Block bcs 011 by Vipul Chauhan

UNIT 1

Computer their Origin and Applications

COMPUTER THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS

Structure

Page No.

1.0

Introduction

1.1

Objectives

1.2

Origin of Computer

1.2.1

Abacus

1.2.2

Napierâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bones

1.2.3

Slide Rule

1.2.4

Pascal's Calculator

1.2.5

Leibnizâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Multiplication and Dividing Machine

1.2.6

Difference Engine

1.2.7

The Analytical Engine

1.2.8

Mechanical and Electrical Calculator

1.2.9

Modern Electronic Calculator

1.3

1.4

1.5

Computer Generations

1.3.1

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

1.3.2

Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

1.3.3

Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)

1.3.4

Fourth Generation Computers (1971-present)

1.3.5

Fifth Generation Computers (present-beyond)

Computer System

1.4.1

How Computers Work ?

1.4.2

Operational Unit

1.4.3

System Unit

1.4.4

Von-Neumann Architecture

1.4.5

Classification of Computers

1.4.6

Classification by Technology

Integrated Circuits

1.5.1

Electric Circuits

1.5.2

The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube

1.6

Operating System

1.7

Current Applications of Computer

1.8

Limitations of a Computer

1.9

Summary

1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.11 Further Readings

Basics of Computer Hardware

Computer is an electronic device which performs three basic tasks i.e. inputting, processing and outputting

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Perhaps Computer is the most powerful and versatile tool created by human beings. In today‟s scenario, computer plays a major role in almost every aspect of life and influences our lives in one way or the other. Today, you can hardly find any area which is not influenced by computer. The word computer comes from the word “compute” which means to calculate. Computer is also meant for calculation but it is much more than just a calculating machine. Computer is an electronic device which performs three basic tasks i.e., inputting, processing and outputting. A computer accepts the input through various input devices. After receiving the input data, computer performs different operations required by the user on these input. Finally, computer generates the resultant of the processed data as the output through various output devices. Hence, a computer is a data processing device. This unit will provide details about computers, its origins and also descriptions about computer‟s different components, their applications and some current hardware platforms of computer. Since, computer is vastly used for making calculations or controlling operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terminology yet the development of computer started from Abacus and its journey of development is still going on. This unit also focuses on major development during different periods.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand: 

the basic concepts about computer‟s origin and development;



functions of computer;



role & current applications of computer in various field; and



limitations of a computer.

1.2

ORIGIN OF COMPUTERS

Origin of computer could be rigorous efforts of men to count large numbers. This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of numeration 0-9.

1.2.1

Abacus

Nearly 5,000 years ago, the “abacus” was developed in China in 3000 B.C. The word abacus means calculating board. The “abacus” may be considered the first computer and it has been used since ancient times by a number of civilizations for basic arithmetical calculations. A modern form of abacus is given in Figure 1.1.

Computer their Origin and Applications

Figure 1.1: Abacus

The abacus is also called a counting frame, which is a calculating tool for performing arithmetic operations. The Chinese abacus has a frame holding vertical wires, with seven beads on each wire. A horizontal divider separates the top two beads from the bottom five, sometimes referred to as the heaven and the earth beads. The arithmetic calculations are performed by manipulating the beads by using the principle of positional weight of beads on a rack. Abacus is used even today to teach small children how to count. A skilled abacus operation can be as fast as a hand held calculator.

1.2.2

Napierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bones

John Napier was a mathematician who became famous for his invention of logarithms. The used of "logs" enabled him to reduce any multiplication problem. John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 A.D. The device was known as Napierâ&#x20AC;&#x;s bones. His "bones" are set of eleven rods side by side products and quotients of large numbers can be obtained. The sticks were called "bones" because they were made of bone of ivory.

1.2.3

Slide Rule

English mathematician E. Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Although the slide rule appeared in various forms during the seventeenth century, it consists of two movable rulers placed side by side. Each ruler is marked off in such a way that the actual distances from the beginning of the ruler are proportional to the logarithms of the numbers printed on the ruler. By sliding the rulers, one can quickly multiply and divide.

1.2.4

Pascal's Calculator

Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician and one of the first modern scientists to developed and build calculator. He developed a machine at the age of 19 that was capable of adding and subtracting numbers. The machine was operated by dialing a series of wheels, gears and cylinders. 7

Basics of Computer Hardware

1.2.5

Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine

Like Pascal, Gottfried Leibniz was a seventeenth century scientist who recognized the value of building machines and built around 1673 a mechanical device that could do mathematical calculations and save labor too.

1.2.6 Difference Engine The first step towards the creation of computers was made by an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. Early on, he realized that all mathematical calculations can be broken up into simple operations which are then constantly repeated, and that these operations could be carried out by an automatic machine. In the 1820s Charles Babbage started working on a „Difference Engine‟, but after ten years he abandoned it for the „Analytical Engine‟ – the real predecessor of the Computer. Babbage outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer which was based on the method of finite differences. It uses only arithmetical addition and removes the need for multiplication and division which are more difficult to implement mechanically. Charles Babbage is called the father of the computer.

1.2.7 The Analytical Engine The Analytical Engine marks the progression from the arithmetic calculation to generalpurpose computation. It was also developed by Charles Babbage. This machine was based on the principle that, for certain formulas, the difference between certain values is constant. The Analytical Engine has many essential features found in the modern digital computer. The Engine had a 'Store' (memory) where numbers and intermediate results could be held, and a separate 'Mill' (processor) where the arithmetic processing was performed. It had an internal stock of the four arithmetical functions and could perform direct multiplication and division. It was also capable of functions like: conditional branching, looping (iteration), microprogramming, parallel processing, latching, and polling etc. The logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.

1.2.8

Mechanical and Electrical Calculator

In the beginning of 19th century, the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s, it was widely used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.

1.2.9

Modern Electronic Calculator

The electronic calculator used in 1960s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became

fairly small. The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations. Modern electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations. These calculators can perform sophisticated arithmetic and financial computations such as converting from polar to rectangular coordinates, taking square roots, computing logarithms and trigonometric relationships.

Computer their Origin and Applications

Figure 1.2: Electronic Calculator

1.3

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in today‟s modern machines. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change over the years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each new generation of computers is not only superior from their predecessor in processing and capabilities but also differs in looks and sizes. Each phase is distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used. These Generations are: 

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)



Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)



Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)



Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)



Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)

1.3.1

The period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as generations of computers

First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

First generation computers are characterized by the use of vacuum tube. A vacuum tube was a fragile glass device, which used filaments as a source of electronics. It could control and amplify electronic signals. These vacuum tubes were used for calculation as well as storage and control. The first general purpose programmable electronic computer was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania. The ENIAC was 30-50 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of electricity. First generation computers were too bulky in size which required large room for installation and they used to emit large

First generation computers are characterized by the use of vacuum tube

Basics of Computer Hardware

amount of heat, so air-condition was must for the proper working of computers. Programs written in high level programming languages retranslated into assembly language or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated into machine language by a program called an assembler (assembly language compiler). Before ENIAC was finished, Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This enabled much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data and instructions. The other advantages of storing instruction were that computer could do logical decision internally. Eckert and Mauchly later developed what was arguably the first commercially successful computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), in 1952. Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-1

1.3.2

Second generation computers are characterized by the use of transistors

Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)

Solid-State components (transistors and diodes) and magnetic core storage formed the basis for the second generation of computers. Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first generation computer. Transistors perform the same functions as a vacuum tube, except that electrons move through solid materials instead of through a vacuum. Transistors were made of a semiconducting material and controlled the flow of electricity through the circuit. They also allowed computers to become smaller and more powerful and faster at the same time. They are also less expensive, required less electricity and emitted less heat than vacuum tubes. Manufacturing cost was also very low. It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. During the second generation many high level programming languages were introduced, including FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958) and COBOL (1959). Examples: PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 1620, IBM 7090, CDC 3600

Third generation computers are characterized by the use of integrated circuits (ICs)

1.3.3 Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971) The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. They used Integrated Circuits (ICs). The development of

ICs proved to be a milestone in the field of computer and electronics. These ICs are popularly known as chips. Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed, with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of electronic components (transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.

Computer their Origin and Applications

A single IC, has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. Development in ICs ranges from small scale integration (SSI) to medium scale integration (MSI). Multilayered printed circuits were developed and core memory was replaced by faster, solid state memories. The IC technology was also known as “microelectronics” technology, since large number of circuit could be integrated on a single chip. Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high. Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period. Integrated solid-state circuitry, improved secondary storage devices, and new input/output devices were the most important advantages in this generation. The new circuitry increased the speed of the computer. Arithmetic and logical operations were now being performed in microseconds or even nanoseconds. The development of mini computers also took place during this generation. Examples: NCR 395, B6500, IBM 360,370

1.3.4

Fourth Generation Computers: Microprocessors (1971-Present)

Fourth generation computers started around 1971 by using large scale of integration (LSI) in the construction of computing elements. LSI circuits built on a single silicon chip called microprocessors. A microprocessor contains all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions on a single chip. Because of microprocessors, the fourth generation includes more data processing capacity than equivalent-sized third generation computers. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer‟s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip. The major innovations in this generation were the development of microelectronics and the different areas in computer technology such as multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual storage. During this period, high speed vector processors changed the scenario of high performance computing. Mostly microcomputers

Fourth generation computers are characterized by the use of microprocessor

Basics of Computer Hardware

and workstations were introduced for time shared mainframe computers. Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal computer is a Fourth Generation Computer. It is the period when evolution of computer networks also took place. Examples: Apple II, Alter 8800

1.3.5 Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computers, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans and allow the computer to take its own decision. Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing. There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used almost exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog. The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. In the development of Fifth generation computers, parallel processing attended the main focus of developers. Until this time, parallelism was limited to pipelining and vector processing. This generation introduced machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working on different parts of a single program. Developments of more powerful computers are still in progress. It has been predicted that such a computer will be able to communicate in natural spoken language with its user, store vast knowledge databases, search rapidly through these databases, making intelligent inferences, drawing logical conclusions, image processing and see objects in the way that humans do.

Table 1.1 shows the comparative features of five generations of computers: Table 1.1 : Features of five Generations of Computers

Criteria

First Generation Computer

Second Generation Computer

Third Generation Computer

Fourth Generation Computer

Fifth Generation Computer

Technology

Vacuum Tube

Transistor

Integrated Circuit

Microprocessor

Artificial Intelligent

Speed

Slowest

Slow

Medium

Faster

Fastest

Size

Largest

Large

Medium

Smaller

Smallest

Reliability

Unreliable

Less Reliable

More Reliable

Operating System

None

Yes

Language

Machine

Assembly

High Level

Period

1940-1956

1956-1963

1964-1971

1971-Present

Present and Beyond

 Check Your Progress 1

Computer their Origin and Applications

1) What is a computer ? Why is it known as data processor ? ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………. 2) Into how many generations the evolution of computer is divided? ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………………….

1.4

COMPUTER SYSTEM

Each computer consists of a series of devices that together operate as an integrated unit or computer system. The processor is made up of the memory, arithmetic, logic and control units. A large computer system will normally have one or more auxiliary units, where input and output data are stored. A brief description of computer system is given here. More detailed study about this will be covered in unit 2 in this block.

1.4.1

How Computers Work ?

Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. Since computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data, the input unit takes data from user to the computer in an organized manner for processing. Information and programs are entered into the computer through input devices such as the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network connections or modems connected to the internet. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions. The storage unit performs the following major functions: (a)

All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

(b)

Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

Basics of Computer Hardware

Figure 1.3 : Basic Computer Operations

Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The CPU or central processing unit takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. The coprocessor or the arithmetic-logic unit does arithmetic and logical operations. The RAM temporarily stores information. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Output devices display information on the screen (monitor) or the printer and sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be input. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

Figure 1.4 : Computer

1.4.2

Operational Unit

In order to carry out the operations, the computer allocates the task among its various operational units. These are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logical Unit is an important component of the CPU, which carry the actual execution of the instructions. After entering the data through the input device it is

stored in the primary storage unit. Then processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing, the output is returned to the storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Computer their Origin and Applications

Control Unit (CU) The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore, it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section. Central Processing Unit (CPU) The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. The term CPU relates to a specific chip or the processor. CPU may be considered as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations. The fundamental operation of most CPU is to execute a series of instructions called as a program. The different chip manufacturers use different measuring standards to measure the processorâ&#x20AC;&#x;s speed. It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the motherboard. The motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various components to communicate with each other.

1.4.3

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit (CPU)

System Unit

A computer system unit contains many parts : Ports and Connectors : A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a separate adapter. Ports and Connectors allow the computer to communicate with different devices and peripherals attached with it.

Figure 1.5 : Connector

Basics of Computer Hardware

Power Supply : Power supply changes normal household electricity into electricity that a computer can use. A power supply or power supply unit (PSU) is an internal component used to supply the power to the components of a computer. Power supply is rated by the number of watts it generates.

Figure 1.6: Power Supply

Motherboard : The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also known as the main board or system board. It is the circuit board in which all the components are connected through cable within a personal computer. Many devices are connected with motherboard directly or indirectly. Motherboards usually provide the interface between the CPU memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for initial setup of the computer immediately after power-on.

1.4.4 Von Neumann Architecture

Mathematician John Von Neumann conceived a computer architecture which forms the core of nearly every computer system in use today

Mathematician John Von Neumann conceived a computer architecture which forms the core of nearly every computer system in use today. This architecture is known as Von Neumann architecture. It is a design model for the modern computers which has central processing unit (CPU) and the concept of memory used for storing both data and instructions. This model implements the stored program concept in which the data and the instructions both are stored in the memory. All computers share the same basic architecture which have memory, an I/O system, arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).

Figure 1.7 : Von Neumann architecture

1.4.5

Classification of Computers

Computer their Origin and Applications

Computers are available in different sizes, shapes, and weights. Due to these different sizes and shapes, they perform different sort of jobs from one another. They can be classified in different ways. All the computers are designed by qualified computer architects who design these machines as per different requirements. A computer that is used in a home differs in size and shape from the computer being used in a hospital. Following sections are going to describe different classifications of computers. The term “capacity” refers to the volume of work or the data processing capacity a computer can handle. Their performance is judged by the: 1. Amount of data that can be stored in memory 2. Speed of internal operation of the computer 3. Number and type of peripheral devices 4. Amount and type of software available for use with the computer The capacity of early generation computers were determined by their physical size- the large the size, the greater the volume. In computer terms, size and speed of operation are at present proportionate to each other. Generally, though, recent, technology is tending to create smaller machines, making it possible to package equivalent speed and capacity in a smaller format. Microcomputers: The mass production of silicon chips since 1971 has made it possible to put a “brain” into all sorts of machines. One such machine is the microcomputer. This machine has taken fullest advantage of the use of large-scale integration on silicon chips. The microprocessors literally contain a computer on a chip that can pass through the eye of needle. Microcomputers memories are generally made of semiconductors fabricated on silicon‟s chips. It is a digital computer system under the control of a stored program that uses a microprocessor, a programmable read-only memory (ROM), and a random-access memory (RAM). The ROM defines the instructions to be executed by the computer while RAM is the functional equivalent of computer memory. Today microcomputers are called as Personal Computers more commonly as PCs. These are small, relatively inexpensive computers designed for personal use in home or offices. Minicomputers: Technological advances in the 1960's enabled manufactures to respond to the growing demand for a similar stand-alone machine, the minicomputer, to handle task that large computers could not perform economically. Minicomputer systems (or small mainframe computers) provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capacities than microcomputers systems. These Computers can support a large number of highspeed input/output devices. Several desk drives can be used to provide online access to large data files as required for direct - access processing. Operating system developed for minicomputer systems generally support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This means that many programs can be run concurrently. This type of computer system is very flexible and can be improvised to meet the needs of users. Although the minicomputer is not as powerful as the medium or large-size computer, it is quite close.

