonne Operational Range……………………………420 km (261 mi) Speed……………………………Road: 67 km/h (41 mph) Off-road: 45 km/h (28 mph)

138

The PzH 2000 “PanzerHaubitze 2000”(Armoured Howitzer 2000), is a German 155mm self-propelled howitzer developed by Krauss-Maffei Wegmann (KMW) and Rheinmetall for the German Army. The PzH 2000 is one of the most powerful conventional artillery systems deployed in the 2000s. It is particularly notable for a very high rate of fire; in burst mode it can fire three rounds in 9 seconds, ten rounds in 56 seconds, and can depending on barrel heating fire between 10 and 13 rounds per minute continuously. The PzH 2000 has automatic support for up to 5 rounds of Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact (MRSI). The replenishment of shells is automated. Two operators can load 60 shells and propelling charges in less than 12 minutes. PzH 2000 has also been selected by the armies of Italy, Netherlands, Greece, Lithuania and Croatia, and more orders are probable as many NATO forces replace their M109 howitzers.

In 1986 Italy, the United Kingdom, and Germany, agreed to terminate their existing development of the PzH 155-1 (SP70) program, which had run into reliability problems and had design defects, notably being mounted on a modified tank chassis. A new Joint Ballistics Memorandum of Understanding (JBMOU) for a 52 calibers barrel (based on a UK proposal) to replace 39 calibers was nearing agreement. German industry was asked for proposals to build a new design with gun conforming to the JBMOU. Of the proposer designs, Wegmann's was selected. Rheinmetall designed the 155mm 52 calibers JBMOU compliant gun, which is chromium-lined for its entire 8 m length and includes a muzzle brake on the end. The gun uses a new modular charge system with six charges (five identical), which can be combined to provide the optimal total charge for the range to the target, as well as the conventional bagged charge systems.

Primer is loaded separately via a conveyor belt, and the entire loading, laying and clearing is completely automated. The maximum range of the gun is 30 km with the standard L15A2 round (a UK design for FH-70 and stockpiled by Germany for M109G and FH-70), about 35 km with base bleed rounds, and at least 40 km with assisted projectiles. In April 2006 a PzH 2000 shot assisted shells (Denel VLap) over a distance of 56 km with a probable maximum range of over 60 km. The gun can also fire the SMArt 155mm artillery round, which is used by Germany and Greece.

Wegmann supplied both parts the chassis, sharing some components with the “Leopard 2”, and the turret for the gun. The system has superb cross-country performance because of its use of continuous tracks and considerable protection in the case of counter-fire. The turret includes a ‘phased array radar’ on the front glacis for measuring the muzzle velocity of each round fired. Laying data can be automatically provided via encrypted radio from the battery fire direction centre. Wegmann eventually won a contract in 1996 for 185 to be delivered to Germany's rapid reaction force, followed by another 410 for the main force. Wegmann and Krauss-Maffei, the two main German military tracked vehicle designers, merged in 1998. A lighter, more air-portable version, using the gun in a module fitted to a lighter chassis, has been developed by Krauss-Maffei. It is called the Artillery Gun Module.

In December 2013, Raytheon and the German Army completed compatibility testing for the M982 “Excalibur” extended range guided artillery shell with the PzH2000. 10 “Excaliburs” were fired at ranges from 9 to 48 kilometers. Shells hit within three meters of their targets, with an average miss distance of one meter at 48 km. The PzH 2000 was used for the first time in combat by the Dutch Army in August 2006 against Taliban targets in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan, in support of Operation Medusa. Since then it has been used regularly in support of coalition troops in Uruzgan province, also in Afghanistan.

The PzH 2000 was also used extensively during the Battle of Chora. The gun has been criticised by the Dutch in Uruzgan province as the NBC system designed for use in Europe cannot cope with the high level of dust in Afghanistan. The guns have been modified with additional armor being fitted to the roof to protect against mortar rounds. There have been other reports of problems including the need to keep it in the shade unless actually firing, the damage it does to poorly built roads and a significant 'cold gun' effect necessitating the use of 'warmers'.

Since the beginning of June 2010, German ISAF troops at PRT Kunduz have three PzH2000 at their disposal. They were first used on 10 July 2010 to provide support for the recovery of a damaged vehicle. This was the first time in its history the Bundeswehr has used heavy artillery in combat. The PzH2000 also played a key role during Operation Halmazag in November 2010, when the villages of Isa Khel and Quatliam were retaken from the Taliban by German paratroopers.

139

The PzH 2000 can use an automatic mode of operation including the data radio link with an external command and control system.

The autonomous fire control functions are controlled by an on-board MICMOS computer supplied by EADS (formerly Daimler Chrysler Aerospace). Using the automatic mode, target engagements can be carried out by a crew of two. Using the fire control data provided by the ballistics computer, the gun is automatically laid and relayed during the mission.

The 155mm L52 gun of the PzH 2000 was developed by Rheinmetall De Tec. The barrel length is 52 calibers and chamber volume is 23 liters. The gun has a chromium-plated barrel and semi-automatic lifting breech block with integrated 32 round standard primer magazine.

Gun parameters such as chamber temperature are monitored automatically. The PzH 2000 is equipped with a fully automatic shell loading system with ammunition management system. The chromium-plated barrel is 8m long and is fitted with a slotted muzzle brake which gives increased muzzle velocity and reduces the level of muzzle flash.

The wedge-type breech block is integrated with an exchangeable primer magazine fitted with an endless conveyer for automatic primer transportation, loading and unloading. Rheinmetall has also developed a six-zone modular propelling charge system (MTLS), the DM72, which provides for faster handling, less wear on the gun, lower sensitivity to ignition hazards and improved range. In the PzH 2000, up to six MTLS modules form the propelling charge. The maximum range of the L52 gun using the maximum MTLS charges is 30km with the standard L15A2 round and up to 40km with assisted projectiles.

The gun positioning and laying system is produced by Honeywell Maintal and mounted on the gun cradle. The system automatically determines gun direction, position and elevation above sea level. The integrated global positioning system (GPS) receiver and the vehicle's motor sensors form the hybrid navigation system of the PzH 2000.

Dutch PzH 2000, ISAF, Afghanistan, 2010.

140

German PzH 2000 in the desert scheme, Afghanistan, 2010.

This PzH 2000 drawing is showing dimensions and details of the vehicle.

Current Operators Germany: 149, of which 72 in active service (Total initial number 185, from these 15 sold to Croatia and 21 to Lithuania); Greece: 24;

Italy: 68, 2 pre-production models were retired;

Lithuania: 21 to be delivered between 2015 and 2019;

Netherlands: 18 active, 6 for training, 12 reserve; Croatia: Order made for 15 systems. Twelve units completely modernized and overhauled and three used for spare parts and a simulator. Training and support trucks valued are also included.

Total value is 41million euros.The first PzH 2000 was delivered on 29 July 2015. All of the systems are to be delivered between 2015 and 2016;

Qatar: 24 ordered, first three were delivered in fall 2015.

141

M50 “Ontos”

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Recoilless Gun Place of Origin………………

United States In Service…………………….1956–69 Wars…………………………..Vietnam War Designed…………………….1952 Manufacturer………………..Allis-Chalmers Produced…………………….1955–57 No. Built……………………….297 Variants………………………M50A1 Weight………………………..8,600 kg Length………………………..3.83 m Width………………………….2.59 m Height………………………...2.13 m Crew………………………….3 (driver, gunner and loader) Muzzle Velocity…………….500 m/s Effective Firing Range……...2,750 m Maximum Firing Range……7,700 m Main Armament……………………6 x M40 106mm recoilless gun Secondary Armament……………………1x.30 caliber M1919A4 machine gun Engine………………………...GM 6-cylinder 145 hp Operational Range…………………………185 km Speed…………………………48 km/h

142

The “Ontos”, officially the Rifle, Multiple 106mm, Self-propelled, M50, was a U.S. light armored tracked anti-tank vehicle developed in the 1950s, a fast tank killer for airborne forces.

It mounted six M40 106mm recoilless guns as its main armament, which could be fired in rapid succession against single targets to guarantee a kill. It was produced in limited numbers for the U.S. Marines after the U.S. Army lost interest in the project. The Marines consistently reported excellent results when they used the “Ontos” for direct fire support against infantry in numerous battles and operations during the Vietnam War. The American stock of “Ontos” was largely expended towards the end of the conflict and the “Ontos” was removed from service in 1969.

The “Ontos” (from Greek means "Thing") project was created to be an air transportable tank-destroyer capable of being lifted by the cargo aircraft of the 1950s. This limited it to a weight between 10 and 20 metric tons. The “Ontos” also had to use the six-cylinder engine then widely used in the Army's GMC trucks. Allis-Chalmers was awarded a contract on August 12, 1955, for 297 vehicles.

Allis-Chalmers' first vehicle, completed in 1952, was based on the running gear of the M56 “Scorpion” light anti-tank vehicle. The vehicle mounted a cast steel turret with two arms holding three rifles each. This early model could traverse the turret only about 15º. A second prototype used a new suspension system, new tracks, and a newer turret with about 40º traverse. The vehicle could carry only eighteen rounds for the main guns inside the vehicle due to limited space. Four of the rifles also had .50 caliber coaxial spotting rifles attached, each of which fired a round with the same trajectory as the 106mm round, and that gave off a puff of smoke on impact.

The spotting rifles were used to line up the 106mm recoilless rifles with the target. The “Ontos” also carried a single .30 caliber M1919A4 machine gun for anti-infantry use.

As an anti-tank vehicle the “Ontos” had several problems, including a small ammunition load, a very high-profile for such a small vehicle, and the need for the crew to exit the vehicle in order to reload the guns, exposing them to enemy fire. Although the Army canceled their order, the Marine Corps were desperate for any anti-tank vehicles they could get, and ordered 297. Production ran from 1955 through 1957. The Marine Corps accepted its first vehicle on 31 October 1956.

Several variants were also studied. The Utility Vehicle, Tracked, Infantry, T55 was a light Armored Personnel Carrier (APC), but only two versions of the prototype were built. It proved impractical due to the limited room inside, carrying only five infantry and forcing the driver to lie prone. A "stretched" version known as the Utility Vehicle, Tracked, Infantry, and T56 was also built, and while it held a complete eight-man team, their equipment had to be carried on the outside. Neither was considered very useful.

In 1960 there was a brief study made to replace the “Ontos” 106mm guns with a new 105mm design that included a re-loading system similar to that on a revolver. This project was not accepted. Another proposed upgrade was replacing the GMC engine with a newer Chrysler 361 cubic inches V8 engine. This upgrade was implemented and the variant was named Rifle, Multiple 106mm, Self-propelled, M50A1. However of the 297 vehicles initially accepted by the Marines, only 176 were converted between 1963 and 1965 to this standard.

While the M50 was designed as a tank destroyer, during the Vietnam War the North Vietnamese Army deployed few tanks. The “Ontos” was therefore more widely used by the US Marines for direct fire support for the infantry in combat, a role that was never emphasized in training or doctrine. Like the Army's M113, its light armor was effective against small arms but vulnerable to mines and rocket-propelled grenades. Consequently, many “Ontos” were deployed in static defense positions.

The “Ontos” crews liked the vehicle, and its commanders praised it. The relatively light weight of the M50s meant that they could also go where tanks got bogged down. The “Ontos”, with its lower ground pressure, could drag timbers up to the tanks to help get them unstuck. In one operation, the “Ontos” was the only tracked vehicle light enough to cross a pontoon bridge. In the Battle of Hue, Regimental Commander Colonel Stanley S. Hughes felt the “Ontos” was the most effective of all Marine supporting arms. Its mobility made it less vulnerable than tanks, which suffered heavy losses, while at ranges of 300 to 500 yards (270 to 460 m), its recoilless rifles could knock holes in or completely knock down walls. In Operation Desoto, the introduction of the large CH-53 “Sea Stallion” helicopter made possible moving a platoon 25 miles (40 km) south of Quan Ngai City carrying “Ontos” in slings underneath the aircraft.

The “Ontos” units were deactivated in May 1969, and some of the vehicles were handed over to an Army light infantry brigade. They used them until they ran out of spare parts, and then removed the turrets and used them as fixed fortifications. Both these and the rest of the vehicles returned from Vietnam in 1970 and were cut up for scrap, with some of the chassis being sold off as construction vehicles.

Former Operators United States.

143

M56 “Scorpion”

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Gun Place of Origin………………

United States Wars…………………………..Vietnam War and Western Sahara War Manufacturer………………..Cadillac Motor Car Division of General Motors Produced…………………….1953–1959 Weight………………………..7.1 tonnes (16,000 lb) Length………………………..4.5 m (14 ft 11 in) (excluding gun) Width………………………….2.57 m (8 ft 5 in) Height………………………...2 m (6 ft 7 in) over gun shield Crew………………………….4 (commander, gunner, loader and driver) Armor…………………………Unarmored except for blast shield Main Armament…………………..1x90mm M54 Gun with 29 rounds Engine………………………..Continental A01-403-5 gasoline engine with 200 bhp (150 kW) Fuel Capacity……………….210 liters (46 imp gal; 55 US gal) Operational Range…………………………230 km (140 mi) Speed………………………...45 km/h (28 mph)

144

The M56 “Scorpion” was an American unarmored, airmobile self-propelled anti-tank gun, which was armed with a 90mm M54 gun with a simple blast shield, and an unprotected crew compartment.

With a crew of four (commander, gunner, loader and driver), the M56 weighed 6.4 tonnes (14,000 lb) empty and 7.7 tonnes (17,000 lb) combat-loaded. It had infrared driving lights but no Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) protection system and was not amphibious.

The M56 was a fully tracked vehicle with rubber-tired run-flat road wheels and front drive sprocket wheels. It was powered by a Continental A01-403-5 gasoline engine developing 200 brake horsepower (150 kW) at 3,000 rpm, allowing a maximum road speed of 28 miles per hour (45 km/h) and a maximum range of 140 miles (230 km). Twenty-nine rounds of main gun ammunition were carried, and only the blast shield was armored.

The M56 saw combat service with U.S. forces in the Vietnam War. It was deployed with the 173rd Airborne Brigade, which was the only Airborne Brigade deployed with the M56, where it was used mainly in a direct fire-support role. Its function as an airmobile, selfpropelled, anti-tank vehicle was eventually replaced in Vietnam by the troubled but effective M551 Sheridan which had a fully armored turret. The USMC used the “Ontos”, which had an armored cabin and was armed with recoilless rifles, in a similar role (the running gear of the first “Ontos” prototype was the same as on the M56, but it was replaced for the production variant).

As for foreign operators, Morocco was only export customer which had used M56 “Scorpions” in actual combat. M56 “Scorpions” were deployed against Sahrawi rebels during Western Sahara War.

The M56 was manufactured from 1953 to 1959 by the Cadillac Motor Car Division of General Motors. It was used by US airborne forces, Spanish Navy Marines, Morocco and the Republic of Korea as well.

Former Operators United States: Used during Vietnam War;

Spain;

Morocco: Used during Western Sahara War;

Republic of Korea.

