Arhitektura slovenije 2, severovzhodni del by VISART studio, Kvants-Visart d.o.o.

218 mm

9 mm zgib

L 510 mm H 280 mm

19 mm hrbet

27,5 mm zgib

9 mm zgib

218 mm

27,5 mm zgib

17,5 mm zgib

vernakularna arhitektura, severovzhod vernacular architecture, northeast

borut juvanec * ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE * ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA

borut juvanec

arhitektura slovenije architecture of slovenia

borut juvanec

arhitektura slovenije 2

AS2

architecture of slovenia 2

36,50 â&#x201A;Ź

27,5 mm zgib

9 mm zgib

19 mm hrbet

9 mm zgib

17,5 mm zgib

27,5 mm zgib

21345 borut juvanec

arhitektura slovenije arhitecture of slovenia vernakularna arhitektura, severovzhod vernacular arhitecture, northeast

Ljubljana 2010

Borut Juvanec ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE 2, Vernakularna arhitektura, severovzhod ARHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA 2, Vernacular Arhitecture, Northeast oprema, oblikovanje in prelom Domen Zupančič lektoriranje Karmen Sluga prevajanje Martin Cregeen, angleški teksti Mark Wollrab, nemški izvleček Hélène Erjavec, francoski izvleček fotografije Borut Juvanec Domen Zupančič predgovor prof. dr. Peter Fister naslovnica spredaj Filovci, Bojnec 2009 naslovnica zadaj Libanja 2009 izdala i2 Družba za založništvo, izobraževanje in raziskovanje d.o.o., Ljubljana Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za arhitekturo za založbo Iztok Hafner tisk Bograf d.o.o., Bevke Knjigo je kot znanstveno monografijo podprla Javna agencija za knjigo RS. Naklada 700 izvodov. Prvi natis. Prva izdaja. CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 72.031.4(497.4) JUVANEC, Borut Arhitektura Slovenije. 2, Vernakularna arhitektura, severovzhod = Architecture of Slovenia. [2], Vernacular Architecture, Northeast / Borut Juvanec ; [prevajanje Martin Cregeen, Mark Wollrab, Hélene Erjavec ; predgovor Peter Fister]. - 1. izd., 1. natis. - Ljubljana : i2 : Fakulteta za arhitekturo, 2010 ISBN 978-961-6348-63-8 (i2) 247964928

Ljubljana, 2010 Maloprodajna cena je 36,50€. © 2010, Založba i2 Vse pravice pridržane. Brez pisnega soglasja založbe i2 d.o.o. je prepovedano reproduciranje, javna priobčitev, predelava ali kakršnakoli druga uporaba tega avtorskega dela ali njegovih delov v kakršnemkoli obsegu ali postopku vključno s fotokopiranjem ali digitalizacijo. Tako ravnanje predstavlja kršenje avtorskih pravic.

contents

vsebina Predgovor Pregledna karta Vernakularna arhitektura, Teorija 2 Objekti, predstavitve, Severovzhod Slovarček Indeks Viri Izvleček, Abstract, Auszug, Résumé

7 8 9 55 161 181 185 189

Preface Map of Slovenia Vernacular Architecture, Theory 2 Objects, presentation, the Northeast Glossary (Slovene) Index Bibliography Abstract, Auszug, Résumé

preface

predgovor prof. dr. Peter Fister Spoznanja o tem, v kako kvalitetnem, razpoznavnem in značilnem prostoru živimo ter hkratni razmislek o bodočnosti kulturne dediščine našega bivalnega okolja se danes v največji meri pojavljajo prav v zvezi z njegovimi stavbarskimi značilnostmi. Te sestavlja tako arhitektura posebnih vrednosti kot še bolj tista arhitektura (=stavbarstvo), ki jo označujemo kot anonimno, ljudsko, vernakularno. Vse človekovo oblikovanje bivalnega okolja je bilo namreč vedno usmerjeno v vzpostavitev posebne identitete, ki mu je zagotavljala uveljavitev njegovih zahtev po njemu prilagojenem načinu življenja in odnosu do prostora. Če torej iščemo eno od osnovnih vrednot stavbne dediščine in s tem bivalnega okolja, je to lahko le vrednost dosežene stopnje oblikovanega prostora in vseh vrst arhitekture, ki jih je človek ustvaril ali ki jih še ustvarja. Ker pa čas danes neusmiljeno pozablja na te vrednosti, ker jih preprosto ne razpozna več, je njihova predstavitev še toliko bolj pomembna. Prikaz danes komaj še ohranjenih najbolj značilnih sestavin vernakularne arhitekture v izbranih regionalnih okvirih, kakor ga je zastavil dr. Juvanec, ponuja Sloveniji kar nekaj možnosti. Seznanja današnjega prebivalca Slovenije s tistimi posebnostmi, zaradi katerih je lahko ponosen na svoj dom. Dokazuje, da so ljudje v tem navidezno majhnem delu sveta skozi mnoge generacije ustvaril svojo lastno in kvalitetno podobo bivalnega okolje in to vse od najmanjše podrobnosti do oblikovanja pokrajine. Obenem ponuja primerjavo s širšim evropskim prostorom in posreduje te vrednote kot poseben doprinos tej širini. Ker je predstavitev tako pripravljena, da je razumljiva vsem, obenem pa tudi bralcem izven meja Slovenije, je to hkrati posebna oblika predstavitve in promocije tega izjemnega dela Evrope. Pričakujemo lahko, da bo zato spodbudila večji ponos da imamo tako kulturno dediščino in da bodo predstavljeni dragulji slovenske vernakularne arhitekture postali cilji mnogih obiskovalcev ter želja prebivalcev, da jih ohranijo kot izjemne vrednote. Obenem s predstavitvijo značilnosti in posebnosti vernakularne arhitekture izbranega dela Slovenije, ki v dvojezičnem tekstu ponuja tudi tujemu obiskovalcu tega območja podrobno predstavitev, pa je način razlage, ki ga avtor uporablja tak, da je monografijo mogoče brati kot znanstveno delo hkrati pa kot neke vrste razgovor z bralcem. To seveda le povečuje možnost, da ponovimo že predhodno podano pričakovanje, da bo delo privabilo ne le obiskovalce teh krajev k ogledu vseh navedenih posebnosti, ampak opozorilo tudi prebivalce, lastnike in predvsem odgovorne za ohranitev te bogate dediščine, da so to resnične vrednote, ki ne smejo biti pozabljene. In nenazadnje – monografija je v resnici eden redkih »glosarjev« (seznam manj znanih besed, kot to razlaga slovenski pravopis), ki vračajo tudi arhitekturni stroki mnoge pozabljene pojme, brez katerih seveda ni mogoče razumeti naše slovenske arhitekturne dediščine.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Recognition of the high quality, identifiable and characteristic space in which we live and, at the same time, consideration of the future of the cultural heritage of our living environment appears to the greatest possible extent today precisely in connection with its building characteristics. These consist of both architecture of special value and, even more, the architecture (building) that is designated anonymous, folk or vernacular. All of mankind's design of the living environment, namely, has always been directed into establishing a special identity, which met his requirements adapted to his way of life and relation to space. If, therefore, we seek one of the basic values of the building heritage, and thus the living environment, this can only be that of the achieved level of designed space and all the kinds of architecture that man has created or is still creating, Because today's time is mercilessly forgetting these values, because it simply no longer recognises them, their presentation is that much more important. A presentation of the most characteristic elements of vernacular architecture within selected regional frameworks, hardly still preserved today, such as Dr. Juvanec has undertaken, provides Slovenia with a number of opportunities. It familiarises today's inhabitants of Slovenia with the particularities because of which they can be proud of their home. It proves that people in this apparently small part of the world, over the course of many generations, have created their own high-quality image of the living environment, right from the smallest details to shaping the landscape itself. At the same time, if offers a comparison with the wider European space and mediates these values as a special contribution to this dimension. Because the book has been prepared in such a way that it is understandable to all, including readers outside Slovenia's borders, it is at the same time a special form of presentation and promotion of this exceptional part of Europe. It can therefore be expected to encourage greater pride that we have such a cultural heritage, that the presented jewels of Slovene vernacular architecture will become the destination of many visitors and that the desire of the inhabitants to preserve them as exceptional values will be increased. At the same time, with the presentation of the characteristics and specialities of the vernacular architecture of the chosen part of Slovenia, which in bilingual text also provides foreign visitors to this region with a detailed presentation, the method of explanation that the author has used is such that the monograph can be read as a scientific work, and simultaneously a kind of discussion with readers. This, of course, only increases the possibility already mentioned that the work can be expected not only to attract visitors to these places to see all the cited particularities but also to draw the attention of the inhabitants, the owners, and above all those responsible for preserving this rich heritage, that these are true values which must not be forgotten. And finally – the monograph is actually one of the few »glossaries« (lists of less well-known terms), which also restores to the architectural profession many forgotten concepts, without which of course it is not possible to understand the Slovene architectural heritage.

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Madžarska

Avstrija

Panonska nižina

St Veit Št Vid

Spittal

RADKERSBURG

Drau

Gail / Zilja

Kranjska Gora

Lavamuend Labot

Voelkermarkt Velikovec

KLAGENFURT CELOVEC

Velden Vrba

Julijske Alpe

G.Radgona

Ferlach Borovlje

Ravne na K.

Karavanke

Pohorje

Italija

Bohinj

Ormož

KRANJ

Sava Bohinjka Boh Bistrica

Drava

Savinja

Kamniške Alpe

Radovljica S

Mura

Čakovec

Velenje

Tržič

ava

Kobarid

PTUJ

Slov Bistrica

Solčava

Bled

Studor

MARIBOR

Drava

Slovenj Gradec

Črna

Soča

Lenti

Lenart

Eisenkappel Žel. Kapla

JESENICE

BOVEC

Mura

Drau Drava

Mojstrana Sava Dolinka

Mozirje Gornji Grad

Kamnik

CELJE

Rogaška Slatina

Tuhinj

Žalec

Železniki

Tolmin

Most na Soči

Cerkno

ča So

Trbovlje

Domžale

Škofja loka

nja

S Pietro al Nat. Špeter Slovenov

Cividale Čedad

Zagorje

Hrastnik

Poljane

Idrijca

Litija

N GORICA

Idrija

LJUBLJANA

ica

n Vrhnika lja ub Lj

Borovnica

Trebnje

Mokronog

Kras

Brežice

Sežana

TRIESTE TRST

Jadransko morje

POSTOJNA

ZAGREB

Sava

Žužemberk

Cerknica

NOVO MESTO

Ribnica

Divača

KOPER CAPODISTRIA

Izola Piran Isola Pirano

Krka

Kočevje

Pivka

Grado Gradež

Krško

Grosuplje

Ajdovščina

So ča

5.ooo.ooo m

Sevnica

Iv Gorica

Logatec

Hrvaška

Sava

Polhov Gradec

GORIZIA GORICA

Sa vi

UDINE VIDEM

MURSKA SOBOTA

2 SEVEROVZHOD 1 ALPSKI DEL 3 OSREDNJI DEL 5 KRAŠKI 4 JUŽNA DEL HRIBOVJA Poertschah Poreče

VILLACH BELJAK

Hermagor Šmohor

Ilirska Bistrica

lpa

Črnomelj

Karlovac

5oo. ooo m

Slovenija o 1o

5okm

Vernakularna arhitektura, Teorija 2 Vernacular Architecture, Theory 2

Uvod

Introduction

Arhitektura pomeni dobesedno 'trdno stati', v današnjem pomenu besede je to oblikovanje prostora. Najraje povem takole: arhitektura ni projekt, ne gradnja in ne realizacija, pač pa funkcija in predvsem delovanje. To funkcioniranje lahko presodijo le uporabniki. Ne v enem popoldnevu, pač v življenju z objektom in v odnosu do drugih objektov skozi čas. Pri tem igra zelo pomembno vlogo tako celota kot detajl. Preprostost delovanja zagotavlja tudi rezultat, konstrukcija enostavnost postavitve in delovanje zgradbe z vključevanjem različnih materialov. Pračloveku je bila prvo zatočišče jama (Oliver 2003:86). Zaščitila ga je s petih strani. Ko pa se je odpravil ven, po hrano, je moral uporabljati orodje in orožje. Verjetno je bilo najprej orožje, s katerim si je zagotovil več sredstev za preživetje, kot jih je rabil. Zato je lahko začel razmišljati o drugih stvareh: lačen človek ni narisal slik v Altamiri, ni klesal prvih kipov in ni postavil svojega prvega zatočišča zunaj jame (Juvanec 2005:14). Zunaj jame pa ni začel svojega delovanja z orožjem, pač pa z mislijo. Živalim je nagnal strah v kosti z uporabo ognja. Ogenj postavlja navidezno steno in predstavlja varovanje. Večji kot je, večja je varnost, ogenj širi vidno polje, toploto in s tem varnost v krožnici okrog centra. Zato je prva zgradba tudi taka z okroglo steno. Ta stena pa je težka za izvedbo, zgradba z zgradbo se ne sestavlja brez ostanka, tako da je izkoriščenost razmeroma majhna. To postane še posebej pomembno takrat, ko dobi stena še druge lastnosti: stabilnost, debelino, izolativnost, akumulativnost, odpornost proti sovražnikovemu orožju itn. Razvoj človeka je sledil človekovi misli: posledice so bile tudi v arhitekturi (Egenter 1992:41). Hiša je postajala vse bolj udobna, omogočala je tudi druge dejavnosti, ki do tedaj niso bile mogoče. Človek je uporabil materiale, ki jih je dosegel, pa take, ki jih je sam obdelal in si jih priredil. Ti materiali in te konstrukcije so s časom spreminjali svojo funkcijo, razvijali so se in se izpopolnjevali. Človek pa se je razvijal naprej. Iskal je nove vire preživljanja, nove

Architecture means literally 'to stand firmly'; in today's meaning of the word it is the design of space. I prefer to put it like this: architecture is not a project, it is not construction or realisation, but function and, above all, operation. This functioning can only be judged by the user: not over the course of an afternoon but by living with the object, and in relation to other objects over time. Both the totality and detail play very important roles in this. Simplicity of operation ensures effectiveness, and the construction provides the simplicity of the erection and functioning of the building by the inclusion of different materials. Man's first shelter was a cave (Oliver 2003:86). It protected him on five sides. When he went out, for food, he had to use tools and weapons. Weapons probably first provided him with surplus means of survival, more than he used. So he could begin to think about other things: a hungry man did not draw the pictures in Altamira, nor carve the first statues, and a hungry man did not erect his first shelter outside a cave (Juvanec 2005:14). Outside the cave, he did not begin his activities with tools, but with ideas. He drove animals away with fire. Fire became a virtual wall, provided protection. The bigger it is, the greater the protection; fire spreads a visible field of warmth, and thus safety, in a circle around the centre. So the first buildings also had circular walls. Such a wall is difficult to make, and buildings cannot be placed adjacent to each other without a remainder, so that exploitation (of the space, common walls, etc) is relatively inefficient. This becomes particularly important when a wall gains other properties: stability, thickness, quality of insulation, resistance to an enemy's weapons etc. Human development followed human thought, which also had an impact on architecture (Egenter 1992:41). A house became increasingly comfortable; it also enabled other activities that had not previously been possible. Man used the materials to hand, but he worked and arranged them. These materials and these constructions changed their function over time; they were developed and supplemented.

materiale in njihovo tehnologijo, nove načine njihove vgradnje. Vsak razvoj prinaša spremembe. Današnji promet ni še nikoli zahteval toliko žrtev kot jih danes. Toda človek se mu preprosto ne more odpovedati, ne more se mu upreti, potrebuje ga. Poti nazaj ni več. Kje pa je razvoj v arhitekturi, kam nas je pripeljala in kaj je spremenila. Mislim zares spremenila. Hiša ima še vedno temelj spodaj in streho zgoraj, stene so še vedno predelne, pa nosilne, izolativne in akumulativne. Lahko so tanjše, a dražje in debelejše ter cenejše, če ne računamo dosegljivosti v ekstremnih področjih. Dim se še vedno kadi navzgor, ogrevamo s pomočjo ognja, okna zapiramo s stekli, streho pokrivamo z naravnimi in z umetnimi materiali. Voda teče navzdol, s streh jo spuščamo od sten. Logične stvari, ki pa se jih vse premalo zavedamo. To so dejstva (Juvanec 2004a:17). Pomemben element pri tem je narava sama, ki človeku ne gradi – ponuja le rešitve (Egenter 1992:161). Delati mora človek sam. Naš prednik, graditelj je bil vedno pameten. Nikoli ni naredil ničesar, kar ne bi bilo premišljeno, kar ne bi bilo koristno in kar ne bi bilo dobro. Kar pa je dobro, je navadno tudi lepo in nihče ne more trditi, da je naša krajina grda. V čem je problem? Vsaka rešitev ima svoj začetek, razvoj in seveda tudi konec. Rešitve v arhitekturi so vezane na materiale naravnega izvora, narava pa je dokazano trdoživa in predvsem zelo trajna. Na vsak način trajnejša od človeka. Kmet ni postavil nobene rešitve, ki se ne bi sama potrjevala. Tega ni naredil zaradi pameti in zaradi okoliščin, od katerih je živel.Tega si enostavno ni mogel privoščiti. In vse je videl v naravi. V naravi vlada red in kar je proti redu, je obsojeno na propad. V naravi se vse dogaja po tradiciji in kar je proti temu, ne funkcionira. Ne funkcionirati pa pomeni v naravi enostavno konec delovanja. Seveda pa ni nikoli nobena stvar tako črno-bela, da ne bi bila tudi siva. Prednosti napredka so velike, a uporabljati jih je treba tako s pametjo, kot so napredek uporabljali naši predniki. Samo neumni ljudje hočejo živeti drugače od drugih: sleme nove hiše naj bo obrnjeno drugače kot pri stari, če je stara hiša pritlična, naj bo nova nadstropna; če ima stara hiša s slamnato streho, mora imeti nova drugačno; strm naklon, ki dobro odvaja vodo, je treba zamenjati z blagim; na deželi, kjer imamo vsak trenutek stik z naravo, morajo biti balkoni, toda taki, ki ne omogočajo niti poštenega gibanja. To vsekakor niso umne odločitve. Vsako aktivnost delimo na fazo politike, strategije in na fazo taktike (Juvanec 1998:10). Politika je usklajevanje interesov. Kdo ima prav, če želijo vsi ljudje graditi na najboljšem travniku? Navsezadnje je to normalno, a nekdo le mora biti pametnejši in usklajevati interese potencialnih graditeljev z interesi narave, z interesi izrabe prostora, z interesi drugih ljudi, s stališča infrastrukture. Strategija je odločanje o celoti in o odnosih z drugimi celotami. Zgradba, ki jo želimo graditi, mora biti taka, da bo sestavljala nek skupni, enotni obraz. Če je navada, da so hiše v vasi postavljene ob

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

And man developed further: he sought new sources of subsistence, new materials and their associated technologies, new ways of installing them. Any development brings change: modern transport has never demanded as many victims as today. But man cannot simply reject it, cannot resist it, he needs it. There's no way back. Where is development in architecture? Where has it brought us? What has changed? I mean, really changed. A house still has foundations below and a roof above, the walls still divide, support, isolate and accumulate. They can be thinner but more expensive or thicker and cheaper, disregarding viability in extreme regions. Smoke still rises upwards, we heat by means of fire, we close windows with glass, and we cover roofs with natural and artificial materials. Water runs downwards, so we release it from the roof outwards. Logical things, but of which we are too little aware. These are facts (Juvanec 2004a:17). Nature itself is an important element in this, which does not build for man – it only offers the solution (Egenter 1992:161). Our forebear, the builder, was always prudent: he never made anything that was unconsidered, that was not functional and that was not good. What is good is also normally beautiful and no-one can say that our landscape is ugly. Therein is the problem: every solution has a beginning, middle and, of course, also an end. Solutions in architecture are bound to materials of natural origin, and nature is testifiably persistent and, above all, very durable. Certainly more durable than man. A farmer adopted no solution that had not proved itself. He did this out of prudence, because of the circumstances in which he lived: he simply could not afford to do otherwise. He saw it all in nature: order reigned in nature and what is against order is condemned to collapse. Everything happens in nature according to tradition. What is against tradition does not function. Not functioning in nature means simply the end of something. Nothing, of course, is ever so black and white that it is not also grey. Progress has many advantages but it must be used with prudence, as our forebears used progress. Only stupid people want to live differently from others. Such a person faces the ridge of a new house differently from the old; if the old house was single storey, the new one will be two-storey; if the old house was roofed with thatch, the new one must have something different; a steep slope, from which water runs off well must be replaced with a gentle one; in rural areas, where there is constant contact with nature, he must have balconies, but only such as obstruct honest movement. These are certainly not sensible decisions. Any activity can be divided into the phases of policy, strategy and tactics (Juvanec 1998:10). Policy is harmonising interests. Who has primacy if everyone wants to build on the best meadow? This is perfectly normal but someone must be smarter and coordinate the interests of potential builders with the interests of nature, with the interests of spatial planning, with the interests of other people, from the aspect of infrastructure.

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Strategy is deciding on the totality and on relations with other totalities. The building that we want to construct must be such that it will compose a common, harmonious appearance: if it is customary for houses in a village to be built beside the road, and with ridges parallel to the contours, there's probably some reason for this: the wind, the length of houses, the contours of the land, the slope, the bedrock and exposure of the terrain, the groundwater or simply the appearance of the settlement. All this must be respected. It is not just the obstinacy of some group of people or architects. Tactics is the execution itself and this depends on the individual, it must be a reflection of his thoughts, capacities and desires. This is the valve that regulates uniformity, an unnecessary and false equality. It is the execution of the entirety, in which some limits exist, of course, some general agreements that are compulsory, but leaving some possibilities still open. Possible solutions depend mainly on the level of enlightenment of the individual and society, in an intelligent arrangement of details and the totality within the framework of applying regulations and, not least and most important, the sphere of sensibly deciding the arrangement of the whole, also within the context of the whole region. Egenter talks of macro and micro forms of theory in architecture (Egenter 1992:35). It is a matter of connecting regions, landscapes, right down to details. Only sensible regionalisation can be effective; and only thematic division and combination can be effective. One area is bound to another in economic, political and cultural spheres. Such a division, and such cooperation, can be successful, since it combines will, possibilities and realisation, with realisation. Thematic regions need not necessarily overlap, quite the contrary. Some are more successful here, some there. The most typical case, for example, is the stone hiška ('little house') on the Karst. But on which Karst: the Slovene or Italian? The stress is on the Karst and not on the political division: the hiška belongs on both sides of the border, it's even called the same, and borders within the European Union are anyway disappearing. Or perhaps the kozolec: this is archetypically Slovene architecture and can be found in all autochthonous Slovene areas. Sensible regionalisation does not recognise borders, literally. One further important thing concerning the construction of space: the district architect. I don't mean architect literally, it is an institution, which can function in the form of a district council, or an advisory body to the municipality or region. It is a professional form of work in the field of architectural creativity in space. Even if such a solution is bad, even if the district architect is not very successful, a bad solution is still better than lack of regulation and the discordance that results from every individual's personal intervention. This institution used to be extremely important. Prime examples are Vurnik, or Plečnik, Ravnikar, Mihevc and, not least, Moškon, who each in their own way marked space, so that it became characteristic of the people, of the culture. An enlightened society is thus the easiest and most successful path to the regulation of the other two phases (Juvanec 2004a:21). It is a matter of encouraging a person's being, which is based on his

cesti in s slemenom vzporedno s plastnicami, je verjetno za to kak vzrok: veter, dolžina hiš, teren, padec terena, zemljine in lega terena, podtalnica ali preprosto pogled na naselje. Vse to je treba upoštevati in to ni svojeglavost neke skupine ljudi ali arhitekta. Taktika je izvedba sama in ta je odvisna od posameznika, mora biti odraz njegove miselnosti, zmožnosti in hotenj. Prav tukaj je ventil, ki ureja uniformiranost, odvečno in lažno enakost. Gre za izvedbo celote, kjer seveda obstajajo neke meje, neki dogovori, ki so obvezni, a možnosti ostaja še vedno nič koliko. Možnosti rešitev so predvsem v prosvetljevanju posameznika in družbe, v pametnem urejanju detajlov in celote v okviru izvajanja normativnih aktov ter nazadnje, a najpomembnejše, je področje smiselnega odločanja urejanja celote, tudi v okviru vse regije. Egenter govori o makro in o mikro oblikah teorije v arhitekturi (Egenter 1992:35). Pri tem gre za povezovanje regij, pokrajin, vse do detajla. Le smiselna regionalizacija je lahko efektna, pri tem pa sta lahko efektna le tematska delitev in združevanje. Nek prostor se navezuje na drugega na gospodarskem, na političnem, na kulturnem področju.Taka delitev in tako sodelovanje sta lahko uspešna, saj združujeta hotenja, možnosti in realiziranje z realizacijami. Ni nujno, da se tematske regije prekrivajo, prav nasprotno. Nekatere so bolj uspešne tukaj, druge tam. Najbolj značilen primer je, denimo, 'hiška' na Krasu. Na katerem Krasu: na slovenskem ali na italijanskem? Poudarek je na Krasu in ne na politični razdelitvi. 'Hiška' je doma na obeh straneh meje, celo poimenujejo jo enako, meje pa v Evropski uniji izginjajo. Ali morda kozolec: ta arhitektura je navezana na slovenstvo in jo najdemo na vsem etničnem prostoru Slovencev. Smiselna regionalizacija ne pozna meja, dobesedno. In še ena pomembna reč, ko gre za izgradnjo prostora: županov arhitekt. Ne mislim na arhitekta dobesedno, to je institut, ki lahko deluje v obliki županovega sveta, posvetovalnega organa občine ali regije, je profesionalna oblika dela na področju arhitektovega ustvarjanja v prostoru. Tudi če je kaka rešitev slaba, tudi če je županov arhitekt manj uspešen. Še vedno je boljša slaba rešitev kot neurejenost in neusklajenost, ki sta posledica posegov vsakega posameznika. Nekdaj je bil ta institut izjemno pomemben. Spomnim naj le na Vurnika, pa na Plečnika, Ravnikarja, Mihevca, ne nazadnje na Moškona, ki so vsak po svoje označili prostor, da je postal značilen za ljudi, za kulturo. Prosvetljevanje družbe je torej najlažja in najuspešnejša pot, ki pripelje tudi do urejanja ostalih dveh faz (Juvanec 2004a:21). Pri tem gre za vzpodbujanje tiste človekove biti, ki temelji na njegovi istovetnosti. Posamezniku je treba dopovedati, da je samo od njega samega odvisno, če bo res le tisti mali, delavni garač ali pa je to Človek z veliko začetnico. Tisti človek, ki je odgovoren zase, za svoje okolje in za svoje potomce. Ki je odgovoren svojim potomcem za razmere, v katerih jim zapušča okolje. Ki je odgovoren za svoj videz in za videz svoje hiše,

svoje vasi, svojega mesta. Ki mu ni vseeno, kako se obnaša, ne do sebe in ne do drugih. Ki mu ni vseeno kje, kako, za koga in kaj dela in ki je ponosen na to, kar je dosegel. S svojim delom. Tak človek ne bo le želel imeti dobre arhitekture. Hotel jo bo imeti in zaslužil jo bo. Izvajanje normativnih aktov je pravzaprav najenostavnejša, a hkrati tudi najteže dosegljiva reč. Običajno se pri tem vse sesuje. Gre za doslednost, pravičnost in enakost, pri tem pa tako za spremljanje priprave gradnje, za njeno kontrolo in predvsem za sankcioniranje nepravilnosti. Poštenost je tudi na Švedskem plod neštevila odsekanih rok v zgodovini. V urejenih razmerah pa je lahko že ena sama roka poučna za druge, da naslednje niso več potrebne. Tehnično najbolj zahtevna faza je prva faza - politika, ki je istočasno najbolj dosegljiva, tako po času kakor po strokovnih odločitvah. Gre za prostorsko urejanje, za bistvene in najodgovornejše posege v krajino, ki imajo tudi najdalekosežnejše posledice (Juvanec 1998:11). Te odločitve lahko spreminjajo ljudi in naravo, njihovo življenje in gospodarstvo, stik s svetom ali odmaknjenost, ki ji mnogokrat povsem upravičeno pravimo tudi zaplankanost. Prva in najpomembnejša naloga je torej vzbujanje zavesti človeka in to vsakega človeka. Za kakšno zavest gre? Ponosni moramo biti na to, kar imamo. Nimamo mnogo, a kar imamo, je naše. To je naša dediščina in če jo zapravimo, bodo naši zanamci ostali brez nje. To ne pomeni, da tako ne bi mogli živeti, a ... Pračlovek se je začel razlikovati od živali, ko je začel uporabljati orodje in orožje, ko je premagal strah pred ognjem in ga je začel uporabljati za svoje potrebe. Dvignil se je nad žival, začel je živeti bolje, zagotovil si je več sredstev za preživetje in ta kvantiteta mu je omogočila nove kvalitete (Egenter 1992:59): slikanje, rezbarjenje, glasbo. Skratka: prišel je do kulture. Kultura pa je tista reč, ki jo najbolj potrebujemo, ker lahko le z njo preživimo.

identity. The individual must be made to understand that it depends entirely on him whether he is really a small, labouring toiler or Man with a capital letter; a person who is responsible for himself, for his environment and to his descendants; who is responsible to his descendants for the condition in which he leaves the environment; who is responsible for his own appearance and that of his own home, his village, his town; for whom it matters how he behaves, both to himself and to others; for whom it matters where, how, for whom and what he does, and who is proud of what he has achieved. Of his work. Such a person won't just aspire to good architecture: he'll want to have it and will deserve it. Implementing regulations is actually the simplest and, simultaneously, the hardest thing to achieve: it usually all collapses with this. It's a matter of consistency, justice and equality, as much in monitoring the preparations for building, as in checking and, above all, penalising violations. Even in Sweden, honesty is the fruit of countless severed hands in history. In ordered conditions, one severed hand can be instructive to another, so that the next are no longer needed. The first phase, policy, is technically the most demanding, while simultaneously being the most achievable, in terms of both time and professional decisions. It is spatial planning of the essential, most responsible interventions in the landscape, which also have the most farreaching impact (Juvanec 1998:11). These decisions can change people and nature, their lives and the economy, contact with the world or withdrawal, in which even narrow-mindedness is often fully justified. The first and most important task is thus encouraging people's awareness, every person's awareness. Awareness that we must be proud of what we have. We don't have much, but what we have is ours. This is our heritage and if we squander it, our descendants will be left without it. It doesn't mean they couldn't live without it, but ... Prehistoric man began to be differentiated from animals when he began to use tools and weapons, when he overcame his fear of fire and began to use it for his own needs. He raised himself above animals, he began to live better, he provided himself with more resources for survival and this quantity enabled him new quality (Egenter 1992:59): painting, carving, music. In short: he achieved culture. Culture is what we need most; because only thus can we survive.

Samo s kulturo, s ponosom nad tem, kar imamo, z zavestjo, da bomo nadaljevali to, kar smo podedovali. Le tako bomo preživeli v družbi z večjimi in močnejšimi.

Only with culture, with pride in what we have, awareness that we must continue what we have inherited, only thus will we survive in a society of the larger and stronger.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Vernakularna arhitektura

Vernacular Architecture

Preprosta arhitektura za vsakdanjo rabo ni plod velikih in učenih mojstrov, ki so bili šolani in so poznali velike arhitekture pomembnih kultur sveta. Snovali in gradili so jo mojstri, ki so dobili znanje kot dediščino svojih prednikov, predvsem z redom, ne z recepti. Red so brezpogojno upoštevali, saj so iz izkušenj vedeli, da se vsaka neuporaba reda grdo maščuje. Ne recept, red je pomemben. Recept določa enake rešitve in enake rezultate, red pa omogoča enakost v zasnovi in različnost v izvedbah. Zato v Sloveniji nimamo dveh enakih kozolcev, a po zasnovi in po tipih so vsi enaki. Danes rečemo 'vernakularna arhitektura', ampak že s to besedno zvezo je cela zgodba. Paul Oliver iz Oxforda, kot vodilni strokovnjak za to zvrst, je napisal: (this architecture) 'was so little known we don't even have a word for it' (Oliver 2003: 11). Ta arhitektura je bila tako malo poznana, da nimamo niti besede zanjo. Res je. Včasih so rekli, da je 'ljudska'. Pa se izkaže, da ni vedno ne 'od' ljudstva in vedno 'za' ljudstvo. Rekli so ji 'vaška', pa 'podeželska, ruralna', a včasih imajo vasi več urbanega, mestnega kot nekatera mesta. Rekli so ji 'domorodska', celo 'plemenska', a v Evropi že dolgo ni več domorodcev in ne plemen. Vse te oznake nosijo pridih slabšalnosti, podcenjevanja. Ne le danes. Zato ni čudno, da je ne omenjata ne Platon iz klasične Grčije in ne rimski mislec Vitruvij, ki razmeroma na široko razpravljata o problemih klasične, 'pomembne' arhitekture. Oliver piše, da oznaka 'vernakularna arhitektura ali vernacular architecture', ki jo danes uporabljamo v veliki večini jezikov, izhaja iz dela 'Remarks on Gothic Architecture / Opombe ob gotski arhitekturi', ki ga je napisal Giles Gilbert Scott sredi devetnajstega stoletja (Oliver 2003: 12). O tej arhitekturi teče beseda v moji knjigi. Vsi napori strokovnjakov s področja ruralne arhitekture so usmerjeni v oblikovanje sistema, ki bi omogočal sestav elementov stare arhitekture z novo. S tisto arhitekturo, ki naj predstavlja okvir našega življenja, bivanja in dela. Arhitektura ni umetniško delo, ki je popolno,

Simple architecture for everyday use is not the fruit of great, learned masters who have been trained and are familiar with the great architecture of the important cultures of the world. It is built by masters who have obtained their knowledge as the heritage of their forebears, mainly by order and not by recipe. They unconditionally respected order, since they knew from experience that any misuse of order takes ugly revenge. Not recipe, order is important. A recipe specifies the same solution and the same result, order enables equality in scheme but diversity in execution. So there are no two identical kozolci in Slovenia, but in terms of design and by types, they are all the same. The expression 'vernacular architecture' is used today, but the term has a whole story behind it. Paul Oliver of Oxford, as a leading expert, wrote about this type of architecture: '(this architecture) was so little known we don't even have a word for it' (Oliver 2003: 11). It is true. It was once called 'folk architecture'. But it is clear that it is not always 'of' people but always 'for' people. It has been called 'village' and 'rural' but villages sometimes have more urban architecture than some towns. It was called 'native', even 'original' but in Europe there has long been nothing 'native' or 'original'. All these designation carry a taint of inferiority, underestimation, and not just today. So it is not surprising that it is not mentioned by Plato from classical Greece nor the Roman thinker Vitruvius, who relatively broadly discuss questions of classical 'significant' architecture. Oliver writes that the designation 'vernacular architecture', which is used today in the great majority of languages, derives from the work 'Remarks on Gothic Architecture', which was written by Giles Gilbert Scott in the mid-nineteenth century (Oliver 2003: 12). The text in my book concerns this architecture. All the efforts of experts in the field of rural architecture are directed at creating a system that enables the composition of elements of old architecture with new. Architecture that provides the framework of our life, dwelling and work. Architecture is not artistic work that is complete, unachievable and irrepeatable. Architecture is not talking about it, not

planning and not projecting, it is not construction and not the constructed building. Architecture is living in the building; it is living with it. Architecture is never complete and never final; it is the fruit of knowledge and use. Aesthetics is the visual experience of architecture; but only if this architecture is a logical composition of function, construction and form. The Roman thinker Vitruvius already knew this almost two millennia ago. So typical elements can't be used in today's architecture ad hoc: a historian can analyse them, an expert in individual fields, who can seek the origin, development, variants. These principles were used by great architects in works that changed the world. Oliver mentions F.L.Wright, Loos and others (Oliver 2003:9). The use of typical elements of vernacular architecture is not recipe but order. Order represents tradition, rule, which brings about a specific result. The aim is the active uniformity of construction, function and appearance, harmony. All elements function in this, they complement each other and, in the end, complete each other; no element is more important than another. Conditions today are different than formerly: technology and techniques enable new possibilities, new dimensions. The element of the old, the element of the heritage, tradition, nostalgia or stubbornness, can only be included in architecture today in one field, in the visual field; not in content and not in construction or function, only in form. Architecture is the sum of the requirements of the user, the possibilities offered by nature and the capacities of the builder to harmonise these two categories to the maximum possible extent. The requirements of the user, who is also normally the investor, are the desires, needs, of a person who knows what he wants, who knows what it will be used for and for what not, who can invest in only as large a construction as he needs and that he can maintain. The possibilities of nature are the circumstances that allow the use of materials, their working and technology and, of course, the use of the results, i.e., the architecture itself. It is thus natural material or material that man has processed in such a way as to improve it (Oliver 2003:12) – for example fired clay instead of raw clay, protected timber instead of bare wood etc. The building is the element that enables use of the possibilities and inclusion of all obtained knowledge, the heritage of our forebears and foreign experience, in the composition of a house that serves a specific purpose. Form is not a negligible element in this: and a well-proportioned Koroškan granary or cellar, or a well or a bench, is not set prominently in order to brag but because it functions better there: today this is called sensible spatial location. And function is a crucial element of the composition of the whole. A well-designed bench gives the viewer an aesthetic experience, adds a dimension in the field of culture. Mere durability is never intended. It is a qualitatively higher type, it is culture. This design culture is on an

nedosegljivo in neponovljivo. Arhitektura ni govorjenje o njej, ni planiranje in ne projektiranje, niti gradnja in ne zgrajena stavba. Arhitektura je bivanje v zgradbi, je življenje z njo. Arhitektura ni nikoli dokončana in nikoli dokončna, je plod stroke in uporabe. Estetika je vizualni doživljaj te arhitekture, a le, če je ta arhitektura logičen sestav funkcije, konstrukcije in oblike.To je vedel žeVitruvij. Zato pri današnji arhitekturi ne moremo uporabljati tipike kar tako. Analizira jo lahko zgodovinar, strokovnjak posamičnih področij, ki lahko išče izvore, razvoje, variante ... Ta princip so uporabljali veliki arhitekti pri svojih delih, ki so spreminjali svet. Oliver omenja F. L. Wrighta, Loosa in druge. Uporabna tipika vernakularne arhitekture ni recept, pač pa red. Red predstavlja izročilo, pravilo, ki prinaša določen rezultat. Cilj je aktivna enotnost konstrukcije, funkcije in izgleda, skladnosti. Pri tem vsi elementi funkcionirajo, se dopolnjujejo in se v končni fazi nadgrajujejo, noben element ni pomembnejši od drugega. Danes imamo drugačne okoliščine, kot so bile nekoč. Tehnologija in tehnika omogočata nove možnosti, nove dimenzije. Element starega, element dediščine, izročila, nostalgije ali istovetnosti lahko danes vključujemo v arhitekturo le na enem področju, na področju vizualnosti; ne v vsebini in ne v konstrukciji ali v funkciji, le v obliki. Arhitektura je sestav zahtev uporabnika, možnosti, ki jih nudi narava in zmožnosti graditelja, da ti dve kategoriji uskladi v največji možni meri. Zahteve uporabnika, ki je običajno tudi investitor, so želje, potrebe tistega, ki ve, kaj hoče, ki ve, kaj bo rabil in česa ne, ki si lahko naloži le tako veliko gradnjo, kot jo potrebuje in kot jo bo lahko vzdrževal. Možnosti narave so tiste okoliščine, ki dovoljujejo izrabo materialov, njihovo obdelavo in tehnologijo ter seveda izrabo rezultata, to je arhitekture same. Gre torej za naravne materiale ali za materiale, ki jih človek obdela tako, da jih izboljša (Oliver 2003:12), na primer žgana opeka namesto surove, zaščiten les namesto odkritega itn. Gradnja pa je tisti element, ki omogoča izrabo možnosti in vključuje vse pridobljeno znanje, dediščino prednikov in tuje izkušnje pri sestavi hiše, ki služi za določene namembnosti. Pri tem oblika ni zanemarljiv sestavni del. In če proporcionirana koroška kašča ali klet, pa vodnjak ali klopotec niso postavljeni na vidna mesta zaradi postavljaštva, pač pa zaradi tega, da bolje delujejo, temu danes rečemo smiselno postavljanje v prostor. Delovanje je bistveni del kompozicije celote. Estetsko oblikovan klopotec daje gledalcu ob uporabi tudi estetski doživljaj, ga dopolnjuje na področju kulture in seveda ni namenjen preživetju samemu. Gre za kvaliteto višje vrste, gre za kulturo. Ta kultura oblikovanja je pri naši vernakularni arhitekturi na zavidljivo visoki ravni, pa naj gre za gospodarske objekte, za uporabne izdelke ali za okvir človekovega bivanja, za hišo. Vsa gradbena znanost, obrtništvo, umetnost – vsak element zase ali vsi skupaj, kar je namenjeno osebni uporabi, ki jo je izgradil človek sam zase – je vernakularna arhitektura.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

enviably high level in Slovenia, whether of economic facilities, functional products or the framework for human life: a house. The sum of construction knowledge, craftsmanship, art – each element individually and all together - of what is intended for personal use, which a man has built for himself, is vernacular architecture. Vernacular architecture is the fruit of an unschooled but intelligent worker with a great deal of experience, for whom building is not a profession. He gained guidelines and basic ideas as an inheritance. He enriched this with his own knowledge, experience and with his own instincts, identity (Juvanec 2004a:19). A vernacular house is actually a house that is the result of the user: his desires, needs and possibilities. It was formerly called folk, anonymous, local architecture. The devil of it is that folk architecture is not always merely the fruit of folk and is not always intended only for folk. It is not always anonymous, when the builder is known. It is local, patriotic, but these designations can no longer be used today. Vernacular architecture does not have trends, paths or exemplars. It has no grand aims. It is simply functional. Why then is it good? Because it has survived, because it has existed and continues to exist today. All the bad architecture fell apart centuries ago. What is left is the fruit of experience of centuries, the result of a heritage that it helps to build and is unburdened with rules, recipes and dogmas. It has no recipes, though it has rules (Le Corbusier 1963:16) that enable work and ensure that the result – the architecture – will be functional, durable, practicable, and aesthetic into the bargain. In its original form, aesthetics is only a reflection of the interior, a reflection of function. In this sense, aethetics is only the cover of the essential interior, which shows the reality, the real content. No detail of farm architecture is »ad hoc«, without reason. Not even the decoration: each incision has its meaning, each opening serves some purpose, a decoratively cut rafter has a longer life span because of this decoration. And just because of that, it has the »right to be«, as the French say. Aesthetics is in itself quality of a higher level. Farm architecture is rough, simple, but sincere, and thus of higher quality and more durable than that which is the fruit of knowledge and experience obtained in schools, which is the work of professionals. The entire rural space of Slovenia is sprinkled with vernacular architecture, all the way to the transition to Friulia, where here, too, there are typical, large, mass construction residential buildings, which are no longer only and exclusively utilitarian. Decorations appear on stone built walls that are no longer essential, and these decorations copy some stylistic marks. Some elements are recorded anew: combinations occur with existing, characteristic local architecture, local materials and working. New, cheap and too cheap executions are introduced, which are expensive to maintain, have a shorter lifespan than the totality and, typically, they are actually falling apart in our own time, disintegrating, demonstrating that vernacular architecture, some two hundred years old, is nevertheless right and is better.