Basics of Computer Hardware

Medium-size Computers :

It provides faster operating speeds and larger storage

capabilities than small computer systems. These Computers can support a large number of high-speed input-output devices, and several disk drives can be used to provide online access processing. The possibility of increasing the data processing capability of a computer by adding devices, such additional memory, and other peripheral devices, is called expandability. Large Computers : These Computers are the ultimate in flexibility and speed. These usually contain full control systems with minimal operator intervention. Large computer systems range from single-processing configurations to nationwide computer based networks involving general large computers. Large computers have internal operating speeds measured in terms of nanoseconds, as a compared to smaller computers where speed in terms of microseconds. Mainframe Computers : Mainframes are huge, multi-user systems designed to process millions of instructions per second and capable of accessing billions of data. They can handle gigantic processing jobs in large corporations or government agencies. This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on huge basis. Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a centralized location and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations. Mainframe computers are normally too expensive and out of reach from a salaried person who wants this computer for his home. Mainframe is the second largest in capability and size of computer family. Supercomputers : The most expensive in price, biggest and fastest machines today are the supercomputers that are used when billions or even trillions of calculations are needed. Supercomputers are ultra fast computers designed to process huge amounts of

They are used for highly calculationintensive tasks such as molecular modeling, climate research, weather forecasting, quantum physics, physical simulations etc.

scientific data then display the underlying patterns that have been discovered. These machines are essential for applications ranging from nuclear weapon to accurate weather forecasting. Super Computers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as molecular modeling, climate research, weather forecasting, quantum physics, physical simulations etc. Supercomputers are machines that have speed in the 100-million-instructions-per-second range. Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy duty. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products. It is also used for animation purpose. The PARAM supercomputer is one of the supercomputer developed by Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Center for Development of Advanced Computing(C-DAC) and promises processing speeds of up to 1 trillions instructions per second. Since October 2010, the Tianhe-1A supercomputer is considered as the fastest supercomputer in the world which is located in China. Some of the examples of Supercomputer are: IBM Blue Gene/L, IBM Roadrunner, Cray Jaguar etc.

1.4.6

Classification by Technology

Computer their Origin and Applications

There are essentially two different types of computer processing. Each is made possible by a different kind of circuitry, and each is suitable for different purposes. Analog Computers: The name analog comes from the word â&#x20AC;&#x153;analogousâ&#x20AC;?, meaning similar. Analog signal is a continuous signal whose amplitude can take any value in a continuous range. It can have infinite number of values. Analog computers deal with quantities that are continuously variable. They give only approximate results. These types of computer provide an analog or simulation of the object or system it represents. It is especially useful for solving problems that involve relationships between variable quantities in systems that change with time. The analog compute may express changing relationships in output in the form of graphs. It is able to create such pictures because it responds to changes in electrical voltages that match changes in variable quantities.

Figure 1.8: Analog Signal

Digital Computers : It is a machine that specializes in counting. It operates by counting values that are discrete, or separate and distinct, unlike the continuous quantities that can be measured by the analog computer. Digital signal is a discrete time signal that has a discrete number of levels. It can only assume one of the two values 0 or 1. While analog technology uses continuous signals, digital technology encodes the information into discrete signal states. Digital Computers are used for both business data processing and accuracy. The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition. It can store the sums of addition problems as they accumulate, and can complete a single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. The digital computer is capable of storing data as long as needed, performing logical operations, editing input data, and printing out the results of its processing at high speed. Advantages of digital systems include flexible processing, easy to design, accuracy and precision, simple operation, easy data storage, less prone to noises etc.

Figure 1.9: Digital Signal 19

Basics of Computer Hardware

Hybrid Computers: Although both analog and digital computers are extremely used and widely accepted in various industries, manufacturers have to attempt to design a computer that combines the best features of both types. This special-purpose machine called a hybrid computer which combines the measuring capabilities of the analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer. It offers an efficient and economical method of working out special types of problems in science and various areas of engineering. Some Hybrid machines contain special equipment to convert analog voltages into digital voltages, and vice-versa.

ď &#x2020; Check Your Progress 2 1) Distinguish between Microcomputer and Mainframe computer. ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... 2) What are the five basic operations performed by the computer? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................................

3) How can you classify computers according to technology? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................................

1.5

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Our world is full of integrated circuits (semiconductor devices with several transistors built into one physical component). It is an electronic circuit which involves thousands or millions of interconnected components like transistors, diodes and resistors. They are usually called ICs. We can find several of them in computers. For example, most people have probably heard about the microprocessor. The microprocessor is an integrated circuit that processes all information in the computer .

Figure 1.10: Chip 20

It keeps track of what keys are pressed and if the mouse has been moved. It counts numbers and runs programs, games and the operating system. The first integrated circuits (ICs) were based on small scale integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices per circuit (or „chip‟), and evolved to the use of medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits, which had up to 100 devices per chip. Integrated circuits are also found in almost every modern electrical device such as cars, television sets, CD players, cellular phones, etc. The main benefits of ICs are lower costs, high reliability and smaller space requirements. But what is an integrated circuit and what is the history behind it?

1.5.1

Computer their Origin and Applications

Electronic Circuits

The integrated circuit is nothing more than a very advanced electric circuit. An electric circuit is made from different electrical components such as transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes, which are connected to each other in different ways. It is an unbroken loop of conductive material that allows electrons to flow continuously. If a circuit is “broken”, its conductive elements will no longer form a complete path and continuous electron flow cannot occur. The transistor acts like a switch. It can turn electricity on or off, or it can amplify current. It is used for example in computers to store information. The resistor limits the flow of electricity and gives us the possibility to control the amount of current that is allowed to pass. For example resistors are used, among other things, to control the volume in television sets or radios. The capacitor collects electricity and releases it all in one quick burst. The diode stops electricity under some conditions and allows it to pass only when these conditions change. This is used in, for example, photocells where a light beam that is broken triggers the diode to stop electricity from flowing through it. The flashlight is an example of electric circuits. It contains electrical energy (dry cells) as a source, a load (the bulb) which changes the electrical energy into light and a switch to control the energy delivered to the load.

1.5.2

The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube

The transistor is the most important one for the development of modern computers. Before the transistor, engineers had to use vacuum tubes. Just as the transistor, the vacuum tube can switch electricity on or off, or amplify a current. So why was the vacuum tube replaced by the transistor? There are several reasons.The vacuum tube looks and behaves very much like a light bulb; it generates a lot of heat and has a tendency to burn out. Also, compared to the transistor it is slow, big and bulky. When engineers tried to build complex circuits using the vacuum tube, they quickly became aware of its limitations. The first digital computer ENIAC, for example, was a huge monster that weighed over thirty tons, and consumed 200 kilowatts of electrical power. It had around 18,000 vacuum tubes that constantly burned out, making it very unreliable. When the transistor was invented in 1947 it was considered a revolution. Small, fast, reliable and effective, it quickly replaced the vacuum tube.

Basics of Computer Hardware

Operating system is a program that acts as an interface between user of computer and the computer hardware

1.6

OPERATING SYSTEM

All computers need some sort of hardware platform to run the software; these platforms are called Operating System (OS). Operating system is a program that acts as an interface between user of computer and the computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which user can execute program in a convenient and efficient manner. Operating system is an important part of almost every computer system. It manages all resources of computer system. Operating system is installed in secondary memory, while itâ&#x20AC;&#x;s some part are stored permanently in read only memory. Some part of the operating system resides in random access memory and the computer begins to execute this part of the system. The majority of modern home computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original Microsoft operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most computers use Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98, XP and currently Windows 7. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's Mac use their own operating system beginning with OS 1 though most modern Macs use version 8.x or 9.x. Apple's latest version is OS 10.1.x. Some computer professionals, Internet Service Providers (ISP) and mainframe computer users use an operating system such as UNIX, Windows NT or 2000 or server based operating systems. The operating system controls the input and output or directs the flow of information to and from the CPU. Much of this is done automatically by the system. In short, we can say that an Operating System is one of the most important components of the computer software which is essential to operate a computer. When computer is turned on, it first needs to load the operating system sometimes referred to a booting up. It checks all its components and will usually display a message if there is a problem. It is also known as Power on Self Test (POST). Loading the system is usually automatic. Once the system is loaded, the user can start the application or program that he/she going to use.

1.7

CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER

Some major applications of Computers are given below : Banking : When there was no computer, every where manual system was followed which was a very complicated and hard work but now with the arrival of computer, every thing has become much more systematic and easy to use. Every bank is now using a computerized system because it is very fast and user friendly. Personal Computer banking lets us view our bank balance, request transfers between accounts and pay bills electronically. Now-a-days, online banking is getting very popular which offers more convenience and ease to the customers. Traffic Light Control : In traffic light control, the computer is being employed to orchestrate the traffic light. There are some programmed codes like turn off/on the red light which control the traffic light and also to carry out other instructions. 22

Sports : Computers have revolutionized the sports industry. Computer is used to maintain player records, track scores, create virtual playing field etc. The sports equipment industry also relies heavily on computer-aided design (CAD).In sports, computers are used in conjunction with video cameras. These are used to record the motion of all the sports men. 3D programs are used to help the trainers see their movements and could improve their styles of playing. Online games allow us to play with other people regardless of their physical locations.

Computer their Origin and Applications

Schools and Colleges : There are many uses of computer in schools and colleges e.g. every students details need to be stored so a computer program comes to help in. Multimedia, animations, graphics and charts could be used to teach the students and many boring topics can be made interesting using multimedia. Students could access internet for online help and courses for more information. Computers are used in a variety of ways in the educational field. Computers can be used in school management such as budget, inventory, student records, communications, library circulation, and library public access catalog. Learning and Instruction : Computer applications can be used in education for learning and for instruction. Instruction and learning can be divided into two major areas, teachercentered instruction and student-centered learning. Teacher-centered instruction examined the computer as the object of instruction as well as a tool of instruction and the management of instruction. With the advancement in the Technology and Internet, Online Education, e-learning, m-learning are getting very popular which offers more flexibility and convenience to the learners. Student-centered learning views the computer as a tool for the student to use and create access, retrieve, manipulate, and transmit information in order to solve a problem. Understanding the concept of the computer as an information tool relies on accepting the fact that the computer is a productivity tool for the student and the teacher alike. Educational Research : Computers are used widely in all educational research. Educational research includes functions relating to information gathering and processing. The teacher/researcher may examine student performance data in new and revealing ways. Bibliographic citations of studies performed by educators around the world can be acquired and perused by the desktop computer. Entertainment : Computers and Internet are a major source of entertainment. It is one of the latest forms of entertainment for the modern society. It allows us to play computer games, listen to music, watch videos and movies etc. Agriculture : Computer usage among agronomists and farmers has risen rapidly in the recent times. With the flow of information becoming faster and easier, the agricultural sector is also getting benefited from computer. Computer allows the farmer to collect adequate information related to prices, latest farming techniques, weather conditions, cultivation of crops, farm machineries etc. which enhances the decision making capability of the farmers. 23

Basics of Computer Hardware

Health Care Management and Hospital : Today almost every hospital is computerized and utilizing the benefits of computer. Many computer applications, such as patient information system, monitoring and control system and diagnostic systems have been used to enhance health care. Hospital Information System (HIS) allows to manage the administrative, financial and clinical aspects of a Hospital more easily. It also allows easy access to patient data from a centralized database which helps the doctor in retrieving the history of all the patients. Computers are also being used in medical diagnosis and surgery. Some of the other applications include Transport Management, Weather forecasting, Industries etc.

1.8

LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER

The computer can outperform human beings in speed, memory and accuracy but still the computer has limitations. Following are the limitations of computer.

Programmed and Supervised by Human : Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately but it is programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer is nothing. Computer only follows these instructions. If the instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not accurate. Without supervision, computers will operate poorly when dealing with unexpected circumstances, such as information or instructions that are incorrect or incomplete. No Intelligence : Although computers are faster, more diligent, accurate and versatile than human beings, it cannot replace them. Unlike human beings, computers do not have any intelligence. Its performance is depends on instructions given to it. It cannot carry any task at its own and canâ&#x20AC;&#x;t take any decision on its own. Self Care : Computer can not care for itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to human beings for this purpose. Emotionless : Computers are emotionless. They do not have emotion and feelings. A computer can not feel about something like a human. A computer can not compete human in respect of relations. Computers are simply machines which work as per the instruction given to them. Thinking : Computer can not think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer can think. But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions provided by the human beings. Retrieval of Memory : Computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A human being's mind does not follow this rule. A human mind can think randomly which a computer machine can not. 24

1.9

SUMMARY

Computer their Origin and Applications

Computer is an electronic device that performs mathematical and non-mathematical operations in order to achieve the results. Itsâ&#x20AC;&#x; first generation used the vacuum tube. The second generation used the transistors which were much smaller than vacuum tube. Integrated circuits were used in third generations. VLSI comes in fourth generation computer and now fifth generation growing towards parallel computing. The operating system is an important component of modern computer. The two main objectives of operating system are controlling the computerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s hardware and providing an interactive interface between the user and machine. Computer have enters almost in every field of human life and found applications in various fields like medicine and health care, business, science, technology, engineering, entertainment etc.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 1) A computer is an electronic device, which is used to accept, store, retrieve and process the data at faster speed and with greater accuracy. It is also called as data processor because it is mainly used for processing the input data given to it and producing the desired result. 2) Evolution of computer can be divided into five generations: First Generation (Vacuum tubes), Second Generation (Transistors), Third Generation (ICs), Fourth Generation (Microprocessor), Fifth Generation (Artificial intelligence).

Check Your Progress 2 1)

Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a number of input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT. Mainframes computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many users. They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.

The five basic operations that a computer performs are accepting data as input, storage of these data, processing of data, outputting the information and process control. As per technology variations computers can be classified into analog, digital and hybrid computers. 25

Basics of Computer Hardware

1.11 FURTHER READINGS P. K. Sinha , Computer Fundamental (BPB Publication). V. Rajaraman, Computer Fundamental (PHI Publication). D. P. Sharma, Fundamentals of Computer, IT & Programming with “C” (CBC Publication). Web link:  www.wikipedia.org

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UNIT 1

Software Evolution

SOFTWARE EVOLUTION

Structure

Page No.

1.0

Introduction

1.1

Objectives

1.2

What is Software ?

1.3

Software Evolution

1.3.1

Evolution of Software Architecture

1.3.1.1

Mainframe Architecture

1.3.1.2

File Sharing Architecture

1.3.1.3

Client / Server Architecture

1.3.1.4

Cloud Computing

Evolution of Software Design Paradigm

1.3.2.1

Non-structured Design Paradigm

1.3.2.2

Structured and Modular Design Paradigm

1.3.2.3

Object Oriented Design Paradigm

1.3.2.4

Component Based Paradigm

1.3.2.5

Service Oriented Paradigm

1.3.2

1.3.3

1.3.4

1.4

Evolution of Programming Languages

1.3.3.1

Procedural Language

1.3.3.2

Object Oriented Language

Evolution of Software Licensing

1.3.4.1

Introduction to Software Licensing

1.3.4.2

Types of Software Licensing

Types of Software

1.4.1

System Software

1.4.2

Programming Software

1.4.3

Application Software

1.5

Utility Software

1.6

Perverse Software

1.6.1

Ways to Counter Perverse Software

1.7

Open Source Software

1.8

Summary

1.9

Answers to Check Your Progress

1.10

FURTHER READINGS

Terrence W. Pratt , Marvin V. Zelkowitz “Programming Languages Design and Implementation”, Fourth Edition, 2002, PHI. Ellis Horowitz “Fundamentals of Programming Languages”, Second Edition, 2000 Galgotia. R.G Dromey “How to solve by computer”, PHI.

UNIT 4 Structure 4.0 4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

Computer Applications

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Page No.

Introduction Objectives Concepts of Open Source Software

82 82 83 4.2.1 Introduction 83 4.2.1.1 Free Software Definition 83 4.2.2.2 Open Software Definition 84 4.2.2 Open Source Development Model 84 86 4.2.3 Open Source Licensing Project Management Software 87 4.3.1 Introduction 87 87 4.3.2 Project Manager – Role and Responsibility 4.3.3 Software Project management 88 4.3.4 Project Management Software 88 90 4.3.5 Tools for Project Management 4.3.5.1 Miscrosoft Office Project 90 4.3.6 Create and Schedule Project 90 91 4.3.7 Define File Properties for the Project 4.3.8 Add Taks to the Project 91 4.3.9 Create Milestones 92 Offce Applications 93 4.4.1 Word Processing 93 4.4.2 Introduction 93 4.4.3 Adding Header, Footer or Page Number to a Document 95 95 4.4.4 Creating a Table in Word 4.4.5 Creating a Table of Contents 96 4.4.6 Creating a Memo for Multiple Receipients – Mail Merge 98 Spreadsheet 99 4.5.1 Introduction 99 4.5.2 Basic Features 100 102 4.5.3 Formulae and Functions 4.5.4 Charting 104 4.5.5 Macros 104 105 4.5.6 A Small Example in Excel 2007 Database 105 4.6.1 Introduction 106 4.6.2 Create Table in Database 106 4.6.3 Add Fields to the Table 107 4.6.4 Add Data in the Table 107 4.6.5 Add New Fields in the Table 108 4.6.6 Set a Table’s Primary Key 108 109 4.6.7 Defining Relationships 4.6.8 Defining Queries 111

Basics of Computer Software

4.6.9

Reports 4.6.9.1 A Small Example

4.7

Email 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5

Introduction Creating Email Accounts and Profiles Create a New Email Message Manage Contacts Calendar Management

4.8 4.9 4.10

Summary Answers to Check Your Progress Further Readings

4.0

INTRODUCTION

113 113 114 114 115 116 116 117 119 119 122

In the previous units, we have learnt the basics of computer software and the evolution of software. We also learnt the basic definition of Open Source Software. As we go further we will learn in detail this concept and how it is governed by the Open Source definition. In this unit, we introduce the concept of Open Source software, its philosophy and copyrights. We will also discuss its licensing arrangements under the Open Source Definition. Any computer application development comes under the umbrella of a Project Management process, which is supported by Project Managers. We will also study the role of a Project manager and his responsibilities for development of successful computer software. We will also see how the role and processes followed by a Project Manager influence the success of a project and its team. It is essential that we learn all the basics of Office Application software like Word processing, Spread sheets, emailing etc. so that we are capable of handling all types of roles and responsibilities when we enter the industry.