145

Type 60

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Recoilless Gun Place of Origin………………

Japan In Service…………………….1960-2008 Designed…………………….1956-1960 No. Built……………………….252 Weight…………………………8,000 kilograms (18,000 lb) Length…………………………4.3 meters (14 ft 1 in) Width………………………….2.23 meters (7 ft 4 in) Height………………………...1.38 meters (4 ft 6 in) Crew…………………………..3 Elevation……………………..-20° to +15° Traverse………………………60° Muzzle Velocity……………..500 m/s Effective Firing Range………2,750 meters (3,010 yd) Maximum Firing Range…….7,700 meters (8,400 yd) Armor………………………….12mm (0.5 in) steel Main Armament…………….2xM40 106 millimeters (4.1 in) recoilless gun Secondary Armament……..12,7mm (.50) caliber spotting rifle Engine………………………...Komatsu 6T 120-2 air-cooled, 6-cylinder diesel150 horsepower (110 kW) Power/Weight……………….15 hp/t Fuel Capacity………………..140 liters (37 U.S. gal) Operational Range…………250 kilometers (160 mi) on road Speed…………………………55 km/h (34 mph)

146

The Type 60 Self-Propelled 106 mm Recoilless Gun (60式自走無反動砲) is a light anti-tank vehicle developed by Japan in the late 1950s. It mounts two M40 106 mm recoilless rifles as its main armament. Two prototypes of the self-propelled recoilless anti-tank system were built under the direction of the Technical Research and Development Headquarters of the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force, one by Komatsu (called the SS1) and the other by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (called the SS2), both powered by a six-cylinder diesel which developed 110 hp. The prototypes were completed in December 1956 and were tested until December 1958.

In 1957, it was proposed to arm the vehicle with four recoilless rifles, instead of the two 105mm weapons fitted to the prototypes, to increase the hit probability, but with the adoption of the 106mm recoilless rifle this reverted to two.

As a result of trials with the second series of prototypes it was decided to build a third and final series of prototypes with weight increased to 7,500 kg, a modified diesel engine, a new transmission with four forward and one reverse gears, a two-speed auxiliary transmission and a wet multidisc hydraulically operated clutch. Three of the third series prototypes were built by Komatsu under the designation SS4 and were tested from May 1959 to March 1960. As a result, the clutch was changed to a wet multidisc mechanical type. In September 1960, the vehicle was accepted for service as the Type 60 Self-propelled 106mm Recoilless Gun. Production of the vehicle was undertaken by Komatsu. The first production model, the Model A, was replaced in 1967 by the Model B which was basically a strengthened Model A. In 1974 the Model C powered by a commercial model Komatsu SA4D105 four-cylinder water-cooled diesel engine developing 150 hp at 2,800 rpm, entered production. The Type 60 twin 106 mm self-propelled recoilless gun was produced at the rate of 10 to 20 vehicles a year and by December 1977, 252 vehicles had been built. Production was completed in 1979.

The hull of the Type 60 is of welded and riveted steel armour construction. This provides the occupants with protection from small arms fire and shell splinters. The driver is seated on the left side of the vehicle towards the front and has a single-piece hatch cover that opens to the rear in front of which are three day periscopes. The commander is seated in the middle of the hull to the left of the two recoilless rifles and his position is attached to the recoilless rifle mounting, so when they are raised into the firing position he is at the same height as the weapons. The commander has a single domed hatch cover that opens to the rear, in front of which is a day periscopic sight. There is also a vision block to his rear. The loader is seated to the left of the commander and has a single-piece hatch cover that opens to the left and a retractable day periscope for observation to the rear.

The air-cooled diesel engine is at the rear of the hull and power is transmitted to the manual transmission at the front by a propeller shaft. The torsion bar suspension either side consists of five dual rubber-tyred road wheels with the drive sprocket at the front, idler at the rear and three track-return rollers. The first, second and fifth road wheel stations have a hydraulic shock-absorber. The tracks can be fitted with rubber pads when operating on roads and wider tracks can be fitted for operating in snow. The Type 60 has no Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) protection system and no amphibious capability.

Main armament consists of two 106 mm Type 60 breech-loaded recoilless rifles which were manufactured by Nihon Seikojyo and also fitted singly to Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force jeeps. They have a maximum range of 7,000 m and an effective range of 1,100 m against tanks. A 12.7mm spotting rifle manufactured by Howa Kogyo is mounted on the right recoilless rifle. The two recoilless rifles are mounted parallel to each other on the right side of the hull. When lowered they have an elevation of +10°, a depression of -5° and a traverse of 10° left and right. When raised they have an elevation of +15°, a depression of -20° and a traverse of 30° left and right. The weapons are raised into the firing position by a hydraulic/electric power system, but if this fails they can be raised by a hand pump.

Eight rounds of HEAT or HE ammunition are carried. A 750mm stereo range-finder is also carried on the vehicle and recently a night sight has been mounted on the left 106mm recoilless rifle.

The effectiveness of the 106mm HEAT rounds against modern conventional steel armours is now highly questionable.

147

There is no direct replacement for the Type 60 twin 106mm system but its role is now being taken over by longer-range anti-tank guided weapon systems.

There are no known plans for these systems to be upgraded. Japan is the only country in the world still to deploy a system of this type.

Each year small numbers of Type 60 twin 106mm self-propelled anti-tank guns have been withdrawn from service and by 1999 it was stated that 160 remained in front line service. Since then additional vehicles have been phased out of service. It is understood that by 2007 about 100 Type 60 systems remained in service.

Former Operators Japan.

148

Type 75

Type…………………………..Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin………………

Japan Produced…………………….1975–1988 Weight………………………..25,3 tonnes (24.9 long tons; 27.9 short tons) Length………………………..21 ft 9 in (6.63 m) (hull) Width………………………….10 ft 1 in (3.07 m) Height…………………………8 ft 4 in (2.54 m) Crew…………………………..6 (commander, driver, two gunners, layer and radio operator) Effective Firing Range……..19,000 metres (21,000 yd) (HE) Maximum Firing Range……24,000 metres (26,000 yd) (rocket-assisted) Armor…………………………Aluminum Alloy Main Armament……………………Japan Steel Works, 155mm L30 howitzer Secondary Armament…………………...1x12.7mm (.50) Sumitomo M2HB machine gun Engine…………………………Mitsubishi 6ZF six cylinder diesel 456 hp Operational Range…………………………300 km (190 mi) Speed…………………………47 km/h (29 mph)

149

The Type 75 155mm self-propelled howitzer (75式自走155mm榴弾砲) is an armored artillery vehicle in the exclusive use of the Japan SelfDefense Ground Force (JSDGF). In 1969, the Technical Research and Development Headquarters of the Japanese Ground SelfDefence Force started design work on a new 155mm self-propelled howitzer. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries built the hull while Nihon Seiko Jyo/Japan Steel Works built the 155mm gun and turret. The two prototypes, completed in 1971-72, differed only in their ammunition loading systems. Trials with the two prototypes were undertaken between 1973 and 1974 and in October 1975 the vehicle was standardised as the Type 75 155mm self-propelled howitzer.

By late 1978, the first 20 vehicles had been delivered to the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force. By the end of 1988, 201 Type 75 selfpropelled howitzers were in service with the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force and production was complete. This system was never offered on the export market. There are no known plans for this system to be upgraded.

The 155mm Type 75 serves alongside very small quantities of the locally built 105mm Type 74 and larger numbers of locally manufactured US designed 203mm M110A2 systems. This has now started to be supplemented by the new 155mm Type 99 full tracked self-propelled artillery system, details of which are given in a separate entry.

As the more recent 155mm Type 99 self-propelled howitzer is being built in small numbers, typically six or seven per year, the older Type 75 is expected to remain in service for many years. When compared to the Type 75 155mm SPH, the more recent Type 99 has improved mobility and firepower, but is also heavier.

The hull and turret of the Type 75 155mm self-propelled howitzer are made of all-welded aluminium. This provides the crew with protection from small arms fire and shell splinters. The crew of six consists of the commander, layer, two ammunition loaders, radio operator and driver.

The hull is divided into three compartments: driver at the front on the right, power pack to his left and the turret at the rear. The driver has a single-piece hatch cover, which opens to the right, and in front of this are three day periscopes. The centre one can be replaced by a passive night vision device. The driver can also enter and leave his compartment via the turret.

One of the two ammunition loaders is also provided with a single-piece hatch cover that opens to the rear, in front of which is a .50 (12.7 mm) Sumitomo M2HB machine gun with 1,000 rounds and a small shield for operator’s protection. On each side of the turret is a square hatch that opens to the rear.

At the rear of the hull are two doors that open either side of the vehicle. The torsion bar suspension either side consists of six dual rubber-tyred aluminium road wheels, with the drive sprocket at the front and the sixth road wheel acting as the idler. The first and fifth road wheel stations are provided with a hydraulic shock-absorber. There are no track-return rollers.

Main armament consists of a 155mm 30 caliber gun with a double-baffle muzzle brake, a fume extractor and a stepped thread interrupted screw-type breech block which opens to the right. A gun travelling lock is fitted on the glacis plate.

The weapon fires a Japanese HE projectile (maximum charge 9) to a maximum range of 19,000 m or an American M107 HE projectile (maximum charge 7) to a maximum range of 15,000 m. A 155mm Rocket-Assisted Projectile (RAP) has been developed with a range of around 24,000 m. Some sources have stated that the Type 75 has a maximum range of 19,000 m, firing a projectile of an undisclosed type.

The 155mm/39 caliber gun has an elevation of +65°, a depression of -5° and the turret can be traversed through a full 360°. Gun elevation and turret traverse are hydraulic by means of a single lever. Movement in the horizontal plane controls the turret position in azimuth and movement in the vertical plane controls the gun in elevation. The traverse of the turret and the elevation of the gun are stopped whenever the layer stops the movement of the lever. Manual controls are provided for emergency use and the turret can also be traversed by the commander.

The turret is fully enclosed, with the commander and gunner seated on the right and the ammunition loaders on the left. The commander has a single-piece hatch cover that opens to the rear and a single day periscope for forward observation.

150

The gun has a variable recoil mechanism that consists of twin hydraulic cylinders, one on the left above the cradle and the other on the right side under the cradle. The variable recoil system is fitted to prevent the breech hitting the floor when the gun is being fired at a high angle. The recuperator is pneumatic and the recoil damper, which is on the centreline under the cradle, is hydraulic.

When the gun is fired, the 155mm weapon automatically moves to an elevation of +6° for reloading and returns to its firing elevation once reloaded. Mounted in the rear part of the turret are two drum-type rotating magazines, an extensible loading tray and a hydraulic rammer. Each drum holds nine 155mm projectiles, is rotated electrically or manually and can be reloaded from inside the vehicle or from outside via two small circular doors in the turret rear. The axis of the drums, two-stage extensible loading tray and the rammer are on the same axis as the gun when it is returned from its firing position for loading. Each of the two magazines holds nine 155 mm projectiles which, coupled with the use of the extensible loading tray and the hydraulic rammer, enable 18 rounds to be fired in 3 minutes, which is 6 rds/min. A further 10 projectiles are carried inside the gun compartment plus 56 fuzes and 28 bagged charges.

Fire-control equipment includes a J2 day panoramic sight, with a magnification of x4 and a 10° field of view, a J3 day direct telescopic sight with a magnification of x4 and a 10° field of view, an electric elevation sight which includes an tilt angle sensor, an angle indicator and an inverter, and finally a collimator. All fire-control equipment is mounted in front of the commander's position and is operated by the layer.

The Type 75 is provided with an NBC system, located in the left side of the fighting compartment, a fire extinguishing system, a heater, and night vision equipment.

Current Operators

Japan: 201 units (it’s now gradually replaced by the Type 99 self-propelled howitzer).

151

Type 99

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Artillery Place of Origin……………….

Japan In Service……………………..1999 No. built……………………….117 Weight…………………………40 tonnes Width…………………………..3.2 m Crew…………………………...4 Traverse……………………….360° Rate of Fire……………………6 rpm Armor………………………….Aluminum alloy Main Armament…………………….Japan Steel Works, 155mm L52 howitzer Secondary Armament…………………….1x12.7 mm M-2HB machine gun Engine………………………….Mitsubishi 6SY31WA 6-cylinder diesel 600 bhp Suspension……………………Torsion bar Operational Range………………………….300 km (185 mi) Speed………………………….49.6 km/h

152

The Type 99 self-propelled howitzer (99式自走155mm榴弾砲) was developed as a replacement to the Type 75 SPH. It was developed by the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and the Japan Steel Works. A small number of Type 99 self-propelled howitzers are currently in service with the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force. It has not been offered for export customers, as Japan's laws do not allow exporting military equipment. The Type 99 self-propelled howitzer is fitted with 155mm howitzer, which is believed to be 39 calibers long. Maximum range of fire is 30 km with standard HE-FRAG projectile and approximately 38 km with rocket assisted. Maximum rate of fire is speculated to be 6 rounds per minute. Secondary armament of the Type 99 consists of a roof-mounted 12.7mm machine gun, fitted with a shield.

Armor of the Type 99 provides protection against small arms fire and artillery shell splinters. Vehicle is powered by a diesel engine, developing 600 horse power. A travelling lock is provided at the front of the hull. It folds back onto the glacis plate when not in use. The Type 99 self-propelled howitzer is resupplied from the Type 99 ammunition resupply vehicle. In the FY00 defence budget, the Japanese Defence Agency revealed that it was to procure seven Type 99 155mm self-propelled howitzers for the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force.

It is understood that the Type 99 had been under development for some years under the leadership of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (hull and final assembly) and the Japan Steel Works (gun and turret system). The Type 99 155mm self-propelled howitzer is the replacement to the older 155mm Type 75 self-propelled howitzer. It is known that four Type 99 155mm self-propelled howitzers were procured in 1999.

The Type 99 is now operational with the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Force.

A total of seven Type 99 155mm self-propelled systems were ordered in FY00 with a further six ordered in FY01. A total of eight were funded in FY03 and a further eight in FY04. Like all other post 1945 Japanese armoured vehicles and artillery systems, the Type 99 155mm self-propelled howitzer has not been offered on the export market.

The fighting compartment is at the rear with normal means of entry and exit for the crew via a door in the lower part of the hull rear.

In addition to the roof hatches there is also a single door in either side of the turret. The one on the left side opens to the rear while the one on the right side opens to the front. The 155mm ordnance, which is believed to be a 39 calibre weapon, is provided with a muzzle brake but no fume extractor. A travelling lock is provided at the front of the hull and when not in use, this folds back onto the glacis plate. It is understood that the ordnance is based on that used in the towed FH-70 155mm towed artillery system, which has been manufactured under licence in Japan for some years. Maximum stated range of the Type 99 is quoted at 30,000 m.

The fully enclosed turret is at the rear with the commander seated on the right side and provided with a roof-mounted .50 (12.7mm) M2 HB MG machine gun mount that is also fitted with a shield.

The power pack, consisting of diesel engine, transmission and cooling system is mounted to the left of the driver, with the air inlet and outlet louvers in the roof and the exhaust outlet in the left side of the hull.

Suspension either side consists of seven dual rubber-tyred road wheels with the drive sprocket at the front, idler at the rear and track return rollers. Standard equipment includes a NBC system and passive night driving aids.

153

It is considered probable that some type of automatic loading system is provided and mounted over the rear part of the ordnance in what appears to be a muzzle velocity measuring device. This would feed information into the onboard fire-control system.

The overall layout of the Type 99 155mm self-propelled gun is similar to other recent weapons of this type. The driver is seated at the front right with a single-piece hatch cover above his position and forward of these are three day periscopes, the centre one of which can be replaced by a passive periscope for driving at night.

Current Operators Japan.