Vernakularna arhitektura je plod nešolanega, a iskrivega delavca z mnogimi izkušnjami, ki mu gradnja ni bila poklic. Usmeritve in temeljne ideje je dobil kot dediščino, to je oplemenitil s svojim znanjem, z izkušnjami in s svojo lastno intuicijo, istovetnostjo (Juvanec 2004a:19). Resnično ljudska hiša je tista hiša, ki je rezultat uporabnika, njegovih želja, potreb in možnosti. Ta arhitektura nima nekih trendov, poti in zgledov. Ne sledi velikim ciljem, je preprosto uporabna. Zakaj je potem dobra? Ker je preživela, ker je obstala vse do današnjih dni. Vsa slaba arhitektura je strohnela že pred stoletji, obdržala se je le še tista, ki je plod izkušenj stoletij, rezultat dediščine, ki pomaga graditi in ne obremenjuje s pravili, recepti in dogmami. Nima receptov, ima pravila (Le Corbusier 1963:16), ki delo omogočajo in zagotavljajo, da bo rezultat – arhitektura – uporaben, trajen, lahko izvedljiv in povrh še estetski. Estetika je v svoji prvotni obliki le odraz notranjosti, odraz delovanja. V tem smislu je estetika le še plašč tiste notranjosti, ki je nujna, ki kaže resničnost in pravo vsebino. Noben detajl kmečke arhitekture ni narejen "kar tako", brez vzroka. Niti dekoracija. Vsaka zareza ima svoj smisel, vsaka odprtina nečemu služi, dekorativno odrezan špirovec ima zaradi te dekoracije daljšo življenjsko dobo. In že zaradi tega ima "pravico biti", kot pravijo Francozi. Kmet si ni mogel privoščiti velikopoteznega detajla, če zanj ni imel vzroka. Ta vzrok pa je bil kvaliteta. Estetika sama zase je kvaliteta višjega nivoja. In kmetska arhitektura je robata, preprosta, a iskrena in zato bolj kvalitetna in trajnejša od tiste, ki je plod znanja in izkušenj, pridobljenih v šolah, ki je delo profesionalcev. Pri nas je ves podeželski prostor posejan z vernakularno arhitekturo, vse do prihoda Furlanov, ko dobimo tudi tukaj značilne, večje, zidane stanovanjske zgradbe, ki niso več samo in izključno utilitarne. Pojavijo se okraski, ki na zidanem zidu niso več nujno potrebni, ti okraski posnemajo nekatere stilne oznake. Nekateri elementi so vneseni na novo. Vnašajo kombinacije obstoječe, značilne krajevne arhitekture, domače materiale in obdelave. Mnogokrat pa prinašajo nove, cenene in prepoceni izvedbe, ki so drage za vzdrževanje, imajo krajšo življenjsko dobo od celote in zanje je značilno, da prav v današnjem času razpadajo, propadajo in dokazujejo, da je imela vernakularna arhitektura, stara kakih dvesto let več, vendarle prav in da je boljša. Severovzhod Slovenije, ki ga pokriva ta knjiga, pa ima še vidik več: vplivna območja. Ta izhajajo iz politike, materialov, kulture. Medtem ko je bila naša Štajerska povezana z avstrijsko Štajersko v eno samo deželo in so prihajali vplivi predvsem s severa, je zahodno Pohorje identitetno pod vplivom Koroške, vzhodni del pa madžarske kulture. Ne le kulture, vplivi so bili pogojevani predvsem z redom, z zakoni.

Slika 1 / Figure 1 Pogled s preže pri ZgornjiVelki v Slovenskih goricah. Foto: Domen Zupančič. View from hunter s watch tower near Zgornja Velka in Slovenske gorice. Foto: Domen Zupančič.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Earthen Architecture

Arhitektura gline

Although materials determine the external appearance of a construction, even they do not provide a uniform appearance. So there is no uniform, characteristic, folk, anonymous architecture on the territory of Slovenia. Architecture is always the fruit of the needs of the user and the possibilities of nature. This is enriched by man's capacity to harmonise these two requirements to the utmost, so that with the best possible use of the terrain, materials and external influences, with the least possible work, he instills the most knowledge and understanding, and thus also the maximum aesthetics, order and – culture. The characteristic materials of the northeast – all the way from Pohorje to the Pannonian plain, in the south from the rim of Pohorje to the Croatian border – are stone, wood and then clay. In that order.

Materiali sicer določajo zunanji izgled konstrukcije, a enotnega videza tudi ti ne dajejo. Zato enotne, značilne, ljudske, anonimne arhitekture na ozemlju Slovenije ni. Arhitektura je vedno plod potreb uporabnika ter možnosti narave. To je oplemeniteno z zmožnostjo človeka, da ti dve zahtevi uskladi v največji možni meri, a tako, da pri največji možni izkoriščenosti terena, materialov in zunanjih vplivov vgradi s čim manj dela čim več znanja in razuma, s tem pa tudi čim več estetike, reda in kulture. Značilni materiali severovzhoda - vse od Pohorja do Panonske nižine okrog Blatnega jezera, na jugu od pohorskih obronkov do hrvaške meje - so kamen, les in potem glina.V tem vrstnem redu. Kamen je najstarejši gradbeni material. Najprej so ga klesali, ko so večali naravna zatočišča – jame, pozneje pa so z njim ustvarjali zgradbe tudi tam, kjer jih narava ni – sredi plodnih polj, bogatih gozdov in med živalmi. To so bila zatočišča v pravem pomenu besede. Profesor Oliver vidi pri kamnu največji problem pri razvoju oglate oblike v okroglo, iz kvadrata v krog (Oliver 2003:93). Kamnite zgradbe so sestavljene iz velikih naravno oblikovanih kamnov, pozneje pa si jih je človek oblikoval tako, da je z njimi najbolj uspešno sestavljal stene, strope, strehe. Les je v naravni obliki kot deblo najuspešnejši material, ki ga je razmeroma lahko oblikovati z ročnim orodjem. Najbolj preproste konstrukcije so kladne zveze, s prekladami pa je mogoče premostiti tudi razmeroma velike razpetine. Tudi strehe. Tudi za krovni material, ne le za konstrukcijo. Zanje so uporabljali tanke skodle (kalane deščice: Koroška) ali debele in daljše skodle (Gorenjska). Slamnata streha je sestav žitnih slam, mnogokrat ržene, ki je po Sloveniji razmeroma redka. Slama je fiksirana z gibkim protjem, redko z letvami, razen v slemenu. Robovi čel so včasih pleteni, bolj pogosto pa so v kite spletena le slemena. Izvedba čopa je pri tem skoraj pravilo. Slama kot armatura nastopa tudi pri vseh glinastih nabojih in pri oblogah, v butani gradnji in pri lesenih, cimpranih zgradbah.

Stone is the oldest building material known. It was first dressed when natural shelters, caves, were enlarged. Buildings were subsequently erected with it, where nature had not done so: in the middle of fertile fields, rich forests and among animals. These were shelters in the real sense of the word. Professor Oliver sees the major problem with stone in the development of angular forms into circular: from a square to a circle (Oliver 2003:93). Stone buildings were made from large, naturally shaped stones. Man later also shaped them, in order to make walls, ceilings and roofs more successfully. Wood in the natural form of a trunk is the most successful material, being relatively easily shaped with hand tools. The simplest constructions were log constructions, and lintels can bridge relatively large spans, including roofs, for the covering material as well, not just the construction. They used for this thin shingles (cleaved shingles: Koroška) or thicker, longer shingles (Gorenjska) A thatched roof is made of straw, often rye, which is relatively scarce throughout Slovenia. The straw is fixed with flexible wands, occasionally with battens, except at the ridge. The gable edges are sometimes plaited,

more often only the ridges are plaited into a braid. A hip construction was almost the rule. Straw is used as an armature with all clay infills and with linings; in rammed clay constructions and for wooden, log buildings. Wood as a basic material is most often used as a log construction, where the walls consist of more or less dressed logs, with timber joints at the corners. On unimportant, ancillary buildings, the logs are bare and unprotected. Constructions that are more used are protected with a daub of straw reinforced clay. This was sometimes bare, and sometimes additionally protected with a layer of lime whitewash. When it has been whitewashed several times, this becomes a layer about a centimeter thick and actually protects against external influences.

Les kot osnovni material je temelj najbolj pogostni konstrukciji, "cimpru". To so zidovi, sestavljeni iz bolj ali manj tesanih brun, s tesarskimi zvezami v vogalih. Za gospodarske objekte nepomembne narave so bruna gola in nezaščitena, a bolj so v uporabi konstrukcije, zaščitene z ometom iz s slamo armirane gline. Ta je včasih gola, včasih pa še dodatno zaščitena s plastjo apnenega beleža. Ko je beleža več, predstavlja kak centimeter debelo plast in dejansko ščiti pred zunanjimi vplivi. Posebej zanimiv detajl je barvanje podstavka. Teoretično predstavlja višino zaščite pred vlago, temelj in vizualno bazo zgradbe. V praksi je vedno pobarvan temno sivo, včasih celo črno zaradi kokoši, ki si na ta način nabirajo apnenec za jajčne lupine. Apnenec je bel, temnega zidu pa se kokoši praviloma ne dotaknejo. Lahke slamnate kritine ne potrebujejo zahtevnih, velikih razponov, tako da so marsikje namesto letev nameščene kar veje. Konstrukcije so prvinske: poveznik nosi dva nosilca kot podpori slemenske lege, špirovci slonijo na kapnih legah na poveznikih, letve so poprek. Vmesnih leg razponi ne zahtevajo, čopi slonijo na lomljenih legah med prvima dvema špirovcema. Les je včasih uporabljen tudi kot vmesni material pri ometavanju. Kadar je ometa več (ki zakrije tudi vse tesarske zveze), je "cimprano" steno po diagonali treba obiti z letvami, tako je tudi ometa oziroma gline več, slamnate armature ni več treba, čeprav včasih nastopa tudi tukaj.

Slika 2 / Figure 2 Adobe, konstrukcija na zraku sušenih zidakov, stara več kot dva tisoč let: Deir el Bahari, Egipt. Kljub neobstojnosti kompozicija še danes stoji. Adobe, a construction in air-dried bricks, more than two thousand years old: Deir el Bahari, Egypt. Despite, the lack of durability, the composition is still standing today

Materiali, značilni za severovzhod Slovenije

Characteristic materials in Northeast Slovenia

Kamen Kamen je na Pohorju granitolit, trd, težak za obdelavo, a obstojen in lep. V Slovenskih goricah in v Pomurju prevladuje mehak, svetel peščenjak, v katerem marsikje najdemo odtisnjene školjke in polže, tudi na vrhovih Slovenskih goric. Gre seveda za obronke Panonskega morja. Haloze proti jugu imajo spet trše kamnine, za arhitekturo so najbolj uporabni in najbolj vidni temnejši skrilavci in lapor, ki se radi lomijo v plasti in jih je možno preprosto oblikovati v uporabne oblike za vgradnjo. Za Haloze je tudi zelo pomembno, da zemljine, ki prekrivajo gričevnati skalnati skelet, rade zdrsavajo in da je postavitev domačije v teren zato zahteven poseg. Predvsem Prekmurje je bogato s podzemskimi vodami, ki so bodisi zdravilne, tople ali polne ogljikovega dioksida, da imajo 'mehurčke'. To pomeni, da leži dežela na zemeljski prelomnici, ki je tudi nevarna za

Stone The stone on Pohorje is granitolite: hard, difficult to work, but durable and beautiful. In Slovenske gorice and Pomurje, a soft, light coloured sandstone predominates, in which the impressions of shells are often found, even on the peaks of Slovenske gorice (in translation: Slovene hills). It is, of course, the edge of the former Pannonian Sea. Haloze, towards the south, again has harder rocks, more usable for architecture – and most visible – darker schists and marls, which tend to split in layers and can be simply shaped into usable forms for building. It is also very important for Haloze that the earth that covers the hilly rocky skeleton has a tendency to landslip, so that erecting a farmstead a slope is a demanding business. Prekmurje is above all rich in underground waters, which are either health-giving and warm or full of carbon dioxide, so that they have 'bubbles'. This is because the region lies on a geological fault, which is also

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hazardous because of earthquakes: architecture solves this problem with low buildings, with massive stone foundations and with soft superstructures – mostly in wood.

potrese. Arhitektura ta problem rešuje z nizkimi zgradbami, z masivnimi kamnitimi temelji in z mehko nadgradnjo, največ v lesu. Glina Ilovica, ki je zmes gline, agregata in vode, se na zraku strdi in postane trdnejša, čeprav še vedno krhka. Za učvrstitev ilovice pri nas uporabljajo predvsem rezana slamnata vlakna in pleve, ponekod kravjake, včasih tudi kamen, ponekod so povezovalni elementi leseni.

Clay Daub, which is a mixture of clay, aggregate and water, hardens in the air and becomes harder, although it is still brittle. Cut straw fibres and chaff are mainly used here for reinforcing clay, in some places cow dung, sometimes even stone. In some places there are wooden linking elements. Straw, which in some places, such as France, is unknown as a strengthener, is used in Slovenia as a binding material in solid clay, as well as in daub, which sometimes achieves a length of pieces up to six centimetres. In Slovenia, kneaded clay, a rammed clay construction, 'adobe' and, of course, fired bricks are known. The Slovene term for 'brick' is also the most expressive, meaning literally 'baked', thus describing the technique of processing. Wood This is, of course, the most available material for building, as well as the most successful. It is the most easily worked, it is warm to the touch, it is a good insulator and, in the form of long beams, excellently links spaces in a building. It is characteristic of the Northeast that the timber does not need to be worked particularly precisely, that possible gaps between beams can be sealed with straw and daub. The interior and exterior daub is also of this material. Wooden constructions, rough carpentry work or, as they say there: 'logs', are externally visible with their corner joints and with overhanging elements supporting the roof construction, provide communication in long buildings and protect tools and wood beside the walls. A combination of wooden constructions with other materials is characteristic of the northeast of Slovenia. On Pohorje and Kozjak, as well as in Haloze, wood forms the residential part of the house, except of course around the stove, where the material must bear higher temperatures. In Slovenske gorice, Pomurje and in Goričko, the 'log house', a timber construction of wooden beams or planks is primarily familiar. There are alternating timber joints, or when there are no alternations, the corner is made on the swallowtail principle. More rarely there is a frame construction with beams or planks: they are normally placed horizontally, but in this area also vertically, which is a rarity in architecture. While the wooden part of a residential house on Pohorje and in Haloze is normally bare, coloured dark grey or almost black, in lowland areas it is always sealed with straw mixed with daub and covered with a clay daub, up to six centimetres thick. The wooden construction can sometimes not be seen at all. Whenever a number of materials appear in a building, these are logically distributed so that the most durable are below and behind, and the more exposed in front and above. Brick foundations can also be found, because they are more durable than reinforced clay or wood. But brick elements

Slika 3 / Figure 3 Plasti stisnjenih glin. Ademuz, Španija 2000. Layers of compressed clay. Ademuz, Spain 2000.

Slama, ki je ponekod, na primer v Franciji – kot učvrstitev – ne poznajo (Guillaud 2008), je pri nas vezni material v masivni ilovici, pa tudi v ometu, ki včasih doseže debeline vse do šestih centimetrov. V Sloveniji poznamo gneteno glino, butano gradnjo, čerpič ali 'adobe' in seveda na ognju pečeno v obliki 'opeke'. Naš, slovenski izraz 'opeka' je tudi najbolj nazoren, saj opisuje tehniko obdelave, pečenje. Les To je seveda najbolj dosegljiv material za gradnjo, tudi najuspešnejši. Najlaže ga obdelujemo, je topel na dotik, je dober izolator in v obliki dolgih tramov imenitno povezuje prostore v zgradbe. Značilnost severovzhoda je, da lesa ni treba obdelovati povsem eksaktno, da morebitne špranje med tramovi zatesnimo s slamo in z ilovico.V tem materialu je tudi notranji in zunanji omet. Lesene konstrukcije, tesarsko delo ali kot temu tam rečejo 'cimprane', so navzven vidne s svojimi spoji vogalov in s previsnimi elementi, ki nosijo konstrukcijo strehe, omogočajo komunikacijo v dolgih

zgradbah in varujejo orodje in drva ob zidu. Za severovzhod Slovenije so značilne vse zveze lesene konstrukcije z drugimi materiali. Na Pohorju in na Kozjaku, tudi v Halozah, les oblikuje bivalni del hiše, razen seveda okrog peči, kjer mora material prenesti višje temperature. V Slovenskih goricah, v Pomurju in na Goričkem je predvsem doma 'cimper', tesarska konstrukcija lesenih tramov ali plohov. Gre za kladne zveze s preklopi, kadar pa preklopov ni, je vogal izveden v principu lastovičjega repa. Redkeje najdemo okvirne konstrukcije s tramovi ali s plohi. Običajno so postavljeni vodoravno, v tem prostoru tudi navpično, kar je v arhitekturi redkost. Medtem ko je leseni del bivalne hiše na Pohorju in v Halozah navadno gol, po barvi temno siv ali skoraj črn, je v nižinskih krajih vedno zatesnjen s slamo, mešano z ilovico in prekrit z ilovnatim ometom, debeline tudi do šestih centimetrov. Včasih lesene konstrukcije sploh ni videti. Kadar nastopa v zgradbi več materialov, so ti logično razdeljeni tako, da so obstojnejši spodaj in zadaj, bolj izpostavljeni pa spredaj in zgoraj. Najdemo tudi opečnate temelje, ker so pač obstojnejši od butane gline ali od lesa. Opečne elemente so morali kupiti, glina je bila na dosegu roke. Navadno je kamen spodaj, les spredaj in opeka zadaj. Tako so zgradbe tudi obarvane. Do višine kakih dveh čevljev, šestdesetih centimetrov, je pobarvan 'temelj', ki ga v resnici ni, sprednja in notranja stena sta svetli ali beli, zadnji steni sta temnejši, navadno rjave ali temno rdeče barve. Predvsem na obronkih ravnin, kjer se vzpenjajo vinske gorice, je belemu apnu dodana modra galica, ki jo sicer uporabljajo za brizganje trte (in je na voljo, pa še malo stane). Zato so tam hiše modrikaste.

have to be bought, clay could be found to hand. Normally there is stone below, wood at the front and brick at the rear. The buildings are also coloured in such a way: to a height of about two feet, sixty centimetres, there is a coloured 'foundation', which it is not in fact; the front wall and inside are a pale colour or white, and the rear wall darker: normally brown or dark red. Mainly on the edges of the lowlands, where the vineyard hills climb, the white lime is enriched with blue copperas, which is otherwise used for spraying the vines (and is available and cheap). So the houses there are blueish.

Theory of simple materials The theory of building materials covers all natural raw materials that exist on earth, from water to stone. Hewn, more or less worked stone can be inbuilt directly, wood must be at least cut, trimmed, in the final stage finely worked. Clay, mixed with water and aggregate (Zbašnik, 2002) can be kneaded for building, poured into a frame, shaped and sun-dried, and can also be fired in a kiln. The first techniques are technical, the last is technological processing. An important, in fact key element in this is water. Earth provides man with only two elements: dry and wet. While continents represent the solid and usable part, water is important for man, but barely usable for building. Changes in this relation are various in both directions: on the horizontal and vertical. While horizontal changes happen over millennia, vertical changes occur daily. Vertical shifts are bound to physical states (water can be flowing, steam or ice) and are important both globally and in detail. The vertical transition of water depends on temperature and represents evaporation (the relation of the temperatures of water and air, visibility of evaporation, fog, clouds), cloud formation and rain, or the return of water to Earth. It depends on the temperature whether this is rain, snow, water or an ice surface. Water creates surface changes on Earth. These are instantaneous (lightning, as a result of an electric charge) or long-term. And these longterm changes can be for a short period (the growth of stalagtites in a karst cave can last a mere few hundred years, or landscape changes, such as canyons in the United States) or changes lasting thousands and thousands of years. Flowing waters are more important for the shaping or 'architecture' of nature: streams, rivers, waterfalls, rapids, ponds, lakes, seas, oceans. Man's work in this consists of dams with a lake above them, reservoirs, basins, cisterns, holding and irrigation systems, use of water as a driving force (electricity, mill, sawmill), water networks, drainage of water and its purification, water as an isolator (from enemies), transit across water as a method of protection and control (bridges, dykes, tolls). Man's works include also elements on water, below it and in it: ships and bridges, other vessels, platforms for exploiting the bottom). Exploitation of water for drinking is important for man, and for energy, as

Teorija preprostih gradiv Teorija gradbenih materialov obsega vse naravne, surove materiale, ki obstajajo na Zemlji, med vodo in kamnom. Klesan, bolj ali manj obdelan kamen je lahko vgrajen direktno, les je treba vsaj obsekati, obtesati, v končni fazi fino obdelati. Glina, z vodo in z agregatom zmešana v ilovico (Zbašnik, 2002), je lahko za vgradnjo gnetena, vlivana v okvirje, oblikovana in sušena na soncu, lahko pa tudi žgana na ognju. Prve tehnike so tehnične, zadnje tehnološke obdelave. Pri tem je pomemben in pravzaprav ključni element voda. Zemlja predstavlja človeku le dva elementa: suhega in mokrega. Medtem ko predstavljajo kontinenti trdni in uporabni del, je voda za človeka pomembna, a za gradnjo komaj uporabna. Spremembe tega odnosa so različne v obeh smereh, v vodoravni in v navpični. Medtem ko se v horizontali spremembe dogajajo v tisočletjih, so v vertikali vsakodnevne. Vertikalni premiki so vezani na fizikalna stanja (voda je lahko tekoča, je para ali led) in so pomembni tako na Zemlji kot v detajlu. Vertikalni prehod vode je odvisen od temperature in predstavlja izparevanje (odnos temperatur vode in zraka, vidnost izparevanja, megla, oblaki),

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

sanitary water, and as traffic infrastructure (rivers, canals, sea, aquaducts, wooden chutes for logs). Together with the need for water for man's physical survival, water is needed in both physical and chemical processes with some materials. Water is much more important than we think. Continents are solid components of the Earth, consisting of rocks and earth. Earth can be understood as being more or less fertile. This is actually of most importance for all living beings: fertile earth is the basis of life. While oceans, full of water, represent the origin of life, continents are a new environment for immigrants from the water who have adapted and transformed over time. Continents are a combination of rocky mountains and fertile valleys. Primarily the latter provide the basis for life: for plants, animals and man. Green parts are above all soft – with a lot of water in the soil, such as marshes (barje), beside rivers and streams, by ponds and lakes – soft in form and technically, with many living elements. The hard parts of Earth are icy or rocky and provide shelter to little life. Ice, in warmer regions also snow, is confined to the north and south on Earth, and rocks are mainly high in the mountains and in exposed parts of deserts. Both rocks and ice provide very little potential for life, although nature is very inventive and shows the path to life even in such circumstances, in limited time and in limited forms. A rocky landscape is normally a complex of rocks and soil: rocks are normally on the highest peaks and on the edges of deserts. Deserts are for the most part valleys full of sand. Sand is actually pulverised rock, stones, sometimes even to the finest dust. Such dust, although similar to earth, is not fertile; it lacks nutrients and does not bind together in a dry state. But although deserts are infertile, a handful of earth, seeds, can be carried there, blown by the wind, and can germinate. These are, of course, individual cases. Fertile soils provide life to plants, animals and man. Plants start with mosses, turf, grasses, shrubs, all the way to trees. Plants can be several metres high, mosses as little as a few millimetres. If architecture shapes space, nature is the best designer: we thus have extremely interesting trees in terms of shape, structure, hardness and other characteristics. Mosses, too, for example, are interesting in terms of form, but the elements are so small that they are barely visible to the naked eye. Nature has given them something else: colour. The first animals were vegetarians, too large and clumsy to survive. They are smaller today, more capable, more diverse and so more specialised. This means that they can survive only in selected environments, which narrows the conditions for survival. Almost all in turn are more or less threatened. Mainly by man. According to Darwin, man developed from monkeys. After thousands of years, we are what we are. We survived because we used our brains; with the application of fire and tools (Egenter 1992: 101). And now the most important part: we used tools for cultivating fields to

formiranje oblakov in dež ali povratek vode na Zemljo. Od temperature je odvisno, ali gre za dež, za sneg, za vodo ali za ledene površine. Na Zemlji voda tvori površinske spremembe. Te so trenutne (blisk, strela kot rezultat električnega naboja) ali dolgotrajne. Pa še dolgotrajne so lahko krajše dobe (rast kapnika v kraški jami lahko traja le nekaj sto let, sprememba krajine, na primer kanjoni v Združenih državah) ali pa spremembe trajajo tisoče in tisoče let. Za oblikovanje ali 'arhitekturo' narave so bolj pomembne tekoče vode: potoček, reka, slap, brzica, ribnik, jezero, morje, ocean. Človekovo delo pri tem so jez z jezerom nad njim, zbiralnik, bazen, cisterna, zadrževalni in namakalni sistem, izraba vode kot pogonsko sredstvo (elektrika, mlin, žaga), vodovodno omrežje, odvod vod in njeno čiščenje, voda kot osamitev (pred sovražnikom), prehod prek vode kot varovalno in kontrolno sredstvo (most, nasip, mitnica). Človekovo delo so tudi elementi na vodi, pod njo in v njej: ladje in mostovi, druga plovila, ploščadi za izkoriščanje dna. Za človeka je pomembno izkoriščanje vode za pitje, za energijo, kot tudi sanitarne vode, pa še prometna infrastruktura (reke, kanali, morje, cevovodi, lesene riže za hlode). Ob nujnosti vode za človekovo fizično preživetje je ta potrebna tako pri fizikalnih kot pri kemijskih procesih materialov nekaterih gradiv. Voda je mnogo pomembnejša, kot mislimo. Kontinenti so trdni sestavi Zemlje, sestavi kamnin in zemljin. Zemljine razumemo kot zemljo, bolj ali manj plodno. Za vsa živa bitja je prav to najpomembneje. Plodna zemlja je temeljna osnova za življenje.

Slika 4 / Figure 4 Zeleni gozdovi so pljuča človeštva. Medtem ko je deževni gozd Južne Amerike pregost za izrabo, puščave dreves sploh nimajo, so gozdovi pri nas idealni za rastline, za živali in za človeka. Primer: gozd pod Zavrhom v Slovenskih goricah. Green forests are the lungs of mankind. While the rain forests of South America are too dense for use, and deserts have no trees at all, forests here are ideal for plants, animals and mankind. Example. Forest below Zavrh in Slovenske gorice.

Medtem ko oceani, polni vode, predstavljajo izvor življenju, so kontinenti novo okolje za prišleke iz vode, ki so se prilagodili in preoblikovali v času. Kontinenti so kombinacija skalnatih gora in plodnih dolin. Predvsem slednje dajejo temelj življenju in to rastlinam, živalim in človeku. Zeleni deli so predvsem mehki, z mnogo vode v tleh kot barja, ob rekah in potokih, ob ribnikih in jezerih. Mehki po obliki in tehnično, z mnogo živimi elementi. Trdi deli Zemlje so ledeni ali skalni in dajejo zatočišče le redkim živim. Led, v toplejših območjih tudi sneg, je na Zemlji povsem na severu in na jugu, skale pa so predvsem visoko v gorah in v izpostavljenih delih puščav. Tako skale kot led dajejo zelo malo možnosti življenju, pa čeprav se narava zelo znajde in pokaže pot življenju tudi v omejenih okoliščinah, v omejenem času, v omejenih oblikah. Skalna krajina je običajno sklop skal in prsti. Skale so praviloma na najvišjih vrhovih in na obrobju puščav. Puščave so v glavnem doline, polne peska. Pesek je pravzaprav zdrobljena skala, kamen, včasih tudi do najfinejšega prahu. Tak prah, pa četudi je podoben zemlji, ni ploden, nima hranljivih snovi in se v suhem stanju ne sprijema. A četudi je puščava neplodna, lahko tja zanese kako prgišče zemlje in seme, ki ga je tja odpihnil veter, vzkali.To so seveda posamični primeri. Plodna tla zagotavljajo življenje rastlinam, živalim in človeku. Rastlinstvo se začne z mahovi, z rušo, travo, grmičevjem, vse do dreves. Rastline so lahko velike nekaj deset metrov, mahovi le nekaj milimetrov. Če je arhitektura oblikovanje prostora, je narava najboljši oblikovalec. Tako imamo izjemno zanimiva drevesa po obliki, strukturi, trdoti in po drugih značilnostih. Mahovi, na primer, so zanimivi po obliki, a elementi so tako majhni, da jih s prostim očesom komaj vidimo. Narava jim je dala nekaj drugega – barvo. Prve živali so bile rastlinojedke, prevelike in preokorne, da bi preživele. Danes so manjše, bolj sposobne, bolj različne, a zato bolj specializirane. To pomeni, da lahko prežive le v izbranih okoliščinah, kar pogoje za preživetje zoži. Skoraj vse po vrsti so bolj ali manj ogrožene. Predvsem od človeka. Po Darwinu se je človek razvil iz opice. Po tisočih letih smo, kar smo. Preživeli smo, ker smo uporabili svoje možgane, z uporabo ognja in orodja (Egenter 1992: 101). In zdaj najpomembnejši del. Uporabili smo orodje za obdelavo polja, da bi pridelali hrano. Z razvojem orodja v orožje smo prišli do več hrane med živalmi, z uporabo orožja proti soljudem, plemenom, sovražnikom, ljudstvom pa smo si nakopali vse več težav. A naj se vrnem k bistvu našega razvoja. Orodje je bilo uporabljeno za obdelavo, za dodelavo in za izboljšanje ter za vzdrževanje drugih materialov, ki so pomagali pri preživetju. Pračlovek je potreboval varnost, lastno in skupno, varnost za družino. Uspel je in preživeli smo. Predvsem v arhitekturi sta pomembna uporaba orodja in izbor materialov (Egenter 1992: 93).

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Slika 5 / Figure 5 Rastline rastejo nekaj deset metrov nad tlemi, v kamnu. Veter je prinesel seme z zemljo ali pa najprej zemljo in potem seme. Ne glede na to so rožice tam lepe. Primer: Santiago de Compostela v Španiji. Plants growing some tens of metres above the ground, on rock. The wind carried the seed with earth, or first earth and then seed. Nevertheless, the flowers there are beautiful. Example: Santiago de Compostela in Spain.

be able to produce food. With the development of tools into weapons, we obtained more food from animals; with the use of weapons against our fellow people, tribes, enemies, as people we accumulated ever greater difficulties. However, let us return to the essence of our development: a tool was used for processing, for supplementing and for improving and for maintaining other materials that aided our survival. Prehistoric man needed security, his own and shared, security for the family. He succeeded and we survived. In architecture, above all, the use of tools is important, and the choice of materials (Egenter 1992: 93). The first 'architectures', which are difficult to call 'architecture', were caves. Mother Nature helped in this, giving little but showing a lot or, rather, indicating the solution to protection, as well as how prehistoric man could build his own home. A home, in other words, means first and foremost protection from external influences: from moisture, cold, heat and, not least, external enemies. Why not least? Is this the least important? No, but damp undermines health and thus the possibility of protecting and plundering, cultivating. Cold lasts all winter, heat all summer: external enemies come only from time to time.

From stone to clay, actually earth Ice and snow can only rarely be used in architecture, only in certain circumstances, in which the most important thing is the duration of the structure. Rocks are excellent material for construction, but a suitable type, quality

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Prve 'arhitekture', ki jim težko rečemo 'arhitektura', so bile jame. Pri tem je pomagala mati narava, ki je malo dala, več pa pokazala ali, bolje rečeno, nakazala rešitve zaščite, pa tudi, kako naj pračlovek zgradi svoj dom. Dom namreč v prvi vrsti pomeni zaščito pred zunanjimi vplivi, pred vlago, mrazom, vročino in nazadnje pred zunanjimi sovražniki. Zakaj nazadnje? Je to najmanj pomembno? Ne, a vlaga najeda zdravje in s tem zmožnost varovanja in plenjenja, obdelavo. Mraz traja vso zimo, vročina vse poletje. Zunanji sovražnik pride le od časa do časa.

and shape is difficult to find, difficult to work. Nevertheless, stone is a durable material, which gives constructions a lifespan of thousands and thousands of years. The problem, of course, is working them, dressing them. Durable stone is hard, soft for working means short for use. Just two examples: in Iceland, unworked, unshaped volcanic stone is used in vernacular architecture, which needs a special technique of composition, which brings a special form to the landscape. Soft sandstone, which is easily cut in Malta, can only be used in a dry, relatively warm climate. Crushed stone or sand is used, but only in precisely determined ratios of individual qualities of different characteristics. The Romans used selected types of sand in combination with water for a somewhat less hard concrete than is known today. This was a kind of 'natural cement' with very similar characteristics to the industrial cement that we obtain with demanding technologies of crushing, firing, drying and mixing. Mother Nature showed the solutions... Man had to understand them, reconstitute them, produce and use them in the right way. It is the same with stone, with wood and also with clay. Natural clay, suitable for building, is rarely available in elementary form. It can be mixed if we know the properties of the clay, sand and water and the ratio among these elements needed to obtain the required properties. One of the natural elements for everyday use for vessels and hygienic linings is kaolin. The chemical formula for kaolin is:

Od kamna do gline, pravzaprav zemlje Led in sneg lahko v arhitekturi uporabljamo le redko, le v nekaterih okoliščinah, pri čemer je najpomembnejši čas trajanja konstrukcije. Skale so imeniten material za konstrukcijo, a primerno vrsto, kvaliteto in obliko je težko najti, težko obdelovati. A kamen je vendar trajen material, ki zagotavlja kompozicijam tisoče in tisoče let. Problem je seveda obdelava, klesanje. Obstojen kamen je trd, mehak za obdelavo je kratke uporabe. Le dva primera: na Islandiji uporabljajo v vernakularni arhitekturi neobdelan, neoblikovan vulkanski kamen, kar zahteva posebne tehnike sestavljanja, ki vnašajo v krajino posebne oblike. Mehak peščenjak, ki ga z lahkoto izžagujejo na Malti, pa je možno uporabljati le v suhi, razmeroma topli klimi. Drobljen kamen ali pesek je uporaben, a le v točno določenih razmerjih posamičnih kvalitet različnih karakteristik. Rimljani so uporabljali (razmeroma redke) izbrane vrste peska, v kombinaciji z vodo, za nekaj manj trden beton, kot ga poznamo danes. To bi bil neke vrste 'naravni cement' z zelo podobnimi karakteristikami industrijskemu, ki ga pridobivamo z zahtevnimi tehnologijami drobljenja, žganja, sušenja in mešanja. Mati narava je nakazala rešitve ... Človek jih je moral razumeti, znova sestaviti, proizvesti in uporabiti na pravi način. Enako je pri kamnu in lesu in tudi ilovici. Naravna ilovica, primerna za vgradnjo, je redko dosegljiva elementarno. Lahko pa jo zmešamo, če poznamo lastnosti gline, peska in vode, pa razmerja med temi elementi, da dobimo zahtevane lastnosti. Eden naravnih elementov za vsakdanjo uporabo posodja in higienskih oblog je kaolin. Kemična formula kaolina je

Al2O3 . 2SiO2. 2H2O It is used most today for porcelain (Zbašnik 2002: 4). It cannot be forgotten that ceramic is ever more valued for its hardness in high technologies, even in space. It is the same for clay: the right mixture and density is almost never found in nature. But usable clay can be made by mixing suitable raw clay with sand and water. The technique of mixing and shaping is the fruit of the intelligence of man and his experience. Air dried shapes are ideal for making walls, but in themselves they are brittle. Experience has shown the need for reinforcing, for which a skilled craftsman used pieces of straw. A brittle shape from raw, dried clay can crack. But it remains together and functions even cracked. The next technological phase: firing the dried shape, by every logic was the fruit of accident. After a fire in a straw roof, the burnt shapes became harder and much more durable. Man recognised the difference between technique and a technological process, between physics and chemistry. An adobe brick, an air-dried clay block, can be crumbled and used again for the same purpose: a fired brick cannot. And another important piece of data: the Slovenes probably have the most suitable expression for this: the word means literally 'baked'. In other languages they say burned brick, the Slovenes have found a fine single word that says everything. And at the end – or perhaps at the beginning –

Al2O3 . 2SiO2. 2H2O Danes ga uporabljamo največ za porcelan (Zbašnik 2002: 4). Ne smemo pa pozabiti, da je keramika vse bolj cenjena tudi v visokih tehnologijah, zaradi svoje trdote celo v vesolju. Enako je z ilovico. Prave mešanice in gostote v naravi skoraj ne najdemo. Lahko pa jo sestavimo z izbrano glino, s peskom in z vodo. Tehnika mešanja in oblikovanja je plod pameti človeka in njegovih izkušenj. Na zraku sušeni oblikovniki so idealni za sestav zidu, a so sami po sebi krhki. Izkušnje so pokazale potrebo po učvrščevanju (reinforcing), za kar je spreten obrtnik uporabil kosme slame. Krhek oblikovnik iz surove, sušene ilovice tako sicer razpoka, a ostane skupaj

a word about earth as a building material. Is it at all possible to use earth in building? The oldest construction in Iceland is called a turf house, a house made of turfs. It has stone foundations, with a wooden construction for the roof on which are laid flat stones, and everything is covered in turfs, above all the gable, where the vertical wall is a complex of layers of turf, whereby the layers alternate in different directions. Turf alone lets in moisture, but when it soaks up the water, it swells and is then compressed. It is the same with the exterior of the vertical walls, and the turf in walls some forty centimetres thick is also in itself good heat insulation.

in deluje tudi počen. Naslednja, tehnološka faza: žganje sušenega oblikovnika je po vsej logiki plod nesreče. Po ognju v slamnati strehi so postali zažgani oblikovniki trdnejši in mnogo bolj obstojni. Človek je spoznal razliko med tehničnim in tehnološkim procesom, med fiziko in kemijo. Čerpič, na zraku sušen ilovnat blok, je lahko zdrobil in znova uporabil za isti namen, žgane opeke pa ne več. Pa še pomemben podatek: verjetno imamo Slovenci najprimernejši izraz za to – opeka. V drugih jezikih pravijo 'žgan blok' (angleško: burned brick), pri nas smo našli eno samo, lepo besedo, ki pove vse. In na koncu - ali morda na začetku - beseda o zemlji kot gradbenem materialu. Je sploh mogoče, da uporabljamo zemljo v gradnji? Na Islandiji imajo najstarejše konstrukcije, ki jim rečejo 'turf house', hiša iz travnate ruše. Ima kamnit temelj z leseno konstrukcijo strehe, na katero je položen ploščat kamen, vse skupaj pa je prekrito z rušo, predvsem zatrepi (gable), kjer je vertikalni zid sklop plasti travne ruše, ki si izmenično sledi v plasteh raznih smeri. Ruša sama po sebi prepušča vlago, a ko se napije vode, nabrekne in zato tesni. Enako je z zunanjo stranjo vertikalnih sten, sama po sebi pa je ruša v zidu kakih štiridesetih centimetrov tudi dober toplotni izolator.