4.1

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you will know: the basics fundamentals of Open Source Software; the Project Management process; handling of a word processing or spreadsheet file; creation and modification of a database; and using emails to communicate with others.

4.2

CONCEPTS OF OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

Computer Applications

Open Source Software is a computer software which is available along with the source code and software license that permits the code to be studied, modified and improved. It is often developed in public and collaborative manner. The free software philosophy formulated by Richard M. Stallman in 1983, historically preceded the open source movement by a decade and provided some of the key technological, legal and ideological foundations of the open source movement. The best-known philosophers of the free software movement besides Richard Stallman are Eric Raymond, Bruce Perens, and Eben Moglen. Open source development, follows the model of the bazaar. In an open source development model, roles are not clearly defined. The best features and functionality evolve into popular use much as good ideas evolve into popular use in the marketplace of ideas. Development is a collaborative process, resources are not scarce, and no one person or organization directs the project. The users are treated like co-developers and so they should have access to the source code of the software. The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was formed in 1998 with a mission to harmonize the workings of the free software movement and commercial software development. The purpose of the OSI was to “build bridges among different constituencies in the open-source community.” The OSI is the organization responsible for certifying software licenses as open source licenses. Its website (www.opensource.org) gives a list of all the certified licenses in existence. OSI previously certified almost any license agreement that fit the open source definition. However, recently it announced a change in policy that requires any newly certified license agreement not only to fit the open source definition but also to be substantially different from existing certified licenses. This is a part of the “nonproliferation” movement in open source. 4.2.1

Introduction

There are two competing definitions. The free software definition was authored by Richard Stallman and is more normative in nature. The open source software definition was authored by Eric Raymond and is more descriptive in nature. 4.2.2.1

Free Software Definition

The Free software definition is based on the following four freedoms: 1. 2.

The freedom to run the program, for any purpose. The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your needs.

Basics of Computer Software

3. 4.

The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor. The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits.

4.2.2.2

Open Source Definition

The other definition is the Open source definition promulgated by OSI. This broader definition includes permissive software licenses. The elements are: Free redistribution Source code available Derivative works permitted Integrity of the author’s source No discrimination against persons or groups No discrimination against fields of endeavor Distribution of license with derivative works License must not be specific to a product License must not restrict use of other software License must be Technological-natural 4.2.2

Open Source Development Model

The Open source development model is a collaborative model. It anticipates the participation of many developers in the development of a single product or module. Theoretically, any open source project can have hundreds or thousands of contributors. In practice, however, this is rarely the case. Most open source projects are relatively small, involving the work of one contributor or a small number of contributors. Some open source projects, such as Linux or Apache, are very large development projects. Nevertheless, although they may have many contributors, these projects have a small number of gatekeepers, or “committers,” who decide what contributions will be checked in to the official source tree. In this sense, the model is not a pure model of the bazaar. It is more like a free market with a specialist’s desk. In well-known open source projects, these gatekeepers include some of the most respected computer scientists in the world. The gatekeeper decides which modifications to be included in the source tree, based on technical considerations, including security and stability of the code and compatibility with other technology, and the desires of the community at large on issues such as features and functionality.

The most popular open source utility used by the gatekeeper is the Concurrent Versioning System (CVS), which is licensed under GPL. A revision control system allows only designated persons to check code into the source tree. It also

keeps track of published versions, what was added, changed, or deleted and when, and who made the change; it further helps reconcile conflicting changes.

Computer Applications

The main features of Open Source development model are: Users should be treated as co-developers The users are treated like co-developers and so they should have access to the source code of the software. Early releases The first version of the software should be released as early as possible so as to increase one's chances of finding co-developers early. Frequent integration Code changes should be integrated (merged into a shared code base) as often as possible so as to avoid the overhead of fixing a large number of bugs at the end of the project life cycle. Some open source projects have builds where integration is done automatically on a daily basis. Several versions There should be at least two versions of the software. There should be a buggier version with more features and a more stable version with fewer features. The buggy version (also called the development version) is for users who want the immediate use of the latest features, and are willing to accept the risk of using code that is not yet thoroughly tested. The users can then act as co-developers, reporting bugs and providing bug fixes. High modularization The general structure of the software should be modular allowing for parallel development on independent components. Dynamic decision making structure There is a need for a decision making structure, whether formal or informal, that makes strategic decisions depending on changing user requirements and other factors. Most well known open source software products follow the bazaar model as suggested by Eric Raymond. These include projects such as the Linux kernel, Firefox, Apache, the GNU Compiler Collection and Perl.

Basics of Computer Software

4.2.3

Open Source Licensing

License defines the rights and obligations that a licensor grants to a licensee. Open Source licenses grant licensees the right to copy, modify and redistribute source code (or content). These licenses may also impose obligations (e.g., modifications to the code that are distributed must be made available in source code form; an author attribution must be placed in a program/ documentation using that Open Source, etc.). All open source licenses, by definition, freely allow the licensee to exercise all of the rights of copyright with respect to the licensed software. Some open source software licenses contain explicit license grants, and some contain implicit ones. All open source licenses contain broad warranty disclaimers and limitations of liability. Most also include disclaimers of any license grant under any trademark of the licensor—not that any such grant would necessarily be implied in the first place. When an author contributes code to an Open Source project (e.g., Apache.org),he/she does so under an explicit license (e.g., the Apache Contributor License Agreement) or an implicit license (e.g., the Open Source license under which the project is already licensing code). Some Open Source projects do not take contributed code under a license, but actually require (joint) assignment of the author’s copyright in order to accept code contributions into the project (e.g., OpenOffice.org and its Joint Copyright Assignment agreement). Placing code (or content) in the public domain is a way of waiving an author’s (or owner’s) copyrights in that work. No license is granted, and none is needed, to copy, modify or redistribute a work in the public domain. Examples of free software license / open source licenses include Apache License, BSD license, GNU General Public License, GNU Lesser General Public License, MIT License, Eclipse Public License and Mozilla Public License. Check Your Progress – 1 1. Give the names of a few Open Source Software applications ? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. What are the advantages of using Open Source Software ? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 86

3. How is the Open Source Code maintained with the developers distributed across geographical regions ?

Computer Applications

………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. Give name of other industries besides software, where the concept of Open Source is being implemented ? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………..

4.3

PROJECT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. 4.3.1

Introduction

A project is a temporary endeavor, having a defined beginning and end, undertaken to meet particular goals and objectives, usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast to other business functions which are repetitive and permanent or semipermanent undertaken to produce products or services. The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives within the preconceived project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time, and resources. The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives. Typical development phases of a project are: 1. Project initiation stage 2. Project planning or design stage 3. Project implementation stage 4. Project monitoring and controlling systems 5. Project completion stage. 4.3.2

Project Manager – Role and Responsibility

A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers have the responsibility of planning, execution, and closing of any project. The project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the 87

Basics of Computer Software

stated project objectives within the allotted time. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects, which is cost, time, and scope. 4.3.3

Software Project Management

Software project management is the art and science of planning and leading software projects. It is a sub-discipline of project management in which software projects are planned, monitored and controlled. The purpose of project planning is to identify the scope of the project, estimate the work involved, and create a project schedule. Project planning begins with requirements that define the software to be developed. The project plan is then developed to describe the tasks that will lead to completion. The purpose of project monitoring and control is to keep the team and management up to date on the project's progress. If the project deviates from the plan, then the project manager can take action to correct the problem. Project monitoring and control involves status meetings to gather status from the team. When changes need to be made, change control is used to keep the products up to date. By applying the project management cycle, one can make sure that everything gets done on time and that the project objectives are being achieved. 4.3.4

Project Management Software

Project management software covers many types of software, including scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource allocation, Timesheet management, collaboration software, communication, quality management and documentation or administration systems. These are used to deal with the complexity of large projects. The different project management activities which can be performed using the Project Management Software are: Scheduling One of the most common purposes is to schedule a series of events or tasks. The complexity of this schedule can vary considerably depending on how the tool is used. Some common challenges include: 1. Events which depend on one another in different ways 2. Scheduling team members tasks along with the resources required by them commonly termed resource scheduling 88

3. Dealing with uncertainties in the estimates of the duration of each task

Calculating critical path

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In many complex schedules, there will be a critical path, or series of events which depend on each other, and whose durations directly determine the length of the whole project. Some software applications (for example, Dependency Structure Matrix solutions) can highlight these tasks, thus helping in optimization of effort. Providing information Project planning software provides information to various stakeholders of the project and can be used to measure and justify the level of effort required to complete the project. Typical information might include: 1. Tasks lists for team members 2. Allocation schedules for resources 3. Overview information on how long tasks will take to complete 4. Early warning of any risks to the project 5. Information on workload, for planning holidays 6. Historical information on how projects have progressed, and in particular, how actual and planned performance are related 7. Optimum utilization of available resources Timesheet Management A good timesheet management system in place, is essential both for the customer projects as well as internal activities within the organization. Timesheets not only help the Project Manager in managing the project in a better manner but is also useful for maintaining employee records for payroll calculations as well as helps in improving the overall productivity of the organization. A timesheet is a record of the number of hours an employee spends in completing a certain task. This task could be associated with a customer project or with internal business activities. The timesheet not only provides the number of actual hours that the employee may have spend on the task but also mentions details of the task involved and the kind of operations that the task involved completing. Another benefit of a good timesheet management system is that it can help management track the efficiency of employees and find ways in which they can improve the productivity in various areas. Further, timesheet management systems can also help employees evaluate their own performances and understand how they can perform their tasks better. Various Timesheet management software are available like Timesheet Reporter, Ace Project, Time Reporting, Qtime and Time Control. Many of the Project Management tools also have a timesheet management module. 89

Basics of Computer Software

4.3.5

Tools for Project Management

Project Management software tools are of three types: Desktop applications : These are software packages installed on the PC. E.g. MS Project, Gantt Project Web-based Services : These are websites which offer on-line internet applications that support project management. No separate hardware or software is required as the application is installed on some web server from where it is accessed. E.g. iTeam Work Web based Systems : These are web based software which are installed in your own hardware and accessed through intranet network. E.g. dot Project In this section, the main features of MS Project software are described: 4.3.5.1

Microsoft Office Project

One of the most widely used software for Project Management used all over the world is MS Project. It is used for planning, managing and organizing resources for all kinds of projects. It uses a powerful scheduling engine to help align different projects and tasks with available resources. Project requires all information about the overall project, the individual tasks needed to complete the project and the resources needed. For each task, the duration of task, its dependencies and constraints are also required. Once it has all the necessary information, it can calculate the start date and finish date for each task. The resources responsible for completing each task helps in Project staffing and management of these resources across projects. After project scheduling if at any point of time, the information about the project changes, the task and resources can be updated and the project schedule is adjusted. The main features of MS Project 2007 are explained below: 4.3.6

Create and Schedule Project

Most of the projects are scheduled based and the project start date and the finish date is calculated on the basis of the last task to be completed. However, there might be projects where the finish date is known, and there is a need to calculate the project start date so that it is completed on schedule date. Both kind of projects with known start date or known finish date can be scheduled using MS Project. 1. Click the File Tab, and then click New 90

2. Select Blank Project and click Create

Computer Applications

3. On the Project Tab, in the properties group, click Project Information

4. Schedule the project in the project Information dialog box. To schedule from Start date, select Project Start date in the Schedule from box and then chose the start date. To schedule from the finish date, select the Project Finish Date in the Schedule from box and choose the finish date.

4.3.7

Define File Properties for the Project

1. Open the project 2. Click on File Tab, and then click Info 3. Choose Project Information and then Advanced Properties 4. On the Summary tab, give the relevant project information

4.3.8

Add Tasks to the Project

Tasks are created to break the project work into smaller pieces. Tasks are activities of the project. 1. On the View tab, in the Task Views group, choose Gantt chart option 91

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2. In the Task Name field, type a task name. The Task IDs are automatically created. 3. It is also possible to create multiple tasks using the Task Form View. To do this, On the View Tab, in the Split View group, select Details. The window is split to display the Gantt chart on the top and Task view form at the bottom. In the Task Form view, type the task information like Name, Duration, assigned resources and predecessor tasks.

4.3.9

Create Milestones

Any major event in a project is marked as a Milestone and is used to monitor the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s progress. Any task with zero duration is marked as milestone. Any other task of any duration can also be a Milestone in the project. 1. On the View Tab, in the Tasks View tab, click Gantt chart. 2. Type the name of the new milestone in the Task Name field 3. Type 0 in the Duration field of the milestone task to create the task as milestone 4. To create a task with greater than zero duration as Milestone, select the task and then on the Task tab, choose the Task Information from the Properties group. Select the Mark Task as Milestone check box. In the task Information dialog box, click Advanced tab and then give the duration of the Milestone.

Check Your Progress 2

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1. What is a Milestone in a project? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. What is a critical task in a project? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. What information can help me analyze my projects progress? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. What is the difference between Lead time and Lag time? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………..

4.4

OFFICE APPLICATIONS

This section will introduce the world of office applications that are used widely by all of us to carry on our day to day tasks like writing a project document, preparing our monthly budget, corresponding with each other on email or scheduling our daily calendar. 4.4.1

Word Processing

A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is a computer application used for composition, editing, formatting and printing of any sort of printable material. 4.4.2

Introduction

Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity. Although early word processors used tag-based markup for document formatting, most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user interface providing some form of “What You See Is What You Get” editing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce any arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type-setting capability. 93

Basics of Computer Software

Microsoft Word is the most widely used computer word processing system; Microsoft estimates over five hundred million people use the Office suite, which includes Word. There are also many other commercial word processing applications, such as WordStar, WordPerfect, which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early-1990s, particularly for machines running Microsoft's MSDOS operating system. Open-source applications such as AbiWord, KWord, LyX and OpenOffice.org Writer are rapidly gaining in popularity. Online word processors such as Google Docs are a relatively new category. Word processing typically implies text manipulation functions that extend beyond a basic ability to enter and change text, such as automatic generation of: batch mailings using a form letter template and an address database (also called mail merging); indices of keywords and their page numbers; tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers; tables of figures with caption titles and their page numbers; cross-referencing with section or page numbers; footnote numbering; Version control of a document using variables (e.g. model numbers, product names, etc.) Other word processing functions include "spell checking" (actually checks against wordlists), "grammar checking" (checks for what seem to be simple grammar errors), and a "thesaurus" function (finds words with similar or opposite meanings. Other common features include collaborative editing, comments and annotations, support for images and diagrams and internal cross-referencing. Text editors (modern examples of which include Notepad, BBEdit, Kate, Gedit), were the precursors of word processors. While offering facilities for composing and editing text, they do not format documents. Later desktop publishing programs were specifically designed to allow elaborate layout for publication, but often offered only limited support for editing. Typically, desktop publishing programs allowed users to import text that was written using a text editor or word processor. Almost all word processors enable users to employ styles, which are used to automate consistent formatting of text body, titles, subtitles, highlighted text, and so on. A few features of Microsoft Word 2007 are described here.

4.4.3

Adding Header, Footer or Page Number to a Document

Computer Applications

To add a graphic or text on the top or bottom of a document, a Header or Footer has to be added. 1. Click on Insert Tab, select the Header or Footer or Page Number from Header & Footer group. 2. You can select from the available gallery and choose the design required. 3. After selection, the same design chosen will appear in the document.

To add a customized design for the Header or Footer, double click on the Header or Footer area in the document. The same is opened in the design mode. After making the required changes to the design, close the Header/Footer area. 4.4.4

Creating a Table in Word

In Word, a Table can be inserted by either by choosing from a gallery of preformatted table templates or by using the table menu to choose the number of rows and columns that are required. To Choose from gallery of table templates: 1. Click in the document where the table has to be inserted. 2. On the Insert tab, in the Tables group click Table, and then choose Quick table. 3. Choose the required template from the gallery displayed. 4. The chosen table will be inserted into the document.