154

K9 “Thunder”

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

South Korea In Service……………………..1999 - present Designer………………………Samsung Techwin, ADD Designed……………………..1989–1998 Manufacturer…………………Samsung Techwin Produced……………………..1999–present Variants……………………….K10, T-155 “Firtina” (Storm) Weight…………………………47 tonnes (K9) Length…………………………12 m Width…………………………..3.4 m Height…………………………2.73 m Crew…………………………..5 (Commander, Driver, Gunner, 2 Loaders) Maximum Firing Range……30,000 m (HE) 38,000 m (DP-ICM base bleed) 41,600 m (full-bore-base) 52-56,000 m (extended range) Main Armament……………………155mm 52 cal howitzer Secondary Armament…………………...1x12.7mm (.50) K6 HMG Engine…………………………MTU MT 881 Ka-500 8-cylinder water-cooled diesel 1000 hp Power/Weight……………….21 hp/tonnes Suspension…………………..Hydropneumatic Operational Range…………………………480 km Speed…………………………67 km/h

155

The K9 “Thunder” is a South Korean self-propelled 155mm howitzer developed by Samsung Techwin for the Republic of Korea Armed Forces. It was developed to supplement and then replace the K55 self-propelled howitzers in South Korean service. K9 howitzers operate in groups with the K10 automatic ammunition resupply vehicle.

The development program of this 155mm/52 calibers self-propelled howitzer has been underway since 1989. In 1996 the first prototype of this new artillery system was tested. The contract for the new K9 artillery system was awarded to Samsung Aerospace Industries (SSA) by the Korean Government on 22 December 1998. Republic of Korea Army received its first batch of K9 in 1999.

K9 is an robust system of an all-welded steel armour construction which is rated to withstand 14.5 mm armour piercing rounds, 152mm shell fragments, and anti-personnel mines. The main armament consists of a 155mm/52 caliber ordnance with a maximum firing range of 40 km. State-of-the-art mobility subsystems include a 1,000 horsepower (750 kW) engine with potential for growth and hydropneumatic suspension unit, a requirement for Korea's rugged mountainous terrain.

It was designed to give the artillery brand of the Republic of Korea Army a significant improvement in capability. With a claimed range of 40 km, it offers greater mobility, longer range, higher rate of fire, and increased battlefield survivability, as it can quickly be brought into action, open fire, and come out of action. It is less likely to be engaged by counter-battery fire, by relying on shoot-and-scoot. The unit also supports full CBRN protection. The K9 has the ability to fire its shells in MRSI mode (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). In the MRSI mode, the K9 is able to fire three shells in under 15 seconds 1 shell every 5 seconds each in different trajectories so that all of the shells will arrive on their target at the same time.

The K10 is an automatic ammunition resupply vehicle built on the K9 platform, part of the K9 Thunder system. It shares the same chassis as K9, preserving K9s mobility, and can follow the main artillery battery without lagging behind. Maximum transfer rate of shells is 12 rounds per minute, and maximum load of shells is 104 rounds.

The reloading process is fully automated. The reloading is done through a munition bridge on the K10 that extends out to lock itself into a reception hole located at the rear of the K9. This allows the unit to rearm it under harsh combat conditions without the crew having to expose themselves to the combat environment.

The K9 Thunder saw the first combat during the Bombardment of Yeonpyeong on November 23, 2010. Six ROKMC howitzers engaged against the surprise attack from the North Korean artillery. Prior to the battle, the howitzers returned from a scheduled firing exercise, using most of the shells stored within the howitzer. In addition, one howitzer experienced a problem during the exercise that a shell became stuck in the barrel, disabling it.

Two units received slight damage to their firing control systems during the initial North Korean attack, meaning only three out of the six units were able to counterattack. Eventually, the howitzer that had barrel problems joined the second counterattack after receiving field repairs. The K9s fought back in the ratio of shooting one shell every one minute and 30 seconds, because the marines had to carry the shells from the armory and manually load the howitzer under heavy fire after exhausting B/L rounds.

The K9 was involved in the Bombardment of Yeonpyeong between North and South Korean artillery units on 23 November 2010.

Current operators Republic of Korea: A total of 1,136 K9 and 179 K10 will be produced; to be integrated with AHS Krab system; produced by L&T for the Indian Army.

Poland: A total of 120 K9 chassis will be produced and

Turkey: A total of 350 T-155 Fırtına will be produced;

India: A total of 100 will be

156

M109

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

United States Weight…………………………27.5 tonnes Length…………………………30 ft (9.1 m) Width…………………………..10 ft 4 in (3.15 m) Height…………………………10 ft 8 in (3.25 m) Crew…………………………..6 (2 Loaders, Gunner, Assistant Gunner, Commander, Driver) Caliber………………………..155mm L/39 caliber Rate of fire…………………….Maximum: 4 rpm Sustained: 1 rpm Effective Firing Range………Conventional: 18 km (11 mi) RAP: 30 km (19 mi) Main Armament……………………155mm M126 howitzer Secondary Armament……………………1x12.7mm (.50) machine gun or a Mk 19 40mm Grenade Launcher, or a 7.62mm (.30) machine gun Engine…………………………Detroit Diesel 8V71T 450 hp (335.56 kW) Power/Weight……………….18.7 hp/tonne Operational Range…………………………216 mi (350 km) Speed…………………………35 mph (56 km/h)

157

The M109 is an American 155mm self-propelled howitzer, first introduced in the early 1960’s. It has been upgraded a number of times, most recently to the M109A7. The M109 family is the most common western indirect-fire support weapon of maneuver brigades of armored and mechanized infantry divisions. The M109 has a crew of six: the section chief, the driver, the gunner, the assistant gunner and two ammunition handlers. The gunner aims the cannon left or right (deflection), the assistant gunner aims the cannon up and down (quadrant). The M109A6 Paladin needs only a crew of four: the commander, driver, gunner and an ammunition loader.

The British Army replaced its M109s with the AS-90. Several European armed forces have or are currently replacing older M109s with the German PzH 2000. Upgrades to the M109 were introduced by the U.S. and by Switzerland “KAWEST”.

With the cancellation of the U.S. Crusader and Non-Line-of-Sight Cannon, the “Paladin” will remain the principal self-propelled howitzer for the U.S. for the foreseeable future. The M109 was the medium variant of a U.S. program to adopt a common chassis for its selfpropelled artillery units. The light version, the M108 Howitzer, was phased out during the Vietnam War, but many were rebuilt as M109s.

The M109 saw its combat debut in Vietnam. Israel used the M109 against Egypt in the 1973 Yom Kippur War and in the 1982 and 2006 Lebanon Wars. Iran used the M109 in the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s. The M109 saw service with the British, Egyptian and Saudi Arabian Armies in the 1991 Gulf War. The M109 also saw service with the U.S. Army in the Gulf War, as well as in the Iraq War from 2003 to the present. Upgrades to the cannon, ammunition, fire control, survivability, and other electronics systems over the design's lifespan have expanded the system's capabilities, including tactical nuclear projectiles, Cannon Launched Guided Projectiles (CLGP or Copperhead), Rocket Assisted Projectile (RAP), FAmily of SCAtterable Mines (FASCAM), and improved conventional munitions (the Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition, DPICM). The M109 was developed by the Ground System Division of United Defense LP (now BAE Systems Land and Armaments). The armament consists of: Primary is M126 (or M126A1) 155mm Howitzer (M109), M185 155mm Howitzer (A1/A2/A3/A4), M284 155mm Howitzer (A5/A6).

Versions M109 First produced in 1963. It had a 155mm M126 gun in an M127 Howitzer Mount, and carried 28 rounds of 155mm ammunition. It was also armed with a .50 cal M2HB machine gun with 500 rounds of ammunition. Easily identified by its short barrel and a double baffle muzzle brake with a large fume extractor just behind it. Maximum range of 14,600 m.

M109A1 Replaced the M126 gun with a longer barrelled 39 calibers M185 gun, and increasing maximum range to 18,100 m.

M109A2 Incorporated ‘Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability’ (RAM) mid-life improvements. Most notably, the long barrelled 155mm M185 cannon in the new M178 gun mount, ballistic protection for the panoramic telescope, counterbalanced travel lock, and the ability to mount the M140 alignment device. Stowage increased from 28 rounds of 155mm, to 36 rounds; .50 cal ammunition remained at 500 rounds. During M109A2 production, a slightly simplified version was also produced for export. This had minor internal changes and deleted the hull flotation feature. These were designated M109A1B. M109A3/M109A3B M109A1s and M109A1Bs rebuilt to M109A2 standard respectively.

M109A4 M109A2s and M109A3s improved with Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical / Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability (NBC/RAM) improvements, including air purifiers, heaters, and Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) gear. The traversing mechanism's clutch is hydraulic, as compared to the electric mechanism on previous M109s, and features a manual override in the event of an electrical failure. Also included is an improvement to the engine starting equipment, greatly improving the ability to start in an emergency.

M109A5 Replaces the 155mm M185 cannon in an M178 mount with a 39 calibers 155mm M284 cannon in an M182 mount, giving the A5 a maximum range of 22,000 meters with unassisted projectiles and 30,000 meters with Rocket Assisted Projectiles. The vehicle can carry 36 complete rounds of ammunition and has a 440 hp engine instead of the standard 405 hp engine.

M109A5 “PLUS” M109A5 with upgraded fire control and other components.

M109A6 "Paladin" Overall product improvement in the areas of survivability, RAM, and armament. This includes increased armor, redesigned (safer) internal storage arrangement for ammunition and equipment, engine and suspension upgrades, and product improvement of the M284 cannon and M182A1 mount. The greatest difference is the integration of an inertial navigation system, sensors detecting the weapons' lay, automation, and an encrypted digital communication system, which utilizes computer controlled frequency hopping to avoid enemy electronic warfare and allow the howitzer to send grid location and altitude to the battery fire direction center (FDC).

Ammunition stowage is increased from 36 to 39 155mm rounds.

M109 "KAWEST" This Swiss improved version produced by Ruag incorporates a new Swiss-designed L47 155mm gun with an increased firing range of up to 36 km. The L47 155mm gun is derived from the Swiss Bison fortress gun's inertial navigation system coupled with a new gun-laying system and more ammunition storage. Technical modifications: Increased firing range of up to 27 km, increased rate of fire (burst of 3 rounds in 15 sec.); increased ammunition autonomy (40 rounds, 64 charges).

M109L52 Jointly developed by the Dutch firm RDM and the German firm Rheinmetall, the M109L52 was first revealed in 2002. The main improvement was replacing the M126 series gun with the longer 52 calibers cannon from the PzH 2000, thus the MTLS ammunition of the PzH 2000 can be used. In addition, improvements to the loading system were made.

M109A3GNM The current version in use in the Norwegian Army. Brigade Nord's artillery support unit, “Artilleribataljonen”, has three Batteries using this.

K55/K55A1 K55/K55A1 is a South Korean variants of the M109, originally based on M109A2 with additional domestic augmentations.

M109A7 The M109A7 is a new artillery system for the US Army. It is an upgraded version of the M109A6 Paladin. Formerly this system was known as M109A6 PIM or “Paladin” Integrated Management. Unofficially the M109A7 is still being referred as the Paladin. The M109A7 can sustain a one round per-minute rate of fire and a maximum rate of fire of four rounds per-minute. Weighing 78,000 lb (35,000 kg), the M109A7 is 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) heavier than its predecessor, and it has the capacity grow to 110,000 lb (50,000 kg). Even with the weight increase, the M109A7 can travel faster than previous versions at 38 mph (61 km/h) and is more maneuverable than a Bradley Fighting Vehicle.

158

M109, early production, US Army Vietnam, 1965 or later.

British M109A2, Gulf War, 1991.

German Bundeswehr M109A5D.

Israeli Defence Forces M109A5 “Doher”.

159

The M109 self-propelled Howitzer gun, known by IDF as "Rochev" (Rider), entered the Artillery forces' service before the Yom Kippur War (1973). In that war, only one battalion was equipped with these guns, the "Tiger" battalion. This battalion lost almost its entire B battery during the first days of the war.

“Paladin” was first fielded in 1994 and is operational with the United States Army and the Israeli Army, and has been selected by the Kuwait and Taiwan. In June 1999, the US Army received the last of 950 “Paladin” M109A6 ordered. “Paladin” was used in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom in March / April 2003 and in the continuing operations in Iraq, including Operation Al Fajr in Fallujah in November 2004.

160

American M109A3, 1991 1st Gulf War. Current Operators M109 Libya: 12-18.

M109A1 Djibouti: 10;

Ethiopia: 17;

Oman: 15 A0; M109A2/A3

Peru: 12;

Greece: 51 A1B;

Brazil: 40 A3 (former Belgian Army) Brazilian Army; A2, 50 A3GEA1, 223 A3GEA2;

standard;

Kuwait: 5 A1B;

Egypt: 400 A2;

Norway: 14 M109A3GNM;

Greece: 84

Italy: 221 M109L (with an Italian made 155mm/39 caliber barrel); Lebanon: 12 A3 + 22 TBD;

Austria: 80 A2/A5Ö; M109A4

Pakistan: 150+ A2 in service with the Pakistan Army. Being Upgraded to M109A5 Spain: 6 (Spanish Marines);

Brazil: 36 surpluses U.S. Army on order, to be upgraded to M109A5+; KAWEST) 12 A3 and 12 A5+ Upgrade to similar Paladin configuration;

Morocco: 4 M109A4.

Chile: 48 (24 from Switzerland, upgraded to M-109

Egypt: 201;

Saudi Arabia: 36;

Iraq: 24;

Israel:

Portugal: 18 since 2002 (Portuguese Army).14 of these vehicles were M109A2/A3 upgraded to A5 variant.

This variant replaced the previous 6 M109A2 operated by the Portuguese Army; (Spanish Army); M109A6 “Paladin”

Saudi Arabia:

Tunisia: 19-20 A2.

Republic of China: 225.

Belgium: 64 A4BE (all now decommissioned and 40 A3BE sold to Brazil); M109A5

Pakistan: 115;

Jordan:

Morocco: 78 M109A2, 22 M109A3 and

Portugal: 6 A2 since 1981. Currently retired from active-service and being used only in training duties;

60 A2s are currently being upgraded to A5s (2010); M109A2/A5

600;

Morocco: 44 M109A1B;

United Arab Emirates: 40 (from Switzerland).

Denmark: 2-6 (upgraded to M109 A3DK, used to be 24;

356 A2/A2-90 (121 M109A2-90 purchased from Netherlands); 40 M-109L47;

Iran: 440;

Switzerland: 224 (upgraded to M109 KAWEST);

Thailand: 20;

Greece: 12;

Spain: 96

Morocco: 60.

United States: 929; K55/K55A1

Malaysia: 30.

Republic of Korea: 1,040 K55 (M109A2 Base)/K55A1 (K-9 technology).

Former Operators Belgium: 127 A2, of which 64 were upgraded to the A4BE standard, the remainder being decommissioned; A3GE A1/A2 phased out by 1 July 2007 and replaced by the PzH 2000; by the PzH 2000;

Germany: 570

Netherlands: 126 A2/90 phased out and largely replaced

United Kingdom: about 140 entered service in 1965, upgraded to A1 and A2 standards, and eventually sold to

Austria in 1994; Canada: 76 A4B+ Phased out from the Canadian Forces since 2005, they were used between 1967 and 2005. All the vehicles had been modernized to the M109A4B+ SPH standard in the 1980s. They were primarily used by the 4th Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group in Germany.

161

M1128 Mobile Gun System

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Assault Gun Place of Origin……………….

United States Weight………………………...18.77 tonnes (20.69 short tonnes; 18.47 long tonnes) Length…………………………6.95 m (22.92 ft) Width…………………………..2.72 m (8.97 ft) Height…………………………>2.64 m (>8.72 ft) Crew…………………………..3 Armor………………………….14.5mm resistant Main Armament……………………M68A2 105mm cannon Secondary Armament……………………M2 .50 caliber machine gun; M240C coaxial machine gun; 2, M6 smoke, grenade launchers Engine………………………...Caterpillar 3126 turbo diesel 260 kW (350 hp) Power/weight………………..14 hp/tonne Transmission………………….Automatic 6 forward, 1 reverse Suspension……………………8x8 wheeled Operational Range…………………………330 miles (528 km) Speed…………………………60 mph (96 km/h)

162

The M1128 Mobile Gun System is an eight-wheeled armored car of the “Stryker” armored fighting vehicle family, mounting a 105mm tank gun, based on the Canadian LAV III light-armored vehicle manufactured by General Dynamics Land Systems. It is in service with the United States and was also being considered for adoption by several other countries.