Theory of technique and possibility Stone Collecting natural, unformed stone Collecting stones on the surface is a matter of clearing a field, orchard or vineyard. Where only unformed stones of uncontrolled form and quality can be found, construction with them is practically impossible. Special objects are an exception, where it is not a matter of great stability and not of insulation, which is otherwise the basic purpose of any wall. The characteristic of a wall from unformed stones is mainly a lack of tightness. A characteristic example is a single wall, when a builder with great knowledge and experience composes stones into a thin enclosure, which actually maintains its stability through the unevenness of the stones. So such a wall cannot be made from round, smooth stones. The single wall from volcanic stones in Iceland and the 'unjulica' on Krk, where the wall has a thickness of some fifteen centimetres and height of 140 cm, are comparable. Such a wall separates pastures and, above all, defies the strong wind. A packed, tight wall would present a barrier to the wind and so it is transparent; it stops animals but allows the wind through. It works. Another example is the 'fiskbirgi' on Iceland, fish drying houses that have the same construction of volcanic dark rock, which is made in a system of corbelling but its basic purpose is to protect the hanging fish from birds, while allowing through the wind, which dries them.

Teorija tehnik in možnosti Kamen Zbiranje naravnega, neoblikovanega kamna Zbiranje kamna na površju je stvar čiščenja polja, sadovnjaka ali vinograda. Kjer najdemo le neoblikovan kamen nekontroliranih oblik in kvalitete, je gradnja z njim praktično nemogoča. Izjeme so le posebni objekti, kjer ne gre za veliko stabilnost in ne za izolacijo, ki je sicer temeljni namen vsakega zidu. Značilnost zidu iz neoblikovanega kamna je predvsem netesnost. Značilni primer je enojni zid, ko graditelj z veliko znanja in izkušenj sestavlja kamne v tanko ograjo, ki drži stabilnost pravzaprav s svojimi neravninami. Zato takega zidu ni mogoče sestavljati iz okroglih, gladkih kamnov. Primera sta enojni zid iz vulkanskega kamna na Islandiji, pa 'unjulica' na Krku, kjer ima zid, debeline kakih petnajstih centimetrov, višino 140 centimetrov. Ta zid ločuje pašnike in predvsem kljubuje močnemu vetru. Zatesnjena stena bi predstavljala vetru prepreko, tako pa je prosojna in ustavlja živino, prepušča pa vetrove. Deluje. Drug primer so 'fiskbirgi' na Islandiji, kjer imajo sušilnice za ribe enako konstrukcijo vulkanskega, temnega kamna, ki sicer sestavlja konstrukcijo korbelinga, a je njen osnovni namen ščititi viseče ribe pred pticami, pri tem pa prepuščati vetru, da jih suši.

The choice of natural blocks of stone This is the simplest method: to find and choose stones of approximately regular shape. The proper shapes are right angled, with flat surfaces and at least one regular thickness so that a wall can be composed by means of two elements in horizontal layers, covered in the centre by the layer above. This applies for walls, and in the same way for spaces, with an overhanging projection, in corbelling (Oliver 2003: 71). The stress here is on 'finding' since there are very few naturally shaped stones for construction in nature.

Izbor naravnih blokov kamna To je najpreprostejši način: najti in izbrati kamne približno pravilnih

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Quarrying layers Where Mother Nature has already prepared thin layers that can be broken into smaller pieces, it is ideal material for building stone constructions. Some layers are exceptionally thin, for example slate in Slovenia, where 'skalce' along the Soras (two rivers!) are used for covering roofs and these enable extremely decorative patterns with a basic principle of covering. This slate imposes a great load.

oblik. Prave oblike so pravi kot, ravna površina, vsaj ena kontrolirana debelina, da lahko sestavimo po dva elementa v horizontalni plasti, s prekrivanjem po sredini. To velja za zid, pri prostoru pa na enak način še s preklopom v previsu, v korbelingu (Oliver 2003: 71). Pri tem je poudarek na 'najti', kajti naravno oblikovanih kamnov za gradnjo je v naravi prekleto malo. Lomljenje plasti Kjer je že mati narava pripravila tanke plasti, ki jih lahko lomimo v manjše kose, je to idealen material za gradnjo kamnitih konstrukcij. Nekatere plasti so izjemno tanke, na primer skrilj v Sloveniji, kjer 'skalce' ob Sorah (dve reki!) uporabljajo za prekrivanje streh in te omogočajo izjemno dekorativne vzorce pri osnovnem načelu prekrivanja. Ta skrilavec ni le zelo obstojen, prenaša tudi velike obtežbe.

Quarrying stone blocks Quarrying stone blocks is very heavy work, in which skilful craftsmen master even the hardest rock with simple tools, with wooden pins, and mainly with intelligence. The most important element, namely, is rhythm. So intelligence masters even the greatest hardness. The dimensions of the stone blocks are theoretically a two metre cube (2 x 2 x 2 metres). The stone blocks are then, of course, cut further into smaller blocks. It was once important that the blocks for building were exactly as big as two workers could handle. This restriction has gone today with the aid of machines.

Lomljenje kamnitih blokov Lomljenje kamnitih blokov je najtežje delo, kjer spretni obrtniki obvladujejo tudi najtrše kamnine s preprostim orodjem, z lesenimi trikotnimi zatiči, predvsem pa s pametjo. Najpomembnejši element je namreč ritem.Tako pamet prevlada tudi največjo trdoto. Dimenzije kamnitih blokov so teoretično dva metra v kub (2 x 2 x 2 metra). Kamnite kocke so seveda rezali še naprej v manjše bloke. Včasih je bilo pomembno, da so bili bloki za vgradnjo veliki ravno toliko, da sta ga obvladala dva delavca. Danes je s pomočjo strojev ta omejitev odpravljena.

Cutting stone A two-metre cube has to be cut into slabs. This is done with saws, which are normally band saws with 'diamond inserts'. They really did formerly set technical diamonds in the band for the most demanding cutting, but today these elements are the hardest steel. Soft sandstone can also be cut with a circular saw: while a cut with a band saw is mainly vertical, circular saws can be used at any angle. They thus cut blocks in Malta to sizes around 30 x 30 x 50 cm (also with half the thickness) which are later built into walls. Climatic conditions also allow walls without daub or outside protection.

Žaganje kamna Kubus dveh metrov je treba razžagati v plošče. To počnejo z žagami, ki so običajno neskončne žice z 'diamantnimi vložki'. Včasih so za najbolj zahtevne reze v žico res vlagali tehnične diamante, danes so to elementi najtrših jekel. Mehak peščenjak lahko žagamo tudi s krožnimi žagami. Medtem ko je rez z neskončno žico predvsem vertikalen, so krožne žage lahko pod kakršnim koli kotom.Tako žagajo bloke na Malti v velikostih okrog 30 x 30 x 50 centimetrov (tudi s polovičnimi debelinami), ki jih pozneje vgrajujejo v zidove. Klimatski pogoji dovoljujejo tudi zidove brez ometov ali zunanje zaščite.

Crushing stone Stone is crushed into smaller fractions, which are then used in further technology. This is mainly concrete, in which it is mixed with cement and water. It must be said that cement is only a kind of crushed stone with special properties, which, technologically processed, is later hardened into artificial stone with similar properties to natural stone. Mixing stones Where special properties are needed, crushed pieces and sand for various requirements (selected surfaces, special textures, floors, patterns in floors etc.) are mixed. Stones are sometimes chosen for decorative needs, which are set into the surface. A composition of pebbles in a floor is call a 'cat's head', the setting of round stones in floors was already known in Roman times, and a Turkish 'kaldrma' is a typical floor of eastern countries.

Drobljenje kamna Kamen drobimo v manjše frakcije, ki jih potem uporabljamo za nadaljnjo tehnologijo. Gre predvsem za betone, ko ga mešamo s cementom in z vodo. Pri tem je treba povedati, da je cement le drobljen kamen posebnih lastnosti, ki se, tehnološko obdelan, pozneje strjuje v umetni kamen s podobnimi lastnostmi kot naravni. Mešanje kamnov Kjer potrebujemo posebne lastnosti, mešamo za različne zahteve drobljenec in pesek (izbrane površine, posebne teksture, tlaki, vzorci v

Technological processing Cement is a mixture of particular stones, which are fired at selected

temperatures, crushed and mixed. Cement as a building material has a relatively short usable period and quickly hardens in the damp. For concrete, cement, aggregate of chosen size and water is mixed. The concrete is poured into a mould and panelling. After some weeks, the concrete becomes hard, and the hardness further increases with time. The problem of concrete is that it is exceptionally hard, resistant to pressure but not to strain. So it has to be reinforced, mainly with iron rods, an armature. Constructions with ribbed rods are particularly strong, which prevent possible slippage, and constructions in precast concrete have exceptional bearing capacity, when the stretched steel construction is pre-tensioned. Reinforced steel has its model in wattle, which was surrounded with clay. Just like concrete, it is a bearing construction, which the external layer protects from deletorious influences.

tleh itd). Včasih so za dekoracijo potrebni posebni izbrani kamni, ki jih vlagamo v površine. Sestavo prodnika v tlak imenujemo 'mačje glave', postavitve okroglih kamnov v tlake so znane že iz rimskih časov, pa tudi turška 'kaldrma' je značilni tlak vzhodnih dežel. Tehnološke obdelave Cement je mešanica posebnih kamnin, ki jih žgejo na izbranih temperaturah, drobijo in mešajo. Cement kot vgradni material ima razmeroma kratko dobo uporabe in na vlagi hitro zatrdi. Za beton mešamo cement, agregat izbranih velikosti in vodo. Beton vlivamo v kalupe in opaže. Po nekaj tednih postane beton trden, vendar se trdnost s časom še povečuje. Problem betona je v tem, da je izjemno trden, odporen na tlake, a ne na natege. Zato ga moramo učvrščevati, predvsem z jeklenimi palicami, z armaturo. Posebej močne so konstrukcije z narebričenimi palicami, ki preprečujejo morebitne zdrse, izjemno nosilne so konstrukcije v prednapetem betonu (precast concrete), ko natezno jekleno konstrukcijo vnaprej napnemo. Armirano jeklo ima svoj izvor v prepletu, ki ga obdamo z ilovico. Enako kot beton ima nosilno konstrukcijo, ki ga zunanji plašč ščiti pred neprijaznimi vplivi.

Wood Rough carpentry Rough carpentry is mainly the longitudinal working of wood. A round log can be used in the constructional context of architecture, but not without difficulty. Vertical constructions, when the logs are driven into the earth can form any groundplan, but they cannot be joined and they rot first in the earth. The lower part has an essentially shorter lifespan than the upper. Horizontal constructions of round profiles have even more problems: the rounds cannot be composed on the level without a remainder. Because a log is always thicker below and thinner above, and because logs are not the same among themselves, it is only possible to compose them with the aid of sealing, which means the introduction of a new material. Rough carpenters work with steel axes, so hand tools, and it is therefore not precise. The surface is more interesting for this very reason, since on it is reflected all the inner structure of the wood. The lifespan of trimmed wood is therefore longer than that of sawn: the grain of sawn timber is cut longitudinally and so the wood rots sooner. Splitting flat elements brought into use shingles, which have the maximum life span on their ribbed surfaces and they also respond to external influences relatively gently (damp, temperature changes: warping).

Les Tesarstvo Tesarstvo je predvsem vzdolžna obdelava lesa. Okrogle hlode sicer lahko sestavljamo v konstrukcijske sklope arhitektur, a ne brez težav. Vertikalne konstrukcije, ko hlode zabijamo v tla, lahko oblikujejo poljubne tlorise, a jih moramo vezati in v zemlji najprej strohnijo. Spodnji del je bistveno krajše življenjske dobe od zgornjega. Horizontalne konstrukcije okroglih profilov imajo še več problemov: krogov ne moremo sestavljati v ravnine brez ostanka. Ker je hlod spodaj vedno debelejši in zgoraj tanjši, pa ker hlodi med seboj niso enaki, je možno sestavljanje le s pomočjo tesnjenja, to pa pomeni vnos novega materiala. Tesarji tešejo z jeklenimi sekirami, torej je to ročno delo in zato ni povsem eksaktno. Prav zaradi tega pa je površina še bolj zanimiva, saj se na njej odraža vsa notranja struktura lesa. Zaradi tega je življenjska doba tesanega lesa daljša od žaganega. Pri žaganem lesu so žile vzdolžno razrezane in zato prej propadejo. Klanje ploščatih elementov je prineslo v uporabo skodle, ki imajo s svojimi rebrastimi površinami maksimalno dolgo življenjsko dobo, pa tudi na zunanje vplive se odzivajo razmeroma nežno (vlaga, spremembe temperature: zvijanje).

Sawing This is a more modern system that uses demanding tools. The 'venetian', a saw with multiple blades once in use, driven by water and then steam, was slow and inexact. The use of electricity improved both the speed and the effectiveness, as well as the accuracy of the cut and thus the profiles. More modern saws also enable ever thinner boards, which have a smooth surface and are thus increasingly sensitive to damp and heat changes. Boards also have a shorter lifespan than shingles.

Žaganje To je sodobnejši sistem, ki uporablja zahtevna orodja.

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Earth

Nekdaj uporabljane 'venecijanke', gnane na vodo, potem na paro, so bile počasne in neeksaktne. Z uporabo elektrike sta se povečali tako hitrost in z njo efektnost kot tudi točnost rezov in z njimi profilov. Modernejše žage omogočajo tudi vse tanjše deske, ki imajo gladke površine, a so zato vse bolj občutljive na vlago in na toplotne spremembe. V primerjavi s skodlami imajo deske tudi krajšo življenjsko dobo.

Kneading clay The most primitive method of working by hand is kneading. Mud and clay can be kneaded. These materials, if they are moist enough, obtain a new shape, but they are brittle. Insofar as they are air dried, larger, thicker pieces are more sensitive, since the interior dries more slowly and over a longer period than the outside.

Zemljine Gnetenje ilovice Najprimitivnejši način ročnega dela je gnetenje. Gnetemo lahko blato, glino, ilovico. Ti materiali dobijo, če so zadostno navlaženi, novo obliko, a so krhki. V kolikor se sušijo na zraku, so bolj občutljivi večji, debelejši kosi, saj se notranji deli sušijo počasneje in dalj časa od zunanjih. Gnetena ilovica, žgana na visoki temperaturi, je bolj obstojna in bolj uporabna. V arhitekturi je najpreprostejši zid prav gneten in stisnjen v želene oblike, pri zidu predvsem v debelino. Bolj uporaben je debelejši zid, je tudi bolj konstruktiven, a krhek material zahteva učvrstitev. To so lahko veje iglavcev, lahko pa je tudi slama. Poseben problem predstavlja delo. Ker ne moremo zgnesti vsega zidu v enem, ga je treba razdeliti na delovne etape. To pa pomeni v kompoziciji sestav sekvenc. Problem so spoji. Ilovnat zid v butani izvedbi ima vedno vodoravne pasove, ki jih delijo navpični spoji. Teh spojev nikakor ni mogoče izvesti popolno. Zasušena sekvenca se ne spaja z vlažno, svežo in tehnično ne tvori enotne stene.

Slika 6 / Figure 6 Konstrukcija zidu v gneteni glini: a/ ilovica je sestav gline, peska in vode - v kolikor ni splošnega armiranja z brinovimi vejami, je učvrščevanje s slamo edina možnost; b/ začetno gnetenje je mogoče tudi z nogami; c/ fino gnetenje je vedno ročno delo; d/ umeščanje materiala v zid; e/ obsekovanje in ravnanje s sekiro po dveh ali treh dneh; f/ končan zid. Construction of a wall in kneaded clay: a/ clay is mixed with sand and water – insofar as it is not reinforced, generally with juniper branches, straw reinforcement is the only possibility: b/ the initial kneading is also possible with the feet; c/ fine kneading is always hand work; d/ placing the material in the wall; e/ dressing and levelling with an axe after two or three days; f/ the final wall.

Kneaded clay, fired at high temperature, is more durable and more usable. In architecture, the simplest wall is kneaded and pressed into the desired shape, with a wall that means mainly thickness. A thicker wall is more functional, also is construction terms, but brittle material needs reinforcing. This can be coniferous branches but can also be straw. The work represents a particular problem: since the whole wall cannot be kneaded in one, it has to be divided into working stages. This means the composition of a structure in sequences. The joins are a problem. A kneaded clay wall always has horizontal bands dividing the vertical joins. These joins can never be executed completely: the dried sequence does not fuse with the damp, fresh, and technically does not create a uniform wall.

Butanje Poenostavljanje dela je butanje, kjer ilovico kot sestav gline s peskom in z vodo stresamo med dva lesena opaža in potem to zbijamo, butamo. Pri tem je pomembno stiskanje materiala, da iztisnemo ves zrak in prazna 'gnezda', ki manjšajo nosilnost konstrukcije.

Ramming Ramming simplifies work, where the clay mixed sand and with water is poured between wooden boards, which are held together and the clay rammed. Compressing the material is important here, in order to squeeze out all the air and empty the 'nests', which reduce the bearing capacity of the construction. Reinforcement is also needed with ramming. The commonest material for this is straw: anything from four to fifteen centimetres long. It may not

Slika 7 / Figure 7 Butanje: a/ mešanje izbrane ilovice in slame; b, c/ postavljanje opaža; d/ phanje ilovice v opaž; e/ stiskanje, butanje; f/ končan zid. Ramming: a/ mixing the chosen clay and straw; b, c/ erecting the pannelling; d/ pouring the clay into the pannelling; e/ compressing, ramming: f/ completed wall.

be longer because of potential transmission of moisture. A clay wall is not particularly hard and does not have a particularly long lifespan: both problems are solved by regular maintenance: small cracks can be coated with clay. While construction is man's work, maintenance (and thus 'coating' mainly by hand) work is in the care of the housewife, and thus woman's work.

Tudi pri butanju potrebujemo armiranje, učvrščevanje. Najbolj običajen material za to je slama, vse od štirih do petnajstih centimetrov. Daljša ne sme biti zaradi morebitnega prenosa vlage. Ilovnata stena ni posebno trdna in nima posebno dolge življenjske dobe. Tako prvi kot drugi problem rešujemo z rednim vzdrževanjem. Majhne razpoke je možno zamazati z glino. Medtem ko je gradnja moško delo, je vzdrževanje (in s tem 'zamazovanje', predvsem z roko) delo in skrb gospodinje, je torej žensko delo.

Hand shaping Smaller bricks are needed for higher quality work, whereby the work can also be divided; preparation of the shapes and drying, and then setting in the construction. This is certainly more economical, since it introduces specialisation and thus a better efficiency of work, greater exactness and higher quality work, in terms of both space and time. An adobe brick is a clay brick dried in the sun or in the air, when clay is pressed into a wooden frame which shapes it. The French call this method 'pise', the English 'adobe'. The dried bricks are composed and bound with clay and water, but the wall also needs protection on the outside: a daub. This is also normally clay based. Reinforcing the bricks is still necessary, here straw is normally used but in France, for example, it is not used for this purpose. Even the daub is strengthened with straw fibres, which are also sometimes longer. Towers in Yemmen are built in a system of adobe bricks with as many as eleven storeys (Oliver 2003: 248). These have a sort of 'self-maintenance system' whereby the sloping wall is drenched with run-off water and possible cracks simultaneously coated. In constructing with smaller elements (bricks) a new problem occurs, since regular shape and regular size require an understanding of a system of ratios of dimension. This must enable horizontal composition, covering, enchanging the rhythm of the composition and a constant ratio of length to width, since the length of the brick provides the thickness of the wall.

Ročno oblikovanje Za boljšo kvaliteto zidu so potrebni manjši zidaki, pri čemer lahko razdelimo tudi delo: priprava oblikovnikov in sušenje, potem pa vdelava v konstrukcijo. To je vsekakor bolj ekonomično, saj uvaja specializiranost in s tem boljši efekt dela, večjo eksaktnost in boljšo kvaliteto, tako v prostoru kot v času.

Slika 8 / Figure 8 Čerpič: a/ mešanica ilovice in slame je naphana v lesen obod (b); c/ sušenje na zraku, na soncu; d/ vgrajevanje. Adobe brick: a/ mixture of clay and straw is pounded into a wooden frame (b); c/ air drying, in the sun; d/ building in.

Čerpič je ilovnat zidak, sušen na soncu ali na zraku, ko ilovico naphamo v lesen okvir, ki ji da obliko. Francozi pravijo temu načinu 'pise', Angleži 'adobe'. Sušene zidake sestavljajo in vežejo z glino in vodo, stena pa na zunaj potrebuje tudi zaščito, omet.Tudi ta je navadno ilovnat. Armiranje zidakov je še vedno potrebno, pri nas uporabljajo predvsem slamo, v Franciji je na primer v ta namen ne poznajo. Tudi omet je učvrščen s slamnatimi vlakni, ki so včasih daljša. V sistemu čerpiča so na primer v Jemnu zgrajene stolpnice vse do enajst nadstropij (Oliver 2003: 248). Te imajo nekakšen 'samovzdrževalni sistem', kjer nagnjene stene obliva meteorna voda in sproti zamaže morebitne razpoke. Pri sestavljanju manjših elementov (zidakov) pridemo do novega problema, saj stalne oblike in stalne razsežnosti zahtevajo umen sistem odnosov dimenzij. Ta mora omogočati vzdolžno sestavljanje, prekrivanje, menjajoči se ritem sestava ter stalni odnos dolžine s širino, saj dolžina zidaka predstavlja debelino stene.

Firing The most effective technique is undoubtedly burning, or firing, at high temperature. Clay is thus technologically changed and can no longer return to the primary form (which is still possible with the 'adobe' system – a used adobe brick can be crumbled to dust and recreated into a new one by the addition of water).

Slika 9 / Figure 9 Žganje zidakov: a/ zidak je oblikovan iz ilovice v izbrano obliko; b/ sušenje na zraku ali na soncu (ročni način na soncu, industrijsko na zraku); c/ žganje; d/ ohlajanje; e/ gradnja. Firing bricks: a/ the brick is shaped into the chosen form from clay; b/ it is dried in air or in the sun (hand method in the sun, industrially air dried); c/ firing; d/ cooling; e/ construction.

Žganje Najučinkovitejša tehnika je nedvomno žganje na visoki temperaturi. Tako se ilovica tehnološko spremeni in je ne moremo več vrniti v

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Fired clay is completely durable in air, it does not absorb a lot of water; it remains a brittle material but is sufficiently hard to be built into a wall. Protection is still needed on the exterior side, a daub. A fired building block, a brick, can have sharp edges, which contributes to the solidity of the construction. The dimensions are thus more exact, but this requires a more complete system of proportion.

primarno obliko (kar je pri sistemu 'adobe' mogoče – odslužen čerpič lahko stremo v prah in ga z vodo spet vgradimo v novega). Žgana glina je na zraku povsem obstojna, ne vpija vode, je še vedno krhek material, a za vzidavo v steno zadosti trden. Na zunanji strani je še vedno potrebna zaščita, omet. Žgan oblikovnik, opeka, ima lahko ostre robove, kar pripomore k trdnejši konstrukciji. Tako so dimenzije bolj eksaktne, to pa zahteva bolj popoln proporcijski sistem.

Cutting grass turfs This is a relatively rare method and less well-known. In Iceland, where this method is used, or was at least once used, they have special tools for cutting a regular thickness and length of layers: this type of spade is called a 'torfljar' (Olafsson 2ooo: 6), and is also sometimes known as a 'sword'. The layers of turf, which are of uniform thickness, are partially dried in belts, and then laid alternately (Olafsson 2000, 8). The joins run at an angle so that the turfs at least to some extent adhere together. Because of the layers, which are visible in cross section (grass, roots, earth), the turf makes a really interesting pattern. Insofar as the turf is composed at a sharp angle – the decorative effect is even more interesting. Turf, of course, works when it is damp: and because Iceland is a predominantly damp country, it works there.

Rezanje travne ruše To je razmeroma redek način in manj poznan. Na Islandiji, kjer ta princip uporabljajo ali so ga vsaj včasih uporabljali, imajo za rezanje stalne debeline in dolžine plasti posebna orodja; 'torfljar' pravijo vrsti lopate (Olafsson 2000: 6), ki jo poimenujejo tudi 'meč'. Plasti ruše, ki so tako enake debeline, v pasovih delno posušijo, potem pa jih izmenično sestavijo (Olafsson 2000, 8). Spoji tečejo pod kotom, da se ruša vsaj nekoliko sprime. Zaradi plasti, ki so vidne v prerezu (trava, korenine, zemlja), ruša riše prav zanimive vzorce. V kolikor je ruša sestavljena pod ostrim kotom, so ornamenti še zanimivejši. Seveda ruša deluje na vlago. Ker pa je Islandija pretežno vlažna dežela, tam tudi deluje.

Slika 10 / Figure 10 Arhitektura travne ruše: a/ ruša v naravi; b/ grajen kamniti temelj; c/ notranja lesena konstrukcija; d/ ruša predstavlja strešno kritino, vertikalni zid v zatrepu, nekatere nosilne zidove. Architecture of grass turfs: a/ turf in nature; b/ constructed stone foundations; c/ interior wooden construction; d/ turf provides the roof cover, vertical walls in the gable, some bearing walls.

Tehnika kot oblika arhitekture Tehnike vgradnje materialov vplivajo na arhitekturo in na njene oblike. V vernakularni arhitekturi ni dekoracije, a je dekorativna. To je rezultat konstrukcije. Ta je odvisna od namena, od materiala in od možnosti, ki jih ta dopušča, pa seveda od hotenja graditelja, da zgradi čim smotrnejšo arhitekturo. Čim boljša pomeni z dosegljivimi materiali, s čim manj obdelave in z najučinkovitejšo vgradnjo, ki zagotavlja predvsem varnost, stabilnost, v končni fazi tudi lepoto. Ta pa ni sama sebi namen, je vedno le posledica konstrukcije. Tehnike omogočajo materiali. Rušo je na primer mogoče vgrajevati le v pasovih, gneteno glino moramo armirati, da ji izboljšamo nosilnost. Butana stena je enak material, a vgrajen v opaže, ki določajo omejitev v dolžini, material in efekt delavcev določita višino pasov. Stiki se nedvomno vidijo. Čerpič se na zunaj vedno vidi, tudi na površini ometa. Vsi ti načini gradnje zahtevajo vzdrževanje vso dobo uporabe. Za to je potrebna predvsem voda. In na zraku sušeno glino lahko vedno spet zdrobimo in uporabimo znova.Tega z opeko ni mogoče. Ilovica je lahko tudi koristen material za tesnjenje med lesenimi bruni, a tudi tukaj rabimo armiranje, ki spaja različne materiale v kompaktno steno. Na površini je ilovica lahko gladka kot omet, lahko je površinsko ojačena

Techniques as a form of architecture Techniques of inbuilding materials affect the architecture and its form. Vernacular architecture has no decoration, but it is decorative. This is a result of the construction, which depends on the purpose, on the materials and on the possibilities that these allow and, of course, the aspirations of the builder to construct the most sensible architecture. Most sensible here means with the available materials, with as little work as possible and with the most efficient construction that ensures primarily safety, stability, and, in the end, also beauty. This is not an aim in itself; it is always only a result of the construction. The materials enable the technique: turf, for example, can only be built in bands, kneaded clay must be reinforced in order to improve the bearing capacity. A rammed clay wall is the same material but built between panels, which determine a limitation in length, while the material and the effect of the workers determine the height of the bands. Joins can certainly be seen. An adobe brick is always visible on the outside, even on the surface of the daub. All these methods of construction require maintenance throughout the period of use. Air-dried clay can always be crumbled again and reused. This

is not possible with fired bricks. Clay can also be a useful material for sealing between wooden logs but even here, reinforcement is needed, which join the various materials into a compact wall. On the surface, clay can be smooth as daub, the surface can be strengthened with a lime coating, which increases the quality, protection and aesthetics of the wall. Fired clay is more durable, double fired even more so, and lustre and tone are achieved with the addition of salt. This has a primarily visible effect – it is attractive – but the purpose is above all functional. It is a matter of the hygiene achieved with washing, which is not possible with dry clay. So tiles are always glazed: so that dust does not gather on them, so that they can be washed, so that they are not a source of dirt. Only later did patterns, colours and stresses appear. Regions with a lot of clay have mainly developed this craft, of course, and a key characteristic of the architecture there is thus the materials, colours of execution. Where the climate is extremely hot and encourages infection, hygiene is crucial for survival. It is therefore no coincidence that the craft of fired clay is so highly developed in Arabic countries.

z apnenim premazom, ki dviga kvaliteto, zaščito in estetiko zidu. Žgana glina je obstojnejša, dvakrat žgana še bolj, z dodanimi solmi pri žganju pa dosežemo lesk in ton. Ta ima predvsem vidne učinke. Je lep, a je namenjen najprej uporabi. Gre za higieno, ki jo dosežemo s pranjem, česar pri suhi glini ni mogoče. Zato so pečnice vedno glazirane, da se na njih ne nabira prah, da jih lahko umivamo, da niso vir umazanije. Šele pozneje se pojavijo vzorci, barve in poudarki. Dežele z mnogo ilovice imajo seveda razvito predvsem to obrt in ključna značilnost arhitekture so tako materiali, barve izvedbe. Kjer pa je klima izjemno vroča in pospešuje okužbe, je higiena nujna za preživetje. Zato ni slučaj, da je v arabskih deželah obrt pečene gline tako razvita. Oblike, ki jih zemljina omogoča Travna ruša Na videz povsem nekonstruktivni materiali (zemlja, ruša, trava), so lahko v danih pogojih prav uporabna reč. Še najpogostejša rešitev je tako imenovana 'rastlinska streha' (tete vegetale v frankofonskih deželah, pravzaprav 'glava'). Je neke vrste zaščita kamnitih plošč na razmeroma položni strehi. Paghliaddiu na Korziki jo ima, pa tudi danes najdemo novogradnje v takih izvedbah (alpska območja okrog Grenobla na primer). Bistvo rastlinskega pokrova je v tem, da ne tesni, ko ni vlage. Ko pa se zrak navlaži, v dežju se ruša napne, vodo zadržuje. V celoti je tudi dobro izolativno sredstvo, saj bilke, ko so žive, dajejo senco in so goste (hlajenje poleti), ko pa jih mraz pomori in sonce posuši, delujejo nekako kot slama – imenitna toplotna izolacija.

Forms that earth enables Grass turfs These materials, apparently unusable in construction, earth, turfs, grass, under given conditions can be very useful. Still the commonest solution is a so-called 'plant roof' ('tete vegetale' in francophone lands, literally 'vegetable head') is a kind of protection of flat stones on a relatively gently sloping roof. 'Paghliaddiu' on Corsica have them, and even today new buildings can be found with this construction (the Alpine area around Grenoble, for example).

Vpraskana arhitektura Že pračlovek je za svoje prvo bivališče izbral tisto, kar mu je pokazala narava kot zaklon s petih strani: šesto je moral varovati sam. Uporabil je naravne jame. Medtem ko zahtevajo jame v kamnini ogromno dela in zahtevno orodje, so bivališča v njih varnejša in udobnejša. Zahtevajo predvsem čas in delo. Zato jame v kamnu niso plod enega človeka, pač pa generacij in generacij. Naj spomnim le na Granado, kjer ljudje v takih jamah živijo še danes. Izkopati jamo v peščenjak ali celo v trdo ilovico je zahtevno delo. Narejeno je sicer prej kot v kamnu, lahko prilagajamo velikosti in ureditev, a je zahtevnejši gradbeni poseg zaradi varnosti; prej se tudi podre. Zato so jame v mehkem materialu razmeroma redke. Mehak material je udoben za delo, a ni trajen, se obrablja in se lahko kruši že med vsakodnevno uporabo. Posebej zanimiv detajl je beljenje vhodov. Ponekod so z apnom pobarvani le vhodi, včasih ves osrednji prostor. V Španiji pravijo takemu beljenje 'zaščita pred zlimi duhovi', gre pa seveda le za higiensko mero, ker z apnom preprečimo dostop vsaj nekaterim insektom in plazilcem.

Slika 11 / Figure 11 Travna ruša kot 'rastlinska streha' (tete vegetale) tesni stike med ploščatimi kamni na strehi paghliaddija na Korziki. Grass turf as a 'plant roof' (tete vegetale) seals the contact between the flat stones on the roof of a paghliaddiu on Corsica.

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Slika 12 / Figure 12 Vertikalna okrogla jama z vodnjakom v sredini je osrednji del, iz katere so vhodi v sobe, tudi v tri nadstropja. V mehek kamen vpraskane 'hiše' so tako visoke (ali globoke!) tudi deset in več metrov. Primer: Matmata,Tunizija. Vertical circular pit with a well in the centre is the central part, from which there are entrances to rooms, even in three storeys. In soft stone, such excavated 'houses' are thus ten and more metres high (or deep). Example: Matmata, Tunisia.

The essence of plant cover is that it does not seal unless there is damp. When the air is humid and during rain, the turf absorbs and retains moisture. It is also good insulation in entirety, since the blades, which are alive, give shade and are dense (cooling in summer) and when the cold kills them and the sun dries them, they function as a kind of straw: excellent heat insulation. Excavated architecture Prehistoric man already chose for his first residence what nature had shown him as a shelter with five sides: he had to protect the sixth himself. He used a natural cave. While caves in rocks require a huge amount of work and demanding tools, dwellings in them are safer and more comfortable. They demand primarily time and work. So caves in stone are not the fruit of one man but of generation after generation. Think only of Grenada, where people still live in such caves today. To excavate a cave in sandstone, or even hard clay, is demanding work, but it is more easily done than in stone; the size and layout can be adapted but it is a more demanding building intervention for safety reasons: it more readily collapses. So caves in soft materials are relatively rare. Soft material is easy to work but is not durable, it wears out and can even crumble during daily use. A particularly interesting detail is the whitewashing of the entrance: in some places only the entrance was coloured with lime, sometimes the entire central space. In Spain they call such whitewashing 'protection against evil spirits', it is of course only a measure of hygiene because the lime prevents the entry of at least some insects and reptiles.

Ilovica, ki daje zunanjo obliko Gorfe v južni Tuniziji, ob meji z Libijo, so skupne vaške kašče, v katere so se lahko zatekli tudi ob vpadu napadalcev. Gre za zaprto strukturo, ki se odpira navznoter, na notranji trg in sega v višino do nekaj deset metrov. Konstrukcija ene gorfe je banjasti obok z odprtino spredaj, do katere se pride po skupnih stopnicah vsega vertikalnega segmenta. Zadnja stena je dejansko 'zadnja'. Navzven ni površinsko obdelana, vanjo pa so vgradili vse, od najdenih kamnov do neuporabne keramike. Navznoter je oblika skrbno obdelana. Boljše in bogatejše gorfe imajo kamnito konstrukcijo v korbelingu, ki je zunaj in znotraj obdelan z ilovico temno rjave barve. Revnejše in bolj preproste so grajene povsem v glini. Sistem gorf je služil tudi kot obrambna arhitektura, zato je vhod v sistem majhen in ubranljiv. Na zunaj izgleda arhitektura nedokončana in neuporabna, kot tudi je. Zato domačini vedno pokažejo le notranjost, slike zunanjosti niti v strokovni literaturi ne boste našli.

Clay that gives external form Ghorfas in southern Tunisia, by the border with Libya, are common village granaries in which people could also take shelter on the approach of attackers. It is a closed structure, which opens inwards, into an internal square and reaches a height of several tens of metres. The construction of one ghorfa is bath-shaped with an opening in the front to which one arrives by common stairs for all vertical segments. The back wall really is 'the back': externally the surface is not worked at all, everything was built into it – from found stones to unusable pottery.

Slika 13 / Figure 13 Gorfe so skupne kašče vasi ob libijski meji. Služile so za spravilo hrane, pa tudi za zaščito pred napadalci. Odpirajo se na notranje dvorišče, zunanji hrbet je povsem nezanimiv. Ksar Ouled Soltane,Tunizija. Ghorfas are shared village granaries in villages along the Libyan border. They served for the storage of food as well as protection from attackers. They open onto an inner courtyard, the external back is completely uninteresting. Ksar Ouled Soltane, Tunisia.

Inside, the shape is carefully worked. Better and richer ghorfes have a corbelled stone construction, which is treated inside and out with dark brown clay. Poorer and simpler ghorfes are made entirely in clay.The system of ghorfes also served as defensive architecture, so the entrance to the system is small and defendable. On the outside, the architecture looks unfinished and unused, as it is. So the locals always show only the interior, you will not find pictures of the exterior even in the professional literature.

Gnetena zemljina Ustrezna ilovica (sestav gline, vode in peska) je gnetena z roko, potem pa s pospeškom, kot kepanje v snegu, dodana že zgrajeni steni. Zgnetene 'krogle' so stisnjene druga ob drugo, zato je površina zelo neravna, struktura zgnetenih elementov pa je vidna. V kolikor gre za nezahtevno steno, je postopek končan, zahtevnejši zidovi pa potrebujejo armiranje za boljšo stabilnost in trdnost, treba jih je tudi izravnati. To lahko naredimo šele po dveh ali treh dneh, ko zid na roke obsekamo in tako poravnamo. Po štirih dneh je zid že tako trd, da je obsekovanje nemogoče. Zato je hiša z zidovi iz gnetene gline, ki jo na Goričkem imenujejo 'blatnjača', zelo trdna. Armiranje je navadno izvedeno z brinovimi vejami, ki s smolami sčasoma okamnijo do izjemne trdote. Gneteni zidovi so pri nas razmeroma redki, zato splošnega izraza za to pravzaprav nimamo. Hiša v taki gradnji je 'blatnjača', a je to le lokalni izraz. Zid blatnjače je v končni fazi gladek, trd in obstojen, kadar pa gre za gospodarske objekte, je brez obsekovanja strukturiran, vidne so gnetene enote v velikosti človeške roke.

Slika 14 / Figure 14 Podzemna mošeja na otoku Djerba v Tuniziji. Podzemni del do višine človeka je vkopan v mehko zemljino, nad njim so le kupole. Površina, tako zunaj kot znotraj mošeje, je dobro zamazana z glinenim ometom in utrjena z apnom. Kljub dejstvu, da je že desetletja ne uporabljajo več - kar pomeni, da tudi ne vzdržujejo zidov - glinasta zgradba kar stoji. Underground mosque on the island of Djerba in Tunisia. The underground part to the height of a man is excavated in soft soil, above it are only cupolas. The surface, both the interior and exterior of the mosque, is well coated with a clay daub and reinforced with lime. Despite the fact that it has not been used for decades – which means also that the walls have not been maintained – the clay construction still stands.

Kneaded earth Suitable clay (mixed with water and sand) is kneaded by hand, and then hurled like a snowball at the already built wall. The kneaded 'balls' are pressed one beside another so that the surface is very uneven, and the structure of kneaded elements is visible. Insofar as it is an undemanding wall, the procedure is finished, but more demanding walls need reinforcing for better stability and firmness, and they also need to be levelled. This can only be done after two or three days, when the wall is trimmed by hand and thus levelled. After four days, the wall is already so hard that trimming is not possible. So a house with walls from kneaded clay, which are called 'blatnjača' (roughly: 'mud houses') in Goričko is very hard. Reinforcing is normally done with juniper branches, the resin in which gradually petrifies them to exceptional hardness. Kneaded walls are

Slika 15 / Figure 15 Stena iz na roko gnetene ilovice: vidijo se 'kepe' v velikosti, kot so pač obvladljive. Goričko 2009. Wall from hand kneaded clay: 'balls' of managable size are visible. Goričko 2009.