Basics of Computer Software

To insert a simple table with required number of row and columns: 1. Click in the document where the table has to be inserted. 2. On the Insert tab, in the Tables group click Table, and then under Insert Table, select the number of rows and columns required in the table. 3. The table will be drawn on the document.

4.4.5

Creating a Table of Contents

Table of Contents (TOC) is created by applying heading styles to the text that is to be included in the TOC. Word will search for those headings and create the TOC in the document. The Table of Contents can be selected from design gallery provided in word. 1. Select the text that is to be appear in the TOC 96

2. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, click the Style (Heading1, Heading2â&#x20AC;Ś.) that you want to choose

Computer Applications

3. Click the place in the document where the TOC has to be inserted. 4. ON the Reference Tab, click Table of Contents on the Table of Contents group 5. Choose the TOC Style that is required

In order to create a customized Table of Contents, ON the Reference Tab, click Table of Contents on the Table of Contents group and choose the Insert Table of Contents option.

Here it will be possible to change the heading levels, overall look of TOC etc.

Basics of Computer Software

4.4.6

Creating a memo for multiple recipients â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mail Merge

Mail merge is a software function describing the production of multiple (and potentially large numbers of) documents from a single template form and a structured data source. This helps to create personalized letters and pre-addressed envelopes or mailing labels for mass mailings from a word processing document which contains fixed text, which will be the same in each output document, and variables, which act as placeholders that are replaced by text from the data source. The data source is typically a spreadsheet or a database which has a field or column matching each variable in the template. When the mail merge is run, the word processing system creates an output document for each row in the database, using the fixed text exactly as it appears in the template, but substituting the data variables in the template with the values from the matching columns. You use mail merge when you want to create a set of documents, such as a form letter that is to be sent many customers or a sheet of address labels. Each letter or label has the same kind of information, yet the content is unique. For example, in letters to your customers, each letter can be personalized to address each customer by name. The unique information in each letter or label comes from entries in a data source. The mail merge process entails the following overall steps: 1. Set up the main document. The main document contains the text and graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document. For example, the return address or salutation in a form letter. 2. Connect the document to a data source. A data source is a file that contains the information to be merged into a document. For example, the names and addresses of the recipients of a letter.

3. Refine the list of recipients or items. Microsoft Office Word generates a copy of the main document for each item, or record, in your data file. If your data file is a mailing list, these items are probably recipients of your mailing. If you want to generate copies for only certain items in your data file, you can choose which items (records) to include.

Computer Applications

4. Add placeholders, called mail merge fields, to the document. When you perform the mail merge, the mail merge fields are filled with information from your data file. 5. Preview and complete the merge. You can preview each copy of the document before you print the whole set. Thus, Mail Merge is used to create documents that are essentially the same but have a few unique data elements that vary for each document.

4.5

SPREADSHEET

A Spreadsheet, as you all would know, is a grid made of columns and rows known as cells and is used for making tables and charts used for mathematical and statistical analysis as well as business calculations. One of the widely used spreadsheet software is MS-Excel. A few features of MS Excel 2007 are described below. 4.5.1

Introduction

Each cell on a spreadsheet can have any of the following data: Text or Labels Numbers or Constants Formulae which are mathematical equations to do all calculations Each cell is designated with a name which is actually the COLUMN Name and ROW NUMBER. E.g. A2 means the cell A21 is the intersection of column A and row 2

Basics of Computer Software

The following example shows the three basic types of data that a cell may have: Labels Text which simply is the column heading like cell B2, C2, C3 etc. Values which are constant fixed numbers entries like C3, C4, D3, E4 etc Formulas which are mathematical calculations as in the highlighted column E8. Formula cells always begin with an EQUAL SIGN (=). It is best to use the reference to data within the formula cells by giving the cell location. This helps in keeping the formula unchanged even if the values change.

4.5.2

Basic Features

The spreadsheet consists of various sheets like sheet1, sheet2, sheet3 etc. within the workbook. These sheets can be can be given meaningful names. New sheets can be inserted and worksheets can be deleted from the workbook. The format of the cells on the sheets can be modified using the Home->Cells>format->format cells option on the menu. This will give the following dialog box which is used to format datatype of the cell, alignment, font etc.

The contents of the cells can be cut, copied and pasted using the Home>Clipboard options. There is an option of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Paste Specialâ&#x20AC;? (Home -> Clipboard-> Paste -> Paste Special) which allows only to paste certain aspects of the cells copied to the clipboard. 100

Formulas : Only pastes the formulas from the cells on the clipboard.

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Values : Will paste the values of the cells on the clipboard. If the cells copied contained formulas, only the results of the formulas will be pasted.

Column Widths : Will paste only the column widths of the cells that you copied to the clipboard. Operations : This is useful if you want to scale a group of numbers or add/subtract a certain amount from each. Whatever value is copied to the clipboard, the current operation will be done using that number on the cells in which you are pasting to. Skip blanks : Will paste data, skipping any blank cells. Transpose : Will transpose the data and paste it (columns to rows, rows to columns). It is possible to protect the cells so that the data cannot be changed or modified. By default all cells in a worksheet have the locked property turned on (the cell is capable of being protected). is also possible to protect worksheet or the whole workbook using password protection. Protecting a Worksheet 1. Click Tools, click Protection, and click Protect Sheet. 2. Enter a password (only if desired). 3. Confirm password (only if entered). 4. Click OK. 101

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Protecting a Workbook 1. Click Tools, click Protection, and click Protect Workbook. 2. Enter a password (optional). 3. Choose to protect the Structure, Windows, or both. 4. Click OK. 4.5.3

Formulae and Functions

There are different categories of functions that can be incorporated in the sheets like Date & Time, Mathematical, Statistical, Logical, Text functions etc.

The different categories of functions are: Date and Time: MONTH - Converts a serial number to a month YEAR - Converts a serial number to a year NOW - Returns the serial number of the current date and time 102

Math and Statistical:

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SUM – Adds its arguments MEDIAN – Returns the median of the given numbers SUMPROUCT – Returns the sum of the products of corresponding array components COUNTIF - Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given criteria Text: CONCATENATE – Joins several text items into one text item RIGHT - Returns the rightmost characters from a text value LEN - Returns the number of characters in a text string EFT - Returns the leftmost characters from a text value Logical: IF - Specifies a logical test to perform NOT - Reverses the logic of its argument AND - Returns TRUE if all of its arguments are TRUE Advanced Functions: MATCH- Looks up values in a reference or array INDEX - Uses an index to choose a value from a reference or array SEARCH - Finds one text value within another (not case-sensitive) REPLACE - Replaces characters within text Database Functions: DGET- Extracts from a database a single record that matches the specified criteria DCOUNT - Counts the cells that contain numbers in a database DSUM - Adds the numbers in the field column of records in the database that match the criteria DPRODUCT - Multiplies the values in a particular field of records that match the criteria in a database Lookup & Reference: VLOOKUP - Looks in the first column of an array and moves across the row to return the value of a cell HLOOKUP - Looks in the top row of an array and returns the value of the indicated cell INDIRECT - Returns a reference indicated by a text value

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4.5.4

Charting

Charts and Graphs can be created based on data in the sheets. To create a chart to represent data graphically: 1. Select the data 2. Go to Insert 3. Select the chart type from the options available like Bar, Line, Pie, Scatter etc. 4. The chart will get automatically populated with the selected data on which the chart is to be based.

4.5.5

Macros

A macro is a short program written using VBA that can be used to carry out a specific task. VBA is the language that Excel macros are written in. It is a programming language that is included with all of the Microsoft Office applications e.g. Word, Access, Power Point, Excel as well as others. VBA is a subset of Microsoft Visual Basic, an extremely popular programming language that has been around for over 10 years. The Macro has to be recorded as follows: 1. Go to the Tools menu, go to “macro” and then “Record New Macro” 2. Assign a name to your macro if you'd like, as well as type a short description. 3. You can also assign a keyboard shortcut to it (so you can press a sequence of keys to run the macro). 4. Now click on OK. You'll be returned to Excel. 5. Simply perform the actions you want the macro to do.

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6. Once you're done recording your macro, press the Stop button which should now be visible on your screen.

Once the Macro is recorded it can be executed in the following ways:

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1. Run a macro by using the menu command 2. By pressing a CTRL combination shortcut key 3. Clicking a toolbar button or an area on an object, graphic, or control 4. Run a macro automatically when the workbook is opened. 4.5.6

A Small Example in Excel 2007

Take a small example given in the table below for calculation of Salary and Income tax deduction and compute the result in excel to give the net monthly and annual income as shown below: Income Head Gross Income Tax percentage Tax Deduction Net Income Annual Income

Amount per month 100000 10% Gross * Tax Percentage Gross â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Tax Deduction Net Income * 12

After calculation and writing the formulas in Excel 2007, we would get the following results:

4.6

DATABASE

Database is used to organize information into data in the form of tables. For example, a table with studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s data. Different tables are joined together on the basis of relationships. The table and relationships together form relational structure. Relational Structure helps in reduction of repetitive data, improves accuracy and provides better management of data.

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4.6.1

Introduction

A Table is a database object that is used to store data about a particular subject like employees, students or products. In a Table, the columns are called fields or attributes and the individual records are called Tuples (rows). One of the most important advantage of a Relational table structure is the Primary key field in each table. A Primary key is a field or a combination of fields that make each record in the table unique. Primary keys help in removing duplicate data and creating relationships between different tables. Foreign Key contains values that correspond to the primary key of another table. A table can have one or more than one foreign key. Every field has a datatype which indicates the type of data that filed will stores, such as text, numbers or external files. The most commonly used database in the industry is MS-Access. Here, we will see how to manage a simple database in MS-Access. 4.6.2

Create Table in Database

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click New. 2. In the File Name box, type a file name for the new database. 3. To browse to a different location to save the database, click the folder icon. 4. Click Create. The new database opens, and a new table named Table1 is created and opens in Datasheet view. When you create a new table in Datasheet view, Access automatically creates a primary key for you and assigns it a field name of ID and the AutoNumber data type.

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4.6.3

Add Fields to the Table

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In order to add new fields to the Table, enter into Design view, On the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View. Here add the fields and set their properties like datatype, size, default value, input mask etc. The field which has to be made primary key is also set here.

When you create a new table in Datasheet view, Access automatically creates a primary key for you and assigns it a field name of ID and the AutoNumber data type. In Design view, you can change or remove the primary key, or set the primary key for a table that doesn't already have one. After the table is created, it is saved in the database by going to Microsoft office button and choosing the Save option. 4.6.4

Add Data in the Table

Once the Tables have been created, data has to be added to them. 1. Open the database to which data has to be added. 2. Select the table to which has to be inserted 3. The table opens in the datasheet view mode. 4. Add the data to the table record by record in the datasheet grid and save the table. The data added can also be modified also in the datasheet view mode.

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4.6.5

Add New Fields in the Table

To add new fields to the table, open the table in design view mode. 1. In the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View. 2. In the table design grid, add the new field 3. Define its properties like datatype, length, default value etc. 4. Save the changes made to the table

4.6.6

Set a Tableâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Primary Key

When a new table is created, Access automatically creates a primary key and gives a default field name ID and AutoNumber as its datatype. In Design view mode, it is possible to change, remove or set the primary key of a Table. 108

1. Select the table for which the primary key has to be set or modified.

Computer Applications

2. On the Home tab, in the Views group, click view and then select the Design view mode. 3. In the Design grid, select the field or fields (by holding down CTRL to select more than one field. 4. On the Design tab, in the Tools group, click Primary Key. A key indicator appears on the left of the field or fields selected to indicate the field as primary key.

4.6.7

Defining Relationships

When you create a relationship between tables, the common fields are not required to have the same names, although it is often the case that they do. But, the common fields must have the same data type. If the primary key field is an AutoNumber field, however, the foreign key field can also be a Number field if the FieldSize property of both fields is the same. For example, you can match an AutoNumber field and a Number field if the FieldSize property of both fields is Long Integer. When both common fields are Number fields, they must have the same FieldSize property setting. To create relationships between two tables, 1. Choose Relationships under the Database Tools menu. 2. Then Choose the Table option and add the tables between which relationship has to be created.

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3. Drag a field (typically the primary key) from one table to the common field (the foreign key) in the other table. To drag multiple fields, press the CTRL key, click each field, and then drag them. 4. The Edit Relationships dialog box appears as below:

5. To enforce referential integrity for this relationship, select the Enforce Referential Integrity check box. 6. Click Create. Access draws a relationship line between the two tables. If the Enforce Referential Integrity check box is selected, the line appears thicker at each end. In addition, the number 1 appears over the thick portion on one side of the relationship line, and the infinity symbol (â&#x2C6;&#x17E;) appears over the thick portion on the on the other side of the line, as shown in the following screen.

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The purpose of referential integrity is to prevent orphan records and to keep references synchronized. Once referential integrity is enforced, Access rejects any operation that would violate referential integrity for that table relationship. This means that Access will reject both updates that change the target of a reference and deletions that remove the target of a reference. To propagate the referential updates and deletions so that all related rows are changed accordingly, see the Set the cascade options section. 4.6.8

Defining Queries

When data has to be reviewed, added, changed or deleted from the database, a query is used. Queries are also used to answer very specific questions about the data that would be difficult to answer directly by just looking at the table data. Queries can be used to perform calculations on the data, to filter data and to summarize the data. 1. On the Create tab, in the query group, click query design. A show Table dialog box appears. 2. In the Show Table dialog box, choose the table on which query has to be based and close the show Table dialog box.

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3. In the selected Table, double click the fields that have to be added to the query 4. On the Design Tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query will be executed and the result is displayed in the grid as shown below.

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4.6.9

Reports

Computer Applications

A Report consists of information from tables and queries that is stored with a particular report design such as labels, headings and graphics. 1. In the Navigation pane, select the query or Table on which the report has to be based. 2. On the Create Tab, in the Reports group, click Report 3. The Report will be created and displayed

Once the report is created, its layout can be modified in the Report design view. Reports can be created using the Report wizard tool also. 4.6.9.1

A Small Example in Access 2007

We wil create a small database for employees in an organization using MS Access 2007. Make two tables T_Employee_dtls and T_Dept_master database tables with the following structure: T_Employee_Dtls Field Name Datatype Emp_code Autonumber Emp_Age Number Dept_code Text Emp_Address Text T_Dept_master Field Name Datatype Dept_code Text Dept_Name Text Define Emp_Code and Dept_code as the Primary keys for the table T_Employee_dtls and T_dept_master respectively. Then define the relationship 113

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between the two tables as explained above in section 5.3.7. Add data to the table and then define the following queries as explained above: SELECT T_Employee_dtls.Emp_Name, T_Employee_dtls.Emp_Address FROM T_Employee_dtls; SELECT T_Employee_dtls.Emp_Name, T_Employee_dtls.Emp_Age, T_Dept_Master.Dept_Name FROM T_Dept_Master INNER JOIN T_Employee_dtls ON T_Dept_Master.Dept_Code = T_Employee_dtls.Dept_Code; Reports can be generated based on these queries or different queries can be written to generate various reports.

4.7

E-MAIL

Emailing is one of the most important utilities in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world. It is used widely and utilized by almost each and every one of us not only as professionals but also in our personal lives. Emailing software like MS Outlook , Outlook Express etc, not only provides emailing facility but also used for scheduling appointments, maintaining contacts, setting task reminders, sending attachments with emails etc. 4.7.1

Introduction

Email Accounts can be from the Internet Service provider, employer, or webmail services like yahoo, Gmail etc. Outlook doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have its own accounts but uses these email accounts. Outlook uses POP configuration to access the web based servers for emails. Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer Internet standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection. POP supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes. Although most POP clients have an option to leave mail on server after download, e-mail clients using POP generally connect, retrieve all messages, store them on the user's PC as new messages, delete them from the server, and then disconnect. To send or receive email messages with Microsoft Outlook, these email account information has to be added. Email Accounts are contained in profiles. An email profile consists of email accounts, data files and settings as to where the emails are to be stored. There can be one profile or more than one profile depending on the requirement of the user. There can be one or more email accounts within a single outlook profile.

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4.7.2

Creating Email Accounts and Profiles

Computer Applications

Before using Outlook, an Email profile and account has to be created. 1. In MS Windows, go to control panel and select Mail option.

2. Click Show Profiles 3. Click on Add and Type a name for the profile and then click OK

4. Add email account to use in your profile by following the directions on the screen. 4.7.3

Create a new Email Message

The most important feature of Email software is to send and receive emails. Once the email account has been configured, the same can be used to send and receive emails. 1. On the File menu, select, New ->Mail Message 2. In the Subject box, type the subject. 3. Add the recipientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name in the To, CC, Bcc box. Separate the names with semicolon. 115

Basics of Computer Software

4. To select the recipientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name from a address book, click the To or CC button 5. The level of importance for message can also be set which appears as an indicator by selecting High Importance or Low Importance in the Options group in the message tab. This is only an informational flag and does not expedite or affect actual message delivery.