The MGS' remote weapon station has a small silhouette, is stabilized and auto loading. The RWS mounts a 105mm M68A2 rifled cannon.

The vehicle is primarily outfitted to support infantry combat operations. While it could take on some of the roles of tanks, it is not designed to engage in combat with tanks. The MGS can store 18 rounds of main gun ammunition in the autoloader cassette located in the rear compartment of the vehicle. It has a rate of fire of six rounds per minute.

The MGS' 105mm cannon can fire four types of ammunition: the M900 kinetic energy penetrator to destroy armored vehicles; the M456A2 high explosive anti-tank round to destroy thin-skinned vehicles and provide anti-personnel fragmentation; the M393A3 high explosive plastic round to destroy bunkers, machine gun and sniper positions, and create openings in walls for infantry to access; and M1040 canister shot for use against infantry in the open.

Following the end of the Cold War some theorists believed that the existing suite of U.S. armored vehicles, designed largely to fight Soviet mechanized forces in Europe, were not well suited to the lower-intensity missions U.S. armed forces would be tasked with. This led to the development of a new armored fighting vehicle designed for lower-intensity combat, rather than large-scale battle.

Canada had liquidated about half of its fleet of “Leopard 1” in the early 2000s, with the intention of replacing them with the airmobile Mobile Gun System, but the decision was reversed. In fall of 2006 a squadron of Leopards were sent to Afghanistan, and in 2007, the Canadian Army acquired 100 surplus “Leopard 2” main battle tanks from the Netherlands for quick deployment.

Full-rate production has been indefinitely deferred as of 2012.

In late 2013, the U.S. Army began seeking to reintroduce an air droppable mobile airborne protected firepower platform to provide fire support for air assault forces, a capability that had been absent since the retirement of the M551 “Sheridan” in 1997. General Dynamics initially considered modifying the wheeled “Stryker” MGS to meet the requirement, but the company instead developed the tracked “Griffin” light tank technology demonstrator as its offering for the Mobile Protected Firepower (MPF) platform, which was unveiled in October 2016.

Because the vehicle was designed without air conditioning, crews are given individual cooling vests that circulate cooled water from outside the vehicle to the garment. Vehicle computers still overheat regularly. All MGS “Stryker” platforms have been recently upgraded with AC units.

The large remote weapon station and relatively smaller hatch can make emergency exits difficult. Because the MGS is fitted with a remote weapon station into the MGS instead of a true turret it is very possible for the crew of a MGS to encounter an auto-loader stoppage in the heat of battle and not be able to repair it without disembarking from the vehicle and standing atop it to access the auto-loader.

Current Operators United States: 139 units.

163

A-222 “Bereg”

Type……………………………Coastal Defense Artillery Gun Place of Origin……………….

Soviet Union / Russia Weight…………………………43.7 t (96,000 lb) (gross weight) Length…………………………13 m (43 ft) Width…………………………..3.1 m (10 ft) Height…………………………3.9 m (13 ft) Main Armament……………………130mm (5.1 in) L 55 gun Elevation………………………-5° to +50° Traverse Range………………240° (max) Rate of Fire……………………12 rounds per minute (max) Maximum Firing Range…….22 km (14 mi) Speed…………………………60 km/h (on the road)

164

The A-222 “Bereg” (Берег) “Beach” is a Russian coastal defense artillery gun who’s the main mission is to engage surface ships and prevent over-the-beach landings of enemy forces. It can also engage small-size fast moving naval targets, such as small landing ships, fast attack craft and air-cushioned vessels. It can also engage ground targets. The “Bereg” was developed as a supplement to mobile costal defense missile systems, as all missile systems have a dead zone from 7 to 25 km and are unable to defend costal zones alone.

Another advantage comparing with missiles is cost of maintenance and per fired projectile. The A-222 was first publicly revealed in 1993. A small number of this artillery system is currently in service with Russian Navy. It was also proposed for export customers, like A222E, however no production orders was received.

In December 1976, the “Titan Barricades” Central Engineering Office, based in Volgograd, started the development of the “Bereg” self-propelled coastal artillery system. In 1980, the technical documentation for new 130mm self-propelled coastal artillery was issued.

The first prototype tests began on 1988. The tests were keeping going until 1992. In 1996 all tests were completed, and in August 2003 it was adopted by the Russian Navy. The use of a chassis with wheels increased by 1.7 times the fuel reserve, and by 3 times the autonomy of the vehicle. The weight of the chassis is around 21 tons and the vehicle has a range of 650Km. The vehicle uses a 525 hp D-12A-525A diesel engine. The main armament adopted was a gun 130mm with a length of 55 calibers based on the AK-130 naval gun.

The A-222 is also fitted with auxiliary power unit, which powers all systems, when the main engine is turned off. Vehicle is fitted with a central tyre inflation system as standard.

The “Bereg” artillery systems operate in batteries. A single battery typically consists of 6-8 artillery systems, a command and control vehicle and a support vehicle. Firing data is provided by command vehicle. Self-propelled guns can be located up to 1,000 m away from one another. These mobile systems ensure defense of large areas and can briefly redeploy to other firing positions.

After hitting the primary targets, the fire control system automatically redirects the fire to the next targets.

The maximum detection distance of the radar is 35 km and the total error of determination of the elevation angle and the azimuth is about 3 mrad (mils). The time required to bring the BR-136 system to alert condition is 3 minutes.

For certain target displacement parameters, the central control station's fire control system calculates the aiming angle of the guns in the target acquisition mode based on ballistic and weather corrections. This provides complete automation of all ballistic calculation parameters processes, including automatic radar scan adjustment and target tracking.

During operation, the radar information is displayed on the screen with a rectangular azimuth display scan. When combined with the reticular electronic display markers, the detected targets enter the automatic tracking mode. The electro-optically tracked targets are displayed on a television screen. At the same time, on a special screen, the target distance information, calculated by the signals received from a laser range finder, is displayed.

It has a generation system with a rated capacity of 30kW three-phase alternating current, 380-220V/50Hz, and a secondary voltage converter 220V/400Hz with capacity of 15kW for fire control system. In case of failure of the central station system, each A-222 can operate independently. Each one is equipped with a ballistic computer, optoelectronic targeting device and a laser rangefinder.

Manning the firing tower of the A-222, are the commander, a gunner and four loaders. A rotating turret is mounted at the rear of the vehicle. It has a total traverse range of 240° (120° for each side from the center line of the vehicle rear). The Bereg fires HE-Frag, armorpiercing and illumination rounds. It is also compatible with laser-guided rounds, however this feature is proposed as an option.

Maximum effective range of fire is 22 km. This gun has load-assisting system, so the rate of fire is about 10 rounds per minute. A total of 40 shells are carried. The A-222 no carries secondary weapons for self-defense. This artillery system can stop and fire within 3-5 minutes from travelling. Four hydraulic jacks are lowered to the ground in order to stabilize the vehicle during gun firing. The A-222 can fire from unprepared positions.

The time required for engaging a mobile maritime target with a hit probability of 80% is a maximum of 2 minutes.

To ensure adequate logistical support and a stable and uninterrupted power supply for the coastal artillery complex, a unique support vehicle of combat readiness based on the chassis of the MAZ-543M was designed for this purpose. It has two electric generators of 380/220 VAC, 50 Hz and 30 kW each, and these are added to diesel engines. The capacity of the fuel tanks allows continuous operation of the diesel generator sets for 7 days.

Mounted on the bodywork ceiling there is a 7.62mm PKT machine gun for self defense. The presence on board of special equipment and navigation provides an excellent ability to assess and protect NBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) and topographical location for battery members. The vehicle also provides items for the comfort of the troop. There are also on-board ammunition supplies for light weapons, chemical protection equipment, personal weapons, portable rechargeable flashlights and drinking water tanks, as well as armchairs for rest. A kitchen is available in the vehicle. The presence of folding tables in one of the compartments of the vehicle, allows it to be used as a dining room and recreation room. The dining room can serve up to four soldiers simultaneously.

Food stocks and kitchen equipment allow serving ten people for up to one week.

The team responsible for ensuring the operation of the support vehicle consists of four people.

The command and control vehicle is equipped with the STS-136 BR fire control system. This one has a crew of seven. The BR-136 system provides a 360° or sector-specific view, through radar scanning and electro-optical vision of the surrounding area in any weather condition, day or night. The system can operate in the presence of active or passive electronic interference. The radar can automatically track up to four targets. In this case, two of them can be locked simultaneously.

130mm gun ammunition and ballistic characteristics Cartridge total weight……………………………..52.8 kg; Projectile weight…………………………………….33.4 Kg; Cartridge length…………………………………..1369mm; Initial velocity of the projectile…………………...850m/s; Ballistic shooting range………………………………22 km.

Maximum allowed error for rounds with radio-controlled fuze: Anti-ship missiles………………………………………….8m; Airplanes and helicopters…………………………….15m.

165

Self-propelled coastal artillery complex - Battery arrangement: 1 Self-propelled artillery gun A-222 firing on targets; 2 Command and control vehicle; 3 Combat readiness support vehicle; 4 The surveillance radar of the command vehicle acquires the maritime targets; 5 Ground targets can be located and signalled using reconnaissance helicopters; 6 The remote interface between observer (in this case a helicopter) and command post is established for defense coordination; 7 Ground targets can be engaged beyond the sea targets.

The “Bereg� battery is designed to operate autonomously for a week.

Current Operators

Russian Navy: 36 A-222. As of 2003, the only operator of the system was the Russian unit 40th BRAP at a naval base in Novorossiysk at the Black Sea.

166

AS-90

Type……………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin……………….

United Kingdom No. Built……………………….179 Weight…………………………45.0 tonnes (100,800 lb) Length…………………………9.07 m (29 ft 9 in) Width…………………………..3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) Height…………………………2.49 m (8 ft 2 in) Armour Max………………….17mm (0.66 in) steel Main Armament……………………155mm L31 39 cal howitzer (48 rounds) Secondary Armament……………………1x7.62mm NATO L7 GPMG Engine…………………………Cummins VTA903T V8 diesel 660 hp (493 kW) Power/Weight……………….14.66 hp/tonne Suspension…………………...Hydropneumatic (Hydrogas) Operational Range………………………….420 km (261 mi) on road Speed………………………….53 km/h (33 mph)

167

The AS-90 is an abbreviation for Artillery System for the 1990s. The official name is “Gun Equipment, 155mm L131”. It is a self propelled artillery gun developed for the British Army. The program started as a replacement for the 105mm FV433 Abbot SPG and the M109 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer. It was started as a private venture by Vickers because they believed the SP-70 SPG tri-country development program would fail. They were correct. The minister of defence indeed issues a specification when the project eventually was cancelled, and among four propositions, Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering (VSEL) AS-90 designs was chosen and approved.

The latter became BAE Systems in 1999 and production started in 1992, until 1994. By 2006 there were plans to upgrade the 155 mm howitzer, for better range and accuracy, and start closing on naval needs for a joint program. The whole program was evaluated to £300 million ($480 million USD) in 1995.

The basic design around the new 155mm SPG came from a 1963 Ballistics Memorandum of Understanding for 39 caliber ordnance of this one, with a baseline projectile standardized to the US M549 rocket-assisted shell. The Vickers howitzer was found compliant to this standard, using the L15 unassisted projectile which allows a range of 24.7 km, but with some specifics.

Instead of the more common screw breach, a split sliding block breech with Crossley obturation system was chosen. This allowed the use of bagged charges instead of metal cartridges. The primer magazine contained 18 primers and the standard ammunition was the FH-70 round (L15 HE) while the cheaper M107 is used in training instead. The main gun is capped by a double-baffle muzzle brake.

The howitzer range was 24.9 km (39 cal), and 30 km with the tested 52 cal version and standard charges. The rate of fire was 3 rounds in a 10 seconds burst saturation fire, 6 rounds per minute for 3 minutes or 2 rounds per minute in sustained fire. The secondary armament comprised a 7.62mm L7 GPMG on the roof. The ammunition comprised 48 projectiles and charges, with 31 stored in the turret and 17 located in the hull and 1000 MG rounds. The gun had its own power supply independent of the main engine in order to fire in a stationary position while keeping the battery charged for any move. The Elevation, traverse, magazine, shell transfer, loader motion are electrically-powered as well as the electronics and communications.

The hull was custom-built to support and propel the fully traversing turret. It was made of welded RHA, 17 mm thick on the front glacis, NATO-proven against small arms fire, 14.5mm armour piercing shells and 152mm shell fragments. The turret itself had sloped sides, and was approximatively 2/3 of the whole length of the hull. Added to the gun, the overall length was 9.07 m.

The crew comprised the driver (center front) with its own day/night periscope, while the commander, gunner and loaders were housed inside the turret. There was a rear door for access/exit of the crew and ammunition supply.

The drive train comprises six paired road wheels (rubber-clad) suspended by hydropneumatic (Hydrogas) arms (Horstman Defence Systems), with the drive sprocket on front and idler at the rear. The power plant is a Cummins 90 degree, v8, 4 stroke, liquid cooled, turbo diesel VTA903T capable of 660 bhp. This diesel developed a power-to-weight ratio 14.66 hp/t.

It is coupled with a ZF Gears Ltd automatic transmission with four forward and two reverse gears. Max Speed was around 54-55 km/h on flat, and range 370 km (231 miles). Ground clearance was 41 cm and on trials the AS-90 showed it could negotiate gradients of 60°, a vertical obstacle of 75 cm, cross 110 inches wide trenches and fording a 1.50 m deep water strait.

The main gun uses an autonomous navigation and gun laying dynamic reference unit (DRU), applied directly on the trunnion. A common Turret Control Computer (TCC) compiled data from the various sensors on the roof and gun muzzle, received data from the HQ and human inputs. The Detachment Commander, loader and layer (Avimo direct fire sight) had their own display & command displays by VSEL.The auto laying is provided by the combined data from the DRU, TCC and powered laying controls. A Radar Muzzle Velocity Measuring Device helps fire in reversionary mode via the direct fire sight. The automatic gun-laying system (AGLS) serving elevation and traverse laying is credited for a 1 mile accuracy (angle 3.375 minutes), and rapid target engagement. There is also a barrel cooling system to help achieve faster rates of fire.

In 1999, Vickers was integrated into BAE systems and it was asked an upgrade program for a 52 cal. main gun upgrade to increase the range. Marconi Electronic Systems tested a bi-modular charge system developed by Somchem of South Africa, but due to several issues, notably the failure to meet the intensive fire requirements, the whole project was terminated.

The 96 out the 179 vehicles electronic systems were upgraded along the capability enhancement program of 2008-2009. Part of it comprised the laser inertial artillery pointing system (LINAPS) digital gun sight.

Versions AS-90D Is a special version modified for desert use with an extra climatization for the crew, and extra cooling for the engine and gun machinery. The design of the tracks is adapted for sandy conditions, lessening the sand wear on metal, which runs on a Diehl 940-single pin track.

AS-90 "Braveheart" Basically the AS-90, but fitted with the 52 caliber length gun. This project was terminated due to non-compliant propellant charges.

“Haubicoarmata Krab” Is a Polish license built AS-90 turret married with a K9 “Thunder” chassis (Huta Stalowa Wola and WB Electronics). It received the “Azalia” BMS. Two prototypes were built in 2001, and successfully completed all required evaluations trials. Initial serial production started in 2008, with eight units delivered to Polish Land Forces for testing.