Butanje Že beseda, ki je v Sloveniji dokaj udomačena in razširjena, pove, da je ta način gradnje na severovzhodu uveljavljen in razširjen. Zidovi so navadno debeli štirideset do petdeset centimetrov. Ilovica, ki jo zmešajo s kosmi slame, je naphana med lesene opaže, potem pa jo 'butajo', stiskajo z nogami in s tolkači, z lesenimi bati na dolgih ročajih. Butan zid je sestav vodoravnih pasov, ki sledijo opažu (običajna višina

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relatively rare here, so there is no general expression for them: a house in such a construction is called a 'blatnjača', but this is only a local expression. The wall of a 'blatnjača' is finalised to be smooth, hard and durable, but when it is a functional building it is structured without trimming, and the kneaded units the size of a man's hand are visible.

sta dve deski po 25 cm), v dolžini so deske običajno dolge okrog štiri metre, kar ustreza dolžini žaganih desk.

Ramming The word, which is evidence of being domesticated and widespread in Slovenia, already indicates that this method of building is established and widespread in the Northeast. The walls are normally forty to fifty centimetres thick. The clay, which is mixed with pieces of straw, is placed between wooden boards, and then rammed: compressed with feet and with mallets, wooden clubs on long arms.

Slika16 / Figure 16 Butan zid z vidnimi, značilnimi horizontalnimi in z vertikalnimi spoji. Primer: okolica Cagliarija na Sardiniji 2009. A rammed wall, with visible, characteristic horizontal and vertical joins. Example: in the vicinity of Cagliari in Sardinia 2009.

A rammed wall is a composite of horizontal bands which follow the pannelling (the normal height is two boards of 25 cm), and the boards are normally around four metres long, which corresponds to the length of sawn planks. Since they ram the walls round and round, the upper edge is already dry when the next layer is added: the horizontal contacts are thus visible, while vertical joins are coated with liquid clay. After loading, these joins tend to open, but only when the wall is completely dry. A rammed wall must be protected on the outside with daub: otherwise it is necessary to coat a rammed wall every year. The clay daub is normally covered with whitewash, which becomes a hard layer after several applications, also up to half a centimetre thick. Because the daub is applied by hand, the wall is relatively uneven and not levelled as with a board.

Ker butajo zid okrog in okrog, se zgornji rob že zasuši, ko mu priključimo naslednjo plast. Horizontalni stiki so tako vidni, medtem ko vertikalne spoje zamažejo s tekočo ilovico. Po obtežbi se ti spoji radi odprejo, a šele ko je zid povsem osušen. Butana stena mora biti na zunaj zaščitena z ometom, v nasprotnem primeru je treba butan zid zamazovati vsako leto. Ilovnat omet je navadno prekrit z apnenim beležem, ki po nekajkratnem beljenju postane trda plast, debela tudi do pol centimetra. Ker je ometavanje ročno delo, je tudi zid razmeroma vegast in ni poravnan kot z letvijo. Čerpič, na zraku sušeni oblikovniki Adobe je prvi prefabricirani sistem, saj ločimo gradnjo od priprave gradbenega materiala. Prednost tega je v izkoristku časa, saj lahko oblikovnike oblikujemo in sušimo drugje, potem pa lahko tudi počakajo ustrezen čas gradnje. Zaradi sušenja je debelina oblikovnikov omejena na nekaj centimetrov, največ pet do sedem. Vogale sicer stiskajo v opaž, a so vedno bolj ali manj zaokroženi. Oster rob mehkega materiala pač odpade. Vse ilovnate stene potrebujejo vzdrževanje, najmanj letno. Medtem ko je gradnja čisto moško delo, je vzdrževanje stvar ženske. Medtem ko je gradnja vezana na klimatske in na vremenske pogoje, je tekoče vzdrževanje stvar reda, ki je vezan na verske praznike, navadno spomladi. Ne zaradi vere, zaradi trenutnega zatišja pred delom na

Adobe brick, an air-dried block Adobe is the first prefabricated system, since the construction work is separated from the preparation of the building material. The advantage of this is the use of time, since the blocks can be made and dried elsewhere, and can then also wait for a suitable time for building. Because of drying, the thickness of the shapes is limited to a few centimetres, a maximum of five to seven. The corners are pressed into the boards, but they are always more or less rounded – the sharp edge of soft material collapses. All clay walls need maintenance: at least annual. While construction is purely man's work, maintenance is a matter for the women. While construction is bound to climatic and weather conditions, regular

maintenance is a matter of order, which is bound to religious holidays, normally spring. Not because of religion but because of the momentary hiatus between work in the field, and so the house is in good condition for the summer rise in temperatures, when the wall also cracks most.

polju, pa zato, da je hiša v dobrem stanju ob dvigu temperatur poleti, zaradi katerih zid tudi največ poka. Žgani zidaki, opeka Beseda 'opeka' izhaja iz 'opeči', 'žgati' in ponazarja tehnologijo dela. Zidaki za žganje so sestavljani na enak način kot prejšnji, le slama bi pri žganju izgorela, zato je ni.Trdoto in obstojnost dobi zidak z žganjem. Z ilovico napolnijo lesene opaže, modele (pri vernakularni arhitekturi, ročno, pri industrijski proizvodnji so kalupi navadno kovinski, ki so bolj eksaktni in obstojnejši). Ko se ilovica nekoliko posuši, je zaradi odvzema vlage zidak manjši in ga lahko vzamejo iz kalupa. Po sušenju na zraku zidake pečejo v pečeh, jih ohladijo in takoj so pripravljeni za vgradnjo. Opeka je trša od čerpiča, a še vedno krhka. Zaradi trdote materiala in tehnologije, ki omogočata eksaktne dimenzije, so le-te nujno potrebne. Ne le dimenzije, ključnega pomena so odnosi dimenzij posamičnega kvadra. Glinasta opeka, kot jo uporabljamo danes, omogoča predelne stene s svojo širino ali z višino, nosilna je z dolžino, izolativna pa z dolžino in pol. Odnosi razsežnosti so tako 1 : 2 : 4. Tako je najbolj uporaben odnos dolžin ena proti dve, ki zagotavlja gradnjo zidu v vzdolžni in v prečni smeri. Proporcijski sistem mora omogočati ne le sestavljivost znotraj zidaka, tudi v sestavljanju, tako v dolžini kot v širini.

Slika 17 / Figure 17 Pri nas razmeroma redka konstrukcija: na zraku sušeni zidaki. Nezaščiten zid je seveda posledica slabega vzdrževanja, odpadlega ometa. Primer: Zabovci 2009. A relatively rare construction here: air-dried bricks. The unprotected wall is a result of poor maintenance, of course, the daub has fallen off. Example: Zabovci 2009.

Fired bricks, 'opeka' The Slovene word 'opeka' derives from 'opeči', to bake, to burn, and illustrates the technology of work. The bricks for firing are composed in the same way as the previous, except that straw would burn during the firing and so is ommitted. The brick gets hardness and durability from the firing. A wooden frame is filled with clay, moulds (with vernacular architecture by hand, with industrial architecture the moulds are normally metal, which is more exact and more durable). When the clay is slightly dried, because of the loss of moisture the brick is smaller and can be removed from the mould. After drying in air the bricks are fired in a kiln, cooled and are immediately ready for building. A fired brick is harder than an adobe brick, but still brittle. Because of the hardness of the material and the technology, which enables exact dimensions, such dimensions are urgently necessary. Not only the dimensions: the ratios of dimensions of an individual block are of key importance. Clay bricks, such as are used today, enable partition walls with their width or height, and bearing walls with their length, and insulation with a length and a half. The ratio of dimensions is thus 1:2:4. The most commonly used ratio of lengths is one to two, which ensures the

Slika 18 / Figure 18 Modularna mreža in sestavi zidaka 1 : 2 : 4 v njej. Modular network and composition of bricks 1:2:4 within it.

Dimenzije so odvisne od materiala. Dolžina opeke je bila vedno okrog čevlja. Seveda je bilo čevljev več, vse od dvajset do štirideset centimetrov. Zato so stare opeke pri nas dolge 30 cm s širino 15 in višino 7.5 cm, danes pa očitno uporabljamo kvalitetnejši material, ki obdrži enake lastnosti 6 x 12 x 24 centimetrov. Rimljani so imeli očitno težave s tehnologijo, njihova opeka je polovico tanjša (kar bistveno pripomore k preprostejšemu žganju, tudi sušenju). Danes pri klasični masivni gradnji uporabljamo predelne zidove, debeline 12 cm, nosilne, debeline 24 cm in izolativne zidove, debeline 36 cm. Modul je v tem primeru 12 cm.

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construction of a wall in both horizontal and transverse directions. The system of proportion must enable not just the composition within the bricks but also within the composition, in both length and width. The dimensions depend on the materials: the length of a brick is always about a foot. There are all sorts of feet, of course – anything from twenty to forty centimetres. Older bricks here are 30 cm long and 15 wide, with a height of 7.5 cm, but today we use a clearly higher quality material that retains the same properties: 6 x 12 x 24 centimetres. The Romans had obvious difficulties with the technology; their bricks were half as thick (which essentially contributes to simpler firing or drying). Today we use 12 centimetres in classical solid building of partition walls, 24 in bearing walls and insulation walls are 36 centimetres. The module in this case is 12 centimetres. In talking of quality: if some walls today are thinner, this could mean better bearing capacity and insulation power, but it could also mean smaller needs or enabling the use of other sources of energy. Today's trends again indicate greater insulation and stronger, thicker walls.

Ko govorimo o kvaliteti: če imamo danes nekaj tanjše zidove, lahko to pomeni boljšo nosilnost in izolativnost, lahko pa tudi manjšanje potreb ali omogočanje uporabe drugih virov energije. Današnji trendi pa spet kažejo na večjo izolativnost in na močnejše, debelejše zidove. Ilovica kot vezivo in kot tesnilo Pri čerpiču je logično, da je vezni material enak. Ilovica veže, čeprav spoj ni prav močan. Bolj zanimiva je glina kot tesnilni material med lesenimi bruni, posebej med tistimi, tesanimi na roko. Pa tudi tukaj je potrebno armiranje, predvsem s slamo.

Clay as binding and as a seal In the case of adobe, the binding material is logically the same: clay binds, although the join is not really strong. Clay as a sealing material between wooden logs is more interesting, especially between those trimmed by hand. Here, too, reinforcement is needed, usually straw. The execution of contrasting bindings is interesting: when there are clay sealing bands between logs, they are whitewashed with lime (so they are further strengthened on the outside). Exceptional visible effects are thus obtained, which an intelligent builder further reinforces with a graphic stress of details (corners, crosses, dots, lines).

Slika 19 / Figure 19 Ilovica je tesnilni material med tramovi kladne zveze. Primer: Sovjak 2009. Clay is a sealing material between beams of a log connection. Example: Sovjak 2009.

Zanimive so izvedbe kontrastnih veziv, ko so ilovnati tesnilni pasovi med bruni, prebeljeni z apnom (da so učvrščeni še od zunaj). Tako dobimo izjemne vidne učinke, ki jih umni graditelj krepi še z grafičnimi poudarki detajlov (vogal, križec, pika, krog, črta, predvsem v vertikalni smeri).

Slika 20 / Figure 20 Uporaba ilovice kot vmesni element: a/ glina in pesek in voda – ilovica; b/ ilovica okrog prepleta; c/ tesnilo med bruni z neobdelano površino; d/ stena iz tesanih brun; e/ poravnana in zamazana glinena površina z zatrjeno skorjo apnenca. Use of clay as an intermediate element: a/ clay and sand and water – usable clay: b/ clay around an interface; c/ seal between logs with unworked surface; d/ wall of dressed logs; e/ levelled and coated clay surface with a overlaying shell of lime.

Ilovnati ometi Zunanja zaščita glinastih gradiv je potrebna zaradi podnebnih pogojev, notranje stene morajo biti poravnane zaradi higiene. Zunanji vplivi so predvsem vlaga, na izpostavljenih mestih tudi sončna pripeka. Omet ščiti konstrukcijo zidu, ne glede na njen material. Omet mora imeti velike sprimne lastnosti (razni materiali: les, ilovica, opeka, kamen), mora biti tren (armiranje s slamo), na zunanji površini pa mora biti čim bolj trd (apnen oplesk ščiti in daje zunanjo podobo).

Clay daub The external protection of clay materials is needed because of climatic conditions; an interior wall must be level for the sake of hygiene. External influences are mainly moisture, in exposed positions also the heat of the sun. The daub protects the construction of a wall, irrespective of its material.

Daub must have great adhesive properties (to various materials: wood, clay, brick, stone), it must be firm (reinforced with straw and the external surfaces it must be as hard as possible (lime wash to protect and give the external appearance). Clay daub is relatively vulnerable: it is soft and not resistant to damp. So it is normally strengthened on the outside with a layer of lime, which also colours the brown clay suitably white.

Ilovnat omet je razmeroma ranljiv. Je mehak in ni odporen na vlago. Zato ga navadno na zunanji strani utrdijo z apneno plastjo, ki rjavo ilovico tudi pobarva, primarno v belo. Površinske obdelave Tako čerpič kot butana stena sta mehka, krhka in z majhno nosilnostjo. Žgana opeka je v teh primerih mnogo boljša, včasih pa so potrebe še večje. Že žgana opeka je lahko žgana še enkrat, da dobimo boljše rezultate. Dvakratno žganje z dodatkom nekaterih soli zatrdi površino do leska. To ni le lepotni element. Ob bleščanju je njegova značilnost predvsem ta, da lahko gladko, svetlečo se površino umivamo in s tem zagotavljamo higieno. Vode ne prepušča. V vsaki pori ali odprtini se namreč lahko zaredi insekt, tudi tak, ki prenaša bolezni. V gladke površine lahko vnašamo barve, tudi grafiko. Zato emajlirano glino najdemo na pečeh kot pečnice, v sanitarijah, v bolnišnicah in v kuhinjah. Posebej pomembni sta neprepustnost za vodo in možnost pranja pri glinasti posodi. Opeka je lahko oplemenitena tudi s silikati, kjer postane še bolj odporna, trša in obstojnejša. Taka stena ne rabi ometa. To je pomembno povsod tam, kjer želimo na fasadah vidno opeko. Keramiko, žgano ilovico uporabljamo tudi za vsakdanjo posodje. Ima razmeroma debele stene in je zato težka. Zaradi pranja in higiene je posodje navadno glazirano. Posebej trden in gladke površine je porcelan, ki ga vlivajo v mešanici vode in kaolina. Vlivamo jo v kalupe, porcelan je lahko izjemno tanek in trd. Uporabljamo ga tako doma kot v industriji.

Slika 21 / Figure 21 Tudi novejše konstrukcije potrebujejo zaščito. Kadar gre za bivalno hišo, so želje močnejše od resnice. V ometu je narisan, pobarvan in izoblikovan kamen, ki navidezno zagotavlja trdnost vogala. Primer: Bukovci 2009. Even recent constructions need protection. When it is a residential house, desires are stronger than reality: stone is outlined, coloured and designed in the daub, which appears to provide solidity to the corner. Example: Bukovci 2009.

Surface working Both adobe and rammed walls are soft, brittle and with little bearing capacity. A fired brick in these cases is much better, but sometimes the need is even greater. Fired bricks can be refired in order to obtain a better result. Double firing with the addition of some salts hardens the surface to a lustre. This is not just a beautifying element: together with the lustre its characteristic is mainly that it can be smooth, the bright surface can be washed and hygiene thus ensured. It is also water resistant. Any pore or opening, namely, can be infected by an insect, including those that carry disease. Colour or graphics can be added to a smooth surface. So enammelled clay is found as tiles on stoves, in bathrooms, in hospitals and in kitchens. Water impermeability is of particular importance and, with clay vessels, the possibility of washing. A brick can also be enriched with silicates, whereby it becomes even more resistant, harder and more durable. Such a wall does not need daub. This is important, anywhere that the bricks are visible on the facade. Excellent examples of the use of kneaded clay in vernacular architecture,

Slika22 / Figure 22 Z dvojnim žganjem in z nekaterimi dodatki dobimo trdo, odporno in bleščečo površino, ki je odporna na zunanje vplive ter je preprosta za vzdrževanje. Double firing and some additions gives a hard, durable and gleaming surface, which is resistant to external influences and is simple to maintain.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Zemljine v prostoru Earth in space, in architecture

including in some sacral objects, can be found throughout the Mediterrannean, as well as in Africa and the Near East. The same can be said of adobe bricks, as well as rammed construction. Today, clay is pressed into a mould under high pressure everywhere, even if such bricks do not have the same properties as fired bricks. This is mainly durability. Fired clay elements, such as tiles, profiles and other shapes are useful as roofing material. Enammelled tiles of various colours are characteristic of the western Mediterrannean. In Portugal, they have developed 'azulejos', decorative enamel tiles, very highly. They are not all decorated the same, all the tiles together create a wall, which then represents an artistic imitation of life and nature.

Imenitne primere uporabe gnetene gline v vernakularni arhitekturi, ponekod pa tudi v nekaterih sakralnih objektih, najdemo v vsem Sredozemlju, pa v Afriki in na Bližnjem vzhodu. Enako je s čerpičem, pa tudi z butano gradnjo. Danes ponekod poskušajo stiskati ilovico v kalupe pod visokim pritiskom, a tudi ti zidaki niso enakih lastnosti kot žgana opeka.Ta je predvsem obstojna. Žgani glineni elementi, kot so plošče, profili in drugi oblikovniki, so uporabni za strešni material. Emajlirane plošče raznih barv so značilnost zahodnega Sredozemlja. Na Portugalskem so razvili azulejos, porisane emajlirane plošče, do viška. Ni porisana vsaka enako, vse plošče tvorijo stene, ki skupaj predstavljajo umetniške ponazoritve življenja in narave.

Architecture of grass turfs Iceland is a land of volcanic rocks. Except for moss, mainly grassy surfaces can be seen there. So it is not surprising that they developed construction principles that use the only available material: grass turfs. This can be used for construction, as well as as a lining and protection.

Arhitektura travne ruše Islandija je dežela vulkanskega kamna. Razen mahu je tam videti predvsem travnate površine. Zato ni čudno, da so razvili konstrukcijske principe, ki uporabljajo edini dosegljivi material, travno rušo. Ta je lahko konstruktivna, je pa tudi obloga in zaščita.

Slika 23 / Figure 23 V konstrukciji travne ruše so najzanimivejši navpični zidovi zatrepov. Gre za šest do sedem centimetrov debele plasti ruše, ki so izmenično sestavljane v višino. Plasti lahko tečejo vodoravno, lahko pa so pod kotom petinštirideset ali šestdeset stopinj simetrično postavljene na os zatrepa. Plasti znotraj ruše kažejo travni del, korenine in zemljo, torej tri plasti, ki se ločijo po barvi, po strukturi in po obstojnosti. Rekonstrukcija Stoenga,Thjoersardalslaug, Islandija 2008. The vertical gable walls are most interesting in a turf construction. There are six to seven centimetre thick layers of turf, which are set alternately on end. The layers can run horizontally, and at an angle of forty-five or sixty degrees they can be set symmetrically on the axis of the gable. The layers within the turfs show the grass part, the roots and earth, so three layers which are distinguished by colour, by structure and by durability. Reconstruction of Stoeng, Thjoersardalslaug, Iceland 2008.

The green architecture of Iceland is already a contrast to the dark rocks of volcanic eruptions. The use of natural materials further increases this. The tranquil culture of the inhabitants is therefore not surprising. This statement can also be turned around: under harsh and modest circumstances the peacable Icelanders created the architecture that their landscape deserves.

Zelena arhitektura Islandije je v temnem kamnu vulkanskih izbruhov že tako kontrast. Arhitektura se krajini podreja in se razlikuje le z ravnimi linijami in s kotom strešin. Uporaba naravnih materialov to še stopnjuje. Umirjena kultura domačinov zato ni slučaj. Lahko pa to trditev tudi obrnem – umirjeni Islandci so v ostrih in skromnih razmerah ustvarili arhitekturo, ki jo njihova krajina zasluži.

Kneaded clay The system by which a wall is created with lumps of clay that have been thoroughly kneaded by hand so that they obtain a uniform structure (it must not be forgotten that the clay is mixed with sand and water) and consistency is actually the oldest, since it is also the simplest. It is found throughout Africa, as well as in Europe.

Gnetena glina Sistem, kjer sestavljamo zid s 'kepami' ilovice, ki jih v roki pregnetemo zato, da postanejo enakomerne strukture (ne smemo pozabiti, da je ilovica sestav gline, peska in vode) in konsistence, je pravzaprav najstarejši, saj je tudi najpreprostejši. Najdemo ga povsod po Afriki, tudi v Evropi. Kjer je manj padavin, so hiše z vertikalnimi zidovi in z ravnimi strehami, površine pa so zamazane z glino, da ne prepuščajo vode. V maroškem Atlasu so ravne strehe prekrite z vejami grmičevja, da dež ne rani ravnih površin. Zmoči seveda jih, a mehke ilovnate površine ne razbrazda. Kjer pa je mogoče, je v uporabi armiranje; notranje s kosmi slame ali z brinovimi vejami, pa tudi na zunaj vidno s kamni, ki so vloženi predvsem prečno. Kompozicije v butani gradnji Konstrukcije zidov v butani gradnji so pogoste povsod tam, kjer je material pri roki in kjer ni preveč dežja in temperaturnih razlik. V vročih deželah so te arhitekture z ravnimi strehami, bolj proti severu pa je vse več strmejših streh, predvsem dvokapnic v slami. Zid sam je ne glede na konstrukcijo običajno ometan in zunanji pogled ne izdaja notranje strukture (lesena tesarska izvedba, čerpič, gnetena glina ali butana gradnja, pa tudi kombinacije).

Slika 24 / Figure 24 Zgradbe iz gnetene gline imajo neravne zidove, saj so narejene na roko in brez orodja. Primer: okolica Mahriba, Jemen 2005. Buildings of kneaded clay have uneven walls, since they are made by hand and without tools. Example: near Mahrib, Yemen 2005.

Where there is less rainfall, houses have vertical walls and flat roofs, and surfaces are coated with clay so that they do not let in water. In the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, the flat roofs are covered with branches of shrubs, so that the rain does not damage the vulnerable surfaces. It wets them, of course, but the soft clay surface is not furrowed. Where possible, reinforcement is used: internally with pieces of straw or with juniper branches, but also on the outside, visibly with stones, which are laid mainly transversely. Slika 25 / Figure 25 Nedvomno najlepši primer gradnje z zemljinami je mesto Shibam, zato ni čudno, da mu pravijo tudi 'jemenski Manhattan', saj so zgradbe visoke po enajst in več nadstropij, vse grajene izključno v glini. Jemen 2005. Undoubtedly the finest example of building with earth is the town of Shibam: it is not surprising that they also call it the 'Yemeni Manhattan', since the buildings are eleven and more storeys high, all built exclusively from clay. Yemen 2005.

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Compositions in rammed construction The construction of walls in a rammed construction is common everywhere where the material is to hand and where there is not too much rain and temperature differences are not too great. In hot countries, such architecture has flat roofs, with ever steeper roofs towards the north, mainly thatched gable roofs. The wall itself, regardless of the construction, is normally daubed amd the external appearance does not betray the internal structure (wooden frame execution, adobe, kneaded clay or rammed construction, as well as combinations). Rammed clay houses are normally one or two storey, but in the Yemen, such buildings can even be found with eleven stories. In this case, the walls are normally inclined inwards: for static stability and for 'self-maintenance'. Every (rare) drop of rain coats the clay and itself closes possible cracks, which are the product of drying.

Običajno so butane hiše eno ali dvonadstropne, v Jemnu pa najdemo tudi take z enajstimi etažami. V tem primeru so stene praviloma nagnjene navznoter, zaradi statike in zaradi 'samovzdrževanja'. Vsaka (redka) dežna kaplja skuša zamazati in zapreti morebitne razpoke, ki so plod sušenja, kar sama. Čerpič Sistem na zraku sušenih zidakov je naprednejši sistem od prejšnjih. Priprava je ločena od gradnje same, zato je to gospodarnejši način. Gre za obrtniški ali celo industrijski, prefabricirani sistem, ki z enakimi dimenzijami zahteva umnejši proporcijski sistem. Ta pa omogoča več možnosti pri sestavljanju, kar pomeni, da vnaša v kompozicijo več dekorativnosti. Vendar je treba ločiti med dekorativnostjo in konstrukcijo. Izmenjujoč se ritem vzdolžni-prečni element je konstrukcijska zahteva. Ker zidaki niso tako dokončno izdelani kot zamazana površina buta, je adobe zid treba ometati. Kolikor je omet tanjši, je vidna struktura, sicer ne.

Adobe The system of air-dried bricks is a more advanced system than the previous ones: preparation is distinct from building itself, so it is a more economical method. It is an artisan, or even industrial, prefabricated system, which, with uniform dimensions, requires an understanding of the system of proportion. This enables various possibilities in assembly, which means more ornamentation is inserted in the composition. However, it is necessary to distinguish between decorativeness and construction: an alternating rhythm of longitudinal-transverse elements is a construction requirement. Because the blocks are not as finally finished as the coated surface of a rammed construction, an adobe wall needs to be daubed. Insofar as the daub is thinner, the structure is visible, otherwise not.

Slika 26 / Figure 26 Na dobršnem delu Afrike in na Arabskem polotoku je doma glina, zato je obrt izdelave čerpiča nekaj povsem vsakdanjega. Hadramaut 2005, Jemen. Large parts of Africa and the Arabian peninsular are the home of clay, so the artisan production of adobe bricks is an everyday matter everywhere. Hadramaut, Yemen 2005

Opeka Žgani zidaki so še bolj eksaktnih dimenzij od čerpiča, zid je zato bolj enakomerno debel in bolj stabilen. Sestav zidu iz enakih elementov omogoča konstruktivnost z izmenjavo, tako v dolžini kot v širini, pa tudi med plastmi višine. Zgradbe iz opeke so bolj redko neometane, četudi za večjo obstojnost uporabljajo dodatke, na primer silikate. Gol zid z vidnimi opekami je bolj izjema kot pravilo. Zgradbe s surovimi ilovnatimi zidovi, pa tudi tiste iz opeke, navadno ne kažejo svoje konstrukcije, zato jih na zunaj težko prepoznamo. Zid je konstrukcijsko najbolj ranljiv v vogalu. Tja sodijo največji in najbolj nosilni elementi. Zato ne preseneča dejstvo, da je ta sistem – če že ne vgrajen – narisan na fasado hiše. Ne le narisan, tudi v basreliefu,

Brick Fired bricks have even more exact dimensions than adobe bricks, so the wall is of more uniform thickness and more stable. The composition of the wall from uniform elements enables construction with an alternating technique: both in length and in width, as well as between the heights of layers. Buildings from bricks are more rarely daubed, although for greater durability they used additives, such as silicates. A bare wall with visible bricks is more an exception than the rule. Buildings with raw clay walls, as well as those from brick, do not normally show their construction, so it is difficult to recognize them on the outside. In terms of construction, a wall is most vulnerable at the corners: the largest elements, with the highest bearing capacity, belong here. So it is not

surprising that this system – if not already inbuilt – is outlined on the façade of a house. Not just drawn, also done in bass-relief, when alternating corner stones are shaped to a depth of several centimeters. So stability and solidity are at least visible qualities.

ko so izmenični vogalni kamni izoblikovani v nekajcentimetrski globini.Tako sta stabilnost in trdnost vsaj vidni kvaliteti. Glinene plošče Žgana ilovica je lahko raznih oblik, zelo uporabne so plošče. Ne smemo pozabiti, da so že Babilonci uporabljali glinene plošče z napisi, celo kot potni list. Medtem ko so za gradnjo zidu bolj primerni masivnejši elementi (manj dela, hitrejša proizvodnja, manj veznega materiala), so plošče idealne za krovni material. Pri ravnih ploščah gre za sestav dveh v ravnini, ki jih prekriva tretja. V višini pa se reč ponovi. Tako dobimo štirikratno višino, kar je pri strehi problem zaradi mase, povečuje predvsem nosilno konstrukcijo. Take strešnike poznamo kot 'bobrovec'.

Clay tiles Fired clay can be various shapes: tiles are very useful. It should not be forgotten that the Babylonians already used clay tablets with inscriptions, even as passports. While more solid elements are better for building a wall (less work, faster production, less binding material) tiles are ideal as covering material. With flat tiles, the composition is executed with two on one level being covered by a third. This is repeated in height: we thus obtain four times the height, which is a problem with roofs because of the weight, the bearing construction is primarily increased. Such roofing tiles are known as a plain tiles. The next level of development is the industrial production of tiles, which, because of technology, can be profiled. It is not just that ribs strengthen the bearing capacity of elements, it also reduces their mass. The pan tile replaced the four-times thickness of a plain tile with two-times, but only in the overhang of horizontal layers. All these tiles can be fired, double-fired or glazed. Mainly the last named have a key influence on design: the roofs of the Mediterrannean thus give special stress to the space and are a characteristic of the architecture.

Slika 27 / Figure 27 Barvasti strešniki so v zahodnem Sredozemlju značilni, ne le na sakralnih objektih, tudi na bivalnih hišah. Ademuz, deželaValenciana, Španija 2000. Coloured roof tiles are characteristic in the western Mediterrannean: not just on sacral objects but also on residential houses. Ademuz, Province of Valencia, Spain 2000.

Naslednja stopnja razvoja je industrijska proizvodnja plošč, ki so zaradi tehnologije lahko profilirane. Ne le, da z rebri utrjujemo nosilnost elementa, manjšamo tudi njegovo maso. Štirikratno debelino bobrovca je 'zareznik' nadomestil z dvakratno, a le v previsu horizontalnih plasti. Vse te plošče so lahko žgane, dvakrat žgane ali glazirane. Predvsem slednje ključno vplivajo na oblikovanje. Strehe Mediterana so tako poseben poudarek prostora in značilnost arhitekture. Notranja arhitektura vernakularnih objektov pozna glazirane plošče predvsem kot pečnice. Te so zaradi glaziranja bolj higienske, pobarvane so lepše, material pa omogoča še nekaj – oblikovanje.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Slika 28 / Figure 28 Azulejos so ploščice, ki so porisane z zgodbami. Ponekod na Portugalskem imajo gradove, kjer so vsi prostori, predvsem pa sprejemnice, obloženi s tisoči ploščic, ki pripovedujejo svojo zgodovino. Sintra, Portugalska 2007. Azulejos are tiles on which stories are drawn. There are castles in Portugal in which all the rooms, and especially the reception rooms, are lined with thousands of tiles that tell their history. Sintra, Portugal 2007.

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

The interior architecture of vernacular objects uses mainly glazed stove tiles. Because of the glazing, they are more hygienic, the colours are finer and the material allows something else: design. Technically, tiles function as an intermediary between heat of the fire and the air, which they warm. The air is warmed mainly by contact. The contact is greater if there is a larger surface of the tile. So a 'pumpkin stove', is familiar here. A glazed tile in the shape of a pumpkin (convex or concave) has a larger area, so greater effect, even apples can be baked in them.

Tehnično delujejo pečnice kot vmesnik med vročino ognja in zrakom, ki ga grejejo. Zrak grejejo predvsem s stikom. Kontakta pa je več, če je večja površina pečnice. Tako pri nas poznamo 'bučno peč'. Pečnica v obliki buče (navzven ali navznoter) ima večjo površino, zato večji učinek, pa še jabolko lahko spečemo v njej. Konstrukcije v gipsu Gips je gradbeni material, ki pri svoji tehnologiji zahteva bistveno nižjo temperaturo kot na primer apnenec. Zato ga uporabljajo tam, kjer so gipsovi kristali v naravi na voljo in kjer nimajo obilice lesa za ogenj. V tem primeru je ekonomičen material, ki pa je v kombinaciji z lesom presenetljivo uporaben. Gips na vlagi zelo hitro zatrdi in ima trdo ter gladko površino. Pri strjevanju sprošča toploto. Seveda je razmeroma krhek, zaradi hitrosti strjevanja je tudi velikost kosov pri izdelavi omejena. Z armiranjem – v Španiji, v deželi Valenciana, uporabljajo ploščat kamen – je to prav uspešen gradbeni material (Vegas, F 2007). Z njim so grajene nadstropne stanovanjske hiše, hlevi in celo cerkev (Ademuz).

Construction in gypsum (plaster of paris) Gypsum is a building material whose technology requires essential lower temperatures than, for example, limestone. It is therefore used where gypsum crystals are available in nature and where there is an abundance of wood for burning. It is then an economical material, which, in combination with wood, is surprisingly serviceable. Gypsum very quickly hardens in moisture and has a hard, smooth surface. In hardening, it releases heat. It is relatively brittle, of course, and, because of the speed of hardening, the size of pieces during production is also limited. With reinforcing – flat stones are used in Spain, in the Province of Valencia – it is a highly successful building material (Vegas, F 2007). Two-story residential houses, stables and even a church are built with it (Ademuz).

Slika 29 / Figure 29 Gipsasta konstrukcija tvori na primer tla v cerkvi, v bivalnih hišah pa so armirani s ploščatimi kamni prav vsi zidovi. Tudi zunanji v tretjem nadstropju, v debelini štirih centimetrov(!). Ademuz, Španija 2000. A gypsum construction, for example, creates the floor of a church, and in residential houses, all the walls are gypsum reinforced with flat stones. Even the external on the third storey, four centimeters(!) thick. Ademuz, Spain 2000.

Ilovica severovzohda Slovenije

Clay of Northeast Slovenia

Če izvzamem opeko, ki je doma praktično povsod, je arhitektura zemljin pogosteje prisotna v severovzhodni Sloveniji, kjer je glino pač mogoče kopati. Na Pohorju in na Kozjaku ilovnate arhitekture praktično ni. Tu sta doma kamen in les. Pohorje predstavlja najvzhodnejši obronek Centralnih Alp, zato ni čudno, da imamo tam pomembne kamnolome, kjer lomijo granit; kot so mu rekli včasih in kot ga običajno tudi poznamo, danes pa ga strokovnjaki omenjajo kot tonalit in granitolit. Haloze in Slovenske gorice imajo les ter mehke peščence Panonskega morja.Tudi na višinah, primer je Zavrh, najdemo odtise morskih školjk. Največ gline je nedvomno med Ptujskim poljem in Goričkim. Tam se arhitektura lesa prepleta z ilovico. Glina, ki jo kopljejo na Goričkem, sega v terciar, na madžarski meji so pliocenski peščeni sedimenti (Koren 1962: 85), medtem ko je prekmurska ravnina aluvialna. Gradbeni material je ilovica, ki jo v naravi redko najdemo že pripravljeno za vgradnjo, ko bi bila primerne sestave, gostote, vlažnosti. Zato glino mešajo s peskom in z vodo (Zbašnik 2002). Mehkejša ilovica je bolj vlažna, omogoča vnos slamnatih kosmov za armiranje, a se tudi počasneje in manj enakomerno suši. V osrednji Franciji za učvrstitev ne uporabljajo slame, temveč kamen, gline tudi ne mešajo z vodo, kar pri butanju zahteva večje pritiske (Guillaud 2008) in zato močnejše opaže. Tudi Moškon govori, da je suho nabijanje v primerjavi z mokrim načinom 'novost', ki prinaša manjše posedke, vse do dveh centimetrov (Moškon 1975: 91). Medtem ko gnetena glina za armiranje uporablja brinove veje, je butan zid praviloma utrjevan s kosmi slame (Moškon 1975), a mnogokrat najdemo tudi kombinacijo, ko vzdolžne veje utrjujejo ilovico v butani gradnji. V kombinaciji z lesom, pa najsi bo to slama ali armiranje z brinom, je ilovica naravni material, ekonomičen, dosegljiv, obvladljiv s preprostim orodjem in ne nazadnje je blizu človeku. Kadar gre za surove zemljine, je problem v vzdrževanju, opeka tega nima več. Dr. Avgust Pavel navaja, da je na Goričkem (ogrska nadvlada

With the exception of brick, which is used practically everywhere, the architecture of earth is most often present in northeast Slovenia, where clay can be excavated. There is practically no clay architecture on Pohorje or on Kozjak: stone and wood are the natural material there. Pohorje is the most easterly rim of the Central Alps, so it is not surprising that it has important quarries, where granite is quarried – as it was formerly called and as it is normally known, although today experts call it tonalite or granitolite. Haloze and Slovenske gorice have wood and soft sandstone from the Pannonnian Sea. Even high up – an example is Zavrh – impressions of seashells can be found. There is undoubtedly most clay found between Ptujsko polje and Goričko: the architecture of wood and clay is there interwoven. The Tertiary clay that is excavated stretches to Goričko, on the Hungarian border there are Pliocenic sandstone sediments (Koren 1962: 85), while the Prekmurian plain is alluvial. Clay is a building material that is rarely found in nature already prepared for building, of a suitable composition, density and moisture; so the clay is mixed with sand and water (Zbašnik 2002). Softer clay is damper, allows the insertion of pieces of straw for reinforcement but also dries more slowly and less evenly. Straw is not used in central France for reinforcement but stone, and the clay is also not mixed with water, so greater pressure is required in ramming (Guillaud 2008) and so stronger panelling. Moškon also says that dry pounding, compared with the wet method, is an 'innovation' that means less settlement, up to two centimeters (Moškon 1975: 91). While juniper branches are used for reinforcing kneaded clay, a rammed wall is normally reinforced with pieces of straw (Moškon 1975), but it is also often found in combination, when longitudinal branches reinforce the clay in a rammed construction. In combination with wood, although reinforced with straw or juniper, clay is a natural material, economical, available, mastered with simple tools and, not least, close to man. When it is raw earth, there is a problem of maintenance, brick no longer has this problem. Dr. Avgust Pavel states that even in 1930, he found around a

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quarter of open fires in kitchens in Goričko (Hungarian overlordship until 1918 and thus the influence. These were coated daily with a mixture of clay and water (Pavel 1930: 131). The development from a 'blatnjača' (mud house) to a solidly build house of bricks is connected with economic circumstances: air-dried clay is more available, it can be found on the home plot of land, it is produced and worked by local workers without special knowledge (only under the supervision of an expert) and needs no financial investment. The lifespan of a clay wall with regular maintenance is almost the same as for brick. But it does need maintenance, and during earthquakes does not provide the same solidity as a brick construction. A brick wall is from the same raw material but is technologically processed by firing. Fuel is needed for this, as well as knowledge. When finished, a brick wall is more solid and needs less maintenance. The daub, as the external protection, is renewed every ten years, with a clay wall every year, at least once. The economic parameter between the two systems is thus not essentially different: a brick construction buys us future peace. Professor Moškon states that the cost of a rammed construction is a third of that of brick (Moškon 1975: 91) but this probably assumed domestic work, which is not valued in the calculations. And there is another difference, while construction is entirely a man's job, including renovation, current maintenance is a matter for women, the housewife. Not just the walls, also the thatched roof. Is this a completely sociological phenomenon of a change in relations between women and men, disburdening the housewife, imposing on man the strenuous work of women in the past? It undoubtedly provided the whole family with a better quality of life. The enlargement of farmhouses confirms this. The enlargement of a house was logical and proper right up to the middle of the twentieth century, when technique and technology prevailed with greater possibilities, when economics brought new relations, with loans and with cheaper materials, which bring new forms and new characteristics. The enlargement of a house does not reflect the sociology of the family, rather the reverse: the family is ever more fractured, empty houses, abandoned farms. Vilfan claims that 'the farmhouse came under the influence of ever greater property distinctions' (Vilfan 1970: 589), which is reflected in architecture in an uncritical and unprofessional attitude to new elements, materials, colours, whereby characteristics are lost both in details and in the landscape. Better economic conditions in towns empty the villages and the preservation of characteristics, values and relations become only a matter of culture.

do 1918 in s tem vpliv) še 1930 našel okrog četrino odprtih ognjišč v kuhinji.Te so dnevno mazali z zmesjo ilovice in vode (Pavel 1930: 131). Razvoj od blatnjače do zidane hiše z opeko je vezan na ekonomski položaj. Na zraku sušena ilovica je dosegljivejša, moč jo je najti na domači parceli, obdelujejo in vdelujejo jo domači delavci brez psoebnih znanj (le pod kontrolo strokovnjaka) in ne potrebuje nobenega denarnega vložka. Življenjska doba ilovnatega zidu je ob rednem vzdrževanju skoraj enaka opečnemu. Zahteva pa vzdrževanje, ob potresu ne zagotavlja enake trdnosti kot opečna gradnja. Opečni zid je iz enakega surovega materiala, a je tehnološko obdelan z žganjem. Za to sta potrebna kurjava, pa tudi znanje. V končni fazi je opečni zid trdnejši in potrebuje manj vzdrževanja. Omet kot zunanjo zaščito se obnavlja vsakih nekaj deset let, ilovnato steno vsako leto, vsaj enkrat. Ekonomski parameter med obema sistemoma torej ni bistveno različen. Z opečno gradnjo si vnaprej kupimo predvsem mir. Profesor Moškon navaja, da stane butana gradnja le tretjino opečne (Moškon 1975: 91), a pri tem je verjetno upoštevano domače delo, ki v izračunih ni vrednoteno. Je pa še ena razlika. Medtem ko je gradnja v celoti moško delo, tudi obnova, je tekoče vzdrževanje stvar ženske, gospodinje. Ne le zidu, tudi slamnate strehe. Ali gre pri tem za povsem sociološki fenomen spremembe v odnosih med žensko in moškim, za razbremenitev gospodinje, za oddolžitev moškega za naporna dela ženske v preteklosti? Nedvomno gre za kvalitetnejše življenje vseh družinskih članov. Rast kmečke hiše to potrjuje. Rast hiše je logična in pravična do vseh do sredine dvajsetega stoletja, ko tehnika in tehnologija prevladata z večjimi možnostmi, ko ekonomika vnese nove odnose s posojili in s cenejšimi materiali, ki vnašajo nove oblike in nove značilnosti. Rast hiše se ne odraža v sociologiji družine, prej obratno. Vedno več je razbitih družin, praznih hiš, zapuščenih domačij. Vilfan trdi, da 'je kmečki dom prišel pod vpliv vse ostrejših premoženjskih razločkov' (Vilfan 1970: 589), kar se v arhitekturi odraža z nekritičnim in nestrokovnim vnosom novih elementov, materialov, barv, s čimer se izgubljajo značilnosti, tako v detajlu kot v krajini. Boljši ekonomski pogoji v mestih praznijo vasi in ohranitev značilnosti, vrednot in odnosov je le še stvar kulture. Blatnjača Najstarejši način gradnje, v kolikor izvzamemo vpraskano arhitekturo, je ročno gnetenje gline in oblikovanje stene. Pa še pri tem sistemu obstaja obsekana in neoblikovana stena. Pri prvi je zid na grobo poravnan, pri drugi se vidijo gnetene krogle, vdelane v ravnino stene. Omet tudi to zakrije, a manj pomembni objekti so mnogokrat goli in konstrukcijski sistem je viden. Zanimiv primer je 'blatnjača' pri Bogojini, ki je bila postavljena leta 1810 in spet 1920. Po osemdesetih letih so skušali v zid izžagati

Blatnjača, 'mud house' The oldest method of building insofar as excavated architecture is excluded, is the hand kneading of clay to create a wall. In this system, the wall remains trimmed and not designed. With the first, the wall is roughly levelled, with the second the kneaded balls are seen, inset in the levelled wall. Daub also covers this but less important objects are often bare and the construction system is visible.