It is also possible to put file attachments along with the email message or include website links or links to documents present on a shared network. 4.7.4

Manage Contacts

New Contacts can be added to the Address Book. It is possible to make groups of Contacts and create distribution lists to ease selection of contacts when sending messages. 1. To add a new Contact, select File Menu, New->Contact 2. Fill in the Contact Details on the contact form that appears.

116

It is also possible to create a contact from an email message received. To do this:

Computer Applications

1. Open or preview the email message that contains the Contact name that is to be added to the Contact List 2. Right Click the name of the sender and then Click Add to Contacts through the shortcut menu.

4.7.5

Calendar Management

Using the Calendar feature, one can schedule activities as appointments, meetings, events or tasks. This choice will depend on who is involved and how the entry should appear. To view the activities of any day, click on Calendar in the Navigation Pane. And then choose the date for which the activities need to be shown.

It is possible to view the activities, day wise, month wise or week wise as required. Right Click on the time and date the activity has to be set and choose the activity type whether it will be an appointment, meeting or event or task. A meeting occurs only at a schedules time and includes other people and a meeting location. An Appointment is an activity where only one person is involved. A task is an entry that is seen in the calendar but doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need to be scheduled for a specific time. An event is an activity that lasts all day and do not occupy schedule time in the calendar but appear as banners on the top of the date specified for the event like conferences, business travels, holidays etc.

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Basics of Computer Software

If any particular activity is occurring again and again, it can be set as a Recurring activity using the Recurrence feature. To set up a recurrence pattern, open the appointment and click Recurrence button in the Options group in the Appointment tab. Check Your Progress 3 1. Is it possible to import data from Excel into Access? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. What is a signature of an email message? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. Is it possible to get a delivery receipt from the email recipient? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. Which of the following entry will be best entered as an event in your calendar? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………….. A party that occurs from 4 pm to 6 pm Birthday A visit to the dentist 118

4.8

SUMMARY

Computer Applications

In this unit, you have learnt about the concepts of Open Source Software. The history and philosophy behind this concept has briefly been described. The Licensing and copyright issues have been discussed. This is an upcoming concept in the industry and the idea of open source software is here to stay. You have also been introduced to one of the most important roles of Project management which is essential for the success of any project. The different kinds of software which are used for project management of resources, time and scope of project have been discussed. The essential tools of Office Applications which are used widely in the industry have been discussed. After reading this unit, you must have become familiar with the important features of these tools used for word processing, database management and emailing.

4.9

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1. List of a few Open Source software applications are: Web Browsing – Mozilla Firefox Instant Messaging – Pidgin Operating System – GNU/Linux Email – Mozilla Thunderbird Word Processing – OpenOffice.org Graphics – Paint.NET FTP - Filezilla 2. The advantages of using Open Source Software are: The core software being free, using open source software reduces the total ownership cost for any organization As new changes and evoluion is a constant process for Open Source Software, new upgraded versions of the software are available. The organization doesn’t have to be dependent on any particular vendor as in case of commercial software for support and assistants. Help is easily available on the internet for troubleshooting If necessary ,it is easier to customize and make modifications in the source code for Open Source Software 119

Basics of Computer Software

3. Revision control systems such as Concurrent Versions System (CVS) are used to track and centrally manage the source code files and changes made in the open source software. 4. The different industries where Open Source concept is being practiced are: Electronics: Open Source Hardware where the initial specifications are published and made available so that the hardware and the source code can redistributed without paying royalty or fees E.g.: SUN Microsystemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s OpenSPARC T1 Multicore Processor. Beverages: Here the recipe is open source unlike other corporations producing beverages where the recipe is a closely guarded secret. E.g.: OpenCola Digital Content: Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary where the content remains free to re-use and the source documents are readily made available to those interested and changes are accepted back into the system. Robotics: Here the blueprints, schematics and source code are released under the open source model. Check Your Progress 2 1. A milestone is a reference point that marks a major event in a project and is used to monitor the project's progress. Any task with zero duration is automatically displayed as a milestone. You can also mark any other task of any duration as a milestone.

2. Tasks which cannot be delayed without affecting the project finish date are the critical tasks. A Critical must be completed on schedule for the project to finish on time. If a critical task is delayed, the project completion date might also be delayed. A series of critical tasks makes up a project's critical path. 3. Five pieces of task information help to analyze the project progress: Duration Work Start date Finish date Cost Variations of each of these types of fields help you compare and evaluate your progress. 120

4. Lead time: An overlap between tasks that have a dependency.

Computer Applications

Lag time: A delay between tasks that have a dependency. For example, if you need a two-day delay between the finish of one task and the start of another, you can establish a finish-to-start dependency and specify a two-day lag time Check Your Progress 3 1. Yes, it is possible to import data from Excel workbook into Access 2010. This can be done by copying data from an open worksheet and pasting into Access datasheet, or by importing a worksheet into a new or existing table, or linking the worksheet from an access database. 2. Signature is the way the senders name will appear at the end of the message. One can create a default signature to be added to all your outgoing messages, or you can insert a signature manually into outgoing messages on an individual basis. 3. A delivery receipt tells you that your e-mail message was delivered to the recipient's mailbox, but not whether the recipient has seen it or read it. A read receipt tells you that your message has been opened. In both cases, you receive a message notification when your message is delivered or read. The contents of the message notifications are then automatically recorded in the original message in your Sent Items folder. 4. Birthdayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s happens all day long, and that's what an event is used to enter. The benefit of using an event is that you can show the event at the top of that day in the calendar. You'll remember, and the time in your calendar is still available for you to schedule.

4.10 FURTHER READINGS Handbook of Research on Open Source Software: Technological, Economic, and Social Perspectives by Kirk St. Amant and Brian Still, Copyright 2007, Publisher Name: Igi Global, ISBN: 1591409993. The Open Source Alternative: Understanding Risks and Leveraging Opportunities by Heather J. Meeker, Copyright 2008, Publisher Name: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 978-0-470-19495-9. The Project Management Handbook â&#x20AC;&#x201C; By Keith Posner and Mike Applegarth, Publisher: Management Pocket Books; 1st edition (April 1, 2000) | ISBN-10: 1579220045. Microsoft Office Online Support, Website: http://office.microsoft.com/

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Networking and Internet

UNIT 1 NETWORKING AND INTERNET Structure 1.0 1.1 1.2

Introduction Objectives What is a Computer Network? 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3

1.3

Data Transmission Channels 1.3.1 1.3.2

1.4

Network Interface Card Modem Repeaters Bridge Hub Switches Router Gateway

Internet and its Software Components Internet Addresses 1.9.1 1.9.2 1.9.3

1.10 1.11 1.12

Local Area Network (LAN) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

Reference Models Networking Devices 1.7.1 1.7.2 !.7.3 1.7.4 1.7.5 1.7.6 1.7.7 1.7.8

1.8 1.9

Bus Topology Ring Topology Star Topology

Network Classification 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3

1.6 1.7

Guided Media Unguided Media

Network Topologies 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3

1.5

Advantages of using Computer Networks The Internet Data Communication System

IP Addresses DNS and Web Addresses E-Mail Addresses

Summary Answers to Check Your Progress Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION As discussed in the previous blocks, the initial computers were designed as a machine that could perform monotonous arithmetic calculations with ease and lot of accuracy. The computing power of the computers kept on increasing every year while during the same time the technologies of message transfer were advancing. During the era of 1960-70, the computers were becoming faster, cheaper but more powerful and smaller in size. The number of application of the Computer also kept growing, however, the main breakthrough that enhanced the use of Computer was the advent of network of interconnected computers. The Computer Network made various computers to share information at a very high speed.

The Internet

Internet Technologies

In the year 1960, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence and researchers from Universities and research centres developed a network called the ARPANET. The main goal of ARPANET was to share data and processing time over a set of computers connected through telephone lines and satellite links. This led to creation of one of most widely used network of networks Âą the Internet. The Internet could carry any digital signals such as text, graphics, sound, video and animation. Today, Internet has thousands of networks and millions of users, with the numbers expanding daily. This unit introduces you to some of the basic fundamentals of Computer Networks and the Internet.

1.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you should be able to: x x x x x x

define the basic concepts of networking; discuss the basic models of networks; explain different types of networks; differentiate among different networking devices; explain the addresses used on the Internet; and explain the different advantages of networks.

1.2 WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK? A computer network can be simply defined as the interconnection of two or more independent computers. Applications of computer networks are found everywhere. They are used in our homes, schools, colleges, railway stations, offices and business. They help us to send an email, watch a live sports event at our computer, book rail/air tickets and do chatting with our friends. But why do we need Networks? 1.2.1

Advantages of using Computer Networks

We use a Computer Network for the following reasons: a)

Resource sharing: A network is needed because of the desire to share the sharable programs, data, and equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user. You can also share processing load on various networked resources.

b) High reliability: A network may have alternative sources of supply (e.g.,

replicated files, multiple CPUs, etc.). In case of one resource failure, the others could be used and the system continues to operate at reduced performance. This is a very important property for military, banking, air traffic control, and many other applications. c) Cost-benefit advantage: A network may consist of many powerful small computers, one per user. You can keep the data and applications on one or more shared and powerful file server machines. This is called the client-server model. Such model offers a much better price/performance ratio than old mainframes. At present many server services have been moved to Internet based resources set up by a third party and shared by many (called cloud). This allows users to use powerful server applications and data services without maintaining servers. Such system may bring down the cost further. However, such models still have several issues that are being debated. d) Scalability: The ability to increase system performance gradually by adding more processors (incremental upgrade).

Networking and Internet

e) Powerful communication medium: Networks make cooperation among far-flung groups of people easy where it previously had been impossible. In the long run, the use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication may prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability. One of the most popular application of network is the World Wide Web which is an application of Internet. Let us introduce you to internet in the next subsection. 1.2.2 The Internet Internet is an interconnection of thousands of networks. It came into being in 1967. Internet has a very interesting history. You can trace the evolution of Internet at the website http://www.wikipedia.com . One of the major applications of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). Internet and WWW (World Wide Web) are often used as synonyms of each other, which is technically not correct as the Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources. WWW was started in 1989 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee at Physics Laboratory (CERN).The WWW provides a ³point-andclick´ interface to text, images, sound and movies that has proven to be very easy-touse. This feature was made avaLODEOH GXH WR +\SHUWH[W WKDW SURYLGHV D ³SRLQW DQG FOLFN´ OLQN WR RWKHU GRFXPHQWV RQ WKH ::: To access the information on internet you require a software called web browser. Some of the popular browser software are - Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Apple Safari etc. The Internet is a collection of various services, tools, applications and resources. Some of the popular services on the internet are ± browsing, searching, e-mail, chat, e-learning and lots more. Today, Internet has brought the world on your desktop. Right from news across the world, wealth of knowledge to shopping, purchasing the movie, railway or air tickets everything is at your mouse click. It has also become the most excellent business tool of modern scenario. Several activities can be performed if you have access to the Internet; like you can use it for learning or teaching, you can be part of an online distributed project, you can use it for publicity and advertisement, you can refer Internet for career or job consultation and so on. Unit 2 and Unit 3 discuss some of the services tools, applications and resources available on the Internet in more details. Before we discuss more about Internet, first let us describe the process of data communication system that forms the core of computer network. 1.2.3 Data Communication System In the connected world, a computer does not work as a standalone system but as part of a communication system. Besides computers, most of the large/complex systems like the navigation systems for ships or aircraft or rockets, the satellites and many other systems rely on the communication system. In the most fundamental sense, communication involves implicitly the transmission of data or information (the information is derived from data) from one point to another through a succession of processes. Data is transmitted over any communications medium as either digital or analog form. The most important factors affecting the transfer of a signal over a medium are noise and attenuation. Noise is the external disturbances whereas attenuation is defined as degeneration of the signal. A simple communication system can be represented by the block diagram shown in Figure 1.1. Source

Encoder / Transmitter

Encoder Band Transmitter

Decoder/ Receiver

Destination

noise Figure 1.1 : A Simple Communication System (Source: PhD thesis of Professor Manohar Lal)

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The communication system essentially consists of five parts: Source: Source produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiver. The source output may be in many different forms such as a waveform, a sequence of binary digits, and a set of output from sensors in a space probe, or many other similar forms. An Encoder: Encoder represents any processing of the source messages/ signals prior to transmission. The processing might include, for example, any combination of modulation (discussed in later section), data reduction and insertion of redundancy to combat the channel noise. The Channel: Channel is the medium for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. It may be a telephone line, a high frequency radio link, a space communication link or a storage medium. A channel is usually subject to various types of noise disturbances, which on telephone line, for example, might take the form of a time-varying frequency response, crosstalk from other lines, thermal noise, and impulsive switching noise. A channel subject to noise is called noisy channel. An error-correcting code corrects errors due to noise. The Decoder: A decoder represents the processing of a channel output received from the channel to produce an accepted replica of the input at the destination. The Destination: Destination is the receiver. It may be the person or object for whom the message is intended. An example of communication system: Suppose a student computer is connected through a modem to a telephone line. If she/he wants to send a file to his/her friend over a communication system, his/her computer is the source, the modem converts his digital file into analog signal that can be transmitted over the telephone line to the UHFHLYHUÂśV PRGHP ZKLFK DW LWV HQG FRQYHUWV WKH VLJQDO EDFN WR WKH GLJLWDO VLJQDO The digital data then is accepted by the destination computer. Some standard data transmission concepts are: x

The data in a communication system may be transmitted as analog or digital data over a single path serially or number of parallel paths.

The data can be sent asynchronously when both the source and receiver are not following timing or synchronously when both sender and receiver agree on the sequence of arrival of data.

Modes of Data Transmission: There are 3 modes of data communication: x

Simplex

Half duplex

Full duplex

Simplex Âą only from A to B A

B Half duplex-only one at a time

Full duplex Âą both ways simultaneously

Figure 1.2 : Modes of transmission

Simplex Mode : In simplex mode of data communication, data flow is uni-directional. This means that data travels only in one direction i.e., from a sender to a receiver. The receiver cannot respond back to the sender. An example of simplex mode is keyboard, or a television station telecasting a program.

Half Duplex Mode: Half duplex communications occurs when data flows in both directions; although in only one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex system is a Walkie-Talkie system used a two-way radio normally by Police. You may use the word "Over" to indicate the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time. In such systems sender and receiver both transmit on the same frequency.

Networking and Internet

Full Duplex Mode: In full duplex mode of data transmission, data is transmitted in both the direction simultaneously. This means that both the devices in a network can send and receive the data at the same time. It is like a two lane road with traffic moving in both directions at the same time. In this mode signals going in either direction share the capacity. Half of the bandwidth is used for sending data in one direction, while the other half is used for receiving data from other direction. An example is a telephone conversation. x

Speed of transmission: Speed of data transmission plays a major role in data communication. How fast data can be transmitted from place to place is sometimes called bandwidth. Bandwidth is a data transmission rate that tells the maximum amount of information (bits/second) that can be transmitted along a channel. It is measured in kilobits, kbps, 1,000 of bits per second, or megabits (Mbps), millions of bits per second. Actual transfers are considerably lower because of software and protocol overheads.

Some Sample Transmission Speed: Dial-up modems are generally capable of a maximum bit rate of 56 kb/s (kilobits per second) and require the full use of a telephone lineÂ˛whereas broadband technologies support at least double this bandwidth. Broadband usually has a high rate of data transmission. In general, any connection to the customer of 256 kb/s (0.256 Mb/s) or greater is more concisely considered broadband Internet.

Packet, and Circuit Switching: This terminology has started from telephone network, where switching offices were places having switches that were used to create connection from one source to destination. Circuit switching involves creating a switched path for entire communication, for example, when you make a telephone call the connection is established by switching and is available for the whole communication. Whereas in packet switching a message is broken in small packet which are handed over from a source to destination through many small steps.

A Computer Network although works on the basic communication system, but is much more than that. It is characterized by a number of tasks that are mostly implemented with the help of networking software that takes care of addressing, routing and reliable delivery of messages. These software are implemented as a number of protocols which are discussed later in the Unit. What should you know about a computer network? A computer network requires that the computers must somehow be connected with each other. Thus, you require a physical connection between two or more computers. This connection may be through physical wired media or wireless medium. In addition, it will require certain devices that will enable the connection. These concepts are explained in brief in section 1.3 and 1.7 A related question here is: Are the computer in networks connected arbitrarily or there exists some architecture and structure? Section 1.4 and 1.5 provide details of some simple topological structures and network architectures for networks. It also details the classification of networks. Another related point is how the data will be transmitted over these connections. We have provided some information on these points in section 1.2.3. For more details on these topics you should refer to the further readings.