In action The 179 AS-90s were given to three British field regiments supporting armoured infantry brigades: 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery; 19th Regiment Royal Artillery and 26th Regiment Royal Artillery. Their rapid-fire capability allows them to deliver a total payload of 261 kg onto a single target in less than ten seconds, coming close of the German Panzerhaubitze performances.

In 29 March 2001, a unit was deployed during Operation Cambrai in Kosovo. This unit was used to fire illumination rounds, enabling British troops to spot any suspected Albanian rebels trying to cross the border, in support to the KFOR deployment.

In March 2003, AS-90Ds were deployed in Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. They saw action around Basra and following the deployment of British troops in the area. However in July 2004, the UK Ministry of Defence announced a reduction of six vehicles per battery. The most recent joint exercises Raytheon M982 Excalibur extended-range 155mm trials took part in 2006. The AS-90 proved compatible with the M982 “Excalibur” Ia-2 rounds.

Current operators United Kingdom. British Royal Artillery; 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery; 19th Regiment Royal Artillery; 26th Regiment Royal Artillery.

168

G6 “Rhino”

Type…………………………Self-Propelled Howitzer Place of Origin…………….

South Africa Wars…………………………South African Border War and Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) Designer……………………Lyttelton Engineering Works Designed…………………..1981 Manufacturer………………Denel Land Systems (turret) and Land System OMC (hull) Produced…………………..1988 - 1999 Number Built……………….154 Weight……………………….46 tonnes (51 short tons; 45 long tons) Length……………………….9.20 m (30 ft 2 in) (hull) Width………………………...3.40 m (11 ft 2 in) Height……………………….3.20 m (10 ft 6 in) Crew………………………...6 Main Armament…………………155mm G5 howitzer (47 rounds) Secondary Armament…………………1x12.7mm M2 Browning machine gun (900 rounds) Engine………………………Magirus Deutz Model FL 413 F/FR air-cooled diesel 525 hp (391 kW) Power/Weight…………….11.17 hp/tonne (8.7 kW/tonne) Suspension…………………Torsion bar with hydraulic shock dampers Fuel Capacity……………..700 liters Operational Range……………………….700 km Speed……………………….90 km/h (55 mph)

169

The G6, sometimes denoted as the G6 “Rhino”, is a South African mine-protected self-propelled howitzer. It was developed as a turreted, self-propelled variant of the G5 howitzer series, mating the gun to a six-wheeled armoured chassis. Design work on the G6 began in the late 1970s to replace the obsolescent Sexton being retired from service with the artillery regiments of the South African Army. Serial production commenced between 1988 and 1999.

At the time of its introduction, the G6 was considered one of the most mobile self-propelled howitzers in service. Its chassis was engineered to be mine-resistant and blast proof, allowing it to survive multiple TM-46 detonations during trials. The G6 was conceived as a wheeled rather than a tracked vehicle for this purpose, as well as to allow it to deploy long distances by road without consuming excessive quantities of fuel or requiring a tank transporter.

G6s entered service during the last two years of the South African Border War, frequently shelling positions held by the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. Their ability to bombard a target and change positions rapidly in less than two minutes, with minimal preparation, greatly reduced the threat posed by retaliatory Angolan air raids and counter-battery fire. A number of G6s were subsequently manufactured for export and purchased by Abu Dhabi and Oman.

Export models included a specialist anti-aircraft variant with a GEC-Marconi Marksman turret and twin-barrelled 35mm autocannon.

Chile briefly produced the G6 under licence as the CC-SP-45, although this arrangement was later terminated after the system was not adopted by that country's armed forces. Iraq also manufactured its own domestic variant of the G6 as the Al Majnoon with technical assistance from Canadian artillery engineer Gerald Bull, which later evolved into the much larger and more sophisticated Al Fao. The first G6 prototype appeared in 1981, during the height of the South African Border War. Four engineering development models were being tested with the South African Defence Force by the mid 1980s. In October 1987, the South African government ordered all the G6s deployed to Angola for combat trials as part of Operation Hooper. One suffered an engine failure, so only three actually reached Angola, where they joined expeditionary troops of the 4th South African Infantry Battalion. Operating as an independent battery, the three G6s were instrumental in the bombardment of the strategic Angolan airfield at Cuito Cuanavale. In this their crews were significantly aided by South African special forces acting as forward artillery observers near the airfield; on one occasion the G6s were able to destroy four Angolan MiG 21s on the ground as they attempted to take off.

The heightened artillery threat to the Cuito Cuanavale airfield eventually forced the Angolan pilots to relocate their operations to another airstrip at Menongue, which was beyond the range of the G5 and G6 but severely diminished their ability to time and execute their missions, given Menongue's distance from the actual fighting. However, they also began making South African artillery positions the primary targets of their raids, forcing the G6 crews to constantly shift positions after each bombardment. The G6s themselves were considered so valuable that an air defence contingent from South Africa's 10th Anti-Aircraft Regiment was subsequently attached to the battery for the remainder of the campaign.

The G6 is not known to have seen combat again until 2015, when a single battery was deployed with the United Arab Emirates Defence Force to Aden during the Yemeni Crisis. The howitzers were landed in Aden by ship and escorted by a large Emirati armoured formation. They have since been used to shell Houthi militant positions in support of Emirati and allied Yemeni offensives carried out near Taiz.

Current Operators South Africa: 43 systems; only two in active service. Also known as the G6 “Rhino” within the South African National Defence Force;

United Arab Emirates: 78 systems;

Oman: 24 systems.

170

Rocket Artillery Is a type of artillery equipped with rocket launchers instead of conventional guns or mortars, types of rocket artillery pieces include multiple rocket launchers.

Modern rocket artillery was first employed during World War II, in the form of the German “Nebelwerfer” family of rocket ordnance designs, and Soviet “Katyusha” series. The Soviet Katyushas, nicknamed by German troops Stalin's Organ because of their visual resemblance to a church musical organ and alluding to the sound of the weapon's rockets, were mounted on trucks or light tanks, while the early German Nebelwerfer ordnance pieces were mounted on a small wheeled carriage which was light enough to be moved by several men and could easily be deployed nearly anywhere, while also being towed by most vehicles. The Germans also had self-propelled rocket artillery in the form of the “Panzerwerfer” and “Würfrahmen” 40 which equipped half-track armoured fighting vehicles. An oddity in the subject of rocket artillery during this time was the German “Sturmtiger”; a vehicle based on the Tiger I heavy tank chassis that was armed with a 380mm rocket mortar.

The Western Allies of World War II employed little rocket artillery. During later periods of the war, British and Canadian troops used the Land Mattress, a towed rocket launcher. The United States Army built and deployed a small number of turret-mounted T34 “Calliope” and T40 Whiz-bang rocket artillery tanks (converted from M4 Sherman medium tanks) in France and Italy.

In 1945, the British Army also fitted some M4 Sherman with two 60 lb RP3 rockets, the same as used on ground attack aircraft and known as “Tulip”. In the Pacific, however, the US Navy made heavy use of rocket artillery, adding to the already intense bombardment by the guns of heavy warships to soften up Japanese-held islands before the US Marines would land. The Japanese Imperial Army deployed the naval Type 420mm (8 in) Rocket Launcher and army Type 440mm (16 in) Rocket Launcher against the United States Marines and Army troops at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, and United States Army troops during the Battle of Luzon. Their deployment was limited relative to other mortar types and the projectiles on the 400mm launcher were so large and heavy that they had to be loaded by a small hand-operated cranes, but they were extremely accurate and had an extreme psychological effect on opposing troops, who called them "Screaming Mimis", a nickname originally applied to the German “Nebelwerfer” tube-launched rocket mortar series in the European Theater of Operations. Modern rocket artillery such as the US M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System is highly mobile and is used in similar fashion to other self-propelled artillery. Global Positioning and Inertial Navigation terminal guidance systems have been introduced.

The Rocket Launcher T34 “Calliope” was a tank-mounted multiple rocket launcher used by the United States Army during World War II.

The V-2 ("Vergeltungswaffe 2", Retribution Weapon 2), technical name "Aggregat 4" (A4), was the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile with a liquid-propellant rocket engine was developed during the Second World War in Germany as a "vengeance weapon", assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities.

171

Tactical Ballistic Missile R-17 “Scud”

Type……………………………Tactical Ballistic Missile Place of Origin……………….

Soviet Union Weight…………………………4,400 kg (9,700 lb) “A”; 5,900 kg (13,000 lb) “B”; 6,400 kg (14,100 lb) “C”; 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) “D” Length…………………………11.25 m (36.9 ft) Diameter………………………0.88 m (2 ft 11 in) Warhead………………………Conventional high-Explosive, Fragmentation, Nuclear 5 to 80 kiloton, Chemical; VX warhead Operational Range…………………………180 km (110 mi) “A”; 300 km (190 mi) “B”; 600 km (370 mi) “C”; 700 km (430 mi) “D” Speed…………………………Mach 5, 1.7 km/s (1.1 mi/s) Guidance System………………………..Inertial Guidance, “Scud D” adds DSMAC Terminal Guidance Accuracy…………………….3,000 m (9,800 ft) “A”; 450 m (1,480 ft) “B”; 700 m (2,300 ft) “C”; 50 m (160 ft) “D”

172

The “Scud” is a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries. The term comes from the NATO reporting name "Scud" which was attached to the missile by western intelligence agencies. The Russian names for the missile are the R-11(P-11) (the first version), R-17 (P-17) (later R-300) “Elbrus” (later developments). The name Scud has been widely used to refer to these missiles and the wide variety of derivative variants developed in other countries based on the Soviet design. The first use of the term Scud was in the NATO name SS-1b “Scud-A”, applied to the R-11 “Zemlya” ballistic missile.

The earlier R-1 missile had carried the NATO name SS-1 “Scunner”, but was of a very different design, almost directly a copy of the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 used technology gained from the V-2 as well, but was a new design, smaller and differently shaped than the V-2 and R-1 weapons. The R-11 was developed by the Korolyev OKB and entered service in 1957. The most revolutionary innovation in the R-11 was the engine, designed by A.M. Isaev. Far simpler than the V-2s multi-chamber design, and employing an anti-oscillation baffle to prevent chugging, it was a forerunner to the larger engines used in Soviet launch vehicles. Further developed variants were the R-17 (later R-300) “Elbrus” / SS-1c “Scud-B” in 1961 and the SS-1d “Scud-C” in 1965, both of which could carry either a conventional high-explosive, a 5 to 80 kiloton thermonuclear, or a chemical (VX) warhead. The SS-1e “Scud-D” variant developed in the 1980s can deliver a terminally guided warhead capable of greater precision.

Missiles Characteristics

System

R-11 “Elbrus”

R-17 “Aero Fan”

R-17E “Elbrus-E”

R-17M-M “Elbrus”

Missile

8K11

8K14

Unknown

8K72

NATO Code

SS-1b “Scud-A”

SS-1c “Scud-B”

SS-1d “Scud-C”

SS-1e “Scud-D”

Year

1955

1961

1965

Set development in Russia

Propellant

1 stage liquid propellant

1 stage liquid propellant (storable)

1 stage liquid propellant (storable)

1 stage liquid propellant (storable)

Length

10,50 m

11,16 m

11.25 m

12.29 m

Diameter

884mm

884mm

884mm

884mm

Weight

4460 kg

6370 kg

6400 kg

6500 kg

Warhead Type

Nuclear 50 kt , 950 kg conventional splitter

Nuclear 5-70 kt, 985 kg conventional splitter, submunitions, FAE ,Chemicals , 1017 kg Final phase steering by optical objective comparison of Syria tested and introduced in 2005

Nuclear 80 kt, 600 kg conventional splitter, bomblets (submunitions), FAE, Chemicals

Nuclear 5-70 kt, 985 kg conventional splitter, bomblets (submunitions)

Effective Range

180 km

280 km/235 km with separable warhead Final phase steering

450 km

700 km

Guidance System

Inertial navigation

Inertial navigation tested and introduced Final phase steering a separable warhead means of an optical target comparison in automatic approach in Syria 2005

Inertial navigation

Inertial navigation plus digital optical Final phase steering

Hit Accuracy ( CEP )

3000 m

450 m, in warhead Final phase steering about 50 m

700 m

About 50 m

173

The “Scud” missile (including derivatives) is one of the few ballistic missiles to be used in actual warfare, followed by only to the V-2 in terms of combat launches (the SS-21, MGM-140 ATACMS, “Fateh-110” and 9K720 “Iskander” being the only other ballistic missiles fired in action). The first recorded combat use of the Scud was at the end of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, when three missiles were fired by Egypt against the Israeli Arish and bridge-head on the western bank of the Suez Canal. Seven Israeli soldiers were killed. Libya responded to U.S. airstrikes in 1986 by firing two Scud missiles at a U.S. Coast Guard navigation station on the nearby Italian island of Lampedusa, which missed their target. Scud missiles were used in several regional conflicts that included use by Soviet and Afghan Communist forces in Afghanistan, and Iranians and Iraqis against one another in the so-called “War of the cities” during the Iran–Iraq War. “Scuds” were used by Iraq during the Gulf War against Israel and coalition targets in Saudi Arabia and Israel.

More than a dozen Scuds were fired from Afghanistan at targets in Pakistan in 1988. There was also a small number of Scud missiles used in the 1994 civil war in Yemen, as well as by Russian forces in Chechnya in 1996 and onwards. The missiles saw some minor use by forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi in the Libyan Civil War. They have reportedly been used recently in the ongoing Syrian civil war by forces loyal to President Bashar al-Assad.

“Scuds” are often described as Soviet modernizations of the V-2, a surface-to-surface rocket that the Germans built during World War II. In fact, the “Scud” family was derived from a relative of the V-2, the “Wasserfall”, a radio-directed anti-aircraft missile that rocket pioneer Werner von Braun and his team first tested in the German town of Peenemünde in 1944. Olaf Przybilski of the Technical University of Dresden discovered this link a few years ago when he interviewed German rocket engineers that the Soviets had conscripted to work for them after the war.

What distinguished the Wasserfall from similar weapons was its oxidizer: nitric acid. Unlike liquid oxygen, the oxidizer used by the V-2, nitric acid can be stored at normal temperatures inside a rocket for long periods essential for an anti-aircraft missile, which needs to be ready to fire immediately. In the late 1940s, the Soviet air defense force cloned the Wasserfall and called its version the R-101.

The Soviet army soon realized storable propellants offered the same benefit, shorter prep time for launch, for surface-to-surface missiles.

Soon engineers drew on the R-101 to design the R-11 ballistic missile, the “Scud”. The die was cast.

A few years later, the Soviets designed a successor to the R-11, the R-17. With more powerful motor and more potent propellants, it had more than twice the range (186 miles versus 80). Western military services did not know the R-17 was really a new design so they called it the “Scud-B”. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviets exported “Scud-Bs”, which were often an inexpensive substitute for an air force, to their Warsaw Pact allies and to clients in the developing world. South Yemen was one example. The “Scud-Bs” extended range gave South Yemen the ability to hit Sanaa, capital of North Yemen, its perennial rival. The R-17 not only became the most proliferated ballistic missile in history, it also inspired more derivative designs than any other. But even today, the Wasserfall trace appears in the “Scud” and in all of its progeny. They all have the same 889mm (35 inch) of diameter as the original.

174

Soviet army “Scud B”.

East Germany (GDR) Army “Scud B”.

Soviet Army “Scud B”.

Iraq Army “Al-Hussein” (Improved “Scud”).