A 'blatnjača' near Bogojina is an interesting example, which was erected in 1810 and again in 1920. After eighty years, they tried to cut an opening in the wall for an electricity cupboard, but the electric saw simply stuck in the hardness of the wall. The resinous juniper branches, which had been inserted as reinforcement, had gradually so petrified that modern tools could no longer cope.

odprtino za električno omarico, a se je električna žaga preprosto zataknila v trdoto stene. Smolnate brinove veje, ki so bile vložene kot armatura, so sčasoma tako okamenele, da jim sodobno orodje ni več kos. Blatnjača je lahko kakršne koli oblike. Praviloma je manjša zaradi etapnosti dela. Človek vsega zidu naenkrat seveda ne zmore. Butanje je naprednejša oblika, ki zahteva deske, leseno konstrukcijo in za delo več ljudi naenkrat. Tako so blatnjače predvsem majhne, skromne hiše za male ljudi z obrobja. Že od nekdaj.

Slika 30 / Figure 30 Blatnjača je najpreprostejša konstrukcija vgradnje zemljin. Beseda 'blato' ne pomeni nič slabega, označuje le material, iz katerega je zgrajena, pa način gradnje. Primer: klet v Filovskem gaju, 2009. A 'blatnjača' is the simplest construction of earth building. The word 'blato' (mud) has no bad connotation, it only characterizes the material from which it is built and the method of building. Example: cellar in Filovski gaj, 2009.

A 'blatnjača' can be any shape. It is generally smaller because of the need to work in stages: a whole wall cannot, of course, be built in one. Rammed clay is a more advanced form, which requires boards, a wooden construction and several people working at the same time. So a 'blatnjača' was mainly a small, modest house for modest people from the fringes. From way back.

Butana hiša Butana hiša slovenskega severovzhoda je pogostnejša kakor si predstavljamo. Zaradi svoje tehnologije mora biti ometana, da je osnovni, ne posebno obstojni material zaščiten in tako obstojnejši. Tako so blatnjače, butane hiše, tiste grajene v na zraku sušenih zidakih, iz opeke, lesa ali v kamnu na zunaj enake in jih težko ločimo. V kolikor je butana hiša dobro vzdrževana, je taka kot vsaka druga, le v potresu je bolj problematična. But kot sistem gradnje uporablja armiranje. Fino učvrščevanje je z do sedem centimetrov dolgimi kosi narezane slame, grobo pa s plevami, čeprav poznejši mojstri plev skorajda ne uporabljajo več. Zid iz butane gline, ki je ometan in vzdrževan, se na pogled ne loči od drugih zidov. Svoje probleme pokaže šele, ko omet odpade; zaradi slabega vzdrževanja ali zaradi starosti. Vidni so spoji med vodoravnimi plastmi, pa tudi navpični stiki zaradi omejene dolžine lesenih opažev. Ti spoji so lahko zaliti z bolj tekočo ilovico, a po kvaliteti ne dosegajo ne trdote in ne obstojnosti kot ves zid. Zidanje je stvar moškega, vzdrževanje hiše je naloga ženske. Ne le zidov, tudi slamnate strehe.Tukaj je še več problemov.Treba je vnaprej predvideti potrebo po slami, treba je torej pripraviti polje, sejati, na roko žeti in pripravljene snope primerno vskladiščiti na varno mesto (zato včasih prostor za snope nima niti vrat – da jih ne bi poškodovali). No, pri glinastem zidu je manj težav. Potrebne so le skrbne roke in

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Rammed clay house A rammed clay house is more common than is imagined in the northeast of Slovenia. Because of its technology, it has to be daubed, so that the basic, not particular durable material is protected and thus more durable. So 'mud' houses, 'rammed clay' houses, those built with air dried adobe bricks, or from fired bricks, from wood or in stone, are externally the same and difficult to distinguish. Insofar as a rammed clay house is well-maintained, it is like any other, except that it is more problematic during earthquakes. Ramming as a system of building uses reinforcement: fine reinforcement is done with pieces of straw cut to up to seven centimeters long, and rough with weeds, although later masters almost never use weeds. A wall from rammed clay, which is daubed and maintained, cannot be distinguished externally from other walls. Their problems appear only when the daub falls off: whether because of poor maintenance or because of age. The joins between the horizontal layers are visible, as well as the

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vertical joins because of the limited length of the wooden panelling. These joins can be smeared with more liquid clay but, in terms of quality, this achieves neither the hardness nor the durability of the rest of the wall. Building is a matter for men, house maintenance is women's work. Not just the walls, also the thatched roof. There are even greater problems here: it is necessary to anticipate in advance the need for straw, so the field has to be prepared, sown, harvested by hand and the prepared sheaves suitably stored in a safe place (spaces for the sheaves, therefore, sometimes don't even have a door – so that they won't be damaged). A clay wall is less problematic. Only careful hands are required and the wall is re-coated each year. This ensures protection of the wall itself and, during the coating, possible cracks are also sealed that appear during maintenance work. Precisely because a clay wall needs maintenance, so to speak, a housewife's love, its importance is that much greater. The final act of coating the wall is whitewashing. This is not just a feature of beauty, it is confirmation of the work performed. This is not bound to the church, although it is done by Easter. This is an older, pre-christian celebration of spring, when the house had to be prepared for new life with the coming of summer. So there is no 'typical' rammed clay house. An interesting example is that it is almost a rule that more recent rammed clay houses have a brick gable. This is stupid from a theoretical point of view: stronger material sits on top of weaker, less durable. A similar senseless example can also be found with Plečnik, when he set stone pillars on a plastered brick wall on the bridge over the Ljubljanica. Our forebears, though, were not stupid: the example could also be explained in such a way that the gable is high and less easily reached for running maintenance than the lower wall. Never mind the theory: the illogical constructions still stand.

enkrat letno je zid spet zamazan. To zagotavlja zaščito zidu samemu, ob delu pa zamažejo tudi morebitne razpoke, ki se pokažejo ob vzdrževalnem delu. Prav zaradi tega, ker ilovnat zid potrebuje vzdrževanje, takorekoč gospodinjino ljubezen, je njegov pomen še toliko večji. Končno dejanje premazanega zidu je barvanje. To ni le lepotnega značaja, predstavlja potrditev opravljenega dela. To ni vezano na cerkev, čeprav se opravlja do velike noči. Gre za starejši, predkrščanski praznik pomladi, ko mora biti tudi hiša pripravljena na novo življenje ob prihodu poletja. Tako 'značilne' butane hiše ni. Zanimiv primer je skoraj pravilo, da imajo novejše butane hiše zatrep v opeki. To je teoretično gledano neumnost. Močnejši material leži na slabšem, manj obstojnem. Enako nesmiseln primer najdemo tudi pri Plečniku, ko je na mostu čez Ljubljanico postavil kamniti steber kar na zidan in ometan zid. Ampak naši predniki niso bili neumni. Primer lahko razložimo tudi tako, da je zatrep visoko in manj dosegljiv za tekoče vzdrževanje od spodnjega zidu. Teorija gor ali dol, nelogične postavitve pa kar stojijo.

Slika 31 / Figure 31 Butana hiša je ometana in ima stilne okraske: nakazane obrobe, stebre, vogalne kamne. Seveda je danes potrebna prenove. Primer: Bukovci 2009. A rammed clay house is daubed and has stylistic decorations: stressed edges, pillars, corner stones. Today, of course, it needs renovating. Example: Bukovci 2009.

Omet, četudi je glinen, ščiti zid pred zunanjimi vplivi, daje pa mu tudi obliko, včasih barvo. Značilne panonske vasi s hišami pravokotno na cesto imajo tudi v butani gradnji okraske; kot tiste opečne ali kamnite. Gre predvsem za obrobe oken in vrat, pa za zunanje robove. Tako imenovan 'šivani rob' ima v prostor oblikovane 'kamne', ki ponazarjajo večjo stabilnost. Praviloma so korektno izmenično oblikovani vzdolžniki in prečniki, ki imajo izrazito strukturo, navadno tudi barvo.

The daub, even if it is clay, protects the wall from external influences, and also gives it form and sometimes colour. An interesting example is that it is almost a rule that more recent rammed clay houses have a brick gable. This is stupid from a theoretical point of view: stronger material sits on top of weaker, less durable. A similar senseless example can also be found with Plečnik, when he set stone pillars on a plastered brick wall on the bridge over the Ljubljanica. Our forebears, though, were not stupid: the example could also be explained in such a way that the gable is high and less easily reached for running maintenance than the lower wall. Never mind the theory: the illogical constructions still stand.

The daub, even if it is clay, protects the wall from external influences, and also gives it form and sometimes colour. Typical Pannonian villages with houses at right angles to the road also have decorations in the rammed clay construction – like those of brick or stone. These are mainly the surrounds of windows and doors, and outside edges. Imitation stonework is painted at the edges of the walls, known as a 'stitched edge', which give a greater appearance of stability. They usually correctly alternate longitudinal and transversal stones, and they have pronounced structure and, normally, also colour.

Hiša iz na zraku sušenih zidakov Čerpič je v Sloveniji razmeroma redko gradivo. Danes ga je videti komaj kaj več od zgradb v gneteni glini. Res pa je, da ta sistem še bolj potrebuje omet in je zato skrit. Zid v čerpiču nedvomno potrebuje temelj in to temelj v na vodi obstojnem materialu. Nemalokrat je videti podstavek v žgani glini, ki sicer v vodi ni najobstojnejša. Bila je pač dosegljiva, je pa nedvomno obstojnejša od čerpiča. Zanimivo - čerpiča niso uporabljali le za zidove, v tem materialu najdemo celo nosilne stebre. In glej ga šmenta - tudi ti delujejo, nosijo in v času še vedno vztrajajo. Kolega Edo Wallner bi rekel, da 'stojijo iz navade'.

House from adobe bricks An adobe brick is a relatively rare material in Slovenia. Today, almost only rammed buildings and buildings in kneaded clay can be seen. It is true that this system needs daub even more and is therefore concealed.

Slika 32 / Figure 32 Star posnetek kaže umno gradnjo preprostega graditelja: obstojnejši, trši material je spodaj, za temelj, zgoraj manj obstojen. Spodaj je opeka, zgoraj čerpič. Hiše žal ni več, stala pa je vTerbegovcih še 1995. The old photo shows the intelligent building of the simple builder: more durable, harder material is below, for the foundations, above is less durable. Below is brick, above adobe. The house is unfortunately no more but it still stood in Terbegovci in 1995.

Opečna stena Opeka zagotavlja natančne dimenzije in razmeroma ostre robove, kar omogoča kontrolirano kompozicijo. Zato je potreben predvsem premišljen proporcijski sistem, ki določa dimenzije opečnim blokom, da jih lahko vgrajujemo v čim manjšem številu velikosti. Že avstroogrski zidak je bil v razmerju 1 : 2 : 4 (z modulom 7.5 cm ali zelo blizu trem palcem). Tako so zasnovali sistem celega zidaka, tričetrtinskega in polovičnega, iz njih pa so sestavljali predelne zidove v eni debelini, nosilne v dveh in izolativne v treh debelinah. Sistem je ostal do danes enak, spremenile so se le mere, ki izhajajo iz modula šestih centimetrov. Sistem omogoča umno postavitev konstrukcije, a tudi kompozicije. A wall in adobe bricks definitely needs foundations, which must be in a water resistant material. Not infrequently a base of fired clay can be seen, although this is not the most durable in water. However, it was available, and certainly more durable than adobe bricks. Interestingly, adobe are not used only for walls, bearing pillars are also found in this material. And even these work, support and still survive through time. My colleague, Edo Wallner, would say that 'they stand out of habit'. Slika 33 / Figure 33 Proporcijski ključ modula omogoča raster in s tem igro polnega s praznim, notranjega z zunanjim, dolžinskega s prečnim, barvanega z nebarvanim. Primerjava dveh kompozicij: čerpiča v Tuniziji (Tozeur 1996) in opeke v Sloveniji (Voličina 2009). The proportional key of a module allows a raster and thus a play of full with empty, inner with outer, longitudinal with transverse, colour with no colour. Comparison of two compositions: adobe in Tunisa (Tozeur 1996) and brick in Slovenia (Voličina 2009).

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Vidna opeka v klasični gradnji na fasadi praktično ne nastopa, saj zahteva zaščito ometa. Kadar pa je opeka utrjena z dodatki in je odpornejša, je lahko tudi tam. V avstro-ogrskih deželah so, predvsem na gospodarskih poslopjih, čela obdelali v opečnih mrežah. Te so omogočale dostop vetru, da je na podstrešju sušil seno, debelina mreže pa je onemogočala soncu, da bi sijalo noter ter krmo požgalo. Opečne mreže so izjemne tudi v kompozicijskem smislu. Dekorativne so, ne da bi bil to njihov namen.

Brick wall A brick ensures exact dimensions and relatively sharp edges, which enables controlled composition. So above all a considered system of proportion is needed to determine the dimensions of the brick blocks, so that they can be built with the fewest possible different sizes. An Austrian brick was in a ratio of 1:2:4 (with a module of some 7.5 cm, very close to three inches). They thus planned a system of a whole brick, three quarters of a brick and half a brick, and from them composed partition walls in a single thickness, bearing walls in double and insulating walls in triple thickness. The system remains the same today, only the measurements have changed, which are now based on a module of six centimetres. The system enables the intelligent erection of a construction, as well as a composition. Visible brick almost never occurs in classical construction, since it requires the protection of daub, except when the brick is reinforced with an additive and is more resistant. In Austro-Hungarian countries – mainly for auxiliary buildings – the gable was made in the form of a brickwork screen. This enabled the wind to dry the hay but the thickness of the screen prevented the sun from shining in and scorching the feed. Brickwork screens are also exceptional in the compositional sense: they are decorative, although this was not their purpose.

Ilovnata malta in omet Malta je sestav peska, vode in veznega materiala. Danes uporabljamo v glavnem cement, včasih apno. Za zid v ilovici, ne glede na izvedbo, je odgovarjajoči material glinena malta. Ta lahko zapolni morebitne stike, razpoke, izravnava zunanje in notranje površine ter ščiti pred zunanjimi vplivi. Malta za but mora biti bolj tekoča, da doseže razpoko do tal, taka pa je manj obstojna in mehkejša. Za stikovanje čerpiča je lahko z manj vode in zato nosilnejša. Enako je z ometom. Ta pa mora biti za nosilnost armiran. Običajno je to izvedeno s kratkimi kosmi slame, ki ne preprečujejo pokanja, a tako omet ne odpade. Počaka na skrbnega človeka, ki z enakim materialom razpoke zamaže in omet spet deluje.

Clay mortar and daub Mortar is a mixture of sand, water and a binding material. Cement is mainly used today, formerly it was lime. For a clay wall, irrespective of the execution, the appropriate material is clay mortar. This can fill possible joints, cracks, level the outside and inside surfaces and protect from external influences.

Slika 34 / Figure 34 Ila tesni med tesanimi bruni, glineni omet pa konstrukcijo ščiti. Dobro so vidne tesane neravnine, ki so narejene namenoma, da omet bolje prime, površina ometa pa je izboljšana s plastjo apnenca, ki ščiti omet in daje zgradbi lepši videz. Sovjak 2009. Clay filler between trimmed logs, and clay daub protects the construction. The uneven trimming is well visible, which is done deliberately so that the daub grips better, and the surface of the daub is improved with a layer of lime, which protects the plaster and gives the building a better appearance. Sovjak 2009.

Mortar for rammed clay must be more liquid in order to reach cracks to the ground: but such mortar is less durable and softer. For joining adobe bricks there can be less water and it thus has better bearing capacity. It is the same with daub. For bearing capacity, this must be reinforced. This is normally done with short pieces of straw, which do not prevent cracking but the daub does not fall off. It awaits a careful person, who coats cracks with the same material and the daub functions again. Separate insertion of straw and clay is the normal procedure in sealing a wall of wooden logs, when it is sealed roughly with straw, covered and

Ločena vdelava slame in ilovice je normalen postopek pri tesnjenju zidu iz lesenih tramov, ko s slamo zatesnimo na grobo, kar prekrijemo in učvrstimo, povežemo z ilovico. Vezni material pa najdemo še kje drugje. Medtem ko so gospoda za svojo varnost uporabljali najdražje in najobstojnejše materiale (na primer jajca za zidove srednjeveških gradov, ko je šlo za varnost in za preživetje zgornjega sloja), so preprosti graditelji uporabili tudi preprost in dosegljiv material – kravjak. Ampak po vsej verjetnosti se je pri njem človek tudi naučil armiranja. Kravjak je namreč sestav

strengthened, and packed with clay. Binding material is also found elsewhere. While masters used the most expensive and most durable material for their security (for example, egg for the walls of medieval castles, when it was a matter of the security and survival of the upper class), simple builders also used simple and available material: cowdung. But this is probably also how man learned about reinforcing with straw. Cowdung, namely, consists of undigested food, remains and straw. When there is no straw in the dung and the sun bakes it, it quickly disintegrates, it is brittle. Mixed with straw it is more durable. Did man learn from nature or nature copy man?

neprebavljene hrane, ostankov in slame. Kadar v njem ni slame in ga sonce zapeče, se hitro razleti, je krhek. Prepreden s slamo pa je obstojnejši. Se je človek učil od narave ali je narava posnemala človeka?

Slika 35 / Figure 35 V Sloveniji so objekti v lesu in v glini pravzaprav enaki: oboji so ometani in ščitijo konstrukcijo. Omet je s končnim premazom apna edina značilnost. Pri tem je omet pri opečni gradnji navadno bolj grob, pri leseni ali butani pa je površina fino zalikana. Predvsem cimprane hiše ločijo sprednje in zadnje fasade, ko je prednji pogled (glavni vhod, dvorišče) v svetlih barvah, zadaj pa so barve izjemno temne. In Slovenia, objects in wood and in clay actually look the same: both are daubed and the construction protected. The daub is the only characteristic, with a final coating of lime: the daub with a brick construction is normally rougher, with wood or rammed clay the surface is finely polished. Above all, timber houses distinguish the front and rear facades, with the frontage (main entrance, courtyard) being in light colours and the colours at the rear extremely dark.

Glinena arhitektura Slovenije kot značilnost Glinena arhitektura Slovenije je vsaj po Mariji Tereziji v glavnem le še opeka, najprej večja (stari format je 30 x 15 x 7.5 cm) in potem taka, kot jo uporabljamo danes. Surova zemljina je kot gradbeni material značilna za Pomurje in za Goričko, drugje je bolj izjema kot pravilo. Najdemo vse gradbene sisteme, od gnetene gline, čerpiča, butane gradnje, do opeke. In tega je več, kot si predstavljamo. Vsa ta arhitektura je značilnost kulture, ki je uporabila vse možne vire, ob preprostem orodju in z domačo delovno silo. Zemljina kot gradbeni material je razmeroma nekonstruktivna in zahteva vzdrževanje. Tega se je domač človek zavedal. Vedel je, da je kamnit zid trdnejši in zato je v glinenega vnesel oblike konstruktivnega vogala. Ne le narisal, navadno so kamni oblikovani kar v neke vrste globokem reliefu, ko je omet debel kar kak decimeter. Zanimiv podatek je, da v mestnem okolju večkrat srečamo nerazumevanje tega problema in je 'šivan rob' narisan ali oblikovan nekonstrutivno, ko si vzdolžniki in prečniki ne sledijo izmenično. Take napake v vernakularni arhitekturi, ki je plod preprostega človeka, ne najdemo. V drugi polovici devetnajstega stoletja je začel kot dolžinska enota veljati meter. Ta je poenotil sistem in postavil stalno dolžinsko mero, uvedel decimalno delitev, kar je neverjetno poenostavilo računanje in odpravilo možne napake. Meter je zamenjal antropomorfne mere, ki so sledile človeškemu telesu in mu arhitekturo bližale. Antropomorfne mere so predvsem palec, čevelj, komolec, doseg. Ampak človek je bil včasih manjši od današnjega, čevlji so bili različni, vsak cesar je hotel svojega.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Clay architecture as a characteristic of Slovenia Clay architecture of Slovenia, at least since the time of Maria Theresa, has been for the most part only brick, first larger bricks (old format 30 x 15 x 7.5) and then such as are used today. Raw earth as a building material is characteristic of Pomurje and Goričko, elsewhere more an exception than the rule. All building systems are found, from kneaded clay, adobe, rammed clay construction to brick, and there are more of these than is imagined. All this architecture is characteristic of a culture that used all possible sources, together with simple tools and the domestic labour force. Earth as a building material is relatively unusable for construction and requires maintenance. Domestic man was aware of this: he knew that a stone wall is harder so he introduced in the clay a design of constructed corner. Not just drawn, normally stones were designed in a kind of deep relief, with the plaster several centimetres thick. It is noteworthy that this question is often imperfectly understood in an urban environment, and the 'stitched edge' is drawn or designed without a feel for construction, with longitudinal and transversals not following alternately. Such mistakes are not found in vernacular architecture, which is the fruit of

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simple man. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the metre began to be used as a measurement of length. This unified the system and established a constant measurement of length; the decimal system was introduced, which simplified calculations unbelievably and removed many mistakes. The metre replaced anthropomorphic measures, which had followed the human body and brought architecture close to him. Anthropomorphic standards of measurement are mainly the inch (thumb), foot, elbow, reach (handspan). But man used to be smaller than now, feet were different: every emperor wanted his own. The metre established a higher level of accuracy, but it removed humanity. Man had to replace this: furthermore, he had to use the systems of proportion that already existed. The northeast uses the simplest: a square and combinations of a square. A system of proportion simplifies work and reduces the possibility of mistakes. A log house is composed of wooden beams and their width equals twice the height to the tie beam. It is then the same height to the intermediate purlin, which determines the roof.

Meter je postavil višjo stopnjo natančnosti, a odpravil človečnost.To je moral človek nadomestiti. Še bolj je moral uporabljati proporcijske sisteme, ki so že tako obstajali. Severovzhod uporablja najpreprostejšega: kvadrat in sestav kvadratov. Proporcijski sistem poenostavlja delo in manjša možnost napak, zato mora biti čim bolj preprost. Cimprana hiša je sestavljena iz lesenih tramov in njena širina je enaka dvakratni višini do poveznika. Enaka višina je potem do vmesne lege, ki določa streho. Ker je zgornji kvadrat postavljen na sredino čela hiše, je naklon ena proti ena ali petinštirideset stopinj. To izhaja iz slamnate strehe in ni moj izum. Slama ima pri tem naklonu najdaljšo življenjsko dobo. Če je položnejši, voda zastaja in se premalo suši, če je strmejši, jo je treba bolj stiskati ob letev, tako pa jo kaj hitro tudi preveč stisnemo in bilka propade prej, kot bi bilo normalno. Opečna kritina zahteva enak naklon, ko gre za bobrovec. Ta je mnogo varnejši, ne gori, a je tudi mnogo težji. Zareznik kot napredek bi lahko bil tudi na položnejši strehi, a ta spremeni predvsem pogled in s tem značilnost, tipiko objekta in s tem krajine.

Slika 36 / Figure 36 Zlati rez na najpreprostejši način: širina čela je enaka svoji polovici do zatrepa, potem pa se ta polovica še enkrat ponovi. Določena so ležišča leg in naklon 45 stopinj. Z debelino slamnate strehe pridemo tako s pomočjo kvadrata do zlatega reza v višini. Kompozicija je usklajena s človekom in je skladna z naravo. The golden ratio is the simplest method: the width of the gable is the same as half its height to the gable and then this half is repeated once more. The position of the purlin and the inclination of 45 degrees are determined. With the thickness of the thatch, we thus arrive with the aid of squares at the golden ratio in the height. The composition is adjusted to man and in harmony with nature.

Pottery roof tiles require the same inclination when they are pan tiles. This much safer, it doesn't burn, but it is also much heavier. A pan tile, marking progress, could also be on a more gently sloping roof but this hanges above all the appearance, and thus the characteristic, typical object and thus the landscape. Simple man already knew that from way back, today there are all too many who are not so intelligent. Unfortunately, they include those who profess to be experts, who are paid for their expertise, who have official institutions behind them and who make decisions. So we find all too many bad renovations and reconstructions, some of which collapse sooner than they need because of ignorance; the characteristics of the object are changed and the culture of design disappears. The simple builder of vernacular architecture did not make such mistakes. His survival depended on not doing so. Today, of course, we no longer make buildings from earth, it is not allowed by regulations, which demand static safety, and we can also no longer afford regular maintenance. So such buildings are only the holiday homes of enthusiasts who know what this culture means. This culture is our pride, which we must cultivate, spread and inculcate, especially in the young. To be proud of your culture is not a duty. It is a right.

Preprost človek je to vedel že od nekdaj, danes pa je vse preveč takih, ki niso tako umni. Žal so med njimi tudi taki, ki se imajo za strokovnjake, ki so za svojo strokovnost plačani, ki imajo za svojim hrbtom uradne institucije in ki odločajo. In zato najdemo vse preveč slabih obnov, rekonstrukcij, ki zaradi neznanja nekaterih propadejo prej, kot bi bilo treba, značilnost objekta se spreminja in kultura oblikovanja izginja. Preprost graditelj vernakularne arhitekture takih napak ni delal. Za preživetje si jih ni mogel privoščiti. Danes seveda zgradb iz zemljin ne delamo več, ne dovoljuje jih zakon, ki zahteva statično varnost, pa tudi rednega vzdrževanja si ne moremo več privoščiti. Zato so take zgradbe le še počitniške hiše zanesenjakov, ki vedo, kaj je to kultura. Ta kultura je naš ponos, moramo jo gojiti, razširjati in predvsem mlade ljudi vzgajati. Biti ponosen na svojo kulturo ni dolžnost. Je pravica.

Znanstveno delo v arhitekturi: glina včeraj in glina jutri

Scientific work in architecture: clay yesterday and clay tomorrow

Zemljine so uporabne v gradnji kot konstruktivni material, kot izolativni, pa estetski element. V prvi vrsti je ilovica naravna, kar govori o ekologiji. Je topla na dotik, z ustreznim faktorjem prevodnosti, je dosegljiva in obvladljiva s preprostim orodjem, tudi neukemu človeku. Je gospodaren material, ki za vgradnjo potrebuje malo energije. Brez primesi ne seva, kar je za uporabnika posebej pomembno. Je lepa, v svojih naravnih barvah ne izstopa, v barvanju omogoča tudi umetnikova hotenja. Ne nazadnje je preprosta za uporabo, z nekaterimi postopki priprave ne potrebuje vzdrževanja in je izjemno higienska (ne nazadnje: vse bolnišnice uporabljajo keramične ploščice).

Earths can be used as construction material in building, as insulation and as an aesthetic element. In first place, clay is natural, which speaks of ecology. It is warm to the touch, with a suitable factor of conductivity; it is available and useable with simple tools, even by untaught man. It is a manageable material that needs little energy for construction. It does not radiate without an admixture, which is especially important for the user. It is attractive, it does not stand out in its natural colours, colouring it also enables artistic aspirations. Not least, it is simple to use, with some procedures of preparation it does not need maintenance and is extremely hygienic (all hospitals use ceramic tiles).

Skica 37 / Figure 37 Vsaka ilovnata konstrukcija mora biti učvrščena, utrjena. Običajna konstrukcija zidu na Goričkem je preplet z ilovnatim obojem. Pri tem pa se postavi vprašanje: ali gre za preplet, ki je zaščiten z ilovico, ali za ilovnat zid, ki je utrjen s prepletom. Gradbeniki so pred desetletji izumili armiran beton. Ampak ali je to kaj drugega kot preprosta konstrukcija zidu v blatu? Vrbov preplet v ilovnati steni (Filovski gaj 2000). Any clay construction must be reinforced, strengthened. Wattle with a clay lining is a normal construction of a wall in Goričko. This raises the question: is the wattle protected by the clay or the clay wall strengthened by the wattle? Builders invented reinforced concrete decades ago: but is this any different from a simple construction of a wall in mud? Willow wattle in a clay wall (wattle and daub) (Filovski gaj 2000).

Vedno pa ne gre za povsem logične in tehnične razloge: včasih so povsem drugačnega izvora. Tako butana gradnja kot slamnate strehe so po svoje problematični detajli. Butance so nevarne na potresnih območjih, slama je vnetljiva. Na območjih z madžarskim vplivom torej predvsem v Pomurju - je regulativa vplivala na boljše spremembe. Opeka kot gradbeni material je nedvomno statično boljša od blatnjače in od butance, opečna kritina je na ogenj bistveno odpornejša od slame. Vendar je v tem primeru izboljšanje razmer plod povsem ekonomske narave: veleposestniki, ki so v zadnji polovici devetnajstega stoletja razvili nov sistem gospodarstva (kapitalizem, pa čeprav kasneje kot drugje), so ugotovili, da s svojo na novo razvito industrijo opečne proizvodnje premalo zaslužijo (glino je imel kmet doma, opeko je moral kupiti), so posegli po politični rešitvi, po zakonu (Fister 1986). Opečna hiša je nedvomno obstojnejša in odpornejša tako na čas kot na potres in na ogenj. Kvalitativni premik je tako plod politike. Prepoznavnost, identiteta pa je nedvomno spreminjana.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

Earth was the first material that prehistoric man could shape: he only supplemented and adapted stone and wood. The technical properties of earth thus enable construction with technique and technology, insulation, designing the interior and exterior – in handwork, in craft and in industry. Thrift is a special element, if energy in time units is taken into account. The most important element of clay is that, whatever the form, it is close to man – humanity in daily life, in high technology and even in space. Despite all the positive properties, the use of earth in building cannot exist without the professional work of an expert, and also not without science. Even artistic work in clay is based on the practical results of theoretical work. I am thinking above all of knowledge which was understandable yesterday, respected and valued. So the efforts of UNESCO in the scientific centre for earthen architecture CRATerre, in Grenoble, are important in developing and demonstrating the

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

value of this natural material also in contemporary architecture (Guillaud 2008). Today, when we are developing nanomaterials (Koprivec 2009), which are supposed to develop themselves tomorrow, it is necessary to assert that there are no non-contemporary materials. Stone has its place in building, and wood and many other materials. Clay as earth is in this usable, economic, and human. It can be beautiful. Science is what must rediscover it and set it in its place.

Zemljine so prvi material, ki jih je pračlovek lahko oblikoval. Kamen in les je le dodeloval in prilagajal. Tako tehnične lastnosti zemljin omogočajo gradnjo s tehniko in s tehnologijo, osamitev (izolacijo), oblikovanje notranjosti in zunanjščine; tako pri ročnem delu, v obrti in v industriji. Poseben element je gospodarnost, če upoštevamo vgrajeno energijo v časovni enoti. Najpomembnejši element ilovice pa je, da je v kakršni koli obliki predvsem blizu človeku; humanost v vsakdanjem življenju, v visoki tehnologiji in celo v vesolju. Kljub vsem pozitivnim lastnostim uporaba zemljin v gradnji ne more živeti brez strokovnega dela poznavalcev, pa tudi brez znanosti ne. Tudi umetniška dela v glini temeljijo na praktičnih rezultatih teoretičnega dela. Mislim predvsem na znanje, ki je bilo včeraj razumljeno, upoštevano in cenjeno. Zato so napori UNESCA v znanstvenem centru za arhitekturo zemljin CRATerre v Grenoblu tako pomembni, ko razvijajo in dokazujejo vrednost tega naravnega materiala tudi v sodobni arhitekturi (Guillaud 2008). Danes, ko razvijamo nanomateriale (Koprivec 2009), ki naj bi se jutri razvijali sami, je treba ugotoviti, da nesodobnih materialov ni. V gradnji ima kamen svoje mesto, pa les in še mnogi drugi. Glina kot zemljina je pri tem uporabna, gospodarna, humana. Lahko je lepa. Znanost pa je tista, ki jo mora na novo odkriti in postaviti na svoje mesto.

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Objekti, predstavitev Severovzhod Objects, presentation Northeast

Farmstead

Farmsteads in the northeast of Slovenia, like the landscape, are very varied. They vary in terms in material, in their positioning in space, in interior organization, in shape and even in terms of use. Obviously, since climate, environment and altitude all change between Pohorje and the Pannonian plain, and Slovenske gorice and Haloze are somewhere in between. While on Pohorje and on Kozjak a farmstead consists of a number of physically separated but organizationally connected individual objects, in which the main house primarily contains space for people and for food, a right-angled Pannonian house has everything that the farm economy needs in a single building. Pohorje and Kobansko farmsteads are distinguished mainly by the use of wood for the residential part, mainly for the 'house', the central part of the dwelling for people. High in the hills, a cellar is normally stone, above which the kitchen is set transversely, often a 'black kitchen'. It is normally on the right of the 'house', with the farm stove, which is filled and controlled from the black kitchen. On the right side, there is a (bed)room in smaller houses, in larger houses several. The roof, of course, is shingle with a hip, and the chimney is normally stone built, stocky. Auxiliary buildings, when there are several of them, are arranged opposite the main entrance: at least the stockhouse. In between is the working yard, which is thus protected on two sides, and accessible from the other two. A Pannonian farmstead is a single unit, consisting of the dwelling part with the outbuildings as an extension. A farm is normally bent into a 'key', at right angles, to delineate the working yard. The third side is bounded by the midden with the privy, 'na štrbunk' or 'on the plop', as it's colloquially called, the fourth is free for access and for transport. In front of the window of the 'house', on a longitudinal view of the house, there is always a flower garden, square, as wide as the house itself and surrounded by a wooden fence. When circumstances allowed, the home was 'concluded', enclosed also with a third side, so that the courtyard was better protected. At the time of colonization, from the seventeenth century onwards, the parcels of land were narrow and long, which guaranteed uniform quality (ownership extended to the space along the road, the plain for an arable field, all the way to possible forest), and allowed only long, narrow houses (Fister 1986:69). Farmsteads twenty metres and more in length are no rarity. A Pannonian house always has the same order of spaces, which follow the value of the contents: first is the living part, then the kitchen, the sleeping part, the granary or store, the area for large animals, the threshing floor for wagons and animal feed and, at the end, small animals and firewood. The threshing floor always has a raised roof, projecting square from the building. Slovenske gorice and Haloze are somewhere in between: when space allowed, the houses are longitudinal and have an entrance to the cellar from the front, beside the entrance by steps. More often they are on a slope, where the terrain allows access to the upper story from the side, and to the cellar from the gable end. So houses set at right angles to the contour are almost the rule. The outbuildings continue 'at the back' in an extension. This is also wooden, while the cellar is in soft Slovenske gorice sandstone, which also provides a back to the stove. The walls are wooden and daubed with clay and whitewashed, sometimes they are from adobe bricks, more often from rammed clay. For the last two hundred years, the material has been brick, but even a 'blatnjača' or 'mud house' often has at least outlined stone, which gives an impression of solidity. The stockhouse part is visibly separated: sometimes even in that the living part has a thatched roof with a hip, while the auxiliary buildings do not.

Domačije slovenskega severovzhoda so, kakor krajina, zelo različne. Različne so po materialu, po postavitvah v prostor, po notranji organizaciji, po oblikah, celo po uporabi. Jasno: tako podnebje kot okolje in nadmorska višina se menjavajo med Pohorjem in Panonsko nižino, Slovenske gorice in Haloze pa so nekje vmes. Medtem ko je na Pohorju in na Kozjaku domačija sestav več fizično ločenih, a organizacijsko povezanih posamičnih objektov, kjer je v glavni hiši prostor predvsem za ljudi in za hrano, imajo zapognjene panonske hiše vse, kar kmečko gospodarstvo potrebuje, v eni sami zgradbi. Pri tem se pohorske in kobanske domačije ločijo predvsem po uporabi lesa za bivalne dele, predvsem za 'hišo', osrednji del bivanja človeka. Visoko v hribih je klet navadno kamnita, nad njo je prečno postavljena kuhinja, mnogokrat črna. Običajno je na levi 'hiša' s kmečko pečjo, ki se polni in nadzoruje iz črne kuhinje. Na desni strani je v manjših hišah soba, v večjih jih je več. Streha je seveda skodlasta s čopi, dimnik pa navadno zidan, čokat. Gospodarska poslopja, kadar jih je več, so razporejena nasproti glavnemu vhodu, vsaj hlev.Vmes je delovno dvorišče, ki je tako zaščiteno z dveh strani, z drugih dveh pa so dostopi. Panonska domačija je enodelna in je sestav bivalnega dela z gospodarskim v podaljšku. Praviloma je domačija zavita 'v ključ', pod pravim kotom, da omejuje delovno dvorišče. Tretjo stranico omejuje gnojišče s straniščem 'na štrbunk', četrta je prosta za dostop in za dovoz. Pred okni 'hiše', v vzdolžnem pogledu hiše, je vedno rožni vrt, kvadraten, širok kot hiša sama in ograjen z leseno ograjo. Kadar so okoliščine dopuščale, je bil dom 'zaključen', zaprt tudi s tretje strani, da je bila zaščita dvorišča boljša. Ob kolonizacijah, vse od sedemnajstega stoletja, so ozke in dolge parcele, ki so zagotavljale enakost kvalitete (lastništvo je obsegalo prostor ob cesti, v ravnini za njive, vse do morebitnega gozda), omogočale le ozke in dolge hiše (Fister 1986:69). Domačija, dolga dvajset metrov in več, ni nikakršna redkost. Panonska hiša ima vedno enak vrstni red prostorov, ki sledijo vrednosti vsebine. Najprej je bivalni del, potem kuhinja, spalni del, kašča ali shramba, velika živina, gumno za voz in krmo živini, na koncu pa še male živali in drva. Gumno ima vedno dvignjeno streho, ki pravokotno štrli iz zgradbe. Slovenske gorice in Haloze so nekaj vmes. Kadar je prostor omogočal, so hiše vzdolžne in imajo vhod v klet s sprednje strani ob vhodu po stopnicah. Bolj pogoste pa so v naklonu, kjer teren omogoča dostop v nadstropje od strani, v klet pa s čela. Tako so hiše, postavljene pravokotno na plastnice, skoraj pravilo. Gospodarski del se nadaljuje 'zadaj', v podaljšku. Ta je tudi lesen, medtem ko je klet v mehkem slovenjegoriškem peščenjaku, ki daje hrbet tudi peči. Zidovi so leseni in ometani z ilovico ter prebeljeni, včasih so iz čerpiča, bolj pogosto v butani glini. Zadnjih dvesto let je material opeka, a celo 'blatnjače' imajo mnogokrat vsaj narisane kamne, ki zagotavljajo trdnost konstrukcije. Hlevski del se vidno loči, včasih tudi s tem, da ima bivalni del slamnato streho s čopom, gospodarski pa ga nima.