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Finally, one of the major issues is how two computers will be able to exchange information over the network. This will require discussion on the term protocols and networking software. Section 1.6 and 1.8 covers some basic concepts of these. For more details, you may refer to further readings.

1.3 DATA TRANSMISSION CHANNELS The data transmission has to be done over a transmission channel or media. It can be classified as: a) Guided Channels b) Unguided Channels 1.3.1

Guided Media

Guided media provide a physical connection between two devices. A signal traveling through guided media is directed and contained within the physical limits of the medium. There are several different Guided media, however we define only the most popular as given below: a) Twisted pair cable b) Optic Fiber cable a) Twisted Pair Cable Twisted pair cable is still the most common transmission media. A twisted pair cable consists of two conductors which are normally made of copper. Each conductor has its own plastic insulation typically 1 mm thick. These cables are twisted together. The wires are twisted in a helical form, similar to a DNA molecule. Twisting is done to reduce crosstalk. Twisted Pairs (Figure 1.3) are very effective for relatively short distances (a few hundred feet), but can be used for up to a few kilometers. A twisted pair has a bandwidth to distance ratio of about 1 MHz per kilometer. The performance of the twisted pair can be substantially improved by adding a metallic shield around the wires. Shielded wires are much more resistant to thermal noise and crosstalk effects. Twisted pairs are used for long distance connections e.g. telephone lines which are usually organized as larger cable containing numerous twisted pairs. Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of which are very important: Category 3 and Category 5. Category 5 has more twists per centimeter resulting in less crosstalk and a better quality signal.

Figure 1.3: Twisted Pair Cable

b) Optical Fiber An optical fiber consists of two concentric cylinders: an inner core surrounded by a cladding. Both the core and the cladding are made of transparent plastic or glass material as shown in the Figure 1.4, which transmit signals in the form of light. Optical fiber use reflections to guide light through a channel. The density of the core and cladding must differ sufficiently to reflect the beam of light instead of refracting.

The core is used for guiding a light beam, whereas the cladding (which has a different refractive index) acts as a reflector to prevent the light signal instead of electrons, it does not suffer from the various noise problems associated with electromagnetic signals. The signal is usually generated by a laser or Light Emitting Diode (LED). Optical fibers can provide bandwidth to distance ratios in order of 100s of MHz per kilometer. Like other cables, hundreds of optical fibers are usually housed within one cable.

Networking and Internet

They are being increasingly used as telecommunication carriers for long distance digital trunk lines. Current trends promise that they will replace twisted pair residential loops in the near future. Optical fiber

Core

Cladding

Figure 1.4 : Optical Fiber Cable

Advantages 1) Higher Band width ± it can support higher band width and hence can transfer data at a higher rate. 2) Less signal attenuation ± its transmission distance is greater than the twisted pair and it can run for 50Kms without regeneration. 3) Immunity to electromagnetic interface 4) These cables are much lighter than the copper cables 5) These cables are more immune to tapping than the copper cables. Disadvantages 1) Installation or maintenance ± it needs expertise which is not available everywhere. 2) Unidirectional ± Propagation of light is unidirectional and we need two fibers for bidirectional communication. 3) Costly ± the cables and interfaces used are relatively expensive. 1.3.2

Unguided Media

Unguided media is used for transmitting the signal without any physical media. It transports electromagnetic waves and is often called wireless communication. Signals are broadcast through air and received by all who have devices to receive them. It can be categorized as follows: a) Radio waves b) Micro waves c) Infrared a) Radio Waves Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 Kilo-Hertz and 1 Giga-Hertz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are easy to generate and can travel long distances and can penetrate buildings easily, therefore widely used for communication. These are omni-directional which implies that these travel in all directions from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically. Radio signals have been used for a long time to transmit analog information. They are particularly attractive for long distance communication over difficult terrain or across the oceans, where the cost of installing cables can be too prohibitive.

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An increasingly-popular form of radio is cellular radio, which is currently being used by carriers for providing mobile telephone networks. These operate in the VHF (Very High Frequency) band and subdivide their coverage area into conceptual cells, where each cell represents a limited area which is served by a low-power transmitter and receiver station. As the mobile user moves from one cell area to another, its communication is handed over from one station to another. Radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna due to its Omni-directional property. Radio waves can be received both inside and outside the building. Radio waves are very useful in multicasting and hence used in AM and FM radios, cordless phones and paging. You may be wondering about the term multicasting. If the communication is between single source and destination then it is called unicast; on the other hand, if one source is transmitting signal and any destination that is in the range may be able to reach it then it is called broadcast. Multicast is when a source transmits a signal for some specific group of destinations which may be more than one. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a very popular application of short wave length radio transmission in the frequency band of 2400 to 2480 MHz. It is a proprietary wireless technology standard used for exchanging data over short distances in mobile phones and other related devices. It allows wireless devices to be connected to wireless host which may be a computer over short distances. You may have it for transferring data between a mobile phone and a computer provided both have Bluetooth technology. b) Microwaves Electromagnetic waves ranging from 1 to 300 Gigahertz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional that is the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. Microwave is by far the most widely used form of radio transmission. It operates in the GHz range with data rates in order of hundreds of Mbps per channel. Telecommunication carriers and TV stations are the primary users of microwave transmission. An important form of microwave system is a satellite system, which is essentially a microwave system plus a large repeater in the sky as shown in Figure 1.5. The signals transmitted by earth stations are received, amplified, and retransmitted to other earth stations by the satellite. Like other microwave systems, the bandwidth is subdivided into channels of 10s of MHz each, providing data rates in order of 100s of mbps. Because of their high bandwidths, satellites are capable of supporting an enormous number and variety of channels, including TV, telephone, and data. The satellite itself, however, is a major investment and typically has a limited lifetime (at most a few decades). Unidirectional property of microwave helps in avoiding interference by a pair of aligned antenna to another. High frequency micro waves cannot be received inside the building. Repeater

Earth station

Figure 1.5: Microwaves

Networking and Internet

c) Infrared Infrared signals range between 300 Giga-Hertz to 400 Tera-Hertz. These can be used for short range communication. High range infrared rays cannot be used for long range communication as it cannot penetrate walls. This also helps in avoiding interference. Infrared signals are generated and received using optical transceivers. Infrared systems represent a cheap alternative to most other methods, because there is no cabling involved and the necessary equipment is relatively cheap. Data rates similar to those of twisted pairs are easily possible. However, applications are limited because of distance limitations (of about one kilometer). One recent use of infra-red has been for interfacing hand-held and portable computing devices to Local Area Networks as shown in Figure 1.6. It cannot be used outside building as rays of sun contain infrared which leads to interference in communication. Infrared having wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate. Infrared signals can be used for communication between keyboards, mouse and printers.

LAN Infra-red

Hand-held Computer

Figure 1.6: Infra Red

Check Your Progress 1 1. What is the need of computer networks? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 2. In the context of communication system, what does a MODEM do? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 3. How can you improve the performance of twisted pair cables? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 4.

Describe the principal of optical fiber and its advantages and disadvantages? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

1.4 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES Network Topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a network interconnection between the nodes. It also determines the strategy for physically expanding the network, in future. Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the 13

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devices, location and cable installation. Logical Topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a network as opposed to its design. There are different types of the topologies like bus, ring, tree, mesh etc. However, we will discuss only the first three to introduce you to the concepts. 1.4.1

Bus Topology

Bus topology is a single common communication to which all the computers are connected. It has a single length of cable with a terminator at each end as shown in the Figure 1.7. It is a passive topology which means only one computer at a time can send a message. Hence, the number of computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the network. A computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. Each node is connected to others nodes. The network operating system keeps track of a unique address of each node and manages the flow of data between machines.

Figure 1.7: Bus topology

The bus topology is the simplest and most widely used with local area network design. The computers on the bus keep on listening. When they hear data that belongs to them, they receive. When one device on the network wants to send a broadcast message to another device on the network, it first makes sure no one else on the bus is transmitting, and then it sends information out on the media. All other devices on the network see it, but only the intended recipient accepts and processes it. This is accomplished by using data frames which contain source and destination addresses. Advantages a) It is simple, reliable, and easy to be used in a small sized local area network. b) It requires least amount of cable to connect computers together and is therefore less expensive than other cabling arrangements. c) It is easy to implement and extend using connectors. d) If one computer on the bus fails, it does not affect the rest of the traffic on the bus. Disadvantages a) In this topology, no two computers can transmit data at the same time. b) It does not cope well with heavy load which can slow down a bus considerably. c) Performance degrades as additional computers are added. d) Terminators are required at both ends of the cable. 1.4.2

Ring Topology

Ring topology is also known as circular topology. This layout is similar to the linear bus, except that the nodes are connected in a circle as shown in Figure 8. In this topology, each node is connected to two and only two neighboring nodes. The ring does not have an end. It is made of short segments that connect one PC to the next PC and so on Data is accepted from one of the neighboring nodes and is transmitted 14

onwards to another node .Therefore data travels in only direction from node to node around the rings. Since, each computer retransmits what it receives, a ring is an active network and is not subject to the signal loss problems. There is no termination because there is no end to the ring.

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This type of topology can be found in peer-to-peer networks, in which each machine manages both information processing and the distribution of data files. Examples of such topology: 1) IBM Token Ring 2) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Figure 1.8: Ring topology

Advantages a) It is an orderly network where every device has access to the token (control signal) and the opportunity to transmit Âą because every computer is given equal access to the token, no computer can monopolize the network. b) It performs better than a star topology under heavy network load. c) It can create much larger network using Token Ring. d) It does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers. Disadvantages a) Network adapter cards and Multi Access Units used in this topology are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs used in bus topology. b) It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load. c) It is difficult to troubleshoot. d) One malfunctioning node or bad port in the Multi Access Units can create problems for the entire network 1.4.3 Star Topology In star topology, each computer on a network communicates with a central hub (also called as a concentrator) that re-sends the message either to all the computers or only to the destination computer. A hub expands one network connection into many. For example, a four-port hub connects up to four machines. A single hub is sufficient for a small network; however large networks require multiple hubs. But, it increases hardware and cabling costs.

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Figure 1.9: Star Topology

Advantages a) It is more reliable (if one connection fails, it does not affect others) ÂąThe centre of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults and if one computer fails whole network is not disturbed. Hub detects the fault and isolates the faulty computer. b) It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices, problem can be easily detected-It is easier to modify or add a new computer without disturbing the rest of the network by simply running a new line from the computer to the central location and plugging it to the hub. c) Use of multiple cables types in a same network with a hub. d) It has good performance Disadvantages a) It is expensive to install as it requires more cable, it costs more to cable a star network because all network cables must be pulled to one central point, requiring more cable length than other networking topologies. b) Central node dependency, if central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. c) Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch the network traffic.

1.5 NETWORK CLASSIFICATION There are mainly three types of networks: 1) LAN (Local Area Network) 2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) 3) WAN (Wide Area Network) 1.5.1

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN (Figure 1.10) is a group of computers located in the same room, on the same floor or in the same building that are connected to form a single network as to share resources such as disk drives, printers, data, CPU, fax/modem, applications etc.

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Figure 1.10: LAN

LAN is generally limited to specific geographical area less than 2 Km., supporting high speed networks. A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have more recently become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet system based on the bus topology. Intermediate nodes (i.e., repeaters, bridges and switches discussed in section 1.7) allow to be connected together to from larger LANs. A LAN may also be connected to DQRWKHU /$1 RU WR :$1V DQG 0$1V XVLQJ D ³5RXWHU´ GHYLFH In general, there are five components of a LAN: 1) Network devices such as Workstations, printers, file servers which are normally accessed by all other computers. 2) Network Communication Devices i.e., devices such as hubs, routers, switches etc. that are used for network connectivity. 3) Network Interface Cards (NICs) for each network device required to access the network. It is the interface between the machine and the physical network. 4) Cable as a physical transmission medium. However, present day LAN may not require the physical transmission media. It may be a Wireless LAN. (Please refer to further readings for more details on wireless LANs) 5) Network Operating System ±software applications required to control the use of network operation and administration. Characteristics of LAN x

It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted geographical area.

LANs are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls. For the Wireless LANs there are additional regulations in several countries.

LANs operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN (.2 to 100 MB /sec).

There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Bus based Ethernet, Token ring.

Advantages of LAN x

It allows sharing of expensive resources such as Laser printers, software and mass storage devices among a number of computers.

LAN allows for high-speed exchange of essential information.

It contributes to increased productivity. A LAN installation should be studied closely in the context of its proposed contribution to the long range interest of the organization. 17

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Disadvantage of LAN Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect confidential data. The security may be further low if it is a wireless LAN. 1.5.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, are large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. They typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities or privately owned. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks. Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and wire/cable.

Figure 1.11: MAN

MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet. 1) The network size falls intermediate between LAN and WAN. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland. 2) A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN. Characteristics of MAN 1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms) 2) It is developed in 1980s.

3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fiber cables, however it may use other media too.

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4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications. 1.5.3

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (Figure 1.12) is a network system connecting cities, countries or continents, a network that uses routers and public communications links. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.

Figure 1.12: WAN

WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built around public network or Internet. Virtual Private Network (VPN): Consider a situation when you have a secure office LAN which contains some important update of your company products. You are out of the country for a business trip and want to see that information. What your company needs is a VPN. A VPN may be defined as the secure way of connecting to your private LAN (such as your company network) from a remote location using the Internet or any other unsecure network. In such a case, the data that is to be transmitted over the unsecure network is encrypted. In addition, VPNs have a proper mechanism for authenticating the user. Characteristics of WAN 1) It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents). 2) Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by routers. 3) Routers forward packets from one to another on a route from the sender to the receiver. Table 1.1 compares the three technologies :

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Table 1.1: Difference between LAN, WAN and MAN Characteristics

LAN

MAN

WAN

Full form

It stands for local area network.

It stands for metropolitan area network.

It stands for wide area network.

Cost

Less Costly

More Costly

Costliest

Speed (in general)(the speed is moving beyond the limit)

Upto 10-1 Gbps

5- 10 Mbps and beyond

256 Kbps to 2 Mbps and beyond

Range

1 Km

Upto 50 Kms

Whole earth (20.000 Km in each direction)

Topology

Bus and Ring

Distributed Queue Dual Bus [DQDB]

ATM, Frame Relay, Sonet

Location of computers connected in the system

Computers are located within the same building.

Computers are located in the city and are connected using modems or telephone lines so that they can be easily connected with each other.

Computers are distributed all over the country or the continent. The connection is made via satellite communication link or via internet.

Examples

/$1¶V H[DPSOH FDQ EH an office whose different departments such as personnel, accounting etc. are located in the same building and connected via bus topology using Ethernet cards.

Example of MAN is bank whose different branches in a city like Delhi are connected using public telephone exchange and the system are connected with each other using LAN within each branch and different branches are connected using modem and bridges.

:$1¶V H[DPSOH LV WKH connection of various branches of MNC such as Proctor & Gamble. These branches are linked using microwave satellite communication system or internet connection. Each branch has its own LAN circuit. But the GLIIHUHQW /$1¶V LQ various branches are communicating with head office using WAN link.

1.6 REFERENCE MODELS One of the most difficult software to be developed is the networking software. Reference models were designed to standardize the layer of functions and activities. The following section describes one of the most important reference models used in Computer Networks. OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model The OSI model is an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol design open system means that it can communicate with any other system that follows the specified standards, formats and semantics. Protocols give the rules that specify how the different parties may communicate. In its most basic form, it divides network architecture into seven layers which from top to bottom are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, DataLink, and Physical Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model (Figure 1.13). A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives service from the layer below it. On each layer an instance provides services to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the 20

layer below. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path. Any two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal protocol connection on that layer.

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The following are the layers of OSI model: 7

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Application

Upper (within a System)

Layer

Network

Media 1

Lower (between Systems)

Layer

Physical

Figure 1.13: OSI Model

In transmission side data flows from layer 7 to layer 1, then to cabling or suitable medium. When data reaches the reception side, it flows from layer 1 to layer 7. Application Layer: This layer is the layer for user interaction. We must have application software for dealing with the data. Presentation Layer: It converts the data into suitable format. It does tasks like compression, decompression, encryption and decryption. Session Layer: This layer manages connections between different application layers. Transport Layer: This layer converts data into segments and re-assembles the data stream. TCP and UDP are the protocols used in this layer. In this layer, data is converted into so called segments. Network Layer: This layer translates logical address into physical address. This layer also fixes the route for data path. Router works in this layer. In this layer data is called a packet. Data-Link Layer: This layer provides physical identification of a device using Media Access Control Address. It adds source and destination address to packets and convert them into frames. This is the layer that provides error free transmission. Physical Layer: This layer provides the functional requirements for activating a physical link. In this layer, data is carried from one device to another. Now, we can better understand the OSI layer with an example. Consider that you have to send a word document to a different network or through internet. The following are the process that will take place: 1.