175

176

All models are 11.35 m (37 ft 2 in) long (except “Scud-A”, which is 1 m (3 ft 3 in) shorter) and 0.88 m (2 ft 11 in) in diameter. They are propelled by a single liquid-fuel rocket engine burning kerosene and corrosion inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA) with UDMH, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (Russian TG-02 like German Tonka 250) as liquid igniter (self ignition with IRFNA) in all models.

Current Operators Algeria: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-D”): Some sources said that Algeria has received one “Scud B” or “D” during the period of 1985–1990; Armenia: (“Scud-C”): 8 launchers, 32 missiles; B”, “Hwasong-6”, project-t); (“Scud-B”);

Democratic Republic of the Congo: (“Scud-B”);

Egypt: (“Scud-

Iran: (“Scud-B”, “Hwasong-5”, “Shahab-1”, “Shahab-2”, “Shahab-3”, “Rodong-1”);

North Korea: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-C”, “Hwasong-5”, “Hwasong-6”, “Hwasong-7”, “Rodong-1”);

Oman: (“Scud-B”);

Syria: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-C”, “Scud-D”,” Hwasong-6”, “Hwasong-7”);

missiles and four TELs acquired in 1995, and converted into targets by Lockheed Martin;

Kazakhstan:

Libya: (“Scud-B”);

United States: 30 “Scud-B”

Vietnam: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-D”, “Scud-C”);

Yemen: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-C”).

Former Operators Afghanistan: (“Scud-B”) 4 launchers, 50 missiles, retired in 2005; 43+ launchers, 2000 missiles;

Democratic Republic of Afghanistan: (“Scud-B”, “Scud-C”)

Belarus: 60 launchers, retired in May 2005;

Czechoslovakia: (“Scud-B”) 30 launchers; “Scud-B”) 24 launchers plus decoys, retired 1990;

Bulgaria: (“Scud-B”) 36 launchers, retired, destroyed;

Czech Republic: (“Scud-B”) 27 launchers, retired;

East Germany: (“Scud-A”,

Hungary: (“Scud-B”) 9 launchers, retired, destroyed in 1995;

B”, “Al-Hussein”, “Al-Abbas”) 24–36 launchers plus decoys, 819 missiles, plus 11 MAZ-543 launchers for “Al-Hussein”; B”) 30 launchers, retired;

Romania: (“Scud-B”) 18 launchers, retired;

at the dissolution of the Soviet Union, retired; B”) retired;

South Yemen: 6 launchers;

Iraq: (“ScudPoland: (“Scud-

Russia: (“Scud-C”, “Scud-D”) 300 launchers remaining Soviet Union: 660 launchers;

Slovakia: (“Scud-

United Arab Emirates: 25 “Hwasong-5s” purchased from North Korea in 1989. The UAE military were not satisfied with

the quality of the missiles, and they were kept in storage; (“Scud-B”) retired.

Ukraine: 50 launchers and 185 missiles, destroyed;

Yugoslavia:

177

M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS)

Type……………………………Multiple Rocket Launcher Place of Origin……………….

United States In Service……………………..Since March 31, 1983 Designer………………………Vought Corporation Weight…………………………55,000 lb (24,950 kg) Length…………………………22 ft 6 in (6.85 m) Width…………………………..9 ft 9 in (2.97 m) Height…………………………8 ft 6 in (2.59 m) Crew…………………………..3 Rate of Fire……………………Rockets: 12 rounds in < 40 sec Missiles: 2 rounds in 10 sec Effective Firing Range………M26: 32 km (20 mi) M26A1/A2: 45 km (28 mi) M30/31: 84 km (52 mi) GMLRS+: 120 km (75 mi) Maximum Firing Range……ATACMS: 165 or 300 km (103 or 186 mi) Main Armament……………………M269 Launcher Loader Module Engine…………………………Cummins Diesel 500 hp (368 kW) Operational Range…………………………400 miles (640 km) Speed…………………………40 mph (64.3 km/h)

178

The M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (M270 MLRS) is an armored, self-propelled, multiple rocket launcher; a type of rocket artillery.

Since the first M270s were delivered to the U.S. Army in 1983, the MLRS has been adopted by several NATO countries. Some 1,300 M270 systems have been manufactured in the United States and in Europe, along with more than 700,000 rockets. The production of the M270 ended in 2003, when a last batch was delivered to the Egyptian Army. The weapon can fire guided and unguided projectiles up to 42 km (26 mi). Firing ballistic missiles, such as the U.S. Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS), it can hit targets 300 km (190 mi) away; the warhead in such shots reaches an altitude of about 50 km (164,000 ft). The M270 can be used in shoot-and-scoot tactics, firing its rockets rapidly, then moving away to avoid counter-battery fire. MLRS was developed jointly by the United Kingdom, United States, West Germany, France and Italy. It was developed from the older General Support Rocket System (GSRS). The M270 MLRS weapons system is collectively known as the M270 MLRS Self-propelled Loader/Launcher (SPLL). The SPLL is composed of three primary subsystems: the M269 Loader Launcher Module (LLM), which also houses the electronic Fire Control System, is mated to the M993 Carrier Vehicle. The M993 is a derivative of the Bradley Fighting Vehicle chassis.

The rockets and ATACMS missiles are contained in interchangeable pods. Each pod contains six standard rockets or one guided ATACMS missile; the two types cannot be mixed. The LLM can hold two pods at a time, which are hand-loaded using an integrated winch system. All twelve rockets or two ATACMS missiles can be fired in under a minute. One launcher firing twelve rockets can completely blanket one square kilometre with submunitions. For this reason, the MLRS is sometimes referred to as the “Grid Square Removal System” (metric maps are usually divided up into 1 km grids). A typical MLRS cluster salvo consisted of three M270 vehicles each firing all 12 rockets. With each rocket containing 644 M77 grenades, the entire salvo would drop 23,184 grenades in the target area. However, with a two percent dud rate, that would leave approximately 400 undetonated bombs scattered over the area, which would endanger friendly troops and civilians. In 2006, MLRS was upgraded to fire guided rounds. Phase I testing of a guided unitary round (XM31) was completed on an accelerated schedule in March 2006. Due to an Urgent Need Statement, the guided unitary round was quickly fielded and used in action in Iraq. Lockheed Martin also received a contract to convert existing M30 DPICM GMLRS rockets to the XM31 unitary variant.

The M31 GMLRS Unitary rocket transformed the M270 into a point target artillery system for the first time. Due to GPS guidance and a single 200 lb (91 kg) high-explosive warhead, the M31 could hit targets accurately with less chance of collateral damage while needing fewer rockets to be fired, reducing logistical requirements. The unitary warhead also made the MLRS able to be used in urban environments. The M31 had a dual-mode fuse with point detonation and delay options to defeat soft targets and lightly fortified bunkers respectively, with the upgraded M31A1 equipped with a multi-mode fuse adding a proximity airburst mode for use against personnel in the open; proximity mode can be set for 3 or 10 metres (9.8 or 32.8 ft) height of burst (HOB). The GMLRS has a minimum engagement range of 15 km (9.3 mi) and can hit a target out to 70 km (43 mi), impacting at a speed of Mach 2.5.

A German developmental artillery system, called the Artillery Gun Module, has used the MLRS chassis on its developmental vehicles.

In 2012, a contract was issued to improve the armor of the M270s and improve the fire control to the standards of the HIMARS. In June 2015, the M270A1 conducted tests of firing rockets after upgrades from the Improved Armored Cab project, which provides the vehicle with an enhanced armored cab and windows.

When first deployed with the U.S. Army, the MLRS was used in a composite battalion consisting of two batteries of traditional artillery (howitzers) and one battery of MLRS SPLLs (self-propelled loader/launchers). The first operational organic or "all MLRS" unit was 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery. The 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery was reactivated as the Army's first Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) battalion on 1 October 1984, and became known as the "Proud Rockets". In March 1990, the unit deployed to White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico to conduct the Initial Operational Test and Evaluation of the Army Tactical Missile System. The success of the test provided the Army with a highly accurate, long range fire support asset. On 2 September 1990, the 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery deployed to Saudi Arabia in support of Operation Desert Shield. Assigned to the XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery, the unit played a critical role in the early defense of Saudi Arabia. As Desert Shield turned into Desert Storm, the Battalion was the first U.S. Field Artillery unit to fire into Kuwait. Over the course of the war, the 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery provided timely and accurate rocket and missile fires for both U.S. corps in the theatre, the 82nd Airborne Division, the 6th French Light Armored Division, the 1st Armored, 1st Infantry Division, the 101st Airborne Division, and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). A Battery 92nd Field Artillery (MLRS) was deployed to the Gulf War in 1990 from Ft.Hood Texas. 3/27th FA (MLRS) out of Fort Bragg deployed in support of Operation Desert Shield in August 1990. A/21st Field Artillery (MLRS) – 1st Cavalry Division Artillery deployed in support of Operation Desert Shield in September 1990. In December 1990, A/40th Field Artillery (MLRS) – 3rd Armored Division Artillery (Hanau), 1/27th FA (MLRS) part of the 41st Field Artillery Brigade (Babenhausen) and 4/27th FA (MLRS) (Wertheim) deployed in support of Operation Desert Shield from their bases in Germany and 1/158th Field Artillery from the Oklahoma Army National Guard deployed in January 1991. In early February 1991, 1/27th FA launched the biggest MLRS night fire mission in history. It has since been used in numerous military engagements, including the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In March 2007, the British Ministry of Defence decided to send a troop of MLRS to support ongoing operations in Afghanistan's southern province of Helmand; they will use newly developed guided munitions. In April 2011, the first modernized MLRS II and M31 GMLRS rocket were handed over to the German Army's Artillery School in Idar Oberstein. The German Army operates the M31 rocket up to a range of 90 km.

Versions M270 is the original version, which carries a weapon load of 12 rockets in two six-pack launch pod containers. This armored, tracked mobile launcher uses a stretched “Bradley” chassis and has a high cross-country capability.

M270 IPDS was an interim upgrade applied to a select number of launchers to provide the ability to fire the longer-range GPS-aided ATACMS Block IA, quick-reaction unitary and Block II missiles until sufficient M270A1 launchers were fielded.

M270A1 was the result of a 2005 upgrade program for the U.S. Army, and later on for several other states. The launcher appears identical to M270, but incorporates an improved fire control system (IFCS) and an improved launcher mechanical system (ILMS). This allows for significantly faster launch procedures and the firing of new types of munitions, including GPS guided rockets.

M270B1 is a British Army upgrade, similar to the A1, but it also includes an enhanced armor package, which gives the crew better protection against IED attacks.

179

US Army MLRS in the Gulf War 1991.

The German Army version of the MLRS (MARS).

180

The MLRS M270 Launcher, a derivative of the “Bradley” Fighting Vehicle (BFV), is the standard U.S. Army platform for firing surface to surface artillery rockets and missiles. The Armored Vehicle Mounted Rocket Launcher (M270) is a full-tracked, self-propelled launcher/loader designed to launch 12 tactical rockets and re-deploy before enemy determination of launch position (shoot and scoot). The launch platform is also used to launch the Army Tactical Missile System (Army TACMS) and is capable of launching all M270 Family of Munitions (MFOM) tactical rocket/missile variants. The launcher consists of six rockets, each of which are mounted and controlled in both azimuth and elevation. It has an automated control system for aiming that automatically corrects for launcher cant and ambient temperature, a directional reference system to obtain azimuth elevation and cant angles, and a FCS which is operated from a man-rated vehicle cab. The launcher platform structure provides a ‘selfloading’ capability.

Current operators Egypt: Egyptian Army 48; Bahrain: Royal Bahraini Army 9, ATACMS operational; Finland: Finnish Army 22, called 298 RsRakH 06. Upgraded to enable GMLRS and ATACMS, the rest (12 former Danish M270A1) are used for driver training only; France: French Army 13, called LRU Lance-Roquette Unitaire. Upgraded to GMLRS standard; Army 50+202, called MARS II Mittleres Artillerie Raketen System. Upgraded to GMLRS standard; operational;

Israel: Israel Defense Forces 64, called "Menatetz" (Smasher);

improved. Upgraded to GMLRS standard;

Germany: German Greece: Hellenic Army 36 ATACMS

Italy: Italian Army 22, called MLRS

Japan: Japan Ground Self-Defense Force 99. GMLRS and ATACMS operational;

Saudi Arabia: Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia 50 Royal Saudi Land Force Royal Artillery Corps; Army 58. 48 M270s and 10 M270A1s. ATACMS operational;

Turkey: Turkish Army 12;

upgraded to M270B1, which is A1 + enhanced armor package. GLMRS operational; 220+ upgraded to M270A1. GLMRS and ATACMS operational.

South Korea: Republic of Korea

United Kingdom: Royal Artillery 42, United States: United States Army 840+151,

Former operators Denmark: Royal Danish Army 12.No longer in service; sold to Finnish Army; service since 2004; sold to Finnish Army);

Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Army (out of

Norway: Norwegian Army 12 (never entered active service, is in storage).

181

9K52 “Luna-M”

Type……..............................Artillery Rocket Place of Origin…………….

Soviet Union In Service…………………..1964-present Wars………………………….Soviet War in Afghanistan, Iran-Iraq War, Gulf War, Yugoslav Wars, Invasion of Iraq, Libyan Civil War, Syrian Civil War Variants……………………..9M21B (Nuclear), 9M21F (HE), 9M21G (Chemical) and “Laith-90” Weight……………………….2.2-2.5 tonnes Length……………………….9 m (30 ft) Diameter……………………0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) Crew…………………………4 Maximum Firing Range….70 km (43 mi) Warhead……………………HE, chemical, nuclear Warhead Weight………….550 kg (1,210 lb) Rocket Speed………………Mach 3(3,687 km/h; 2,291mi/h) Launch Platform……………………..8x8 ZIL-135 missile launcher

182

The 9K52 “Luna-M” (Луна) “Moon” is a Soviet short-range artillery rocket system. The 9M21 rockets are unguided and spin-stabilized. Its GRAU designation is 9K52, and its NATO reporting name is “FROG-7”. “FROG” is an acronym for “Free Rocket Over Ground”.

The 9M21 rockets are mounted on a wheeled 9P113 transporter erector launcher (TEL) based on the ZIL-135 8x8 army truck. The TEL features a large hydraulic crane used for reloading rockets from 9T29 transporters (also ZIL-135 based). The 9M21 has a range up to 70 km and a CEP (Circular Error Probable) between 500 m and 700 m. The road mobile rocket has a 550 kg warhead and is capable of delivering high explosive, nuclear, or chemical warheads.

Six of the initial versions of the 9M21 were in Cuba during the missile crisis in October 1962. These missiles, which were ready to fire, had nuclear warheads installed. A further 70 warheads were stockpiled on the island.

The 9K52 was later extensively deployed throughout some Soviet satellite states. The rocket has been widely exported and is now in the possession of a large number of countries. After the war with Iran, Iraq modified its stock of 9M21s with a joint assistance programme with Egypt and Egyptian Army engineers, by extending their range to 90 km and fitting a submunition-carrying warhead. The rocket was renamed “Laith-90”.

In the course of the Yugoslav Wars, Serb forces launched “FROG-7” rockets on a number of Croatian cities, like Zupanja, on 12 December 1992, or the capital Zagreb, on 11 September 1993, while the battle of Medak Pocket was still ongoing.

During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Headquarters of the 2nd Brigade, US 3rd Infantry Division, Tactical Operations Center (TOC) of U.S Col. David Perkins, was targeted and struck by either an Iraqi 9K52 rocket or an “Ababil-100” SSM missile, killing three soldiers and two embedded journalists. Another 14 soldiers were injured, and 22 vehicles destroyed or seriously damaged, most of them Humvees.

RAF jets targeted and destroyed “FROG-7” launchers operated by Pro-Gaddafi forces south of Sirte in the 2011 Libyan civil war.