<< 1 Recenjak nad Lovrencem na Pohorju, domačija Kasjak Domačijo sestavljajo mogočna bivalna hiša, stara hiša, zidan hlev ter gospodarsko poslopje. Včasih je tam stala tudi kovačija. Hiše so zidane, pretežno s kamnom, gospodarski objekt je lesen, s temelji v kamnu. Zaradi padajočega terena so dostopi povsod z ravnine. Najstarejša streha je bila kamnita (gnajs), ostale so lesene, čopaste. Nekdaj bogata kmetija ima idealno lego, kar kaže v krajini z vso svojo imenitnostjo. GPS N 5.152.245 E 527.180

<< 1 Recenjak above Lovrenc na Pohorju, Kasjak farm The farm consists of a large residential house, old house, stone barn and outbuildings. A forge also stood there at one time. The houses are solid, built mainly from stone, the outbuilding is wooden with stone foundations. Because of the falling terrain, access is on the level throughout. The oldest roof was stone (gneiss), the remainder are wooden, hipped. The formerly rich farm has an ideal location, and stands in the landscape in all its eminence.

2 Gorišnica, Dominkova domačija Dominkov dom na vhodu v Gorišnico je zgleden primer restavrirane domačije. Cimprana hiša ima bivalni del in 'v aklu' še gospodarskega. Logično so postavljeni še dva koruznjaka ter za hišo čebelnjaki, medtem ko je klet pred hišo opuščena. GPS N 5.140.710 E 527.290

2 Gorišnica, Dominko farm Dominko farm at the entrance to Gorišnica is an exemplary case of a restored farm: the timber house has a residential part and additional outbuildings 'at an angle'. Two corn granaries and an apiary are set logically, while the cellar in front of the house is abandoned.

3 Filovci, Bojnec Prenešena, a avtentično postavljena panonska domačija ima leseno, cimprano ogrodje, ki je prevlečeno z apnenim beležem. Slamnata streha ima čope, gumno je odprto. Notranjost je dokaj ohranjena, tako bivalni del za človeka kot tisti za delo in za živali. GPS N 5.168.610 E 599.550

3 Filovci, Bojnec The transferred but authentically erected Pannonian farm has a timber frame, which is coated with a lime whitewash. The thatched roof has a hip, the threshing floor is open. The interior is fairly well preserved, both the dwelling part for people and the parts for work and animals.

4 Pri Sv. Ani v Slovenskih goricah Razložena domačija ima več objektov, ki zaradi strmega terena niso povezani. GPS N 5.165.050 E 564.450

4 Near Sv. Ana in Slovenske gorice The dispersed farmstead has several buildings, which are not connected because of the steepness of the terrain.

5 Brengova Bogata domačija je sestav več objektov, ki tudi na zunaj kažejo svoje namembnosti. Hiša ima stilne okraske, ki kažejo trende v času nastanka, hlev pa ima kompozicijo opečnih mrež. GPS N 5.157.090 E 570.970

5 Brengova farm The rich farmstead consists of several objects, which also indicate their function on the outside: the house has stylistic decorations, which show the trends at the time of its creation, and the stable has a composition of brickwork screens.

6 Gorišnica 1985 (risba)

6 Gorišnica 1985 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Residential house

An independent house without auxiliary buildings is relatively rare. Farm economies without functional objects have difficulty surviving. A householder at one time had a field for the cultivation of food, fodder and also for the roof, and forests for wood, while the family represented the labour force. Almost everything was made at home: they only had to buy salt and sugar. They had almost everything. Only money was lacking. So vernacular architecture is sometimes wasteful in the use of materials. Pre-dimensioned constructions ensure solidity, which is what a simple man needed most of all. Small windows ensure a small loss of energy, but unfortunately also allow in little light. They are small because of glass, which was at first expensive and also difficult to carry into the hills, so the windows were small and also divided into still smaller glass surfaces. The oldest Pohorje house was a 'smokehouse'. It was followed by a house with a 'black kitchen', and only after the construction of a chimney, first wooden and then stone built, did the whole house become cleaner, more hygienic and healthier. Development flows right from the first house, which was created to protect the fire, which was the centre of family life (Fister 1986:52). I am thinking of the hearth, which heated, gave light; they cooked and baked on it and it drove off marauding animals. Unfortunately, a fire also makes smoke, which is not the best thing for man. The room in the house in which an open fire was used was called the hearth room; when our forebears built round the hearth and cultivated it, the room became more arranged but the smoke still stayed. It rose, but stretched downwards all the way to the highest point of exit. The space with free smoke, which exited through openings, so through the windows and also the door, was called a 'smokehouse'. It was characterized by small windows, which were originally closed with sliding flaps and then by glass. Because the windows were small, there had to be many of them and because of the smoke they were as high in the wall as possible. The smokehouse occupied the entire gable end of the house but the windows did not exceed some twenty centimetres. Such smokehouses can still be found on Pohorje but elsewhere they have almost completely disappeared. The black kitchen was more advanced: when the hearth developed into a stove, the smoke still exited into the room itself. But when the stove was reversed and its opening directed through the wall into the anteroom, the 'black kitchen' was born (Juvanec 1986: 20). The living room suddenly became clean, the windows no longer needed to be high in the wall and everything became more reachable. The black kitchen was actually still only black in the anteroom, but that too was made cleaner with the installation of a chimney. Because the entrance to the 'house' was through the black kitchen and from it into the living room, the house was logically extended on the other side of the kitchen. We thus obtain a symmetrical house. Except in the Pannonian world, where a cellar is only a wine cellar, the cellar is normally accessible at least partially from ground level, so that it is unnecessary to reach the various storeys by stairs. The whole of Slovenia is predominantly hilly, so the use of falling terrain for access to various levels of the house is an advantage. The foundations and cellar are normally stone, and the upper part in the material that is most available. But something remained to man: the desire for the most solid possible house. So houses built of brick and also some of clay, had at least outlined corner stones, which gave the impression of solidity. In itself this is not real, not true, but it provides a special artistic quality and represents the building culture of our forebears.

Samostojna hiša, brez gospodarskih elementov, je razmeroma redka. Gre za kmečka gospodarstva, ki brez ekonomskih objektov težko preživijo. Včasih je imel gospodar polja za pridelavo hrane, krme in tudi za streho, gozdove za les, družina pa je predstavljala delovno silo. Doma so pridelali skoraj vse. Kupiti so morali le sol in sladkor. Imeli so skoraj vse, le denarja jim je manjkalo. Zato je vernakularna arhitektura včasih potratna pri izrabi materialov. Predimenzionirane konstrukcije zagotavljajo trdnost, to pa je preprost človek najbolj potreboval. Majhna okna zagotavljajo majhne izgube energije, a žal tudi malo svetlobe. Majhna so zaradi stekla, ki je bilo prvič drago, pa tudi težko ga je bilo prinesti v hribe. Zato so okna majhna, pa še ta so deljena na še manjše steklene površine. Najstarejša pohorska hiša je dimnica. Sledi ji hiša s črno kuhinjo, po vgradnji dimnika, najprej lesenega in potem zidanega, postane vsa hiša čistejša, bolj higienična in bolj zdrava. Razvoj teče vse od prve hiše, ki je nastala kot zaščita ognja, ki je predstavljal center družinskega življenja (Fister 1986:52). Mislim na ognjišče, ki je grelo, svetilo, na njem so kuhali in pekli, odganjalo je roparske živali. Žal pa ima ogenj tudi dim, ki za človeka ni najprimernejši. Prostor v hiši, kjer so uporabljali odprto ognjišče, imenujemo ognjiščnica, ko so naši predniki ognjišče pozidali in ga kultivirali, je postal prostor bolj urejen, a dim je še vedno ostal. Dvigal se je, navzdol pa je segal vse do najvišje točke izhoda. Prostor s prostim dimom, ki izhaja skozi odprtine, torej skozi okna, pa tudi skozi vrata, imenujemo dimnica. Zanjo so značilna majhna okna, ki so se sprva zapirala z drsnimi loputami, potem pa že s stekli. Ker so okna majhna, jih mora biti mnogo, zaradi dima so čim više v steni. Dimnica jih ima po vsem čelu hiše, okna pa ne presegajo kakih dvajsetih centimetrov. Kakšno dimnico najdemo še na Pohorju, drugje jih malone ni več. Črna kuhinja pa je naprednješa. Ko so ognjišče razvili v peč, je dim še vedno izhajal v prostor sam. Ko pa so peč obrnili in njeno odprtino usmerili skozi zid v predprostor, se je rodila črna kuhinja (Juvanec 1986:20). Bivalni prostor je nenadoma postal čist, okna visoko v zidu niso bila več potrebna, pa tudi vse bolj dosegljiva so postala. Črna kuhinja je bila res črna le še v predprostoru, ki pa so ga z vgradnjo dimnika tudi očistili. Ker je bil vhod v 'hišo' najprej v črno kuhinjo in potem iz nje v bivalni prostor, se je hiša širila logično na drugo stran kuhinje.Tako dobimo simetrično hišo. Razen v panonskem svetu, kjer je klet le vinska klet, je navadno klet dosegljiva vsaj malo s terena, da ni treba vse etažne višine premagovati s stopnicami. Vsa Slovenija je pretežno hribovita, zato je izraba padajočega terena za dostope v razne višine hiše njena prednost. Temelji in klet so navadno kamniti, zgornji del pa v materialu, ki je pač dosegljiv. A nekaj je ostalo v človeku: želja po čim bolj trdni hiši. Zato imajo zidane hiše iz opeke, pa tudi take v glini, vsaj narisane vogalne kamne, ki trdnost zagotavljajo. Po svoje to ni prav, ni res, a predstavlja posebno likovno kvaliteto in gradbeno kulturo naših prednikov.

<< 1 Ošelj, vzhodno Pohorje Velika, razsežna bivalna hiša seže s Koroškega prav do vzhodnih obronkov Pohorja. Je lesena z izrazitimi napušči, ki jih nosijo tramovi v stopničenju. Domačija na Ošlju je še živa, a prav dolgo ne bo več. GPS N 5.142.550 E 540.005

<< 1 Ošelj, eastern Pohorje The large, extensive farm extends from Koroška right to the eastern edge of Pohorje. The house is wooden, with pronounced eaves, supported by gradated beams. The farmstead in Ošelj is still a living entity, though it won't be for very long.

2 Šentjanž nad Dravčami, Levovnik Levovnikova domačija je živ objekt arhitekture lesa s streho v 'šintlnih'. Bistveni in največji del hiše je pravzaprav streha, ki s čopoma bdi nad domačimi. GPS N 5.158.205 E 510.180

2 Šentjanž above Dravče, Levovnik Levovnik farm is living architecture in wood with a shingle roof: the essential and largest part of the house is actually the hipped roof, which sits over the farm.

3 Zabovci, pri Markovcih na Ptujskem polju Opuščena hiša je ilovnata, delno celo z zidaki, ki so na zraku sušeni. Streha je bila še pred leti v slami. Zidovi so prebeljeni, spodnji del je obarvan rdeče. V sadovnjaku pred hišo sta še dva koruznjaka. GPS N 5.138.680 E 570.710

3 Zabovci, near Markovci on Ptujsko polje The abandoned house is clay, partially even of adobe, air-dried, bricks. The roof was still thatched a few years ago. The walls are whitewashed, the lower part coloured red. There are still two cornhouses in the orchard in front of the house.

4 Ženik, Slovenske gorice Značilna skromna hiša v Slovenskih goricah ima klet, ki je dostopna s sprednjega dela skozi lopute pod kotom. Prav ta način dostopa v klet je za vse Slovenske gorice posebej značilen. GPS N 5.156.690 E 577.880

4 Ženik, Slovenske gorice A characteristically modest house in Slovenske gorice has a cellar that is accessible from the front through a shed at an angle. This method of access to the cellar is actually a real particularity of Slovenske gorice.

5 Dobrava Butana hiša po vzoru 'hiše erzherzoga Johanna' ponavlja oblikovne rešitve takrat moderne arhitekture. Žal so objekti, prav tako butani, na dvorišču, že propadli. GPS N 5.152.270 E 572.310

5 Dobrava The rammed clay house, on the model of 'the house of erzherzog Johann' repeats design solutions of then modern architecture. Sadly, the auxiliary buildings in the courtyard, similarly rammed clay, have already collapsed.

6 Malna 1998 (risba)

6 Malna1998 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

7 Iljašovci Hiša 'erzherzoga Johanna' stoji ob cesti Radgona – Ljutomer, za domovanje pa so jo izbrale tudi štorklje. Za ta tip hiše je značilen vhod s stopniščem s stebri, vedno v sredini cestnega pročelja. GPS N 5.158.630 E 586.220

7 Iljašovci The house of 'erzherzog Johann' stands by the road from Radgona to Ljutomer, and storks have also chosen it as their home. This type of house is typified by an entrance with steps with columns, always in the centre of the procelium facing the road.

8 Bukovci, županova hiša Hiša je butana in je zanimiva prav zato, ker pod odpadlim ometom vidimo njeno izvorno butano konstrukcijo. Kot sosednje hiše ima tudi ta pobarvane okraske in oblikovane 'kamne' v vogalih. Kazalo bi jo prenoviti in pokazati ljudem kulturo bivanja naših prednikov. GPS N 5.137.720 E 573.710

8 Bukovci, mayor's house The house is rammed clay and is interesting precisely because its original construction can still be seen under the daub: like the neighbouring house this also has coloured ornamentation and designed 'stones' at the corners. It needs to be restored and used to show people the residential culture of our forebears.

9 Genterovci Značilnost hiše na Madžarskem je pravokotna postavitev na cesto, z izrazito oblikovano fasado in s sedlasto streho, ki se skriva za loki in za okraski v ometu. Seveda je to vpliv trendov svojega časa, pri nas pa je prava redkost. GPS N 5.164.000 E 607.480

9 Genterovci A characteristic of a house in Hungary is in a right-angled position by the road, with an explicitly designed façade and saddle-backed roof, which hides behind the curves and the ornamentation in the plaster. This is, of course, an influence of the then fashions, in Slovenia it is a real rarity.

10 Osek Velika bivalna hiša domačije na obronku ravnine, da je tam čim več prostora za polja. Hiša je razmeroma preprosta, a ima v čelu znak s sončno uro. Hiša je obnovljena, a tako kot je izgledala nekdaj. GPS N 5.159.150 E 568.720

10 Osek The large residential farmhouse is on the edge of the plain, so that there is as much space as possible for arable fields. The house is relatively simple, but it has the marks of a sundial on the frontage. The house has been renovated, but so that it looks as it once did.

11 Osek 1990 (risba)

11 Osek 1990 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

House with auxiliary parts

This is actually the most widespread type of house in northeast Slovenia. It, of course, describes any house which has a storeroom, cellar or functional attic, but the term is used to describe mainly buildings which contain in the complex in addition to a dwelling for people also space for animals, for fodder, for food, and for the craft activities associated with livestock breeding and arable farming. A large such complex is known from at least the first millennium BC: a rectangular building near Ormož (Fister 1986:18). Except for the Pannonian plain, the northeast is hilly; Pohorje with a thousand five hundred metres is already high mountain, but the exploitation of the different floors of a house is uniform: houses are two-storey and the essential part – the dwelling – is on the ground floor. Because the terrain enables access to the lower rooms directly from the level, this is almost a general rule, so that there are relatively few staircases. Only houses on the flat have staircase in a single flight, with the entrance to the cellar from outside, covered with a wooden trapdoor, and sometimes also from inside, when steps are cut in the soft clay ground (Gorišnica). Pohorje, Haloze and Goričko have longitudinal houses, set back from flat land, so that they can plant and sow there. The falling terrain allows access on the level, so that the few steps to the main entrance in the longitudinal façade are negligible. The entrance to the cellar and store and to a smaller stockhouse is from the same side. Slovenske gorice, where the complex of the dwelling house contains only the cellar, a wine cellar, have the entrance to it in the front, in the axis, while the main entrance for people is from the side. Houses are also set at right angles to the contour so that the house opens into the space with the cellar. This is not so elsewhere in Slovenia. It testifies to the importance of the economic part. There are three types of houses on the level - the oldest are bent back, called 'na akel', at a right angle. The longitudinal part has the living quarters at the beginning, then a space for human food, for tools, for livestock, in the angled part is the space for wagons, into which they can normally be driven, and then small animals and firewood. The right-angled ground plan protects the working yard. A farm 'na ključ', bent back in three parts, has the same disposition. Right at the end, but level with the entrance is the privy 'na štrbunk'. Such a farm normally – where possible – has the main entrance 'at the back', in the clean part or onto the road. This is the rule, the theory, in practice they use only the working entrance, since work is the essential element of farm life. There are actually fewest of such buildings. In the seventeenth century, a new type of farm appeared in Prekmurje, elongated. This was a socially coordinated principle of equality: each got a long, narrow plot of land, which stretched from the road, over the fields to the stream or forest (Fister 1968:69). It was thus ensured that everyone got an area of approximately equal value. The narrow plots of land required long, narrow houses. The principles were retained, both in terms of construction and the order of spaces. The new element that appeared was a covered threshing floor, which projected outwards and was higher, so that wagons full of hay could be driven into it. The oldest roof is thatch, except on Pohorje, where wood is the natural material, exceptionally also slate. A thatched roof can only be executed in quality with a one to one slope, or forty-five degrees. The hip, too, derives from the thatched roof, where the gable is the most problematic part. This is plaited on Pohorje, while on the plains, the ridge is plaited. The problematic detail of the composition of three ridges (at the top of the gable) is resolved with a wooden man or a clay cock.

To je pravzaprav najbolj razširjen tip hiše severovzhodne Slovenije. Seveda je vsaka hiša, ki ima shrambo, klet ali uporabno podstrešje, hiša z gospodarskim delom. A s tem terminom označujemo predvsem zgradbe, ki imajo v sklopu ob bivanju človeka še prostor za živali, za krmo, za hrano, pa za tiste obrtne dejavnosti, ki spadajo k živinoreji in k poljedelstvu. Velika selišča poznamo vsaj že iz prvega tisočletja pred našim štetjem; pravokotne vzdolžne zgradbe pri Ormožu (Fister 1986:18). Razen Panonske ravnine je ostali severovzhod gričevnat, Pohorje s 1500 metri že visokogorje, vendar je izraba etaž v bivalnih hišah enotna. Hiše so enoetažne in bistveni del, bivanje, se dogaja v pritličju. Ker teren omogoča dostop do spodnjih prostorov direktno z ravnine, je to skoraj pravilo, tako da je stopnic razmeroma malo. Stopnišča s celo ramo imajo le ravninske hiše z vhodi v klet od zunaj, kjer so pokrita z leseno loputo, včasih pa tudi od znotraj, ko so stopnice vrezane v mehka glinasta tla (Gorišnica). Pohorje, Haloze in Goričko imajo vzdolžne hiše, umaknjene z ravnin, da na teh lahko sadijo in sejejo. Padajoč teren omogoča dostop z ravnine, tako da je nekaj stopnic do glavnega vhoda v vzdolžni fasadi nepomembnih. Vhodi v kleti in shrambe, pa v manjše hleve je dostop z iste strani. Slovenske gorice, kjer je v sklopu bivalne hiše le klet, torej vinska klet, imajo vhode vanje v čelu, v osi, medtem ko je glavni vhod za ljudi od strani. Hiše so postavljene pravokotno na plastnice, tako da se hiša odpira v prostor s kletjo. Tega drugje po Sloveniji ni. Priča pa o pomembnosti gospodarskega dela. Ravninske hiše so trojne. Najstarejše so zapognjene, imenujejo jih 'na akel', v vogal. Vzdolžni del ima na začetku bivalni del, potem prostor za hrano človeka, za orodje, za živino, v zapognjenem delu je prostor za voz, ki je navadno prevozen, potem za male živali in drva. Zapognjen tloris varuje delovno dvorišče. Domačija 'na ključ', nazaj zapognjena v treh delih, ima enako zaporedje. Prav na koncu, a poravnano z vhodom, je stranišče na štrbunk. Domačije na ključ imajo navadno, kjer je to mogoče, glavni vhod 'zadaj', na čisti del ali na cesto. To je pravilo, teorija, v praksi pa uporabljajo vedno le delovni vhod, saj je bistveni del kmetskega življenja delo.Takih zgradb je pravzaprav najmanj. V sedemnajstem stoletju se v Prekmurju pojavi nov tip domačije, stegnjeni. Gre za socialno usklajen princip enakosti. Vsak je dobil ozko, dolgo parcelo, ki je segala od ceste prek polj do potoka ali gozda (Fister 1968:69). S tem so zagotovili, da je vsak dobil približno enakovreden prostor. Ozke parcele so zahtevale ozke in dolge hiše. Princip so obdržali, tako konstrukcijo kot redosled prostorov. Nov element, ki se pojavi, pa je nadkrito gumno, ki štrli navzven, pa še višje je, da je lahko vanj zapeljal voz, poln sena. Najstarejša streha je slamnata, razen na Pohorju, kjer je doma les, izjemoma tudi skrilj. Slamnato streho je mogoče kvalitetno izvesti le v naklonu ena proti ena ali v 45 stopinjah. Tudi čop izhaja iz slamnate strehe, kjer je najproblematičnejši del zatrep. Ta je na Pohorju pleten, medtem ko je v ravninskih delih pleteno sleme. Problematični detajl sestava treh slemen (na vrhu čopa) rešujejo z možici iz slame, lesa ali pa so tam glinasti petelini.

<< 1 Filovski breg Hiša stoji med kletmi, a je prava bivalna hiša z gospodarskim delom, z značilnim razporedom prostorov od bivanja do drv oziroma do zaprtega prostora za otepe slame slamnate strehe. Hiša je izjemno lepo vzdrževana. GPS N 5.169.965 E 599.820

<< 1 Filovski breg The house stands between cellars but is a real residential house with auxiliary parts, with a typical disposition of spaces from residential to firewood, or an enclosed space for bundles of straw. The house is extremely well maintained.

2 Trnavski breg Butana hiša je sestav bivalnega dela z gospodarskim, ki se je zaključeval s prostorom za drva, s svinjakom in s straniščem. Danes je nekaj skrajšan. Na dvorišču ima vodnjak, zaprt z letvami. GPS N 5.5.170.120 E 599.230

2 Trnavski breg The rammed clay house consists of residential part with auxiliary premises, which concludes with space for firewood, a pigsty and a privy; today it is slightly shortened. There is a well in the courtyard, closed with slats.

3 Šentjanž nad Dravčami, Poberska bajta, Pobernik Izjemna kulturna dediščina, ki je varstveniki kulture še niso opazili, ker pač ne stoji na cesti. Ima belo, v 'hišo' odprto peč, ves prostor je do odprtin zadimljen in sajast. Še vedno ima dimnična okna, ki jih zapirajo z drsnimi loputami. Tudi nad vrati je odvod dima, ki zunaj vodi v kamro za dimljenje pod napuščem. V zadnjem delu je prostor za krmo, spodaj so hlevi. Logično je obrnjena proti soncu, na jug, ker pa stoji na severnem pobočju, se v dolino odpira z gospodarskim delom. GPS N 5.158.005 E 510.270

3 Šentjanž above Dravče, Poberska bajta, Pobernik Exceptional cultural heritage that the guardians of culture have not yet noticed because it doesn't stand by the road. It has a white, open stove in the 'house', the entire space to the openings is smoky and sooty. It still has smoke windows that are closed with sliding flaps. There is even an exit for smoke above the door, which leads outside to a smoke chamber under the eaves. The last part is space for fodder, below are stables. It faces logically towards the sun, and because it stands on a northern slope, the auxiliary part opens onto the valley.

4 Pertoča Hiša je bila zgrajena verjetno okrog prve svetovne vojne in je v prvem delu lesena, v zapognjenem, gospodarskem delu pa ilovnata, v napreprostejši tehniki gnetene gline. To je danes še posebej redko, pa še vidi se. Take primere bi morali zavarovati kot pomembne elemente naše dediščine. GPS N 5.180.790 E 578.010

4 Pertoča The house was probably built around the First World War and is wooden in the first part and clay in the angled part: in the simplest technique of kneaded clay. This is a real rarity today, but still seen. Such examples should be protected as important elements of our heritage.

5 Bukovci Izjemno lep primer podeželske hiše z gospodarskim delom. Ni le vzorno vzdrževana, je tudi profesionalno prebarvana, umirjena, brez kiča, a živahna, da pritegne poglede kulturnega človeka. GPS N 5.137.700 E 573.850

5 Bukovci An extremely fine example of a rural longitudinal house with auxiliary parts. Not just exemplarily maintained, it is also professionally painted: calm, without kitsch, but lively so that it attracts the eye of a cultured person.

6 Lahonci 1990 (risba)

6 Lahonci 1990 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

7 Brezje Bivalna hiša je sestav hiše same z gospodarskim delom v ravnini in hleva, ki ju povezuje pokrit hodnik s svinjskimi hlevi. Ta deli dvorišče na dva dela, na čistega in na delovnega. Pred hišo sta sadovnjak in lepo pokošena trata. GPS N 5.150.945 E 527.350

7 Brezje The residential house consists of the house itself, with auxiliary parts on the level and a stable, connected to a pigsty by a covered walk. This divides the courtyard into two parts: clean and working. There is an orchard and well cut grass in front of the house.

8 Zasadi Opuščena hiša ima vzdolžen tloris ter se odpira v sadovnjak, delovno dvorišče je v nadaljevanju, pred hlevi. Žal jo razen časa uničuje še cesta, ki teče takoj za njenim hrbtom. GPS N 5.149.710 E 567.170

8 Zasadi The abandoned house has a longitudinal ground plan and faces the orchard; the working yard is in the continuation in front of the stable. Unfortunately, it has been ruined not just by time, but also by the road running immediately behind.

9 Vitomarci Zgradba je primer prevžitkarske hiše, katere bistvo je nadzor nad hrano in krmo. Medtem ko so okna komaj zadosti velika za zračenje in za nekaj svetlobe, so detajli kašče bogato oblikovani, lesena vrata, celo kovinske spone tečajev (glej detajle). GPS N 5.152.670 E 571.730

9 Vitomarci An example of a semi-retirement house, the essence of which was control over the food and fodder: while the windows are barely big enough for ventilation and a little light, the details of the granary, the wooden doors, even the metal ties of the hinges, are richly designed (see details).

10 Spuhlja, Dolcarjeva domačija Značilna, vzdolžna butana domačija s čelom na cesto iz leta 1893 ima temelje in klet v opeki. Posebno lepa je klet z oboki do tal, gospodarji pa prav radi pokažejo vso hišo. GPS N 5.139.900 E 570.430

10 Spuhlja, Dolcar farm The typical, longitudinal rammed clay farm with frontage on the road from 1893 has foundations and cellar in fired brick. The cellar, with vaulting to the ground, is especially fine, the occupants really like to show the whole house.

11 Brezje 1990 (risba)

11Brezje 1990 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Auxiliary buildings, stockhouse

There are generally only freestanding auxiliary buildings in the northeast on Pohorje, elsewhere they are more an exception. A farm with freestanding buildings requires more space: the organization of the intervening space as a working yard – which is of key importance for farm work – and in falling terrain it is extremely constricted. So freestanding stockhouses are late erections, in Pomurje almost as a rule only after the First World War, in Slovenske gorice they may be earlier. Brickwork screens are a special element that is characteristic of the whole of Štajerska, Austria and elsewhere in Slovenia. These are ventilation openings – such as are familiar in Gorenjska in wood, cut in the planks of the gable. Štajerska, which stretches high into Austria as Styria, has relatively large auxiliary objects, but here they are smaller though not therefore less interesting. A brickwork screen is a permanent opening that regulates access for the sun's rays and people's gaze by means of the thickness of the bricks, while access for air is always possible. That means that it is always theoretically possible, though only when the loft space is half empty; when it is full the openings are closed by hay. However, that is precisely where the charm of self-regulation comes, whereby man exploited the possibilities: to begin with, when there is little hay, the wind blows right through the loft space and dries the inner part of the content. As the height of the hay rises, there is only wind across the upper, new layer of hay. With a completely full loft space, the wind only has access to the gable surfaces, but by then the interior is already dry. The depth of the bricks regulates entry of the sun's rays, which would over-dry the contents. The bricks are laid longitudinally in the direction of the ridge, and also at an angle. The roof is symmetrical, so the patterns outlined by the brickwork screen are also symmetrical. So rays are left on one side, not on the other and when the sun is at its height the same procedure is repeated. Both the size and the patterns depend on the size of the object and on the bricks used. Originally only classical bricks were used in brickwork screens, set at all angles, which, because of the 1:2:4 ratio enabled an unbelievable variety of solutions. In contrast to the construction of a wall, the bricks in a brickwork screen were also set upright and on their side. Roof tiles are also inserted at an angle of forty-five degrees, which introduces a new quality into the composition of the screen. New elements appeared between the two wars, above all over and under barrel tiles, which soften the relative strictness of the composition. The brickwork screens provide a contrast in the white façade of a stockhouse, sometimes colour is added to them, brick colour, of course, so dark red. A stockhouse erected simultaneously with the dwelling house is still only found on Pohorje. The lower part is generally stone, above it is the hay barn and hay is additionally stored in the loft space. In the narrow courtyard is a walled manure pit, and because of limitations of space and the awkwardness it is all surrounded by a wooden fence, which is not found elsewhere in Slovenia in the context of a farmstead (except, of course, fences in Koroška). Ventilation openings in a fretwork wooden gable, as are found elsewhere, are not found here. The only decoration, but exceptionally strong, is the plaited rim of the thatched roof. The wind is obviously strongest from the side and on the front gable, so the edges of the gable are plaited and the ridge is only evenly reinforced.

Samostojno gospodarsko poslopje je na severovzhodu doma le na Pohorju, drugje je bolj izjema. Domačija posamičnih objektov zahteva več prostora. Organizacija vmesnega prostora kot delovno dvorišče, ki je za kmetsko delo ključnega pomena, pa je v padajočem terenu skrajno otežkočena. Tako so samostojni objekti hlevov postavljeni pozno, v Pomurju skoraj praviloma šele po prvi svetovni vojni, v Slovenskih goricah so tudi starejši. Poseben element, ki je značilen za vso Štajersko, avstrijsko in našo, so opečne mreže. To so prezračevalne odprtine, kot jih poznamo na Kranjskem v lesu, v zarezovanju desk zatrepa. Štajerska, ki sega visoko v Avstrijo, pozna razmeroma velike gospodarske objekte, pri nas so manjši, a zato nič manj zanimivi. Opečna mreža je stalna odprtina, ki z gostoto opečnih zidakov uravnava dostop sončnih žarkov in pogledov, medtem ko je zraku dostop vedno omogočen. Vedno pomeni, da je teoretsko omogočen, a le kadar je podstrešje na pol prazno. Ob polnem so odprtine zaprte s senom. A prav v tem je čar samouravnavanja, ko je človek izkoristil možnosti. Na začetku, ko je sena malo, veter piha skozi vse podstrešje in presuši notranji del vsebine. Ko se višina sena dviga, je veter le še v zgornji, novi plasti sena. Pri povsem polnem podstrešju dostopa veter le v čelne ploskve, a notranjost je takrat že suha. Z globino zidakov opečne mreže uravnavajo dostop sončnim žarkom, ki bi preveč presušili vsebino. Zidaki so zloženi vzdolžno na smer slemena, pa tudi pod kotom. Streha je simetrična, zatorej so tudi vzorci, ki jih rišejo opečne mreže, simetrične. Tako žarke na eni strani prepuščajo, na drugi ne in ko se dan prevesi, se enak postopek ponovi. Tako velikost kot vzorci so odvisni od velikosti objekta in od opeke, ki je uporabljena. Prvotno so bili v opečnih mrežah le klasični zidaki, postavljeni v vseh smereh, ki so zaradi odnosa 1 : 2 : 4 omogočali neverjetne variantne rešitve. Obratno kot pri konstrukciji zidu so opeke v opečni mreži postavljene tudi pokonci in na bok. Strešniki so vgrajevani tudi pod kotom petinštirideset stopinj, kar vnaša v kompozicijo mrež novo kvaliteto. Med obema vojnama se pojavijo novi elementi, predvsem korci, ki razmeroma toge kompozicije mehčajo. Opečne mreže so v beli fasadi hleva kontrast, včasih jih še dodatno barvajo, seveda v barvi opeke, torej temno rdeče. Hlev, ki je postavljen istočasno z bivalno hišo, najdemo le še na Pohorju. Spodnji del je praviloma kamnit, nad njim je senik, seno pa spravljajo še na podstrešje. Na ozkem dvorišču je obzidana gnojna jama, zaradi omejenosti prostora in nerodnosti je vse skupaj ograjeno z leseno ograjo, ki je drugje na Slovenskem v okviru domačije ne najdemo (razen seveda ograd na Koroškem). Prezračevalnih odprtin z zarezovanjem lesenega zatrepa, kot ga poznamo drugje, tukaj ni. Edina dekoracija, a izjemno močna, je pletenje obrob slamnate strehe. Očitno je najmočnejši veter od strani in v čelo, zato so pleteni robovi zatrepa, sleme pa je le enakomerno ojačano.

<< 1 Šetarova Gospodarsko poslopje iz zadnjih avstro-ogrskih časov ima vzdolžni hodnik, značilni pa so stranski koruznjaki pod napuščem. Lepi so masivni detajli tramov iz trdega lesa, ki povezujejo in nosijo konstrukcijo. Za vso vas so značilne lesene ograje, hlev pa stoji, kot hiša, pravokotno na cesto in tvori zaprto delovno dvorišče, s svojo mogočnostjo pa priča o pridnosti lastnikov. GPS N 5.155.810 E 563.610

<< 1 Šetarova farm The auxiliary building from the final days of Austro-Hungary has a longitudinal passage and the side cornhouses stores under the eaves are typical. The massive details of the hardwood beams are attractive, which link and support the construction. Wooden fences are characteristic of the whole village, and the stable stands – like the house – at right angles to the road and creates an enclosed working yard, testifying with its majesty to the diligence of the owners.

2 Bezjak, Lovrenc na Pohorju Manjši objekt, večji stoji prav pred hišo, je nekoliko odmaknjen in je vgrajen v okolje tako, da je dosegljiv z obeh strani v dveh različnih nadstropjih tudi z vozom. Lesena streha je ogromna, s čopi in z leskom skodel govori o gospodarski moči, nekdaj nekaj sto hektarjev veliki domačiji. GPS N 5.150.945 E 527.350

2 Bezjak, Lovrenc na Pohorju The small building – a larger one stands right in front of the house – is slightly withdrawn and is set in the environment so that it is accessible from both sides, on two different levels, also by wagon. The huge wooden roof, hipped and with wooden shingles testifies to the economic might of the former hundred hectare farm.

3 Zgornje Prebukovje Hlev stoji med bivalno hišo in stiskalnico, nad travnikom, njivami in sadovnjakom. Spodnji del je kamnit, zgoraj lesen, z obhodom po vsej dolžini. GPS N 5.141.170 E 543.300

3 Zgornje Prebukovje The stable stands between the residential house and the press, above the meadow, fields and orchard. The lower part is stone, the upper wood, with a walkway all along the length.

4 Bukovci Izjemno velik objekt je presenetljivo butana gradnja. V zadnjem delu so stene, spredaj le slopi. Butana konstrukcija je nezaščitena in vidna, zato je še zanimivejša. Posebej vznemirljiv je pogled v notranjost, ko se svetijo odprtine za lesene distančnike pri butanju. A brez vzdrževanja in korenite obnove ne bo več dolgo. Škoda. GPS N 5.137.760 E 574.010

4 Bukovci The extremely large object, surprisingly, is a rammed clay construction; in the rear are walls, in front only columns. The rammed clay construction is unprotected and visible, so it is more interesting. The view of the interior is especially exciting, when the openings for the wooden spacers in rammed clay are lit. Without maintenance and thorough restoration, though, it will not stand long. A pity.

5 Domanjševci Gospodarski objekt je zidan v opeki, odprtine so zapolnjene z opečnimi mrežami skoraj do tal. To je pri nas redkost. Zanimive so prav mreže. Preprost vzorec teče vse do vrha, kjer razpetino premošča blagi obok. GPS N 5.181.730 E 598.890

5 Domanjševci The auxiliary building is brick built, the openings are filled with brickwork screens almost to the ground. This is a rarity here. The screens themselves are interesting: the simple pattern runs all the way to the top, where a gentle arch bridges the span.

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Cellar

A cellar is the space in the house below ground level, which generally serves for the storage of field crops, fruit and wine. A cellar in northeast Slovenia is used mainly for caring for wine. In smaller houses, this really is simply a cellar, larger farms have a special object for this purpose. While the dwelling house is set parallel to the contour, the cellar is generally at right angles to it. The cellar does not, of course, really have to be below ground: in Goričko and in Haloze cellars are found without any excavation, on the level. They then have the entrance from the side: when the cellar is excavated, it has an entrance in the lower part of the frontage, above which is a space for occasional residence, for tools, for the press, sometimes also for livestock. A cellar is a simple object of undemanding construction. When excavated, it is of stone, when above ground wooden or clay. Simple does not mean poorly maintained: cellars are always freshly whitewashed (also for the sake of hygiene, but particularly for the sake of appearance), and a well-maintained roof is a condition of protection from the weather. With smaller and older objects, the cellar itself was a square space with a wooden ceiling; with larger objects the cellar is normally vaulted. The doors must be at least big enough to take the largest barrel: so the doors are always double. Left and right of the door are “lefts”, spaces in the wall for small items, and, of course, ventilation openings. Ventilation is important not only for the wine but, above all, for people, since wine fumes during fermentation are poisonous. There is also sometimes an opening above the door – and vertical inverse dormers in clay (Filovske gorice) are of particular interest. When a cellar also has living quarters – for occasional use, mainly during the grape harvest and while caring for the wine – they are as large as the cellar below them. The equipment is modest. A cellar sometimes has a chimney, sometimes not. The press requires a lot of space because of the wooden construction, mainly because of the shaft that connects the weight with the spindle, which by means of a handle presses the grapes or fruit in a square wooden frame. Sometimes, when there is a small press above the cellar, the outflow is directly into it (Devina by Slovenska Bistrica). The wood for the press, which is normally called a 'preša', must be hard, if only because of the dimensions. Because of its importance, there is often at least a date and the owner's initials on the shaft, and sometimes also a geometric pattern. Spaces for tools and for livestock are always in an extension: livestock together with a cellar is rare. A cellar in the corner in Lendavske gorice (Ujtomas) with space for an animal or two is an exception and a local particularity. Above Filovci, there are similarly such cellars with a stockhouse, and there, too, it is a special phenomenon. Cellars are in wood and clay, similarly also 'at an angle'. They are more a refuge for the householder, who thus withdraws from the farmhouse.