In the APPLICATION LAYER, the user can edit the file by using application software like a word processor.

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In the PRESENTATION LAYER, user can compress the word file by using WINRAR or WINZIP and convert the data into different format for example.zip or .rar. You can also convert the word document into different formats.

In the SESSION LAYER, the particular file has to be integrated with browser for attaching it to email or likewise clients.

In the TRANSPORT LAYER, data is converted to segments. Source IP and destination IP are added to each packet. Frame checks and parity bits are also added in this layer.

In the NETWORK LAYER, the data is handed over to a router. The router calculates the best path for data transmission

In the DATA-LINK LAYER, transmission errors are handled and also flow of data is regulated so that receivers are not swamped by fast senders.

In the PHYSICAL LAYER, frames are transmitted as bits through media such as Optical fibre.

1.7 NETWORKING DEVICES For creating a network, you need certain basic devices. This section details some of these basic devices which are used to form a network. Network Interface cards, Hubs, bridges, repeaters, and routers are the devices that let you connect one or more computers to other computers, networked devices, or to other networks. Each has two or more connectors called ports (this term presently is used in the context of hardware) into which you plug in the cables to make the connection. Let us discuss each of these communication devices in detail. 1.7.1 Network Interface Cards The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the computer. Most NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for fast transfer of data. The most common network interface connection today is Ethernet cards. Ethernet cards Ethernet cards that contain connections for twisted pair cables have a RJ-45 connection. The Ethernet card is sometimes also called as network adapter card. Each for the Ethernet card is identified by a unique number called the Media Access Control (MAC) address. Your mobile phone on which you use internet, generally has a MAC address.

Figure 1.14: Network Interface Card

1.7.2 Modem Modem is an acronym for modulator demodulator. The meaning of the word modulator is to change and the meaning of the word demodulator is to restore to an original condition. A modem is a communication device that converts (i.e., modulates)

binary signal into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines and converts (i.e., demodulates) these analog signals back into binary form at the receiving end.

Networking and Internet

Figure 1.15 shows the data transmission through modem

Binary digital signal

Modulated analog signal

Demodulated digital signal Computer

Computer

Telephone Modem

Modem

Line

Figure 1.15: Data transmission through a modem

You can use a modem to send data and files to other computer users using standard telephone lines. You can transfer data, exchange electronic files, and even carry on a typed conversation in real time. Modems are of two types: Internal and External. Internal modems are hardware cards and External modems, are kept outside of your computer, connected either by a USB or Serial Port. Internal modems are good for general usage, as they take up less desk space, and do not require a power supply, and for most purposes, internal modems work fine. External modems tend to be slightly more expensive than internal modems. Many experts consider them superior because they contain lights which indicate how the modem is functioning. In addition, they can easily be moved from one computer to another. However, they do use up one COM port.

External modem

Internal modem Figure 1.16: Modems

1.7.3

Repeaters

When a signal travels a network cable (or any other medium of transmission), they lose strength, degrade and become distorted in a process that is called attenuation A repeater is a device that electrically amplifies the signal it receives and re-broadcasts it (Figure 1.17). They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used. A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. If a cable is long enough, the attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable by the receiver.

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Figure 1.17: Repeater

1.7.4 Bridge Like a repeater, a bridge can join several LANs. However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate traffic problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a single department is flooding the network with data and slowing down entire operation, a bridge can isolate those computers or that department. A bridge (Figure 1.18) is used to connect two segment i.e., segment 1 (LAN 1) and segment 2 (LAN 2). Each segment can have several computer attached to it. Segment 1/LAN1

Host

Segment 2/LAN2

Bridge

Figure 1.18: Bridge

1.7.5 Hub A hub sends any data packet coming from one port to all other ports. It is up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. Typically used to connect segments of a local area network (LAN), a hub contains multiple ports. You can imagine packets going through a hub as messages going into a mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it is up to the receiving party to decide if it is of interest. The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can easily become bogged down.

Figure 1.19: Hub

Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is never very high. A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least complicated of the hub, router and switches. Every computer connected to WKH KXE ÂłVHHVÂ´ HYHU\WKLQJ WKDW HYHU\ RWher computer on the hub sees.

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1.7.6 Switches A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently. By paying attention to WKH WUDIILF WKDW FRPHV DFURVV LW LW FDQ ÂłOHDUQÂ´ ZKHUH SDUWLFXODU DGGUHVVHV DUH )RU example, if it sees traffic from machine A coming in on port 2, it now knows that machine A is connected to that port and that traffic to machine A needs to only be sent to that port and not any of the others. The net result of using a switch over a hub is that most of the network traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every port. On busy networks this can make the network significantly faster.

Printer

Switch

Modem

Figure 1.20: Switch

A switch (or Switching Hub) is a device that can segment a larger local area network to reduce the traffic load. One should implement a switch when you have a network with 20 or more users that have bogged down the network by excess traffic. It splits the network into two or more segments with devices that normally talk with each other. Conceptually Âą switching takes data from one interface and delivers it to another interface. 1.7.7 Router A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to an intelligent bridge. Router selects the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along shortcuts. Routers FDQ HYHQ ÂłOLVWHQÂ´ WR WKH HQWLUH QHWZRUN WR GHWHUPLQH ZKLFK VHFWLRQV DUH EXVLHVWÂ˛they can then redirect data around those sections until they are removed. If you have a LAN that you want to connect to the internet, you will need to purchase a router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and the internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the internet. Routers maintain a map of the physical networks on a Internet (network) and forward data received from one physical network to other physical networks.

Figure 1.21 : Router

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1.7.8 Gateway If you are connected to the internet, you have to enter through a Gateway. A Gateway connects your smaller network to the internet. A gateway passes information from one network to another network as your information travels across the internet. Gateway Interconnects networks at higher layers than bridges or routers. A gateway usually supports address mapping from one network to another, and may also provide transformation of data between the environments to support end to end application connectivity. Gateway typically limits the interconnectivity of two networks to a subset of the application protocols supported on either one. Routers exemplify special cases of gateways. Gateway, also called protocol converters, can operate at any layer of the networking model. The job of a gateway is much more complex than that of a router or a switch. Typically, a gateway must convert one protocol into another. The main function of a gateway is to convert protocols among communications networks. A router by itself transfers, accepts and relays packets only across networks using similar protocol. A gateway, on the other hand, accepts data formatted for one protocol and convert it to data formatted for another protocol before forwarding it. A gateway can be implemented in hardware, software or both, but they are usually implemented by the software installed within a router. A gateway must understand the protocols used by each network linked into the router. Gateways are slower than bridges, switches and (non- gateway) routers. The computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes, while the nodes that connect the network in between are gateways. For example, the computers that control traffic between company networks or the computers used by internet service providers (ISPs) to connect users to the internet are gateway nodes. Check Your Progress 2 1)

Identify the characteristics of bus, ring and star topologies and write the best characteristic that you think while designing a topology. ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« Differentiate amongst LAN, MAN and WAN in terms of their coverage area. «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Identify the examples of networks around you and classify them in terms of LAN, MAN and WAN. «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Differentiate between a bridge and a router. «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Explain the function of hub and where should we use this communication device? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

What is the function of gateway?

«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Networking and Internet

1.8 INTERNET AND ITS SOFTWARE COMPONENTS After through some of the basic networking concepts, let us now look into some more concepts relating to one of the major application of networks the Internet. You have been introduced to internet in section 1.2.2. Let us once again sketch some of the basic points on Internet. x

Internet is a global connection of networks. But, how are these computer connected? The Internet is basically built up of multiple smaller networks called the subnets. Each computer systems on a subnet must have a unique address. All these subnets are connected together with network devices called routers, and each subnet may also contain its own subnets.

Figure 1.22 is a top level view of the structure of the Internet as a cloud of many routers that are connected to each other. You may be able to connect to any of the search engines that allows you to locate information on Internet or any of the web servers like IGNOU web server through many alternative routes. A client may be a part of LAN, WAN or wireless network, it does not matter. Everything is almost in the Internet cloud -why? Because all these networks use one common protocol for reliable data transfer, so they speak common language and communicate irrespective of physical differences. This basic communication protocol on Internet is the Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). This protocol ensures reliable delivery of information from one source identified by a unique IP address to a destination also identified by a unique IP address. Please note that the source and destination computer may either be local or remote computer, depending on the destination location. But what are these IP addresses?

Figure 1.22 : Structure of Internet

To connect to a physical network, all devices irrespective of being wired or wireless uses an interface card. An interface card may have its own unique physical address. However, you cannot locate a device just by its unique physical address, as these addresses do not provide any indication about the location of the device. Thus, you require a protocol that uniquely identifies a device on the Internet and Internet protocol version 6 (IPV6) which is beyond the scope of this unit. 27

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TCP and IP (TCP/IP) are the two core protocols of the Internet Protocol suite. The TCP primarily provides the reliable delivery of stream of bytes from a computer or a program to another computer or a program. It breaks the data stream into packets at the source and makes sure that all the packets are assembled orderly at the destination. The IP protocol on the other hand identifies the location of source and the destination. Any computer on Internet is identified by its unique IP address. Currently two standard versions of IP are available viz. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) which is currently being used on most of the Internet. An IPv4 address is a 32 bit address. IPv6 has not been discussed in this Unit.

Using the TCP/IP as the basic protocol Internet offers many services and application to it users like work wide web, Email, Chat, Social networking, collaboration etc

WWW is one of the major applications of Internet and is based on the concept of Hypertext that is hot links to a document that may reside on any website. It is a global infrastructure of connected documents.

Following are some of the major Software Components required to access Internet: x

The first software for internet access is the Operating system. An operating system must be installed properly on your system (so that it can handle the driver requirements of the hardware components).

Internet Browser: Browser is software that allows the user to access and read information on the World Wide Web. Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Netscape are the best-known browsers. SpaceTime 3D is new threedimensional browser. Only browser is sufficient for working with the Internet viz., the browser software that should be loaded on all the clients. In fact, the browser is one of the very intelligent software that contributed to the growth of World Wide Web. A browser converts the standard Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) web pages to a very sophisticated display with colours and pictures.

Firewall: Internet has many security problems like hacking, Trojan Horse, Virus, etc. There are various tools to provide protection against unwanted access of your computer by anyone else, but the most popular among all security measures is the firewall. Firewall is software that works on some set of rules and instructions given by you. A firewall helps to keep your computer more secure. It restricts information that comes to your computer from other computers, giving you more control over the data on your computer and providing a line of defense against people or programs (including viruses and worms) that try to connect to your computer without invitation.

TCP/IP protocol: This is the group of protocols that define the Internet and communication method used by it. Let us discuss it in more details :

Firewall

TCP/IP Stack TCP/IP was originally designed for the UNIX operating system; however, TCP/IP software is now available for every major operating system. In order to be compatible to the Internet, the computer must have TCP/IP compatible software. The major advantage of Internet is information sharing. Since in computers, bits and bytes are basic building blocks of information. Thus, one of the key aspects in network of many computers is to move bits between two specific computers. For such a communication, we require the address of the destination and a safe mean of moving data in the form of electronic signals. As far as safe movement of data is concerned, there exists a set of rules, which governs the sending, and receiving of data on the Internet.

A stack of protocols called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) implements these rules. Its name reflects names of only two protocols called TCP and IP. For sending large block of text/data to another machine, TCP divides the data into little data packets. It also adds special information e.g., the packet position, error correction code etc. to make sure that packets at the destination can be reassembled correctly and without any damage to data. The role of IP here is to put destinationaddressing information on such packets. On Internet, it is not necessary that all the packets will follow the same path from source to destination. A router tries to load balance various paths that exist on networks. Other gateways allow different electronic networks to talk to Internet that uses TCP/IP.

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The Internet layer is an important layer in the protocol suite. At this layer, TCP/IP supports Internet Protocol (IP). This layer is responsible for the format of datagram or a packet as defined by IP and routing and forwarding a datagram or packet to the next hop (hop is a term that can be used to represent any computing device on Internet like; router, gateway, computer etc. A hop is the trip from one device to the next.) The primary goal of the Internet is to provide an abstract view of the complexities involved in it. Internet must appear as single network of computers. At the same time network administrators or users must be free to choose hardware or various internetworking technologies like Ethernet, Token ring etc. Different networking technologies have different physical addressing mechanisms. Therefore, identifying a computer on Internet is a challenge. To have uniform addressing for computers over the Internet, IP defines an IP address, which is a logical address. IP address is a 32 bits number, can be represented in decimal e.g., 192.168.32.10. Now, when a computer wants to communicate with another computer on the Internet, it can use logical address and is not bothered with the physical address of the destination and hence the format and size of data packet. IP address is a basic address used by the lower architecture of Internet. It is important for you to know that, any address you type as web address or email address actually gets converted into the equivalent IP address of a machine or computer where the server or resource is available. Web address or email addresses are used for ease and convenience of human beings otherwise; it is just a burden for network. TCP/IP Model Just like the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has many layers which are described below: Host to Host Network: In fact TCP/IP model does not specify this layer. But it basically combines functionally of physical and data link layers. Starting at the bottom, the Physical layer is what deals with hardware (wires, cables, satellite links, NICs, etc.). Utilizing the existing Physical layer, TCP/IP does not define its own, thus letting the layer be compatible with all network suites. This layer also encodes and transmits data over network communications media in the form of bits which are received by the Physical layer of the destination device. Often combined with this layer is the Data link layer which is responsible for moving packets from the network layer onto different hosts. Depending on the connection type, IP packets are transmitted using various methods. Dial-up modems transmit IP packets using PPP while broadband users transmit using PPoE. TCP/IP Application Not present In the model Transport Internet Host network

Figure 1.23 : TCP/IP Model

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Internet Layer: This layer routes and delivers data across similar networks or completely different networks. The Network layer is responsible for end to end packet delivery while maintaining routing, flow control, and error control functions. An example of this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP) or the Internet Protocol Security (IPSec). Transport Layer: The Network layer can be thought of the actual vehicle which transports information. This layer categorizes end to end message transmissions or connecting applications as either Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is a connection-oriented protocol which is considered to provide a reliable byte stream. Some characteristics of TCP are traffic congestion control, data arrives in order, data has minimal error, and duplicate data is discarded. The top layer of the TCP/IP model is the Application layer which is used for network communication. Ports are used by programs to transfer data through this layer. For example, the File Transfer Protocol uses port 21 by default while the Hypertext Transfer Protocol uses port 80. TCP/IP has many benefits. TCP/IP enables cross-platform networking which is useful in this day-in-age. This suite also has superior failure recovery and the ability to add networks without interrupting existing services. The reliability of TCP/IP is also a huge benefit to using this protocol. The fact that if one part of the network goes down, other parts are still able to function is what has set TCP/IP above other networking protocols. TCP/IP is also easily expandable which allows for the unprecedented rate of growth which the Internet possesses.

1.9 INTERNET ADDRESSES We can classify the computers connected with Internet in two categories, servers and clients. A server is a computer with the capacity to provide connectivity and sharing to multiple personal computers or clients (any computing device you use to access the Internet), which is specifically set up to serve its files to client computers. The files that a server makes available to your computer can be web pages, videos, sounds, images, etc. A web server normally has: x

A high end computer with web server software. The three most popular web server software are: x

Apache HTTP Server, available in public domain

Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS)

Sun Java System Web Server

A very good Internet connection speed, so that it can support multiple simultaneous users.

Its own URL and IP address. (What is a URL? URL - Uniform Resource Locator. URL is theglobal address of a document or resource on the WWW)

For your home computer to be able to receive files or any data from a server, your computer must request this information. This happens when you enter an URL in your browser or when you receive e-mail. When we work on Internet we come across different types of addresses used for different purposes, like; web address, IP address, email address. Each one has a special syntax, and meaning. It is important for you to know about these addresses, before you start working on Internet.

Networking and Internet

1.9.1 IP Addresses Figure 1.23 shows an IPv4 address: IP address: 192.168.1.97 in various forms: Decimal

192

Hexadecimal

Binary

168 0 1

A 0

8 0

0 0

1 0

6 0

1 1

Figure 1.23: IP Address

IPv4 address is a series of four numbers separated by dots (.). The four numbers ranges between 0 and 255. So IPv4 address takes only 4-bytes (or 32-bits) of computer memory. Not all the IPv4 addresses may be used to identify a computer. Some addresses of IPv4 are not used at all due to certain restrictions. In addition, some addresses are reserved, for example; the IP address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts. Every device, computer, printer or peripheral connected to a TCP/IP network must have its own IP address. Each 32 bit IP address consists of two components: x

Network Identifier (Net ID) ± which identifies one of the Networks that is a part of Internet.