Starting in 2012, during the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Arab Army fired several “FROG-7” rockets against different areas under control of different insurgent formations. Once again they proved to be an area weapon with limited military effectiveness against scattered targets while inflicting severe damage to the civilian population and infrastructure.

Versions 9M21B Nuclear-armed variant, fitted with a 500 kg (1,213-lb) warhead.

9M21G This variant is fitted with a 390 kg (860-lb) warhead.

“Laith-90” Is an Iraqi version with increased range (90 km) and a submunition warhead.

The complex 9K52 "Luna-M" include: Missile 9M21, launcher (PU) 9P113 on a wheeled chassis ZIL-135LM and 9T29 transport vehicle chassis ZIL-135LTM. Advantage complex 9K52 "Luna-M" before its predecessor was that it had its own IP-hydraulic crane 3 tonnes. It is allowed to refuse transport machine-semi-trailer, which was carrying two spare missiles and a mobile crane for loading missiles. 9P113 launcher provided highway speed to 60 km/h, due to the use of wheel-base shocks and overload warhead were significantly reduced (for the complex “Luna” maximum theoretical speed was 40 km/h, but at a speed of 16 -18 km/h on gravel roads congestion occurs, for illegal nuclear warhead). How 9P113 launcher and transport machine 9T29 have very high traffic on rough terrain. They are able to overcome rises to 30 ° slope and deep fords up to 1.2 m For fixing the launcher during a missile launch, four reclining support with jackscrews. PU 9P113 has endowed hydraulic device for installation in a position to guide the missile launch, as well as the necessary equipment for the prelaunch and launch. There is also a means of communication, navigation and orientation equipment, power systems and livelihoods.

Unsupervised single-stage solid propellant missile 9M21 designed to engage manpower, military equipment, firepower and defensive structures located in the tactical depth of the enemy defense. The missile was designed in several versions with different warheads: 9M21B nuclear warhead 9N32, 9M21F with high-explosive fragmentation warhead 9N18F, 9M21G chemical warhead 9N18G and even 9M21D with agitation 9N18A warhead. Fragmentation warhead contained 200 kg 9N18F potently explosive TGA-40/60 and gave at least 15,000 fragments. In 1969 he was adopted by 9N18K fragmentation warhead cassette weighing 420 kg, containing 42 combat element weighing 7.5 kg and provides manpower to defeat several hectares.

The “FROG-7” is an unguided missile, essentially a long-range artillery system. The rocket is of conventional single-stage design, with a cylindrical warhead of the same diameter as the rocket body, giving it a cleaner, more modern appearance than its predecessors.

The “FROG-7” missile has a range of 70 km and a 550 kg warhead, and an impact area of approximately 2.8 km long by 1.8 km wide.

The missile is capable of delivering HE, nuclear, or chemical warheads. Two variants of the 9K52 were fielded. The “FROG-7A” series included the 9M21F rocket with a conventional warhead filled with 200 kg oh HE charge, 9M21B with three types of nuclear warhead with yields in the range 3,200 kt, 9M21G with a chemical warhead (VX persistent nerve or other agents), 9M21A with a leaflet warhead carrying 4.5 kg anti-personnel sub-munitions.

Each “FROG-7” battery also has a trailer-carried D-band RMS (NATO name: “END TRAY”) long-range meteorological radar and a battery command-post vehicle GAZ-66.

A typical 9K52 battalion is equipped with two firing batteries each with two TELs and a D-band RMS (“END TRAY”) long-range meteorological radar. The cruising range of the transporter-erector-launcher vehicle is 400 km. The main drawback of the 9K52 is that its range is insufficient to effectively engage strategic targets, as conventional forces would most likely intercept the launchers before they could move within range. However, the mobile launchers allow the system to keep up with frontline infantry units.

183

184

The “FROG-7” TEL vehicle provides no NBC protection for the crew. The single-rail launcher has limited traverse. The accuracy of the launch depends upon the ability of the rocket to fly straight. As the early rocket systems were unstable, they possessed extremely poor accuracy and required nuclear warheads to compensate.

Current Operators Algeria -24 - acquired between 1964 and 1974, 15 systems supposed to be decommissioned by 2014; Belarus - Some (36 units of 9K52 and “Tochka”); decommissioned; Syria – 30;

Libya – 45; Ukraine – 50;

Afghanistan;

Egypt - 24 launchers acquired between 1960 and 1969, most likely

North Korea - Some (24 units of 9K52 and 2K6 “Luna”);

Russia - Some in storage;

Yemen – 12.

Former Operators

Bulgaria;

Cuba;

during the Gulf War);

Czechoslovakia; Lebanon;

Poland;

East Germany; Romania;

Hungary; South Yemen;

Iraq;

Kuwait (Captured by Iraqi forces

Soviet Union;

Yugoslavia.

185

TOS-1

Type…………………………..Multiple Rocket Launcher Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union In service…………………….1988-present Wars…………………………..Soviet-Afghan War, Second Chechen War, 2014 Iraq Conflict, Syrian Civil War, Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Variants………………………TOS-1A Weight………………………..45.3 tonnes (100,000 lb) Length………………………...9.5 m (31 ft 2 in) Width………………………….3.6 m (11 ft 10 in) Height…………………………2.22 m (7 ft 3 in) Crew…………………………..3 Tubes………………………….24 or 30 Caliber………………………..220mm (8.7 in) Rate of Fire…………………..30 rounds/15 s Effective Firing Range……..500–3,500 m (TOS-1); 6,000 m (TOS-1A) Engine………………………..V-84 Diesel 840 hp (630 kW) Operational Range…………………………550 km (340 mi) Speed…………………………60 km/h (37 mph)

186

TOS-1 (ТОС-1 Tяжёлая Oгнемётная Cистема, Heavy Flamethrower System) is a Soviet 220mm 30 tubes (original system, Ob.634 or TOS1M) or 24 tubes (Ob.634B or TOS-1A) multiple rocket launcher and thermobaric weapon mounted on a T-72 tank chassis. TOS-1 was designed for defeating enemy personnel in fortifications, in open country, and in lightly armoured vehicles and transport. First combat tests took place in 1988 -1989 in the Panjshir Valley during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. The TOS-1 was shown for the first time in public in 1999 in Omsk.

The TOS-1 is not used by the artillery units of the Russian Armed Forces but is found in NBC defense units (Войскa Радиационной, Химической и биологической 3ащиты РХБЗ).

The idea of a heavy short-range MLRS to launch rockets equipped with incendiary and thermobaric warheads arose in the late 1970s.

The combat system consisting of the combat vehicle, rockets, and loading vehicle was developed in early 1980s at KBTM in Omsk and was named TOS-1, remaining a secret development for a long time.

The TZM reloading vehicle was built on the chassis of a KrAZ-255B cross-country truck and equipped with a crane for loading/unloading of the launcher.

In 2001, the improved TOS-1A system entered service. The improved system's range has been extended to 6 kilometers and its ballistic computer has been upgraded.

The nickname “Buratino” originates with the name of the hero of a Russian retelling of the Pinocchio tale, given the perception of the ‘big nose’ of the launcher.

In September 2016, Russia was developing a new shell for the TOS-1A with range increased to 10 km, achieved in part by a new FAE mixture. However, minimum range is extended from 400 m to 1.6 km, so the shorter-range M0.1.01.04M shell will be retained for close combat environments.

The TOS-1A “Solntsepyok” (Солнцепёк, Blazing sun or Sun heat) system consists of the following items: A combat vehicle BM-1 (Боевая машина) (Ob.634B) based on a modified T-72A chassis and fitted with a rotating launch system for 24 unguided thermobaric rockets. All rockets can be launched within 6 to 12 seconds. The launch vehicle is equipped with a fire control system with a ballistic computer, aiming sight and 1D14 laser range finder. The other standard equipment consists of a TKN-3A sight for the commander, a GPK-59 navigation system, an R-163-50U radio station, an R-174 intercom and a 902G smoke grenade launcher with four barrels. The 3-man crew is armed with one AKS-74, one RPKS-74, three RPG-26s, and 10 F-1 hand grenades. The BM-1 is fitted with the same equipment as the T-72 tank (NBC protection, fire-fighting, observation etc.).

Two TZM-T (Tранспортно-3аряжающая Mашина) (Ob.563) re-supply vehicles, fitted with a 10 KN crane. Each vehicle carries 2x12 spare rockets and 400 litres of fuel for the BM-1 and has a combat weigh of 39 t (86,000 lb). The TZM-T has a crew of three, armed with two AKS74s, one RPKS-74, five RPG-26s, and 10 F-1 hand grenades.

A set of rockets NURS (Неуправляемый Реактивный Снаряд) MO.1.01.04 and MO.1.01.04M. These are 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) and 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in) long and weigh 173 kg (381 lb) and 217 kg (478 lb) respectively. The original rocket for the TOS-1A had a range of only 2,700 m (8,900 ft), but the improved version extends the range to 6,000 m (20,000 ft). Some sources say its range is 12 km. The system was modernized in 2016.

TOS-1s were first used in combat in Afghanistan’s Panjshir valley by the Soviet Union during the Soviet-Afghan War. Later, they were used during the Second Chechen War, prominently by the Russian Army during the Battle of Grozny in 1999.

TOS-1As were first used in combat in Iraq in the recapture of Jurf Al Sakhar on October 24, 2014 from ISIL forces. The OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) reported in September 2015 that the TOS-1 was sighted in a rebel training area in eastern Ukraine. The TOS-1 was used in Syria on October 10, 2015 by Syrian Army forces against rebel forces in Hama. Azerbaijan used the TOS1A against the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army on April 4, 2016. In 2016 it was used against ISIS forces in the Latakia Mountains. It was used again by the Syrian army in early 2017 in the area of Palmyra.

187

The TOS-1 is intended to engage military personnel, equipment, and buildings, including fortified constructions. The combat vehicle acts within the combat order of infantry and tanks. The large mass of the launcher and the need for a high-level of protection (due to the relatively short range of 3,500 m (11,500 ft)) helped determine the use of the chassis of the T-72 main battle tank.

Above, a TOS-1 rocket cutview.

Current Operators Azerbaijan – 18;

Armenia - Part of Russian-Armenian arms deal;

Iraq – 12;

Kazakhstan – 3;

The OSCE reported in September 2015 that the TOS-1 was sighted in a rebel training area in eastern Ukraine;

Novorossiya – 1.

Russia – 15;

Syria – 1.

Former Operators Soviet Union – Passed on to successor states.

188

BM-21 “Grad”

Type…………………………..Multiple Rocket Launcher Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union Weight………………………..13.71 tonnes (30,225 lb) Length………………………..7.35 m (24 ft 1 in) Barrel length…………………3.0 m (9 ft 10 in) Width………………………….2.40 m (7 ft 10 in) Height………………………...3.09 m (10 ft 2 in) Crew…………………………..3 Tubes………………………….40 Rate of Fire…………………...2 rounds/s Muzzle Velocity……………..690 m/s (2,264 ft/s) Maximum Firing Range……20 km (new rockets 30–45 km) Sights………………………….PG-1M panoramic telescope Engine………………………...V-8 gasoline ZiL-375 180 hp (130 kW) Suspension…………………..6x6 wheeled Operational Range…………………………405 km (251 mi) Speed…………………………75 km/h (47 mph)

189

The BM-21 “Grad” (БМ-21 “Град”), is a Soviet truck-mounted 122mm multiple rocket launcher. The weapons system and the M-21OF rocket it fires were developed in the early 1960s. BM stands for “boyevaya mashina” (combat vehicle), and the nickname “Grad” means ‘Hail’. The complete system with the BM-21 launch vehicle and the M-21OF rocket is designated as the M-21 field rocket system.

The complete system is more commonly known as a “Grad” multiple rocket launcher system. In NATO countries, the system (either the complete system or the launch vehicle only) was initially known as M1964. Several other countries have copied it or developed similar systems.

The M-21 field rocket system with a BM-21 launch vehicle (122mm ‘Multiple Rocket Launcher’ MRL) system entered service with the Soviet Army in 1963 to replace the aging 140mm BM-14 system). The launch vehicle consists of an Ural-375D six-by-six truck chassis fitted with a bank of 40 launch tubes arranged in a rectangular shape that can be turned away from the unprotected cab. The vehicle is powered by a water-cooled V-8 180 hp gasoline engine, has a maximum road speed of 75 km/h (47 mph), road range of up to 750 kilometers (470 mi), and can cross fords up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) deep. The original vehicle together with supporting equipment (including the re-supply truck 9T254 with 60 rockets) is referred to by the GRAU index ‘9K51’; the launcher itself has the industrial index of ‘2B5’. In 1976, the BM-21 was mounted on the newer Ural-4320 six-by-six army truck.

The three-member crew can emplace the system and have it ready to fire in three minutes. The crew can fire the rockets from the cab or from a trigger at the end of a 64 meters (210 ft) cable. All 40 rockets can be away in as little as 20 seconds, but can also be fired individually or in small groups in several-second intervals. A PG-1M panoramic telescope with K-1 collimator can be used for sighting.

The BM-21 can be packed up and ready to move in two minutes, which can be necessary when engaged by counter-battery fire.

Reloading is done manually and takes about 10 minutes.

Each 2.87 meter (9 ft 5 in) rocket is slowly spun by rifling in its tube as it exits, which along with its primary fin stabilization keeps it on course. Rockets armed with high explosive-fragmentation, incendiary, or chemical warheads can be fired 20 kilometers (12 mi). Newer high explosive and cargo (used to deliver anti-personnel or antitank mines) rockets have a range of 30 kilometers (19 mi) and more.

Warheads weigh around 20 kilograms (44 lb), depending on the type.

Combat History Vietnam War; Lebanese Civil War; Western Sahara War; Angolan Civil War; Cambodian–Vietnamese War; Sino-Vietnamese War; IranIraq War; Soviet War in Afghanistan; Gulf War; Nagorno-Karabakh War; First Chechen War; 1995 Alto Cenepa War; Second Chechen War; Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel; Russo-Georgian War; Cambodian-Thai border dispute; Libyan Civil War (2011); Syrian Civil War Operation Serval; War in Donbass; Yemeni Civil War (2015); Saudi-led intervention in Yemen (2015-present); 2016 Armenian-Azerbaijani clashes.

190

The number of rockets that each vehicle is able to quickly bring to bear on an enemy target makes it effective, especially at shorter ranges. One battalion of eighteen launchers is able to deliver 720 rockets in a single volley. The system has lower precision than typical artillery and cannot be used in situations that call for pinpoint precision. It relies on a large number of shells dissipating over an area for a certain hit rate on specific targets. Nonetheless, because of the short warning time for the impact of the whole volley, the BM-21 is still considered an effective weapon.