Klet je prostor v hiši pod pritličjem, ki praviloma služi za spravilo poljščin, sadja in vina. Klet v severovzhodni Sloveniji uporabljajo predvsem za negovanje vina. V manjših hišah je to res dobesedno klet, večje domačije imajo v te namene posebne objekte. Medtem ko je bivalna hiša postavljena vzporedno na plastnice, je klet praviloma pravokotna nanje. Seveda ni nujno, da je klet res pod terenom. Na Goričkem in v Halozah najdemo kleti brez vkopov, v ravnini. Takrat ima vhod od strani. Kadar je klet vkopana, ima vhod v spodnjem delu čela, zgoraj je prostor za občasno bivanje, za orodje, za stiskalnico, včasih tudi za živino. Klet je preprost objekt nezahtevne konstrukcije, vkopana je kamnita, nad zemljo lesena ali iz ilovice. Preprost ne pomeni slabo vzdrževan. Kleti so vedno sveže prebeljene (že zaradi higiene, posebej pa zaradi videza), obnavljana streha pa je pogoj za zaščito pred vremenom. Sama klet je pri manjših in starejših objektih pravokoten prostor z lesenim stropom, pri večjih objektih je klet navadno obokana. Vrata morajo biti velika vsaj za največji sod, zato so vedno dvokrilna. Levo in desno od vrat so 'leve' (ednina: leva), prostori v zidu za drobnarije, pa seveda prezračevalne odprtine. Prezračevanje ni pomembno le za vino, ampak predvsem za človeka, saj so vinski hlapi ob vrenju strupeni. Odprtina je včasih tudi nad vrati, posebej zanimive pa so navpično obrnjene line v glini (Filovske gorice). Kadar ima klet tudi bivalni prostor, za občasno uporabo, predvsem ob nabiranju grozdja in ob negovanju vina, je ta enako velik kot klet pod njim. Oprema je skromna.Včasih ima klet dimnik, včasih ne. Stiskalnica zahteva velik prostor zaradi lesene konstrukcije, predvsem zaradi gredi, ki povezuje utež z vretenom, ki prek ročice stiska grozdje ali sadje v kvadratnem lesenem okviru. Včasih, kadar je mala stiskalnica nad kletjo, je iztok direktno vanjo (Devina pri Slovenski Bistrici). Les za stiskalnico, ki ji navadno rečejo 'preša', mora biti trd, že zaradi dimenzij. Zaradi svojega pomena je na gredi mnogokrat vsaj letnica z začetnicama gospodarjevega imena, včasih pa še kak geometrijski vzorec. Prostori za orodje in za živino so vedno v podaljšku. Živina pri kleti je redka. Klet v vogal v Lendavskih goricah (Ujtomas) s prostorom za žival ali dve je izjema in lokalna značilnost. Nad Filovci so prav tako kleti s hlevčki, a tam je to poseben fenomen. Kleti so v lesu in v glini, nekatere tudi 'na akel', v vogal. So pa bolj pribežališče gospodarja, ki se tako umakne z domačije.

<< 1Strehovske gorice Zanimiva klet je bila še pred dvajsetimi leti ena mnogih v teh goricah. Danes je ena redkih, ki so še ohranile originalno obliko. Ima večkapno streho v slami, ki nekako sedi na čelni fasadi s premajhnimi okni. Okna so seveda namenjena prezračevanju, zato je njihova velikost kar prava. V nadaljevanju ima prostore tudi za živino. Klet je bila nekako zatočišče gospodarja, ki je z družino živel v vasi v dolini. GPS N 5.169.365 E 601.480

<< 1Strehovske gorice The interesting cellar was one of many in these hills twenty years ago. Today it is one of a few that have been preserved in the original form. It has a multi-ridge roof in thatch, which rather squats on the front façade with tiny windows. The windows are intended for ventilation, of course, so their size is just right. The extension also contains space for animals. The cellar was a sort of shelter for the owner, who lived with his family in a village in the valley.

2 Lendavske gorice Kleti v Lendavskih goricah so kakor tiste na robu Goričkega namenjene občasnemu bivanju ljudi ob trgatvi, ki so bile mnogokrat naseljene tudi stalno. Imajo bivalni del, tudi peč, predvsem pa stiskalnico, napravo za pečenje žganja, hlev in gumno. Vidi se jim, da so stale z vprego le nekaj ur daleč od stalnega bivališča lastnika. GPS N 5.157.550 E 612.610

2 Lendavske gorice Cellars in Lendavske gorice, like those on the edge of Goričko, were intended for the occasional residence of people during harvest, but were also often occupied permanently. They have a dwelling part, including a stove, and above all a press, equipment for making spirits, a stable and a threshing floor. They stood only a few hours from the permanent residence of the owner.

3 Lendavske gorice Manjši objekt vzdolžne postavitve pravokotno na breg. Vrata ima velika, za največji sod. GPS N 5.157.565 E 612.585

3 Lendavske gorice A smaller object, longitudinally positioned at right angles to the bank. It has a large door: for the largest barrels.

4 Lendavske gorice Zapognjen objekt je služil za stalno bivanje družini, ki je skrbela za vinsko gorico in negovala vino. GPS N 5.157.605 E 612.575

4 Lendavske gorice The angled object served as a permanent dwelling for the family who cared for the vineyard and looked after the wine.

5 Lendavske gorice Klet ima izjemno majhna okna, le za zračenje, saj je temeljni namen kleti vzdrževanje čim bolj enakomerne temperature. GPS N 5.157.565 E 612.585

5 Lendavske gorice The cellar has extremely small windows, only for ventilation, since the basic purpose of the cellar was to maintain as uniform a temperature as possible.

6 Lendavske gorice 1985 (risba)

6 Lendavske gorice 1985 (drawing)

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

7 Dobrina, Haloze Izjemno dolga klet stoji v hrib, z vhodoma s terena. Za Haloze so značilni balkonski obhodi po vsej dolžini. GPS N 5.126.560 E 563.610

7 Dobrina, Haloze The extremely long cellar stands on a hill, with entrance from the terrain. Balcony walkways throughout the length are characteristic of Haloze.

8 Dobrina, Vukova domačija, Haloze Prenovljena klet je služila tudi za bivanje, zato ima dimnik. Spodaj ima uporabna okna, ki so široka le nekaj centimetrov, pa kakega pol metra visoka in spominjajo na strelne line v gradovih. GPS N 5.125.840 E 562.245

8 Dobrina, Vukova domačija, Haloze The renovated cellar also served as a dwelling, so it has a chimney. Below, it has functional windows that are only a few centimetres wide, but some half metre high and are reminiscent of arrow slits in castles.

9 Nadbišec Komaj še stoječa klet pri Zavrhu stoji ob cesti in ima klet samo, nad njo skromni bivalni del, zadaj pa ogromno stiskalnico. Je cimprana, le za pečjo je stena zidana. GPS N 5.154.410 E 564.820

9 Nadbišec The barely still standing cellar near Zavrh is located by the road and is only a cellar, with modest living quarters above and a huge press at the back. It is timber, only the wall behind the stove is masonry.

10 Destrnik Obnovljena klet stoji v vasi ob cesti. Vhod v klet je od zunaj s sprednje strani, sicer pa ima balkon le ob strani. GPS N 5.148.580 E 567.555

10 Destrnik The renovated cellar stands in the village by the road. The entrance to the cellar is from outside, but it only has balconies at the side.

11 Nadbišec 1995 (risba)

11 Nadbišec 1995 (drawing)

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

12 Mali Okič, Haloze Skromna klet na vrhu gorice je sestav kleti in prostora za stiskalnico v ravnini. Prezračevalno okno kleti je veliko komaj nekaj centimetrov. GPS N 5.131.890 E 5574.270

12 Mali Okič, Haloze The modest cellar at the top of a hill consists of a cellar and place for a press on the level. The ventilation windows of the cellar are barely a few centimetres large.

13 Moravci Moravci is the richest village of all in cellars. They are predominantly wooden and coated and sealed with clay. There are hardly any thatched roofs today, but at least the cellars have been retained thus. The cellars are mostly constructed as a basement, but some not, and in them were stored mainly wine and field crops. For the sake of access they were bound to the road and do not stand behind the farmhouse, which gives the village special charm.

13 Moravci Prav Moravci so najbogatejši s kletmi. Te so predvsem lesene in zamazane ter zatesnjene z ilovico. Danes slamnatih streh malone ni več, a tako so se obdržale vsaj kleti. Te so podkletene, nekatere tudi ne, vanje pa so spravljali predvsem vino in poljščine. Zaradi dostopa so vezane na cesto in ne stojijo za domačijami, kar daje vasi poseben čar. GPS N 5.152.280 E 578.290

14 Zgornje Prebukovje The press has wonderful wooden equipment, decorated in key places and marked with cuts. These are coloured red. The cellar is below the press, into which the juice was released directly, where it was caught in barrels. The hipped thatched roof is badly in need of restoration.

14 Zgornje Prebukovje Stiskalnica ima imenitno leseno napravo, ki je na ključnih mestih okrašena in označena z vrezninami. Te so pobarvane rdeče. Pod stiskalnico je klet, v katero so direktno spuščali sok, kjer so ga lovili v sode. Slamnata streha s čopi je hudo potrebna obnove. GPS N 5.141.180 E 543.280

15 Filovski gaj, Penova klejt The exemplarily renovated and maintained cellar is a credit of all the inhabitants, as well as Slovene culture. It is whitewashed in front, the rear wall as brownish red. The cellar is small, dug into the earth, with vertical openings for ventilation. In the rear part, some new elements have been unnoticeably incorporated: evidence that vernacular architecture is never finished. Not least, the owner, builder, is not an architect. He likes architecture, though.

15 Filovski gaj, Penova klejt Zgledno prenovljena in vzdrževana klet je v ponos vsem prebivalcem, tudi slovenski kulturi. Spredaj je belo prebeljena, zadnji steni sta rjavo rdeči. Klet je majhna, v zemljo vpraskana, z vertikalnimi odprtinami za zračenje. V zadnjem delu ima neopazno vgrajenih nekaj novih elementov, v dokaz, da vernakularna arhitektura ni nikoli končana. Ne nazadnje – lastnik, uporabnik, graditelj ni arhitekt. Ampak arhitektura mu je všeč. GPS N 5.169.540 E 600.420

16 Moravci 1985 (drawing)

Various types and combinations of cellar exist, depending on the circumstances and possibilities, and need. Cellar within the dwelling house: This is a space below the 'house' with entrance from the front. Entrances with saddleback roofs are interesting, which are also sometimes softly curved in sheet metal (Slovenske gorice, Goričko). Free-standing cellar: Such a cellar stands alone and is not excavated. Because of the heat from the sun, such an execution is rare, since it is not possible to satisfy the need for as constant a temperature as possible and for constant, uniform humidity. Cellar with press: In this case, the press is above the cellar, which is only possible with a small press, so this execution is also rare. Insofar as such a press is on the same level as the cellar, these are the smallest objects (example in Haloze). Cellar with occasional living quarters: This type is only possible where pressing is done at a neighbour, or the farm has more than one cellar. Cellar with permanent living quarters and with press: This is a common example, when the parents in the family make way for the next generation and are only capable of supervising care of the wine. Most of these are found in Slovenske gorice.

16 Moravci 1985 (risba)

Obstajajo različne vrste in kombinacije kleti, odvisno od okoliščin in možnosti, pa potreb. Klet v domači hiši: To je prostor pod 'hišo' z vhodom s čela. Zanimivi so vhodi z dvokapnimi strehami, ki so včasih v pločevini tudi mehko zapvite (Slovenske gorice, Goričko). Samostojna klet: Taka klet stoji posamično in ni vkopana. Zaradi toplote in sonca so te izvedbe redke, saj tako ni mogoče zadostiti potrebi po čim bolj stalni temperaturi in po stalni, enakomerni vlagi. Ket s stiskalnico: V tem primeru je stiskalnica nad kletjo, kar pa je mogoče le pri majhnih prešah, zato je ta izvedba redka. V kolikor pa sta tako stiskalnica kot klet v istem nivoju, gre za najmanjše objekte (primer v Halozah). Klet z občasnim bivalnim delom: Ta primer je možen le tam, kjer stiskajo pri sosedu ali pa ima domačija več kleti. Klet s stalnim bivalnim delom in s stiskalnico: To je pogost primer, ko se starejši v družini umaknejo mlajšim in so zmožni le še nadzorovati negovanje vina. Največ takih najdemo v Slovenskih goricah

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Granary

A granary is an object in which they used to store grain and in some places also meat. Granaries are actually widespread through Slovenia, with the exception of the northeast, where food storage has a somewhat different content, technology and also form: it is primarily the cellar. A granary can be wooden, as it is in Dolenjsko, mass construction in the lower part and wooden above, such as in Gorenjsko and Tolminsko, while in Central Slovenia there are residential houses with cellars, in which a cellar with higher humidity is for field products, one with less humidity for wine, and grain is kept in the wooden part of the house, in an extension. In the northeast there are mainly 'cellars', which can be actual cellars or special objects, in which there is no underground part, they are entirely above ground, normally wooden objects with plenty of ventilation. Instead of cellars, a loft space was used, when the grain was scattered on the floor (Gančani), and in long Pannonian houses the grain was stored in rooms behind the living part, in wooden chests. Meat drying houses are a particularly important element. Meat was originally smoked, it was hung in the roof space of the black kitchen, hung on string to be out of the reach of mice. The next stage was wooden driers, a cupboard from slats and a steel screen through which rodents could not penetrate. A 'slanijek', for example, from Pernica by Maribor, was an independent object in the roof space that had a door. I have found similar equipment in the roof space of a granary above Slovenj Gradec, which for the sake of security hung on four wires. Under the Koroškan influence, where granaries are familiar – and are an important element of a farmstead – granaries are found on the edges of south-west Pohorje in three stories: with a cellar for liquids, a central part for cereals and the roof space for meat. The cellar, of course, is stone and more solid than the upper, wooden body, which is covered by a wooden roof. The outer walls are from beams and the corners have visible swallowtail joints in simple cut planes. The overhangs are large, because of the exploitation of the covered space: farms were far from civilization and in severe winters inaccessible for months on end. The upper part, the loft space, has its own construction from beams and between the roof and the walls there is air, which ensures a relatively even temperature throughout the year. The space has windows, which are netted, and doors that close tightly, mainly to keep out uninvited rodents. Meat, and other more valuable items, was stored in the upper part. Not directly connected with granaries, but important for food, primarily in Slovenske gorice they have tubs for 'tuenka: i.e., dried meat in lard. The meat is not cut or grated, as in Gorenjsko, it is in pieces and put on the table sliced, with lard, on wooden plates. This method of preserving meat – and this is high quality, tasty meat – is why they do not have granaries in this part of Slovenia.

Kašča je objekt, kjer so nekdaj hranili zrnje žita in ponekod tudi meso. Pravzaprav je kašča razširjena povsod po Sloveniji, z izjemo severovzhoda, kjer ima shramba za hrano nekoliko drugačno vsebino, tehnologijo in tudi obliko. Predvsem je to 'klet'. Kašča je lahko lesena, kot na Dolenjskem, kjer je zidana v spodnjem delu in lesena zgoraj. Primer sta Gorenjska in Tolminsko, osrednji del pa pozna bivalno hišo s kletjo, v kateri je klet z več vlage za poljske pridelke, z manj vlage za vino, žito pa je v lesenem delu hiše, v podaljšku. Severovzhod pozna predvsem 'kleti', ki so lahko dejansko kleti ali pa so posebni objekti, tudi taki, ki vkopa sploh nimajo in so nadzemski, običajno leseni objekti z veliko zračnostjo. Namesto kašče so uporabljali kar podstreho, ko so žito razprostrli po tleh (Gančani), v dolgih panonskih hišah pa so hranili zrnje v prostorih za bivalnim delom, v lesenih skrinjah. Posebej pomemben element so sušilniki za meso. Najprej so prekajeno, v črni kuhinji 'vojeno' meso sušili na podstrehi, obešeno na vrveh, da jih morebitne miši niso dosegle. Naslednja stopnja so leseni sušilniki, nekakšne omare iz letev in jeklenih mrež, skozi katere glodalci niso uspeli priti. 'Slanijek', na primer iz Pernice pri Mariboru, je bil samostojen objekt na podstrehi, ki je imel vrata. Podobno opremo sem našel na podstrešju kašče nad Slovenj Gradcem, ki pa zaradi varnosti visi na štirih jeklenicah. Pod vplivom Koroške, kjer so kašče doma in so pomembnen element domačije, najdemo na obronkih jugozahodnega Pohorja kašče v treh etažah: s kletjo za pijačo, z osrednjim delom za žito in s podstreho za meso. Klet je seveda kamnita in masivnejša od zgornjega, lesenega telesa, ki ga pokriva lesena streha. Obodni zidovi so iz tramov, vogali so v vidnih zvezah na lastovičji rep v enostavnih, zarezanih ravninah. Napušči so veliki zaradi izrabe pokritega prostora. Domačije so bile daleč od civilizacije in v hudih zimah tudi več mesecev nedosegljive. Zgornji del, podstrešje, ima svojo konstrukcijo iz tramov, med streho in stenami pa je zrak, ki zagotavlja razmeroma enakomerno temperaturo skozi vse leto. Prostor ima okna, ki so zamrežena in vrata, ki se tesno zapirajo, predvsem pred nepovabljenimi glodalci.V tem, zgornjem delu, so hranili meso, pa še kakšno vrednejšo reč. Ne ravno v zvezi s kaščo, a pomembno za prehrano, imajo predvsem v Slovenskih goricah škafe za 'tuenko'. To je sušeno meso v masti. Meso ni razrezano ali nastrgano kot na Gorenjskem, je v kosih in ga postavijo na mizo narezanega, z mastjo, na lesenem krožniku. Ta način hranjenja mesa – in to kvalitetnega in okusnega mesa – je odgovor, zakaj v tem delu Slovenije nimajo kašč.

<< 1 Hudinja, Baškovnikova kašča Kašča je skrbno prenovljena in ima tri etaže: spodaj je zidana klet, v sredini bivalni prostor, zgoraj prostor za spravilo hrane. Lastniki hranijo še niz zanimivih lesenih predmetov ter kaščo z veseljem razkažejo. GPS N 5.138.940 E 524.650

<< 1 Hudinja, Baškovnik's granary The granary has been carefully renovated and has three storeys: below is a masonry construction cellar, in the centre living quarters, and the upper space is for storing food. The owners preserve a range of interesting wooden objects and show the granary with pleasure.

2 Mikej, nad Slovenj Gradcem Ena še redkih kašč na Pohorju kaže vpliv Koroške. Ima mogočno streho z velikimi napušči. Lastnik, ki jo vzdržuje sam, je ponosen na ohranjen mlin, ki so ga prinesli iz doline.Ta sicer na elektriko še deluje. GPS N 5.153.780 E 507.251

2 Mikej, above Slovenj Gradec One of the few granaries on Pohorje shows the influence of Koroška: it has a mighty roof with large eaves. The owner, who maintains it himself, is proud of the preserved mill, which was brought up from the valley. It still operates, now on electricity.

3 Hudinja, Baškovnikova kašča Dobro so vidni vsi trije elementi arhitekture: kamnita klet, temno telo objekta, streha iz šintlnov ima dva čopa z izrazitim slemenskim delom. GPS N 5.138.940 E 524.650

3 Hudinja, Baškovnik's granary All three elements of the architecture are well visible: the stone cellar, the dark body of the object, and the shingle roof has two hips with a pronounced ridge part.

4 Mikej, nad Slovenj Gradcem, detajl Leseno streho dopolnjuje pločevinast petelin, ki kaže smer vetra, včasih pa je tudi tarča objestnih mladcev. GPS N 5.153.780 E 507.251

4 Mikej, above Slovenj Gradec, detail The wooden roof is completed by a sheet metal cock, which shows the wind direction, and is sometimes also the target of mischievous youths.

5 Hudinja, Baškovnikova kašča, detajl Skromno in skrbno opremljena izba. GPS N 5.138.940 E 524.650

5 Hudinja, Baškovnik's granary, detail Modest ambient and simple furniture.

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Well

Water is of key importance for life. Healthy water means healthy life. There is no problem where there is running spring water. Water that has been collected from the roofs and stored in reservoirs can be old, tasteless or even contaminated. Groundwater, which gathers in small ponds, is barely good enough for animals, and certainly not for drinking. Groundwater that is close to ground level, rather than deep, is rare. Such a source needs to be protected: the most natural protection is some sort of cave in a hill, which simultaneously provides a roof. On the flat, such protection needs to be made from wood. They say in Goričko 'vretina'. The water is gathered by buckets, which are hung 'at a right-angle' or on a 'key' (Koren 1962:87). Even as little as twenty years ago, I saw how a housewife in Pernica drew water from such a well and carried it all to the house. The next principle is a somewhat deeper well, from which water is drawn in a pail and raised with the aid of a counterweight without a spindle. Koren says that it is at the entrance (Koren 1962:89). There are no longer such wells, either. The most widespread wells are those with a stone-built shaft – even as much as fifty metres deep – with an external wall of some 50 to 60 centimetres, and then normally a circular wooden shaft on two props, on which a chain with a bucket is wound. Winding is usually done with a wheel with one or two handles, but smaller wells have only a cross. Some later examples, immediately after the First World War, have a cast iron device with transmission for winding. A well of this type can also have four, in some places even three columns (one pillar missing so that a person can manage the spindle under the roof: Benedikt). The roof is sometimes very small, sometimes quite luxurious. The original covering, thatch, is today replaced mainly with clay tiles, which are more durable and, above all, need no maintenance. With the roof, it is most important that the slope, which derives from a thatch execution, is one to one, or forty-five degrees, and it is always a saddleback roof. Any other slope changes the characteristics of the object, in some places the entire aesthetics of a well have been changed, with a roof out of all recognition. The lower part of the well is normally stone, the oldest are from timber, from alternating logs, later also concrete. They sometimes have a circular form, like the shaft below them. The angular form derives from the wooden execution, although in stone it could be shaped differently. Wells in Slovenske gorice are generally open, they have only pillars, with few exceptions. A well at Tri kralj is built into an auxiliary building on three sides, but such examples are rare. By the Hungarian border, wells were so important that they were fenced on all sides with battens and had a broach roof, sometimes even metalled. A well can often be found which has an outflow at the side into a trough – either for animals or for work. The most recent wells are those with cast iron pumps, which are driven by pumping. They were sometimes high, with wooden handles, today there are only pumps on a concrete base, and even those have almost disappeared. With ecological awareness, along with economic crisis, concern about climate change and, especially, for the sake of fire safety, it would be worthwhile first to identify all still working wells, inventory them, and renovate and use them, at least for washing water and in case of fire, as a valuable source of water. Along the geological fault of northeast Slovenia, right up to the last war there was a string of mineral water springs, some of them thermal. Today, there is still only a taste of such springs, and health spas and water theme parks are more a matter of industry. These, too, though, developed from springs.

Voda je ključnega pomena za življenje. Zdrava voda pomeni zdravo življenje. Kjer imajo tekočo izvirsko vodo, ni problemov. Voda, ki je zbrana s streh in spravljena v vodohramih, je lahko stara, neokusna ali celo okužena. Talna voda, ki se nabira v mlakah, je komaj zadosti dobra za živino, za pitje zagotovo ne. Talna voda, ki je blizu terenu in ni globoka, je redka. Tak izvir je treba zaščititi. Najbolj naravna zaščita je neke vrste jama v hribu, ki istočasno predstavlja tudi streho. V ravninah je treba tako zaščito narediti iz lesa. Temu na Goričkem pravijo 'vretina'. Vodo zajemajo z vedricami, ki jih obesijo na 'akel' ali na 'ključ' (Koren 1962:87). Še pred dvajsetimi leti sem v Pernici videl, kako je gospodinja zajemala vodo v takem vodnjaku in nosila vso vodo v hišo. Naslednji princip je nekaj bolj globok vodnjak, ko zajemamo vodo v vedro in ga s pomočjo protiuteži dvigamo brez naprezanja. Korenova pravi, da je to vodnjak na vzvod (Koren 1962:89).Tudi takih vodnjakov ni več. Najbolj razširjeni pa so vodnjaki, ki imajo obzidan jašek, tudi do petdeset metrov globok, zunaj obzidano telo do višine kakih 50 do 60 cm, potem pa običajno na dveh stojkah okroglo, leseno vreteno, na katerega navijajo verigo z vedrom. Za navijanje je najbolj pogosto kolo z enim ali z dvema ročajema, manjši vodnjaki pa imajo le križ. Nekateri poznejši, takoj po prvi svetovni vojni, imajo lito napravo s prenosi za vrtenje. Vodnjak tega tipa ima lahko tudi štiri, ponekod celo tri stebre (en steber manjka, da lahko človek pod streho upravlja z vretenom; Benedikt). Streha je včasih zelo majhna, včasih prav razkošna. Prvotno kritino, slamo, je danes zamenjala predvsem glinena kritina, ki je obstojnejša in predvsem ne potrebuje zahtevnega vzdrževanja. Pri strehi je najbolj pomembno, da je naklon, ki izhaja iz slamnate izvedbe, ena proti ena ali 45 stopinj, streha je vedno dvokapna. Vsak drugačen naklon spreminja značilnost objekta, ponekod so s streho uničili vso estetiko vodnjaka, vse do neprepoznavnosti. Spodnje telo vodnjaka je navadno iz kamna, najstarejši so še leseni, iz brun s preklopi, poznejši pa tudi betonirani, včasih imajo še okroglo obliko kot jašek pod njim. Oglata oblika izvira iz lesne izvedbe, čeprav bi lahko kamnitega oblikovali tudi drugače. Vodnjaki v Slovenskih goricah so praviloma odprti, imajo le stebre, razen redkih izjem. Vodnjak pri Treh kraljih je vgrajen v gospodarski objekt s treh strani, ampak taki primeri so redki. Ob madžarski meji so vodnjaki tako pomembni, da so ograjeni z letvami od vseh strani in imajo štirikapno streho, včasih tudi pločevinasto. Mnogokrat najdemo vodnjak, ki ima ob strani vodilo z odtokom v korito, bodisi za živali ali za delo. Najnovejši vodnjaki so taki z litoželezno črpalko, ki jo človek poganja z nihanjem.Včasih so bili visoki in leseni z dolgimi ročaji, danes so le še črpalke na betonskih podstavkih, a tudi teh malone ni več. Ob ekološki ozaveščenosti, ob ekonomski krizi, ob skrbi za podnebne spremembe, posebej pa zaradi varnosti pred ognjem, bi kazalo najprej spet prepoznati vse še delujoče vodnjake, jih popisati, obnoviti in uporabljati vsaj za sanitarne vode ter v primeru požara kot dragocen izvir vode. Ob geološki prelomnici severovzhoda Slovenije je bil vse do zadnje vojne niz izvirov kisle vode ali slatine, ponekod tudi tople vode. Danes je takih izvirov le še za okus, zdravilišča in vodni parki pa so bolj stvar industrije. Ampak tudi ti so se razvili iz vodnjaka.

<< 1Vukovje Skladen vodnjak ima danes sicer opečno streho, a je prav značilen za Slovenske gorice.Vreteno poganja preprost križ z ročajem. GPS N 5.159.530 E 556.390

<< 1 Vukovje The harmonious well today has a tiled roof, but is very typical of Slovenske gorice. The spindle is turned by a simple cross with a handle.

2 Med Pernico inVukovjem Še pred dvajsetimi leti je stal pri Pernici vodnjak na protiutež, ki je bil umeščen kar v drevo. Danes ga seveda ni več. GPS N 5.158.380 E 557.400

2 Between Pernica and Vukovje Even twenty years ago, a well on a counterweight stood at Pernica, set into a tree. Today, of course, it is no longer there.

3 Iljašovci Vodnjak stoji tik ob hiši, pod podaljšanim nadstreškom. Zanimivo: streha ne leži na vodnjaku, pač pa ima svoja lastna stebra. To pomeni, da so ga lastniki posebej cenili. GPS N 5.158.625 E 586.220

3 Iljašovci The well stands right beside the house, under the extension of the loft. Interestingly, the roof does not sit on the well. It has its own pillars. This means that the owners valued it especially.

4Trnavski breg Značilen lesen vodnjak na vreteno je z lesenim obojem ščitil vodo pred živalmi, ki bi jo lahko okužile. Vodnjak stoji na osrednjem mestu delovnega dvorišča, da je vsak trenutek pod kontrolo. GPS N 5.170.120 E 599.230

4 Trnavski breg The typical wooden well on a spindle, with a wooden casing, protected the water from animals that could contaminate it. The well stands in a central space in the working yard, so that it is under onservation at all times.

5 Kupetinci Vodnjak stoji sredi travnika, verjetno je bil nekdaj navezan na hišo. Ima štiri stebre in dvokapno streho, na vretnu pa je veliko, zahtevno oblikovano kolo z mnogimi ročaji. Posebej zanimiv je nosilni tram, ki je navzgor usločen, kot bi bil prednapet, da bolje nosi. GPS N 5.160.170 E 581.480

5 Kupetinci The well stands in the middle of grass, it was probably once connected to the house. It has four pillars and a saddleback roof, on the spindle is a large, demandingly designed wheel with many handles. Particularly interesting is the bearing beam, which is curved upwards, as if pre-tensioned, in order to provide better support.

6 Domanjševci 2001 (risba)

6 Domanjševci 2001 (drawing)

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Mill

Mlin je objekt, v katerem meljemo zrnje v moko, zdrob, otrobe. Najpreprostejši način mletja so žrmlje z dvema horizontalnima kamnoma, kjer z roko vrtimo zgornji kamen, v osrednjo odprtino sipamo zrnje, ki med obema kamnoma ob strani izhaja kot moka. To je tudi princip klasičnega mlina, ki uporablja različne kamne, različne hitrosti in različno avtomatizacijo mlinskih poti (čiščenje, mletje, sejanje, transport, polnjenje). Klasični mlin melje z mlinskima kamnoma, novejši iz preloma prejšnjega stoletja pa uporablja kovinske valje. Razlika je v kvaliteti. Prvi, obrtni način daje boljšo moko, ker zrnje razpre, medtem ko industrijski valji zrnje le stiskajo. Pogon običajnega mlina pri nas je mlinsko kolo, ki je gnano spodaj ali pa od zgoraj. Gre za različne smeri vrtenja, bolj pomembno pa je, da je potrebno zgornje vode na kolo manj, medtem ko zahteva spodnji pogon več vode, ki je lahko tudi počasnejša. V notranjosti gre za uravnavanje hitrosti in za uravnavanje različnih smeri vrtenja. Najstarejši mlini imajo prenose z lesenimi kolesi, ki imajo tudi lesene zobe. Zaradi stalne vlage je življenjska doba lesa razmeroma kratka, čeprav so uporabljeni najkvalitetnejši in najtrši: hrast, kostanj, trdoleska, za nekatere detajle tudi akacija ali 'trn'. Tekoče obnavljanje je torej nujno, posebej zaradi lokacije, saj stojijo mlini ob vodi, ponekod v prav globokih dolinah brez sonca. Pri nas ne poznamo najpreprostejšega načina mletja brez prenosov, kot je primer na Plivi pri Jajcu (BiH), kjer se na eni sami osi vrtijo kolesa zgoraj, ko jih žene voda daleč spodaj v reki. V začetku dvajsetega stoletja so se začele bolj vidno spreminjati podnebne razmere - in ne danes! -, ko so vodotoki začeli presihati in so lahko mlini mleli le, ko je bilo vode zadosti, čeprav so težavo reševali tudi z zajetji, z jezovi. Še pred prvo svetovno vojno so se pojavile turbine na lesni plin, predvsem iz tovarne Ganz v Budimpešti. Les za lesni plin je bilo treba pripravljati kakšno leto ali več, pa tudi strojna oprema je bila draga in zahtevna, zato se po drugi vojni taki mlini le še redko zavrtijo. Mlin kot zgradba je praviloma kamnit vsaj do ležišč prenosov, medtem ko je nadgradnja lesena. Leseni so kolesa, osi, prenosi in vsa mlinska tehnologija. Enako je z rakami, ki vodijo vodo na mlin ali pod njega. Ob Muri so prav posebni mlini, ki plavajo na reki in so stalno privezani k obali. Teoretično preprost sistem pa ogrožajo plavajoči balvani, predvsem po neurjih. Na madžarskih stepah je še danes videti mline na veter. Eden redkih je tudi na Slovenskem in je spet postavljen po starih slikah v Stari Gori. Žal je kvaliteten dvojnik težko narediti. Poznejše variante občasnega pogona s traktorjem in z jermenskim prenosom, transmisijo, so razmeroma redke. Najdemo pa še kakšen mlin, ki so ga prenesli na suho in ga poganja elektrika. Nove tehnologije pa so tudi te spomenike naše dediščine prehitele.

A mill is an object in which cereal grains are milled into flour, groats and bran. The simplest method of milling is by hand mill, a quern, with two horizontal stones, whereby the upper stone is turned by hand, the grains are poured into a central opening, and the flour comes out from between the two stones. This is also the principle of the classical mill, which uses various stones, various speeds and various forms of automisation of the milling process (cleaning, milling, sowing/sprinkling, transport, filling). A classical mill grinds with mill stones, more recent ones, since the turn of last century, use metal rollers. There is a difference in quality: the first, artisan method gives better flour because the grains are separated, while the industrial rollers only compress the grains. The drive of a normal mill here is a mill wheel, which is driven from either below or above. It is a matter of a different direction of turning, but it is more important that a wheel with upper drive needs less water, while the lower drive needs more water, but it can be slower. In the interior it is a matter of regulating the speed and the different directions of turning: the oldest mills have wooden gear wheels, which also have wooden teeth. Because of the constant water, the lifespan of the wood is relatively short, even though the highest quality and hardest woods are used: oak, chestnut, dogwood and, for some details, also acacia or thorn. Ongoing renovation is therefore needed, especially because of the location, since mills stand beside water, and in some places in really deep valleys without sun. The simplest method of milling without transmission is unknown here – such as they have for example at Pliva by Jajce (B&H), where the water drive is from below in the river, on a single axis. At the beginning of the twentieth century, climatic conditions began to change more visibly – and not today! – and water courses began to dry up and mills could only operate when there was sufficient water, although they also solved the difficulty with reservoirs, with dams. Even before the First World War, wood gas turbines appeared, mainly from the Budapest factory of Ganz. Wood for wood gas, had to be prepared for a year or more, and the machinery was also expensive and demanding, so such mills rarely operated after the Second World War. A mill as a building is generally stone, at least to the transmission bed, while the superstructure is wooden. The wheels, axles, gears and all the mill technology are wooden. The same with the millraces, which lead the water to the mill or below it. There are very special mills along the Mura, which float on the river and are permanently moored to the bank. The theoretically simple system, though, is threatened by floating debris, mainly during storms. Windmills can still be seen today in the Hungarian steppes: there is also one of very few in Slovenia in Stara gora, which has been re-erected according to old pictures. Unfortunately, a high quality duplicate is hard to make. Later variants with occasional drive using tractors and a belt drive, transmission, are relatively rare. However, there are still some mills that have been transferred to the dry and are driven by electricity. New technologies have also overtaken these monuments of our heritage.

<< 1 Ižakovci, mlin na Muri Izjemen mlin na Muri pri Ižakovcih stoji ob brodu. Je sestav dveh čolnov. Med njima je veliko pogonsko kolo, katerega hitrost določa loputa pred njim. Mlin še vedno deluje. GPS N 5.159.160 E 592.390

<< 1 Ižakovci, mill on the Mura The exceptional mill on the Mura near Ižakovci stands by a ferry. It consists of two boats, between which is a large drive wheel, the speed of which is determined by the paddle in front. The mill still functions.

2 Slaveči Zapuščen, a pred leti obnovljen mlin ima originalno notranjost in stoji na ravnici pod potokom, ki ga poganja. Skladno okolje kar kliče po izrabi v edukativne namene in za turizem, seveda ob skrbnem vodstvu strokovnjakov. GPS N 5.186.100 E 581.810

2 Slaveči The abandoned mill, renovated a few years ago, has the original interior and stands on the level in front of the stream that drives it. The harmonious environment calls out for it to be used for educational purposes and for tourism, of course under the careful leadership of experts.

3 Razborca, Nogarjev mlin To je eden redkih potočnih mlinov, ki pri nas še obstajajo. Še zanimivejši je, ker voda zanj ni napeljana iz potoka, nad katerim stoji, pač pa izvira nad njim – kot bi bila naročena. GPS N 5.145.790 E 513.725

3 Razborca, Nogar mill This is one of the few stream mills that still exist here. It is even more interesting because the water is not drawn from the stream above which it stands but from a spring above it – as if to order.

4Veržej, Babičev mlin Povsem delujoč mlin ima pogon na reki in delovanje na kopnem, poganja ga nekaj deset metrov dolg jermen. Ker lovi tok daleč v reki, je ob vsaki ujmi ogrožan z lesom, ki plava po Muri. GPS N 5.160.510 E 589.305

4 Veržej, Babič mill The completely functioning mill has the drive in the river and functions on land, driven by a drive belt some ten metres long. Since it seeks the current far into the river, it is at risk during every storm from wood that floats down the Mura.

5 Stara Gora, mlin na veter Edini leseni mlin na Slovenskem je rekonstruiran po starih slikah. Nisem prepričan, da prav po njih. Ker pa je edini pri nas, je toliko pomembnejši. GPS N 5.155.490 E 579.990

5 Stara gora, windmill The only windmill in Slovenia has been reconstructed from old pictures. I am not sure whether properly from them. It is that much more important because it is the only one here.

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ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Sawmill

Naravna oblika lesa je hlod okroglega prereza. Hlodovina je lahko le redkokje uporabljena direktno, brez obdelav. Krogov med sabo ne moremo sestavljati brez odpadka prostora. Posebej v arhitekturi, pri gradbenem lesu so pomembni spoji, poravnavanje notranjih sten in končno zunanja stena. Obdelan les je kalan, tesan, žagan, rezan in sekan (Merzelj 1996: 11). Kalan les je rezultat vzdolžnega kalanja in se uporablja za strešnike. Pri tem ločimo razne sisteme kalanja: v smeri na os so šinklni, tangencialno pa skodle. Prvi so boljše kvalitete, bliže so jedru hloda, stožčasta oblika prereza pa zahteva posebno kritje. Daljša življenjska doba je rezultat neranjenih žil, kar se kaže v neravnih ploskvah. Tesan les je rezultat grobo oblikovanega lesa, pretežno na roko, s sekiro. Včasih so tesali le na roko, danes je to mogoče delati tudi strojno. Žile so pretežno cele, površina je le pogojno ravna. Tesanje je možno na mestu podiranja samega ali pozneje.Ta obdelava zadošča za gradbene konstrukcije. Žagan les je obdelan ročno ali strojno. Za večje konstrukcije je mogoče uporabiti le strojno žaganje. Žaga les v vsakem primeru rani, a reže ravne ploskve, ki jih je mogoče sestavljati eksaktno in brez odpadka. Zaradi vzdolžno načetih žil je življenjska doba krajša od tesanega in od kalanega lesa. Rezan les je pravzaprav strojno lupljenje, plasti lesa pa so lahko izjemno tanke. Uporabljamo jih za sestave in za obloge. Poznamo ga predvsem v obliki furnirja. Sekan les je uporaben za tehnološko nadaljnjo obdelavo in za kurjavo. Sekamo krajše kose debel, pri čemer ni zahtevana velika eksaktnost. Kalan les se odlikuje po dolgi življenjski dobi; tesan po preprosti tehniki, za kar je potrebno malo orodja; žagan les je najprimernejši za nadaljnjo vgradnjo; rezan za druge tehnike in tehnologije (vezane plošče, obloge, iverne plošče); sekanje je hiter postopek z majhno natančnostjo, a je ceneno. Žaga je objekt ali sklop objektov za razžagovanje hlodovine. Lokacija žage je zato ob izvoru in ob poti, dovozni in odvozni. Transport hlodovine je najpreprostejši s konji (vlaka, z vozom, žičnica, lesena riža, voda, cesta, železnica). Lokacija žage je zato v globeli, ob potoku. To zagotavlja dovoz hlodovine kot surovine, potem pa ob cesti ali ob železnici, kar zagotavlja ekonomičen odvoz končnega produkta. Žage so bile najprej gnane z vodnim kolesom, pozneje pa z elektriko, ki so jo pridelali v turbini na domačem potoku. Žage so se najbolj razvile v devetnajstem stoletju, v začetku dvajsetega pa je z novimi tehnologijami največji razmah dela (Merzelj 1996: 10). Poznamo več tehnik žaganja: nihajno, krožno, z enim listom ali z več listi hkrati. Pri nas so bile najbolj razširjene tako imenovane 'venecijanke', ki so imele po pet in več vzporednih vzdolžnih listov, da so lahko istočasno razrezale ves hlod. Arhitektura žage ima značilnosti: leži ob potoku in ob cesti, dolžina zgradbe je vsaj dvojna dolžina hloda, dvojna višina za lažji dostop in za kotaljenje na voz. Zgradba ima odprt prostor za samo žago in poti hlodov, zaprt del je namenjen žagarju in strojnici. Ker gre za lesene konstrukcije, so bile sproti obnavljane, tako da prav starih žag pravzaprav ne najdemo.