Device Identifier (Device ID) ± which identifies a specific device within the identified Net-ID.

A Net ID may be of 8 to 24 bits long. By using a subnet mask in combination with their own IP address, you can determine the destination address of the devices is remote or local. For example, consider the IP address 192.168.1.35, having 24 bits Net ID. The remaining 8 bits of this address specifies the device ID. The subnet mask for this network should be 255.255.255.0. This subnet mask is used to identify the IP address of the network. Now, consider a situation in your office, you want to create a small network, but your network service provider has given you only one IP address? Fortunately, there are IP addresses that have been kept for private network. These addresses are not globally allotted to any organisation but are addresses with in your private network. To connect your private network to the Internet, you are required either to use a network address translator gateway, or a proxy server. Please refer to further readings for more details on these networks. The IP range that is allocated for such non-routable addresses are: IP Address

Subnet Mask

Number of IP addresses (some what equivalent to maximum possible number of Computers/ network devices

10.0.0.0 ± 10.255.255.255

255.0.0.0

16,777,216

172.16.0.0 ± 172.31.255.255

255.240.0.0

1,048,576

192.168.0.0 ± 192.168.255.255

255.255.0.0

65,536

The subnet mask is similar to an IP address - it is also a 4-byte (or 32-bits) field and can be represented using dot notation. In binary, it always comprise a series of ones, followed by sequence of zeros. The total number of bits is 32, but the number of ones and zeros determines the nature of the mask. By comparing any IP address with a

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given mask, you can split addresses into two parts, a network ID and a device ID. The following example explains this concept in more details. Suppose your computer has an IP address of 193.168.1.35 and you want to access a location 193.168.1.56, as your subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, it will give you following answers: Host (you):

193.168.1.35

Subnet Mask

255.255.255.0

Result:

193.168.1.0

Accessed Location

193.168.1.56

Subnet Mask

255.255.255.0

Result:

193.168.1.0

Since, the Result of both the operation points to same Net ID, therefore, you can conclude that the referred destination IP address is local. Now, suppose your computer has an IP address of 191.168.1.35 and your NetID is 16 bit long. Suppose you want o access a location 190.168.1.35. Since, you have 16 bit NetID, therefore, your network subnet mask will be 255.255.0.0, it will give you following answers:

Sub-netting is based on CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) concept. It is used in routing between networks both locally and

Host (you):

191.168.1.35

Subnet Mask

255.255.0.0

Result:

191.168.0.0

Accessed Location

190.168.1.35

Subnet Mask

255.255.0.0

Result:

190.168.0.0

Since, the Result of both the operation points to different Net ID, therefore, you can conclude that the referred destination IP address is remote. By comparing the source network ID with the IP address of the source and the network ID of the destination IP address, you can easily determine if the destination is within the same subnet. A web page request, thus, can be identified as local page or a page from remote server. But, how do you find the location of the remote server? The answer to this question is beyond the scope of this unit. However, you should know that routers may be responsible in finding the final path to the remote server. As the numbers of users are increasing, the IPv4 addresses will run short. Therefore, a 128 bit Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) was designed which is at present actively being deployed on the Internet. This series can provide up to 3.4 X 1038 addresses. For more details on IPv6, please refer to Further Readings.

1.9.2 DNS and Web Addresses

Networking and Internet

An Internet or Web address is used to view a web page. When you are viewing a Web page, the web address of the page appears in the Address bar in the browser. In the previous section, you have gone through the concept of IP addresses. What do you think about the IP address? Are they not very cumbersome to remember? For example, to visit IGNOU website the address www.ignou.ac.in is far simpler than that of an IP address like 190.10.10.247. Obviously, what we want to use are simpler textual domain addresses instead of complex IP addresses. However, to enable the use of simple textual address, you will require a service that will map these text based names to respective IP addresses automatically. Such a service was designed in 1983 by the University of Wisconsin with the name Domain Name System (DNS). In the present day, Internet, Domain Name System (DNS) should keep track of address of each computer or any other internet device and email addresses. The name servers translates the web address or email address to respective IP address. For example, the name server translates address like www.ignou.ac.in into a computer understandable IP address. It sounds simple, but remembers on Internet you are dealing with million of addresses and every day this list is increasing. All these computers have a unique address. Therefore, DNS follows a hierarchical naming scheme that is supported by distributed database system to ensure no duplicate names are issued at all. Figure 1.24 shows the hierarchical structure of domains names on Internet. For example, traversing the hierarchy from the top you can track down ignou.ac.in as: First you can find the in (India) in the top level country domains. Within this domain find the ac (Academic) sub domain. Please note most of the Indian Universities will be in this sub-domain. Finally, in the ac you can find the entry for ignou. This entry should point to the IP address for the ignou.ac.in for the WWW as well as for the mail server. This is how the DNS finds the addresses, thus, is a very efficient system.

Figure 1.24: A sample portion of domain names on Internet

Thus, using the DNS you will be able to relate a given textual address to IP address. For converting domain name into IP address, it first accepts request from programs and other servers. After accepting the request, the name server can do the following: x

If it knows the IP address of requested domain, it will answer the request with an IP address of the requested domain.

If it does not know the requested domain name, it will contact another name server and try to find the IP address.

If the requested domain name is invalid or domain does not exist, it will return an error message. 33

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But how can you name a web page on the Internet? To answer this question you may first identify that a web page actually is part of a website that may reside on a web server having a unique IP address. Thus, to identify a web page you need to identify ± x

The protocol used to access that page.

The server on which the website is located.

The name of the page within that web site. Please note that simple web pages are stored as files.

Please note that a web page may be stored as a single or multiple files. Thus, to identify a web page you will have an address like: http://www.ignou.ac.in/students/result.html x

the address as above recognises the protocol http (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) to access the page,

the www.ignou.ac.in identifies the DNS name of IGNOUs WWW server, and

the name of the page accessed by you is result.html which resides in the students folder within the website.

This address is called the URL. URL stands for Uniform Resource Locater. You can now clearly see that a URL consists of three parts ± the first part is used to tell the browser what kind of server it will connect to. In the example above, the browser will connect to a web server using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Other protocols that we can use in this field of an URL are FTP, smtp etc. the protocol is alwa\V IROORZHG E\ ³://´ The range of Well Known Ports is in between 0±65535

The second part of an URL is a fully Qualified Domain Name (www.ignou.ac.in). In an URL, the fully qualified domain name identifies the site running the server. Web servers use port 80 by default, but some servers has been set up to use other ports. For this, a URL can contain a port number following the domain name and separated from it by a colon (www.ignou.ac.in:80), it is optional to write a port number with domain name. If the URL contains no port number, the default port is used. The first two parts of an URL are used to identify the web server of the website. Each web server has a home page and a directory to store the entire document related to the web page like images, audio, video files. The third component of URL is an optional pathname for a particular document itself. For example, the address http://www.ignou.ac.in/students/result.html specifies the file result.html i.e., in the directory students (/students/result.html) in the specified web server.

URL - Uniform Resource Locator ± identifies the GLOBAL address of a document or

But how does this information exchange between the web client and web server is achieved? This whole communication is managed by a protocol called the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). However, the only protocol that works on Internet as told to you in the previous section was TCP/IP. So what is this HTTP? Please note HTTP can work only over a connection that is managed by TCP. Thus, it is a higher level protocol that uses the services of TCP. HTTP specifies the list of actions that lead to transfer of a requested information exchange between a web client and web server. Whenever you wish to visit a web page on the internet, you request that page from a web server. When you type a URL into your browser (for example, "http://www.abc.com/"), your web browser requests the page (or file) named index.html from the web server and the web server sends the page back to the web browser. Let us identify these steps in more details: 1) As a first step you may put a URL like http://www.abc.com/index.html or equivalent Domain name www.abc.com as the address of the website that you want to access through your web browser.

2) The Web browser tries to resolve the IP address of the website www.abc.com by the information available in its own cache memory. If web server does not have the information about IP address stored in its cache, it requests the IP address from Domain Name System (DNS) servers. The DNS server tells the browser about the IP address of the website.

Networking and Internet

3) Once the web browser knows the IP address of the website, it then requests the web page (index.html page which is the home page in the present example) from the web server. 4) The web server responds by sending back the requested web page. If the requested page does not exist then it will send back the appropriate error message. 5) Your web browser receives the page from the web server and displays it as per the display requirements of the web page. 1.5.3 E-mail Addresses As you have studied earlier that e-mail is one of the popular services increasingly being used by people in their daily life. The following can be a typical email address format on Internet for any e-mail service provider like, Gmail, Rediff, Yahoo, MSN, or any network (domain) name etc. username@subdomain.domain

The username in general is the name assigned or chosen during creation of an email account. Sub-domain are domain we have already discussed in above section, in case of private service provider it is generally its own name like abc@yahoo.com, abc@yahoo.co.in, abc@gmail.com, etc. On the Internet you can see both kind of domains non-Geographic and geographic domains. Lets take an example to better understand an e-mail address: In an e-mail address ³naveen@ignou.ac.in´, naveen indicates the username, the sub-domain named IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) which is an academic organisation (.ac) and is situated in country India (.in).

Check Your Progress 3 1.

What are the services on Internet? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

What is firewall? Where can it be used? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

What it TCP/IP? Why is it used? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

What is a URL? «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Define the terms DSN, IPv4 address, Subnet mask «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Internet Technologies

1.10 SUMMARY This unit is an effort to answer some of the very basic questions about the data communications, networking and the Internet. The Unit first defines the term networks, while discussing its advantages and disadvantages. It also defines the term Internet. Some of the basic terminology of data communications like modes of transmission, speed of transmission, packet etc has also been defined. To communicate data, you require some channel. This unit provides details on the Guided and unguided data transmission channels. Network topologies define the basic structure of the network. Three basic network topologies Âą bus, ring and star have been defined in this Unit. The networks can also be classified on the basis of their characteristics. LANs are the networks that cover a range of few Kilometers whereas MANs cover a range of about 50 Kilometers. The WANs have the largest range. On the other hand, the speed of transmission of data decreases from LAN to WAN as you can employ better, faster but costlier technology at short distances. The unit also covers the reference models that may define the networking software. In addition, the unit discusses about some of the basic devices used in Computer Network. These devices are - Network Interface Card, Modem, Repeaters, Bridge, Hub, Switches, Router and Gateway. The Unit also explains the IP addresses, DNS and email based addresses. One of the most important addresses for Internet user is Uniform Resource Locator that uniquely identifies a document or resource on the Internet. Networking and Internet is a very dynamic area and newer technologies emerge very fast in this area. Therefore, you must update yourself on various newer concepts on these topics from the further readings.

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 1.

Computer networks are manly used for the purpose of resource sharing which helps in reducing organizational costs. Networks are highly reliable, scalable and very powerful communication system.

MODEM is an encoder as well as decoder it converter digital signal to analog at the source and analog signal back to digital at the destination.

The performance of the twisted pair can be improved by adding a metallic shield around the wires. Shielded wires are much more resistant to thermal noise and crosstalk effects.

An optical fiber consists of two concentric cylinders: an inner core surrounded by a cladding. Both the core and the cladding are made of transparent plastic or glass material. Optical fiber use reflections to guide light through a channel. The density of core and cladding must differ sufficiently to reflect the beam of light instead of refracting. The core is used for guiding a light beam, whereas the cladding (which has a different refractive index) acts as a reflector to prevent the light from escaping from the core. Optical Fiber has high bandwidth and does not suffer from noise. However, it is costly and requires experts to do the connections.

Check Your Progress 2

The basic characteristic of topology is its organization. This leads to properties that may be used to differentiate them. Some of these characteristics are: Network Scalability, Cost, Length of Cable etc.

LAN Âą about 2 Kms it is high speed network; MAN up to 50 Kms - may use devices like Modem; WAN Âą covers large distances like states countries.

LAN Âą Network in a University, Small office, Internet Cafes

Networking and Internet

MAN Âą Cable TV network WAN Âą Internet, VPN etc. 4.

A bridge connects several LANs. A bridge can also divide a network to isolate traffic or problems. Bridge Interconnects LAN segments at the network interface layer level and forwards frames between them. A router translates information from one network to anther; it is more intelligent than a bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin. In contrast to bridges few of the large routers may include programs for their operations.

A hub is the simplest of connection devices. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports. It is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least amount of date going across the network is network is never very high.

Gateway Interconnects networks at higher layers than bridges or routers. A gateway usually supports address mapping from one network to another, and may also provide transformation of the data between the environments to support end-to-end application connectivity. The main functionality of a gateway is to convert protocols among communications networks. A gateway on the other hand can accept a packet formatted for one protocol and convert it to packet formatted for another protocol before forwarding it. Gateways work on all seven OSI layers.

Check Your Progress 3 1)

Today you can avail the facilities of e-mail; messenger services, Chatting etc., to share your ideas, knowledge, and feeling. You can join different groups, discussion forums or create your own blogs. You can use websites to broadcast huge amount of information on Internet.

Firewall is software that works on some set of rules and instructions given by you. A firewall helps to keep your computer more secure and protect from many security problems like; hacking, Trojan Horse, Virus, etc. It restricts information that comes to your computer from other computers, giving you more control over the data on your computer and providing a line of defense against people or programs (including viruses and worms) that try to connect to your computer without invitation.

A stack of protocols called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) implements different rules to handle the data communication from source machine to destination machine. For sending a message from source machine to destination machine, TCP divides the message data into little data packets. It also adds special information e.g., the packet position, error correction code etc., to make sure that packets at the destination can be reassembled correctly and without any damage to data. The role of IP here is to put destination-addressing information on such packets. On Internet it is not necessary that all the packets will follow the same path from source to destination A special machine called routers tries to, load balance various paths that exist on networks. Other special machine called gateways allows different electronic networks to talk to Internet that uses TCP/IP.

A URL is a unique identifier for a resource on Internet.

DNS is responsible for Web addresses to IP address; IPv4 address is a 32 bit address of a host on Internet. Subnet mast separates Network ID and Machine ID.

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1.12 FURTHER READINGS x

CIT-001-Fundamentals of Computer System, Block 3 : Networking and Communication, Block Preparation team : Sh. Shashi Bhushan (Content editor) and Shri Saurabh Shukla

CIT-001 : Web based Technologies and Multimedia Applications, Block-1 : Internet Concepts, Block Preparation Team ± Prof. M.N. Dooja (Content Editor), Dr. Pramod Kumar (Language Editor), Dr. R. Khandwal, Mr. Hemant Rana, Dr. Naveen Kumar, Mr. Akshay Kumar.

A.S. Tanenbaum, ³&RPSXWHU 1HWZRUNV´, Pearson Education Asia, 4th Ed.

Behrouz A. Forouzan, ³'DWD &RPPXQLFDWLRQV DQG 1HWZRUNLQJ´, Tata McgrawHill.

William Stallings, ³'DWD DQG &RPSXWHU &RPPXQLFDWLRQV´, Sixth Edition, Prentice Hall.

Behrouz A. Forouzan, ³7&3 ,3 3URWRFRO 6XLW´, Tata Mcgraw-Hill

D.E. Comer, 2001 ³,QWHUQHWZRUNLQJ ZLWK 7&3 ,3´, Pearson Education Asia.

Comer E. Doughlas, 2000 ³&RPSXWHU 1HWZRUNV DQG ,QWHUQHWV´, 2nd Ed., Pearson.

Laura Chappel(Ed), 99³,QWURGXFWLRQ WR &LVFR 5outHU &RQILJXUDWLRQ´, Techmedia.

Alexis Leon and Mathews Leon(1999), Fundamentals of Information Technology, Leon TechWorld publication.

PK Sinha & Priti Sinha, ³)RXQGDWLRQV RI &RPSXWLQJ´, BPB Publication.

Dr. Larry Leng(2004), Computer Fundamental, Wiley Dreamtech Publication.

Suresh K. Basandra(2003), Computer Today, Galgotia publication.

Thomas A. Powell, Web Design: the complete reference, Tata Mc. Graw-Hill, 2004

References websites

x x x x

http://www.brainbell.com/tutorials/Networking/ http://www.networktutorials.info/ http:// www.nethistory.info/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem

x x

http://en.kioskea.net/contens/transmission/transmode.php3 http://brainbell.com

x x

http://eiu.edu http://neiu.edu

x x x x x x

http://public.pacbell.net/faq/general_faq.html www.unf.edu/library/guides/search.html www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/guides/Internet/SearchEngines.html www.sc.edu/beaufort/library/pages/bones/lesson7.shtml http://mail.google.com/support/?hl=en http://help.yahoo.com/l/us/yahoo/messenger/messenger8/index.html

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