Current Operators Afghanistan;

Algeria: 48;

Angola: 75;

Bangladesh: KRL 122, Type 90B; active and 200 in storage; Côte d'Ivoire: 20; Ecuador: 10;

Belarus: BM-21 and BM-21A "BelGrad";

Burkina Faso: 10; Croatia: 64;

Egypt: 85;

Armenia: 47 + 44 in Nagorno Karabakh service;

Burundi: 12;

Cuba: 240;

Eritrea: 25;

Indonesia: N/A RM-70 (operated by marines);

Ethiopia: 10; Iran: 100;

Lebanon: 30 including some BM-11;

Liberia: unknown;

Morocco: 36;

Myanmar: 70;

APR-21 and APR-40; Macedonia: 12;

Mozambique: 5;

North Korea: unknown; Republic of the Congo: 6;

Sahrawi Republic: 10-15; Syria: 270;

Tajikistan: 10;

Senegal: 6; Tanzania: 1;

Bosnia and Herzegovina: 6;

Cambodia: 100;

Cyprus: 4;

Cameroon: 50;

Georgia;

Chad: 4;

Iraq: 55;

Greece: 116 RM-70; Kazakhstan: 100; Mali: 2;

Namibia: 4;

India: 150;

Moldova: 14;

Nicaragua: 30;

Gaza: Hamas;

Djibouti: 12;

Kyrgyzstan: 21; Mongolia: 130;

Nigeria: 10 BM-21 “Grad”, 25

Peru:14;

Poland: 219;

Romania: 352 APR-40 (124 being upgraded to LAROM); Serbia: 348;

Bulgaria: 192

Democratic Republic of the Congo: 6;

Libya: 200;

Pakistan: 25;

Azerbaijan: 63;

Republic of

Qatar: 3;

Somalia: 19;

Somaliland: 169;

Sri Lanka: 5;

Thailand: 6 Type 81 SPRL;

Turkmenistan: 56;

Ukraine: 400;

Uzbekistan: 36; Venezuela: 52; Vietnam: 350; and 70 modernized “Grad-M” units were delivered in 2016.

Yemen: 280;

Zambia: 50;

Zimbabwe: 25;

Russia: 982

Former Operators Finland: 24 units, known as 122 RAKH 76. Now withdrawn from service;

Hungary: 46 units. Withdrawn from service in 2016;

Soviet Union: Passed on to successor states.

191

BM-30 “Smerch”

Type…………………………..Multiple Rocket Launcher Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union / Russia In Service…………………….1989-present Designed…………………….1980s Weight………………………...43.7 tonnes Length………………………..12 m (39 ft 4 in) Width………………………….3.05 m (10 ft) Height………………………...3.05 m (10 ft) Crew…………………………..3 Tubes………………………….12 Caliber………………………..300mm (12 in) Maximum Firing Range……90 km (56 mi) Main Armament……………………9M55 or 9M528 rockets Engine…………………………V-12 diesel D12A-525A 525 hp (391 kW) Suspension…………………..8x8 wheeled Operational Range…………………………850 km (530 mi) Speed…………………………60 km/h (37 mph)

192

The BM-30 "Smerch" (Смерч, whirlwind) or 9A52-2 "Smerch-M" is a Soviet heavy multiple rocket launcher. The system is designed to defeat personnel, armored, and soft-skinned targets in concentration areas, artillery batteries, command posts and ammunition depots. It was created in the early 1980s and entered service in the Soviet Army in 1989. When first observed by the West in 1983, it received the code MRL 280mm M1983. It is expected to be superseded by the 9A52-4 “Tornado”.

The main components of the RSZO 9K58 "Smerch" system are the following: Rockets 9M55 or 9M528 (in containers); BM 9A52-2 launch vehicle; TZM 9T234-2 transloader with an 850 kg crane and 12 spare rockets; Automated fire control equipment in the command post 1K123 "Vivary"; Maintenance vehicle PM-2-70 MTO-V; Set of arsenal equipment 9F819; Training facilities 9F827 and 9F840. The 300mm rockets with a firing range of 70 and 90 km and various warheads have been developed for the Smerch MLRS. The 9A52-2 vehicle with the automated system ensures: Delivery of fire from an un-surveyed fire position; Laying of the launch tube cluster with the crew staying in the cabin and without using aiming points; Autonomous determination of an azimuth of the launch tube cluster’s longitudinal axis; Visual representation of graphical information for the launch tube cluster laying, the route of vehicle movement and location as well as a point of destination and direction of movement on the video terminal; Increase in MLRS survivability owing to reduced time of staying at a fire position; Increased comfort for the laying operator, especially in adverse weather conditions and at night; Increased independent operation owing to the navigation and survey equipment, which allows the vehicle to rapidly change fire positions and move autonomously; Reduction of the combat crew.

General Characteristics Chassis: MAZ-543M or MAZ-79111 Emplacement Time: 3 min Displacement Time: 2 min Launch Rate: Salvo Time; 12 rounds in 38 seconds; Reload Time 20 min Versions 9A52 Standard variant on MAZ-79111 truck.

9A52-2 Modified variant on MAZ-543M truck.

9A52-2T Export version, based on the Tatra T816 10x10 truck.

9A52-4 Lighter, airmobile version on KamAZ-6350 truck with modular 6-round rocket pack. Demonstrated in 2007.

The BM-30 “Smerch” (Tornado) was developed in the early 1980s and was accepted to service with the Soviet Army in 1987. At the time it was the most powerful multiple launch rocket system in the world. Even today it remains one of the deadliest, if not the deadliest artillery rocket system. Currently Russian Army operates just over 100 of these artillery rocket systems. It saw combat during both Russian wars in Chechnya. Recently it saw combat in Ukraine and in Syria. Other operators are Algeria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kuwait, Peru, Syria, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates and Venezuela.

193

The first confirmed combat uses of the Smerch were in two war zones in 2014. Syrian military forces used the system against rebel forces during the Syrian civil war, including in fighting in Jobar. It was also used by Russia-backed militants to deliver explosive and cluster munitions to Ukrainian military positions and locals of Donetsk and Lugansk regions in the War in Donbass. Several have been seen in use by pro-Russian rebels. The Russian Ground Forces used the BM-30 in Syria in October 2015 during the Russian intervention in Syria.

1

2

3

4

5

9M528 Rocket cutview: 1-Electronic timer device; 2-Control and fire set; 3-Warhead; 4-Rocket motor; 5-Spinning tail fins.

Current Operators Algeria - 18 systems in 1999; Locally produced as the PHL03; 27 systems in 1996;

Armenia - 12 systems;

Azerbaijan - 30 systems;

India - 42 9A52-2T systems in service;

Morocco - 36 systems PHL03/AR2 Chinese version;

Belarus - 48 systems in 1990 ;

Iraq - 0 systems in 2016;

Kazakhstan;

China Kuwait -

Pakistan - 36 units, produced locally as the A-100E with

complete TOT, based on the Chinese A-100, which is in turn based on the Soviet BM-30;

Russia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 106;

Syria - Unknown

number, used in the Syrian civil war;

Ukraine â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 80;

United Arab Emirates - 6

systems;

Turkmenistan - 6 systems 9A52-2T in 2008/2009;

Venezuela - 12 systems.

Former Operators Soviet Union - Passed on to successor states.

194

MGM-52 “Lance”

Type…………………………..Tactical Ballistic Missile Place of Origin………………

United States In Service…………………….1972-1992 Weight………………………..1,285-1,527 kg (2,850–3,367 lbs) depending on warhead Length…………………………6.1m (20 ft) Diameter……………………..560mm (22 in) Warhead……………………..1xW70 nuclear or M251 high explosive submunitions Blast Yield…………………….1-100 kt Engine………………………...Liquid propellant rocket Operational Range…………………………70 km (45 mi) to 120 km (75 mi), depending on warhead Speed…………………………>Mach 3 Guidance System………………………..Inertial guidance

195

The MGM-52 “Lance” was a mobile field artillery tactical surface-to-surface missile (tactical ballistic missile) system used to provide both nuclear and conventional fire support to the United States Army. The missile's warhead was developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. It was replaced by MGM-140 ATACMS, which was initially intended to likewise have a nuclear capability during the cold war.

The first “Lance” missiles were deployed in 1972, replacing (together with the U.S. Navy's nuclear-tipped RIM-2D & RIM-8E/B/D) the earlier “Honest John” rocket and “Sergeant” SRBM ballistic missile, greatly reducing the weight and bulk of the system, while improving both accuracy and mobility.

A “Lance” battery (two fire units) consisted of two M752 launchers (one missile each) and two M688 auxiliary vehicles (two missiles each), for a total six missiles. The firing rate per unit was approximately three missiles per hour.

The payload consisted either of a W70 nuclear warhead with a yield of 1-100 kt or a variety of conventional munitions. The W70-3 nuclear warhead version was one of the first warheads to be battlefield-ready with an ‘enhanced radiation’ (neutron bomb) capability. Conventional munitions included cluster bombs for use against SAM sites, heat seeking Anti-Tank Cluster munitions or a single unitary conventional shape-charged warhead for penetrating hard targets and for bunker busting. The original design considered a chemical weapon warhead option, but this development was cancelled in 1970.

The “Lance” missile was removed from service following the end of the Cold War (1992) and was partially replaced in the conventional role by the MGM-140 ATACMS. The M752 “Lance” Self Propelled Missile Launcher (SPL) is based upon the US M113 personnel carrier and has the same suspension and power train. Lance came into British service in 1976, equipping the 50th Missile Regiment, Royal Artillery and replacing “Honest John”.

“Lance” was finally withdrawn from service in 1992.

Development began in 1962 and the last operational missiles were retired in 1991. With conventional warheads only, the U.S. provided it to NATO countries and the Israeli Defense Forces. The missile used storable liquid propellant and inertial guidance. Its range was 120 km/75 miles.

The Soviet Union continues to field the OTR-21 “Tochka”, NATO designation SS-21 “Scale board”, with comparable although slightly less range. It is equipped with conventional warheads, but is capable of taking chemical, biological and nuclear warheads.

Former Operators

United States: US Army;

Germany: “Bundeswehr”;

Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Army;

United Kingdom: British Army;

Belgium: Belgian Land Component;

Israel: Israeli Defence Forces;

Italy: Italian Army.

196

AMX-30 “Pluton”

Type…………………………..Short-Range Tactical Ballistic Nuclear Missile (SRBM) Place of Origin………………

France In Service…………………….1974-1993 Weight………………………..2,423 kg Length………………………..7.64 m Diameter……………………..0.65 m Warhead……………………..Nuclear 15 kt of TNT; Nuclear 25 kt of TNT; Conventional High-Explosive Engine………………………..Single-stage solid Operational Range………………………..120 km Speed………………………..1100 m/s Guidance System………………………..Inertial navigation Launch Platform………………………TEL platform on an AMX-30 chassis

197

The “Pluton” missile was a short-range nuclear ballistic missile launched from a missile launch ramp mounted on an AMX-30 tracked chassis. This equipment constituted the nuclear tactical deterrent force (term changed in the early 1980s) of the French army during the Cold War between May 1974 and 1993.

The “Pluton” replaced the American “Honest John” missile deployed in France from 1959 to 1966, but whose nuclear bombs remained under American government control.

It was conceived originally to operate in Western Germany against advancing soviet forces. 100 were built but only 70 were retained in operations, the remainder being placed in reserve in case of emergency. His first trial shot takes place on 3 July 1970.

The “Pluton” had an operational range of 17 to 120 km with a probable circular error of 200 to 400 m depending on the range and carried an AN-51 nuclear weapon with two possible power levels of 10 or 25 kilotons, the explosion being selectable aerial or on the ground. The guidance was inertial and therefore not interferable once the missile had fired. The trajectory was semi-ballistic, the missile adjusting its flight by means of its aerodynamic control surfaces after the initial phase of acceleration by the rocket engine. At the maximum range of 120 km, the flight time of the “Pluton” was 170 seconds with a climax of 30 km. This relatively short range did not make it possible to strike, beyond Germany.

The missile, created by the National Aerospace Industrial Society (Société Nationale Industrielle Aérospatiale - SNIAS), consisted of three parts assembled just before firing with the crane of the launch vehicle: The ammunition (front part); the vector with four aerodynamic control surfaces and equipped with a powder-rocket engine named “Acheron”; the nuclear heart enters the munition just before firing.

The launch vehicle was developed from the chassis of the AMX-30 tank with a crane and a launching ramp. Munition and heart on one side, vector of the other were routed separately for safety reasons on two GBC8KT long chassis trucks. The final assembly was done on the ground in about 45 minutes and firing within 10 minutes (battery setting, provision of target coordinates, firing sequence).

The system was relatively lightweight, allowing deployment in harsh field conditions. A CT.20 drone and then CL-289 were able to provide last-minute information on the target before firing, which made “Pluton” an operational system in the field.

The information required for the firing of the “Pluton” missile is processed by a data processing system made up of Iris 35 M computers, derived from Iris 50, presented in June 1969.

The project of an improved version, “Super-Pluton”, was abandoned in favor of the “Hadès” project, and the aging “Pluton” was gradually discarded until completely retired in 1993.

Former Operators France: 3th Artillery Regiment in Mailly-le-Camp was the first declared operational unit of “Pluton” on the 1st May 1974; 4th Artillery Regiment in Laon-Couvron; 15th Artillery Regiment in Suippes; 32th Artillery Regiment in Oberhoffen; 74th Artillery Regiment in Belfort; Finally the 19th Artillery Regiment for the instruction, 2nd Battery Draguignan, for the School of application of the artillery field maneuvers: Canjuers.

198

SS-23 “Spider”

Type…………………………..Tactical Ballistic Missile Place of Origin………………

Soviet Union Produced…………………….1979-1987 Weight………………………...4,360 kg (9,610 lb) Length………………………...7.53 m (24.7 ft) Diameter……………………..0.89 m (2 ft 11 in) Warhead……………………..Nuclear 50-100 kt, HE fragmentation, submunition, or chemical Engine………………………...Single-stage Solid-fuel rocket Operational Range…………………………500 km (310 mi) Guidance System………………………..Inertial with terminal topographic DSMAC active radar Accuracy…………………….30-150 m CEP Launch Platform……………………….9P71 Mobile TEL

199

The OTR-23 “Oka” (OTP-23 “Ока”) or SS-23 “Spider” was a mobile theatre ballistic missile (Oперативно-Tактический Pакетный Kомплекс) deployed by the Soviet Union near the end of the Cold War to replace the obsolete SS-1C “Scud B”. It carried the GRAU index 9K714 and was assigned the NATO reporting name SS-23 “Spider”. The introduction of the SS-23 significantly strengthened Soviet theatre nuclear capabilities as its range and accuracy allowed it not only to strike hardened NATO targets such as airfields, nuclear delivery systems, and command centers, but moving targets as well. It also had a fast reaction time, being able to fire in approximately five minutes, and was nearly impossible to intercept, thereby allowing it to penetrate defenses.

The main components of the 9K714 system were: The transport and launch vehicle PU 9P71 (cамоходная пусковая установка), based on the amphibious BAZ-6944; the similar transporter-loader TZM 9T230 (транспортно-заряжающая машина) with one spare missile and equipped with a hydraulic crane; the re-supply vehicle TM 9T240 (транспортная машина), a ZIL-131 tractor with semi-trailer to transport a missile (in transport container 9Ya249) and a warhead (in 9Ya251 container).

The operational life of the “Oka” was limited and controversial. The Soviet military asserted that the “Oka” only had a maximum range of 250 miles (400 km). American experts on the contrary estimated it had a greater range. In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev proposed to George Shultz that he would unilaterally remove all SS-23s, if it would prevent the United States from building up its own short-range nuclear forces in Europe, despite the fact that the Soviet military was in favor of the “Oka”. Shultz however lacked the authority to act on the suggestion. Gorbachev included the “Oka” in the class of systems to be discontinued as part of the INF Treaty as a gesture of goodwill, even though Soviet assertions of its maximum range did not put it outside of the specifications of the treaty.

There was diplomatic controversy over this weapons system in April 1990 when the Soviets informed the US of their covert transfer of at least 120 missiles to the Warsaw Pact states of Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and East Germany during the time of negotiation of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Evidence indicates that the missiles were transferred with conventional warheads only, although equipment to load Soviet nuclear warheads was apparently retained.

Current Operators Russia;

Ukraine.

Former Operators Bulgaria: Phased out in 2002;

Czechoslovakia: Passed on to successor states;

Slovakia: Phased out in 2000;

East Germany;

Czech Republic: Phased out in the 1990s;

Germany: Phased out in the 1990s;

Soviet Union.

200