The natural form of wood is a log with a circular cross section. A log can only rarely be used directly, without processing. Circles cannot be put together without wasted space. Especially in architecture, with building timber, joints are important, levelling interior walls and, finally, the external wall. Worked wood is cleaved, hewn, sawn, sliced or chopped (Merzelj 1996: 11). Cleaved wood is the result of splitting and is used for roof shingles. Various systems of splitting are distinguished. In the direction of the axis they are called 'šinklni', tangentially 'skodle'. The first are of better quality; they are closer to the heart of the log, and the conical shape of the cross-section requires a special cover. The longer lifespan is a result of the undamaged grain, which is visible on the uneven surfaces. Hewn wood is a result of the rough shaping of timber, predominantly by hand, with an axe. They were formerly only trimmed by hand, but today it is also possible to do it by machine. The grain is predominantly whole, the surface is only conditionally flat. Hewing is possible at the site of felling itself, or later. This working is adequate for building construction. Sawn wood is done by hand or machine. For a larger construction it is possible to use only machine sawing. The saw certainly injures the wood, but the cuts are flat, which allows them to be put together exactly and without remnant. Because of the longitudinally sliced grain, the lifespan is shorter than with hewn or cleaved timber. Sliced timber is actually machine peeled and the layers of wood can be extremely thin. It is used for composites and for lining, and is primarily familiar in the form of veneer. Chopped wood is used for further technological processing and as firewood. Shorter pieces are chopped thick and no great precision is needed. Cleaved wood is distinguished by a long lifespan: hewn for the simple technique, for which few tools are needed; sawn wood is most suitable for further construction work; sliced for other techniques and technologies (composite boards, veneer, chipboard); chopping is a fast procedure with little precision but it is cheap. A sawmill is an object or complex of objects for sawing logs into pieces. The location of a sawmill is therefore by a source or beside a trail: for delivery and removal. Transport of logs is simplest with horses (train, with wagon), wireway, wooden chute, water, road or railway. The location of a sawmill is therefore in a glen, beside a stream: this provides the supply of logs as raw material, and then beside a road or railway, which ensures economical removal of the final product. Sawmills were originally driven by water wheels, and later by electricity, which was produced by a turbine on the home stream. Saws were most highly developed in the nineteenth century and the greatest flourishing of work came at the beginning of the twentieth century, with new technologies (Merzelj 1996: 10). Various techniques of sawing are known: oscillating, circular, with a single blade or several blades simultaneously. The most widespread here were called 'venetians', and they had five or more parallel longitudinal blades, so that a whole log could be cut at the same time. The architecture of a saw has characteristics: it is located by a stream and by a road, the length of the building is at least twice the length of the logs, a double height for easier access and for loading onto a wagon. The building has an open space for the saw itself and the path of the logs, the closed part is intended for the sawman and machinery. Because it was a wooden construction, they were renovated concurrently, so that old sawmills are almost never found

>> 1 Ošlakova žaga in kovačija, pod Roglo Žaga in kovačija sta v delujočem stanju, a prav dolgo ju lastnik ne bo mogel več vzdrževati sam. Iz druge polovice devetnajstega stoletja ima celo turbino za svojo elektriko. GPS N 5.139.150 E 527.290

>> 1 Ošlak sawmill and forge, below Rogla The sawmill and forge are in working condition, though the owner will not be able to maintain them himself for long. It even has its own turbine for electricity from the second half of the nineteenth century.

Kozolec

A kozolec (plural 'kozolci') is more an exception than the rule in northeast Slovenia, although they could be found all the way to the northern edges of Maribor (Kamnica) and above Benedikt (Čolnik's kozolec). Unfortunately, neither still exists but kozolci are very frequent on the plains below the southern foothills of Pohorje, and elements of the kozolec also appear in auxiliary buildings on Pohorje itself. A kozolec as an object is an independent, freestanding, predominantly open, wooden and always covered device for drying and storage. While cereals were formerly stored and dried, a kozolec is now used only for hay and other similar products, such as corn and maize straw. While in central Slovenia and, above all, in Gorenjska elongated executions are most common – which can be as long as 24 'windows' or 'bays' around Škofja Loka, there are none such in the Northeast. Two types exist: low and double. The low kozolec is more recent, but the double is the most characteristic and with the most derivatives in its design (Juvanec 2007:45). A double kozolec is a composition of two gables and at least one interior bay. The gables have windows, a relatively dense raster of crossing beams, which primarily provide wind protection, prevent the contents from falling out and with their depth create shade, which maintains as constant a temperature as possible, which is very necessary for both cereals and hay. The essence of the erection of a kozolec is being longitudinal to the wind and transverse to the sun's rays. The roof is most important in this. The roof of a kozolec is always symmetrical, always at a one to one or forty-five degree inclination, and almost everywhere – except for new, small kozolci – with a hip. The hip derives from the thatched roof, with which it solved the problem of the wind in the gable. Unfortunately, there have not been thatched roofs for a long time. An important element of the construction of a kozolec is bound to a square and its diagonal. Insofar as the sides of the square have a length of one, its diagonal is the square root of two. We learn this in primary school, though it seems too much learned. It is essential with a kozolec: it simplifies construction and, through simplification, reduces the possibility of mistakes. The angle that appears, 45 degrees, is also essential in detail (Juvanec 2007:67), since the construction principle of a kozolec is in the cutting and the beams have mainly a square profile. The kozolec of the Northeast is similar on the western edges of Pohorje to those in Koroška, with a wooden roof and with a soft hip, on the plains around Slovenske konjice it is double, with many bays, and around Slovenska Bistrica it is characteristically, low, newer and smaller. The most northerly, which no longer exist, around Maribor and Benedikt, were large, double and with several bays. A kozolec today is too large, too clumsy and too expensive. As the only Slovene architecture, as the only ethnic architecture that we know, though, it represents our culture, which developed over the course of many centuries. Our forebears erected a kozolec carefully, and always with a sense of order received with the heritage. Not to a recipe: each master added his own touch, but within the framework of rules that were shaped by nature, by material and by need. So all kozolci in Slovenia are uniform but no two are the same. The kozolec is a monument to the culture of our nation.

Kozolec je v severovzhodni Sloveniji bolj izjema kot pravilo, čeprav je segal vse do severnih obronkov Maribora (Kamnica) in nad Benedikt (Čolnikov kozolec). Žal obeh ni več, kozolci pa so še zelo pogosti na ravninah pod južnimi obronki Pohorja, elementi kozolca pa nastopajo v gospodarskih poslopjih tudi na Pohorju samem. Kozolec kot objekt je samostojna, prostostoječa, pretežno odprta, lesena in vedno pokrita naprava za sušenje in za spravilo. Medtem ko je nekdaj spravljal in sušil žito, so v kozolcu danes le še seno, pa tudi drug pridelki, kot je koruza, koruznica. Medtem ko najdemo v osrednji Sloveniji in predvsem na Gorenjskem največ stegnjene izvedbe, ki so okrog Škofje Loke dolgi tudi po 24 oken ali polj, takih na severovzhodu ni. Obstajata dva tipa: nizek in dvojni vezani. Medtem ko je nizek kozolec najmlajši, je dvojni vezani najznačilnejši in z največ izvedenkami v svoji zasnovi (Juvanec,B 2007:45). Dvojni vezani kozolec je sestav dveh čel in vsaj enega notranjega polja. Čela imajo brano, razmeroma gost raster križajočih se brun, ki predvsem zavetrujejo, preprečujejo izpadanje vsebine, pa s svojo globino ustvarjajo senco, ki vzdržuje čim bolj stalno temperaturo, ki je tako za žito kot za seno najpotrebnejša. Bistvo postavitve kozolca je vzdolžnost na veter in prečnost na sončne žarke. Pri tem je najpomembnejša streha. Streha kozolca je vedno simetrična, vedno v naklonu ena proti ena ali 45 stopinj, skoraj povsod, razen pri novih, malih kozolcih, ima čopa. Čop izhaja iz slamnate strehe, kjer je reševal problem vetra v zatrep. Slamnatih streh žal že dolgo ni več. Pomemben element konstrukcije kozolca je vezava na kvadrat in na njegovo diagonalo. Kolikor je stranica kvadrata enaka dolžini ena, je njegova diagonala dolga kvadratni koren iz dve. O tem se učimo že v osnovni šoli, pa se nam zdi nekako preveč učeno. Pri kozolcu je to bistvo. Poenostavlja konstrukcijo in s preprostostjo preprečuje morebitne napake. Kot, ki nastopa, 45 stopinj, je bistven tudi v detajlu (Juvanec,B 2007:67), saj je konstrukcijski princip kozolca v zarezovanju, bruna pa so predvsem kvadratnega profila. Kozolec severovzhoda je na zahodnih obronkih Pohorja podoben koroškemu z leseno streho in z mehkimi čopi, na ravninah okrog Slovenskih Konjic je dvojni vezani na mnogo oken, okrog Slovenske Bistrice pa je značilen nizek, novejši in manjši. Tisti najbolj severni, ki jih ni več, okrog Maribora in Benedikta, so bili veliki, dvojni vezani in na več oken. Kozolec je danes prevelik in preokoren, pa predrag. Kot edina slovenska arhitektura, kot edina etnična arhitektura, kar jih poznam, pa predstvalja našo kulturo, ki se je razvijala stoletja in stoletja. Naši dedje so kozolec postavljali skrbno, a vedno v redu, ki so ga dobili z dediščino. Ne z recepti, vsak mojster je dodal kaj svojega, a v okviru pravil, ki so se izoblikovala po naravi, po materialu, po potrebah. Zato so vsi kozolci na Slovenskem enotni, a dva nista povsem enaka. Kozolec je spomenik kulture našega naroda.

<< 1 Gradišče, pri Škofu, Slovenj Gradec Velik dvojni vezani kozolec ima leseno streho, vrh čopa je možic, na katerem se vrti petelin, ki kaže smer vetra. Kozolec ima niz imenitnih detajlov v konstrukciji, pa tudi v odzračevalnih linah. GPS N 5.152.080 E 506.940

<< 1 Gradišče, pri Škofu, Slovenj Gradec The large double kozolec has a wooden roof, the peak of the hip is a pinnacle on which turns a wind cock. The kozolec has a range of excellent details in the construction, as well as in the airing bays.

2 Legen, Plesnik Dvojni kozolec pri Plesniku ima razmeroma gosto brano in izrazito streho. GPS N 5.149.610 E 509.490

2 Legen, Plesnik The double kozolec near Plesnik has relatively dense crosspieces and a pronounced roof.

3Tepanje Pri Tepanjah sredi ravnine stoji dvojni kozolec, ki s svojo pojavnostjo, predvsem z veliko streho, obvladuje njive in polja daleč naokoli. Kljub temu, da je daleč od domačij, je pod njim shranjeno kmečko orodje. GPS N 5.133.450 E 537.610

3 Tepanje The double kozolec stands in the middle of a plain near Tepanje, whose appearance, especially the large roof, dominates the fields far around. Despite being far from the farm, farm tools are stored below it.

4 Brda, Juterman Zanimivost kozolca so predvsem detajli. Najimenitnejši je vhodni del z ročicama nad vhodom, ki s poudarjanjem človeka v njih poveličujejo predvsem kmečko delo. GPS N 5.146.950 E 511.800

4 Brda, Juterman The details are the main features of interest of the kozolec: the entrance part with crosspieces above the entrance is excellent, which, with the stress of man in them, glorify above all farm work.

5 Slovenska Bistrica Nizek kozolec je sicer doma ob Savi in ob Savinji, a seže tudi bolj na sever. Je najmlajši med kozolci, najmanjši, a najekonomičnejši. GPS N 5.138.710 E 542.360

5 Slovenska Bistrica The low kozolec is more common by the Sava and the Savinja, but also extends further north. It is the most recent type of kozolec, the smallest and the most economical.

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Drying house

Sušilnica je objekt za sušenje in to za sušenje z ognjem; za razliko od koruznjaka ali kozolca na primer. Pred davnimi leti, v prazgodovini, so tudi žito sušili v kamnitih sušilnicah, ampak v mokri Angliji, v Devonu. V Rusiji še vedno obstajajo objekti, kjer so žito sušili nad ognjem (Aleksandrova 1967). Leseni objekti so večnadstropni in zaradi ognja precej nevarni. Zato so ognjišče prestavili v zemljo, lesen objekt pa je stal ob njem in nad njim, da je bil varen in da je ogenj s svojo toploto sušil zrnje (Juvanec,B 2007:18). Pri nas poznamo le sušilnice za lan in za sadje. Lan so sušili za izdelavo preje, iz katere so predice predle laneno platno: za prte, zavese, pa za obleke. Sveže sadje je užitno le omejen čas, sušeno pa mnogo dlje, pri čemer obdrži tako okus kot druge vrednosti. Obe arhitekturi sta precej podobni. Gre za zidan objekt z vzdolžno, dvokapno streho. Ker je Slovenija pretežno gorata, je tak tudi teren in zato je kurišče dosegljivo s spodnje strani, medtem ko z zadnje strani dosežemo notranjost osrednjega dela. Podstrešje je polno sena, ki ga je pri živinorejcu vedno premalo. Seno je odličen izolator in preprečuje, da bi se sušilnica preveč pregrela zaradi sonca in bi je pozneje ne mogli več kontrolirano kuriti. Seno je v bližini ognja seveda nevarno, a skrben gospodar sušilnice nikoli ni pustil brez nadzora. Kurišče je preprosto in dobiva tako kurjavo kot zrak s sprednje strani, kjer gospodar kontrolira ogenj s pločevinastim pokrovom. Pri tem imamo dva tipa, ko sušimo na dimu in le s toploto. Če gre za sušenje na dimu, ima sadje tudi okus po njem, prdvsem pa vonj. To je nekaterim všeč. Ne vsem, zato obstajajo bolj zahtevne sušilnice s sistemom odvoda dima, ki kroži okrog sušilne celice. Ta sistem je mogoče bolj kontrolirati, saj ogenj z dimom bolj greje spodaj in zgoraj bolj dimi. Sploh je temperatura zelo pomembna. Hkrati ne moremo sušiti vsega sadja, saj so slive bolj sočne in hruške na primer mnogo trše. Sadje leži na lesenih pladnjih, ki imajo dno iz prepleta, pozneje iz letev. Pladnji se vrstijo po višini in jih je treba pri sušenju menjavati, zato imajo mehanizem za izvlek, kakor predali. Zaradi tega je glavna odprtina tako velika kot prostor v prerezu, medtem ko so kuriščna vratca precej manjša, lahko pa imajo posebne dovode za zrak, ponekod tudi kontrolirane odvode dima, s katerimi kontrolirajo vlek in s tem temperaturo. Posebno pomemben je tudi vhodni del v sušilnico, ki je vedno pokrit, da je človek zavarovan pri oskrbovanju tudi v slabem vremenu, tako ima telo sušilnice nekako preddverje ali trem. Zahtevnejši objekti imajo vhod v kurišče in v sušilno celico z iste strani, a to so le izjeme. Zaradi varnosti so slamnato streho že zgodaj zamenjali z glineno ali vsaj z leseno, tako da slamnatih sušilnic skorajda ne najdemo več.

A drying house is an object for drying, using fire, in contrast to a maize dryer or kozolec, for example. Long ago, in prehistoric times, cereal was also dried in stone drying houses, but that was in damp England, in Devon. Objects still exist in Russia in which maize was dried above a fire (Aleksandrova 1967). The wooden objects are multi-storey and because of fire, fairly dangerous. So the hearth was transferred into the earth and the wooden object stood beside it and above it: so that it was safe and the fire's warmth dried the grain (Juvanec 2007:18). Only drying houses for flax and for fruit are known here. The flax was dried to produce yarn, from which linen was woven: for tablecloths, curtains and for clothes. Fresh fruit is only tasty for a limited time, dried for much longer, whereby it retains both the taste and other values. The architectures for flax and fruit are fairly similar: there is a mass construction building with a longitudinal saddleback roof. Since Slovenia is predominately mountainous, such is also the terrain and so the hearth is accessible from the lower side, while the interior of the central part is reached from the rear. The loft is filled with hay, of which there is always too little in livestock breeding. The hay is an excellent insulator and prevents the drying house from overheating from the sun and it no longer being possible to control the heating. Hay in the vicinity of a fire is, of course, dangerous, but a careful owner never left a drying house unsupervised. The hearth is simple and obtains both fuel and air from the front, where the master controls the fire with a sheet metal cover. There are two types: when the drying is done with smoke and when only with heat. If the drying is done with smoke, the fruit also has such a taste, and above all scent. Some people like this, but not everybody, though, so there are also more demanding drying houses with a system of drawing off the smoke, which circles around the drying cells. It is possible to control this system better, since the fire with smoke heats the lower and the smoke more the upper. The temperature is in general very important: not all fruit can be dried at the same speed, since plums are more succulent and pears, for example, much firmer. The fruit sits on wooden trays, which have a floor of wattle, later from slats. The trays are ranked by height and they have to be changed during the drying, so there is a mechanism for extracting them, like drawers. Because of this, the main opening is as big as the space in cross-section, while the doors to the hearth are considerably smaller, but they can have a special conduit for air, and sometimes also a controlled exit for the smoke, by the action of which the draw is controlled, and thus the temperature. The entrance to the drying house is also particularly important. It is always covered, to protect a person while taking care of it in bad weather, so the body of the drying house has a sort of entrance porch. More demanding objects have an entrance to the hearth and to the drying cells on the same side, but these are exceptions. For the sake of safety, thatched roofs were early on replaced with clay tiles or at least wooden shingles, so that thatched drying houses are almost never found now.

>> 1 Lovrenc na Pohorju Sušilnica za sadje je čest objekt kmečkega gospodarstva, v Lovrencu je največja, kar jih poznam. Tam ji pravijo 'paštva' in ima zunanje kurišče ter odvod dima, znotraj pa cel sistem za vdevanje pladnjev, celo z vrtečimi se valji za lažje delo. GPS N 5.153.555 E 529.195

>> 1 Lovrenc on Pohorje A drying house for fruit is an honoured object of the farm economy, the one in Lovrenc is the largest known here. It has an external hearth and the smoke is lead off. Inside is a whole system for inserting the trays, even with rollers for easier work.

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Corn house

Koruznjak je sušilna naprava za koruzo, kjer pridelke sušimo na zraku. Teoretično izhaja koruznjak iz okroglega, iz šibja pletenega koša (Juvanec 2006:37), ki se je iz praktičnih razlogov razvil v podolgasto obliko, šibje pa so zamenjale bolj dosegljive lesene letve. Zanimivo je, da najdemo prvotno izvedbo koruznjaka v Galiciji, na zahodu Španije, kjer se je razvil v objekt, kombinirane konstrukcije lesa z opeko. Slovenski koruznjak je vmesna stopnja, saj najdemo še take s prepletom v zaokroženem tlorisu, čeprav je največ oglatih z letvami. Višek estetike so koruznjaki – presenetljivo – na Kosovu, kjer dobijo izjemne dekorativne dodatke in izvedbe (Doli 2001:61). Konstruktivno pa so še pomembnejši objekti na Portugalskem, kjer gre za skupne lokacije zunaj vasi, z objekti v kamnu, ki pa imajo, zanimivo, detajle lesa.To so espigueirosi (Juvanec 2006:34). Naš koruznjak je doma na vsem severovzhodu, seže pa tudi v osrednji del Slovenije. Koruznjak je ozek, visok in dolg objekt, konstruiran v okvirni konstrukciji, prek katere tečejo navpične letve. Pri nastarejših so temelji kar spodnji del vogalnih strebrov, ki pa so zaviti navzven, da zagotavljajo večjo stabilnost. Pozneje so koruznjake postavljali na kamnite in v zadnjem času na plitve betonske temelje, pri čemer je dobila konstrukcija nov element: spodnji prečni tram, ki je z ročicama podprt v nosilna trama. Koruza je v koruznjaku vedno v storžih, koruznjak pa je polnjen praviloma od zgoraj, skozi streho. Presenetljiva rešitev je logična. Prvotni koruznjak je krit s slamo, ki jo je treba vsako leto obnavljati. Z odpiranjem strehe je umni graditelj dosegel dvoje. S centriranim vmetavanjem je zagotovil popoln izkoristek objekta (pri kakršnem koli drugačnem vhodu bi ostal zgornji del neizkoriščen), z odpiranjem strehe pa je zagotovil, da je streha vsako leto znova povsem prekrita. V kolikor bi se zgodilo, da streha pušča, bi to opazili šele čez čas, takrat pa bi bila koruza že neuporabna. Izhod je vedno v spodnjem delu čela, kjer koruza sama 'teče' iz njega. Zahteven, večplasten način vnosa vsebine in preprost, praktičen in hiter dostop do zrnja, predstavlja neko vrsto polavtomata, kjer je zahteven in dolgotrajen način izveden v jeseni (ko je več časa), uporaba krme pa je kot vsakodneven poseg kratka, udobna in zanesljiva. Koruznjaki so še danes v uporabi, kar priča o umni zasnovi tako tehnike kot konstrukcije. Le streha se je spremenila. Iz slamnate je prešla v glineno. Danes uporabljajo tudi druge, lažje in preprostejše kritine, ki zagotalvjajo manjši potrebni naklon, a s tem spreminjajo obliko arhitekture in razvrednotijo kulturo koruznjaka, ki jo ta kaže vse od Portugalske do Kosova kot pomemben element kulture naših dedov.

A corn house is a drying device for corn, in which the produce is air dried. Theoretically, a corn house derives from a circular, wicker basket (Juvanec 2006:37), which developed for practical reasons into a rectangular form and the wickerwork was replaced with more available wooden slats. It is interesting that the original execution of a corn house is found in Galicia, in western Spain, where it developed into a combined construction of wood with brick, called a 'horreo'. A Slovene corn house is an intermediate stage, since examples can still be found with a wicker, circular ground plan, although most are angular with slats. The most aesthetic, surprisingly, are corn houses in Kosovo, where they are given extremely decorative additions and implementation (Doli 2001:61). In construction terms, there are even more important objects in Portugal, where there is a common location outside the village with objects in stone but, interestingly, with details in wood. These are 'espigueiros' (Juvanec 2006:34 ). There are corn houses here throughout the Northeast and also extending into the central part of Slovenia. A corn house is a narrow, high and long object, with a frame construction through which run vertical slats. The foundations of the oldest are the lower part of the corner pillars, which are turned outwards to ensure greater stability. Corn houses were later set on stone and, recently, on shallow concrete foundations, whereby the construction gained a new element: a transverse lower beam which, with short extensions, provide support for the bearing beams. The corn is always in cobs in the corn house, and the corn house is generally filled from above, through the roof. The surprising solution is logical; the original corn houses were thatched, which had to be maintained each year. By opening the roof, the intelligent builder gained two things: with centralized filling he ensured complete exploitation of the object (with any other means of entrance part of the upper part would be unexploited), by opening the roof he ensured that that the roof was replaced each year. If the roof were to leak, it would only be noticed after a while, by which time the corn would already be unusable. The exit is always in the lower part of the gable end, where the corn 'flowed' out on its own. The demanding multilevel method of putting in the content and simple, practical and fast access to the grain is a sort of semi-automation, in which the demanding and lengthy work is done in autumn (when there is more time) and use of the grain on a daily basis is short, easy and reliable. Corn houses are still in use today, which testifies to their intelligent design, in terms of both technique and construction. Only the roof has changed: thatch has been replaced by tiles. Today, easier and simpler coverings are also used, which have less need of a slope; the form of the architecture thus changes and debases the culture of the corn house, which appears all the way from Portugal to Kosovo as an important element of the culture of our forebears.

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<< 1 Šalamenci Koruznjak stoji nad domačijo, ob njivah in pod sadovnjakom. Ima značilno, zelo učinkovito konstrukcijo s stranskimi podporami, ki ležijo na prečnih tramovih. V vzdolžni smeri ima le po dve ročici za zavetrovanje. Ni postavljen 'na sonce', pač pa očitno na veter, ki koruzo suši. GPS N 5.175.645 E 585.830

<< 1 Šalamenci The cornhouse stands above the farmstead, beside the fields and below the orchard. It has a typical, very effective construction, with side supports that sit on transverse beams. In a longitudinal direction it has only two braces for withstanding the wind. It is not set 'in the sun', but clearly against the wind, which dries the corn.

2 Gorišnica, Dominkova domačija Najstarejša izvedba koruznjaka je nedvomno v prepletu, iz vrbovih šib, kakor košara. Slamnato streho je treba vzdrževati. Naši predniki so polnili koruznjak od zgoraj, skozi streho. Zato jo je bilo treba vsako leto znova odpreti in spet postaviti.Tako je bila vedno znova v dobrem stanju. GPS N 5.140.715 E 577.310

2 Gorišnica, Dominko farm The oldest form of cornhouse was undoubtedly wicker, made from willow wands, like a basket. The straw roof needs to be maintained: our forebears filled the cornhouse from above, through the roof. So it had to be re-opened every year and maintained. It was thus always fresh and in good condition.

3 Rogašovci Prislonjen koruznjak na Goričkem je vzporednica slovenskogoriškemu, ki stoji med lesenimi stebri hleva. Tukaj je dodan, pod napuščem, a zelo uporaben. Pa še lep je. GPS N 5.184.420 E 578.710

3 Rogašovci The lean-to cornhouse in Goričko is a parallel to the Slovenj Gradec one that stands between the wooden pillars of the stockhouse. Here it is added, under the eaves, and very useful. And still beautiful.

4 Ižakovci Na Ptujskem polju očitno ni toliko vetra kot drugod, zato so tam koruznjaki brez stranskih podpor. Slame na strehi že dolgo nima več, a naklon ena proti ena je obdržal. GPS N 5.159.205 E 592.870

4 Ižakovci There is clearly not as much wind on Ptujsko polje as elsewhere, so the cornhouses there are without side struts. It has long not had a thatched roof but the one to one inclination has been retained.

5 Leskovec, Haloze Redka izvedba koruznjaka med opečnima zidovoma kaže na potrebo po tem objektu in na trajnost konstrukcije. GPS N 5.131.790 E 572.290

5 Leskovec, Haloze An unusual execution of a cornhouse between brick columns shows the need for such an object and the durability of the construction.

6 Zabovci 2003 (risba)

6 Zabovci 2003 (drawing)

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Apiary

Čebelnjak je objekt, v katerem čebelar goji čebele. Čebele so divje in udomačene. S čebelnjakom jim človek ureja idealne razmere za delo, za bivanje in za razplod. Za čebele je bistveno, da skrbijo za nadaljevanje vrste, zato nabirajo med in druge sestavine (cvetni prah ...) za vzgojo naraščaja. Človek to izkorišča in jim jemlje med, a istočasno skrbi zanje z vodo, s sladkorjem. Seveda, ko je to potrebno, po potrebi pa jih brani tudi pred drugimi. Prostorsko živijo čebele v panju, ki si ga z voskom predelijo v oddelke. Najbolj pogosto si najdejo prostor v duplih dreves, da so vsaj delno zaščitene pred zunanjimi vplivi. Najpreprostejši panji so pleteni koši, v katere je človek ujel roj, ko je nova matica prevelikega panja odletela in sedla na vejo drevesa, čebele pa ji v zaščito in v podporo sledijo. Ta preprost panj pa je človek razvil in ga oblikoval v priročnejšega; v Jemnu na primer v obliki visečega roja, na Malti v glineno cev, v Španiji v plutast ovoj. Danes uporabljamo oglate okvire, v katere čebele vdelajo satje in potem vanj nosijo med. Ti okviri morajo biti pregledni. Izvleči jih moramo iz panja za kontrolo in za pomoč pri boleznih, pa seveda za odvzem medu. V vsakem panju je množica takih okvirjev. Panj kot celota mora biti sestavljiv, da ga lahko vgrajujemo v večje sklope, v čebelnjake. Posamične panje so nekdaj zlagali na police pod napuščem hiše, a tam so težko dosegljivi. Čebele v takih panjih je navadno treba pomoriti, da pridemo do medu. Zato je čebelnjak do čebel prijaznejši, predvsem pa je bolj prijazen do čebelarja. Arhitektura čebelnjaka je preprosta in poenostavljena do skrajnosti. Ima glavno telo s panji in z notranjim delom za čebelarja, spredaj je napušč. Konstrukcija je okvirna, z vloženimi deskami (Juvanec 2003:203). Najpomembnejši je sprednji del telesa, ki je sestav police, vhodnih ploskev in zaokroženega napušča. Polica v spodnjem delu nosi desko, ki jo čebelar usmerja proti soncu, da to z vzgonom pomaga otovorjenim čebelam do vhodov. Vsaka čebela sodi v svoj panj. Če zaide, jo domačinke kot tujko umorijo. Čela panjev imajo odprtine in pod njimi pristopno ploščad. Napušč nad sprednjim delom je zaokrožen, da odvaja vzgonski tok, ki čebelam pomaga pri priletu. Zato ima čebelnjakova streha dve kapi, krajšo nad napuščem in daljšo prek telesa.Vhod za čebelarja je od strani, da doseže panje in jih lahko kontrolira. Ljudje barvajo panjske končnice, da bi čebele našle svoj vhod, a to je bolj izraz kulture čebelarjev kot potreba. Čebele so namreč pri vidu omejene. Vidijo le nekatere barve (rdečo na primer vidijo kot črno). Tako so slikarije na čebelnjakih le odraz razmišljajočega človeka. Panjske končnice na Slovenskem so pomemben del narodove prepoznavnosti. Čebelar je predvsem moški, zato so na panjih narisane predvsem ženske, nekoliko enostransko, vedno v slabšem položaju (hudič babi jezik brusi, mlin za spreminjanje stare babe v lepotico, moški babo nosi itn). Čebelnjak v krajini ni le pomemben gospodarski in ekološki objekt (Juvanec 2003:205), je kulturna vrednota in odraz visoke kulture človeka do sebe, do drugih, do okolja.

An apiary is an object in which a beekeeper nurtures bees. The bees are wild or domesticated: with an apiary, man arranges ideal conditions for the bees' work, residence and propagation. It is crucial for bees that they care for the continuation of the species – so they collect honey and other constituents (pollen etc.) for raising a new brood. Man exploits this and takes the honey but, at the same time, supplies them with water and sugar. Of course, when necessary, he also defends them against others. The bees live in hives, which they partition into compartments with wax. The usually find a space in a hollow tree, so that they are at least partially protected from external influences. The simplest hives are wicker baskets, in which man captures a swarm when the new queen of an overlarge hive has 'swarmed' and settled on the branch of a tree, and the bees follow in protection and support. Man developed this simple hive and shaped it into something handier: in the Yemen, for example, into the shape of a hanging swarm, in Malta into a clay pipe, in Spain into a cork 'package'. A rectangular frame is used today, in which the bees make honeycombs and then fill them with honey. These frames must be easily inspected: they have to be extracted from the hive for checking and for help in disease and, of course, to extract the honey. Each hive contains a quantity of such frames. The hive as a whole must be made so that they can be built them into larger groups, into an apiary. Individual hives were formerly placed on shelves under the eaves of a house, but they were difficult to reach there. The bees in such hives normally had to be killed in order to get at the honey. So an apiary is kinder to the bees and, above all, easier for the beekeeper. The architecture of an apiary is simple and simplified to the extreme: it has a main body with the hives and an inner part for the beekeeper; in front is a projecting roof. The construction is framework, with planks inserted (Juvanec 2003:203). The frontage of the body is most important, which consists of shelves, entrance surfaces and a rounded jutting roof. The shelf in the lower part carries a board, which the beekeeper directs towards the sun so that this gives uplift to help the laden bees into the entrance. Each bee belongs to its own hive: if it goes astray, the local bees will kill it as an intruder. The front of the hives have openings and below them an access platform. The overhanging roof above the central part is rounded to lead to the lift-off point, which helps to bees take off. So an apiary roof has two eaves: a shorter one above the overhang and a longer one across the body. The entrance for the beekeeper is from the side, so that he can reach the hives and check them. People colour the beehive ends so that the bees can find their own entrance but this is more an expression of culture than actual need, since bees have limited vision: they only see some colours (they see red, for example, as black), so the paintings on an apiary are only a reflection of man's imagination. Beehive ends in Slovenia are an important part of the national identity. A beekeeper is above all a man: so women are usually drawn on the hives – somewhat partially, always in a bad light (a devil sharpens a woman's tongue, a mill for transforming an old woman into a young beauty, a man carrying an old woman, etc.). An apiary in the landscape is not just an important economic and ecological object (Juvanec 2003:205), it is something of cultural value and a reflection of high culture of man to himself, to others and to the environment.

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<< 1 Markovci Pleten koš, ki ga ponekod uporabljajo za panj, je včasih zmazan z blatom, drugič spet odprt in ga zaprejo čebele same. Čebelarji iz Markovcev so ta tip panja spet spletli in postavili na ogled, čeprav ga že dolgo ne uporabljajo več. Ko bi le bilo več takih ljudi.

<< 1 Markovci The wicker basket used in some places as a hive is sometimes coated with mud, elsewhere is open and the bees seal it themselves. Beekeepers from Markovci have again woven this type of hive and put it on view, although they have not used it for a long time. If only there were more such people.

2 Pohorje, roj čebel Roj čebel ali 'naravni čebelnjak' na drevesu, preden ga čebelar ujame in namesti v ustrezno okolje.

2 Pohorje, swarm of bees A swarm of bees or 'natural beehive' in a tree before the beekeeper captures them and places them in a suitable environment.

3Vzhodno Pohorje, panj 'Panj' je beseda za votlo deblo in dobesedno tako deblo je mogoče uporabiti za čebele. Ne za resno delo, le kot prikaz.

3 Vzhodno Pohorje, beehive 'Hive' is the word for a hollow trunk and such a trunk can simply be used for bees. Not for serious work, just as a demonstration.

4 Fala Večji čebelnjak z izmenično pobarvanimi panji se v naravo zlije kot del nje same. GPS N 5.153.710 E 534.745

4 Fala The large apiary with alternating coloured hives fuses with nature as if part of it.

5 Bogojina Manjši čebelnjak za Plečnikovo cerkvijo v Bogojini ima vse značilnosti dobrega, značilnega slovenskega čebelnjaka. Obiskovalci cerkve ga niti ne opazijo. GPS N 5.170.230 E 597.760

5 Bogojina A smaller apiary behind Plečnik's church in Bogojina has all the characteristics of a good, typical Slovene apiary. Visitors to the church don't even notice it.

6 Markovci 2000 (risba)

6 Markovci 2000 (drawing)

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Ferry

Splav in brod sta plovili, ki omogočata promet po vodi, splav vzdolžno in brod prečno na tok reke. Bistvena razlika med njima je, da je splav ali flos montažno plovilo iz hlodov, ki sami sebe prevažajo po reki navzdol. Splavarji ali flosarji so delavci na splavu, ki ga usmerjajo vse do cilja, ko se vračajo domov z drugim prevoznim sredstvom. Splav je obrnjen po reki navzdol, medtem ko je brod privezan s kljunom proti toku na nosilno pletenico. Splav je preprosto plovilo, sestavljeno iz debel, ki so povezana med sabo. Včasih so s splavi tovorili les po Dravi in Donavi vse do Beograda, danes so to onemogočile elektrarne. Te imajo posebne 'ribje potke' za ribe, postopne zajezitve pa ima le najstarejša med njimi, Fala. Medtem ko je splav v vodi povsem neodvisen in ga upravljajo z dolgimi krmilnimi vesli, je brod premično vezan na žico, ki povezuje bregova. Deluje po principu toka, ko je usmerjen prečno pod kotom in ga ta 'odnaša'. Ko je vlečna vrv pritrjena na levem sprednjem delu, vozi desno in ko je na desnem, pluje levo. Včasih je bil brod bolj pogost. V Studencih (Maribor) je deloval brod prek Drave na poti proti Mariborskemu otoku še po drugi vojni. Brod je odvisen od vodostaja reke, zato ob nizki vodi potrebuje dolge lesene mostovže, ki od obrežja vodijo do vode. Danes takih brodov ni več. Na Muri so le večji, s po dvema čolnoma in ploščadjo za prevoz traktorjev in avtomobilov. Služijo predvsem najkrajši povezavi med poljem na eni strani reke in domačijo na drugi.

Rafts and ferries are vessels that enable transport by water: a raft with the current and a ferry across the current of a river. The essential difference between them is that a raft, or 'flos', is a makeshift vessel from logs which transports down a river by itself. Rafters, or 'flosarji', are the crew of a raft, who direct it all the way to the goal, from where they return home by other means of transport. A raft faces down river, while a ferry is tied by the bow against the current on a mooring rope. A raft is a simple vessel consisting of trunks tied together. Wood was once transported by raft along the Drava and Danube rivers all the way to Belgrade, today this is prevented by hydro-electric stations. These have special 'fish paths' for fish but only the oldest of them – Fala – has a bypass. While a raft in the water is completely independent and is managed by long steering oars, a ferry's movement is bound to a wire that connects the banks. It works on the principle of the current by being directed transversely at an angle and this 'carries' it. When the tow wire is attached to the left forward part, it drives to the right and when to the right it sails left. Ferries were once more common: in Studenci (Maribor) a ferry still operated across the Drava on the route towards Maribor island after the Second World War. A ferry depends on the water level of the river, so at low water it needs long wooden jetties, which lead to the water from the banks. There are no longer such wooden ferries today: there are only larger types on the Mura, with two boats and a platform for the transport of tractors and cars. They mainly provide the shortest link between fields on one side of the river and farms on the other.

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<< 1 Ižakovci Brod na Muri povezuje predvsem polja na južni strani reke z domačijami prek nje. Ne potrebuje tuje energije. Z nekaj pameti izrablja tok reke. GPS N 5.159.150 E 592.475

<< 1 Ižakovci The ferry on the Mura mainly connects the fields on the south side of the river with the farms across it. It does not use any alien energy: just an intelligent exploitation of the river current.

2 Krog Brod na Muri pri Krogu še vedno deluje, ne le za izletnike, pač pa predvsem za domačine, ki z vozom vozijo pridelke domov. GPS N 5.162.380 E 585.550

2 Krog The ferry on the Mura at Krog still functions, not just for trippers but mainly for locals, taking produce home by wagon.

3 Melinci Brod ima dva čolna, ki ju povezuje ploščad. Za ljudi ima hiško, za varnost ograjo, pa še bogca. GPS N 5.158.220 E 593.750

3 Melinci The ferry has two boats connected by a platform. There is a small house for people, a railing for safety, and a crucifix.

4 Melinci, detajl Tok reke je močan, zato morajo biti tudi brodarji močni, predvsem pa morajo znati opravljati svoj posel. GPS N 5.158.220 E 593.750

4 Melinci, detail The river current is strong so the ferrymen must be, too, and above all know their business.

5 Ižakovci Brod med vožnjo. Brodarjevo delo izgleda prav preprosto, a je zahtevno in naporno. GPS N 5.159.150 E 592.475

5 Ižakovci Ferry on the move. The ferryman's work looks easy, but it is demanding and strenuous.

6Teorija Brod je na nosilno žico preko reke pričvrščen z jekleno vrvjo: na levi strani ga žene v desno, na desni obratno. (risba)

6 Theory The ferry is attached across the river with a steel hawser: on the left side it draws it to the right, on the right the reverse. (drawing)

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Wind rattle

Ribiči ob Dravi trdijo, da so kormorani izpraznili reko in da v nekdaj bogati reki rib preprosto ni več. Kormorani so ptiči, enako kot škorci, ki se v jatah spustijo nad sadovnjak ali v vinsko gorico in v uri ali dveh pojedo ves pridelek. Včasih so naši predniki nastavljali na polje strašila, da so se jih živali bale. To so bile lesene konstrukcije, oblečene v stara oblačila, ki so jih napolnili s slamo. Ampak tudi živali se prilagajajo in človek ni najpametnejši. Negibnega strašila se žival ne boji več. Na Škofjeloškem imajo težave z vepri, ki njivo ponoči preorjejo in s tem popolnoma uničijo pridelek. Tam napeljejo vodo, ki polni leseno korito, ki se občasno prevesi in s tem naprava zaropota, tako da divje svinje pobegnejo. Severovzhod pa pozna posebno napravo na veter, klopotec. Pri tem ne gre več le za ropot, pač pa za prijetno melodijo, za ritem, ki označuje jesen in daje poudarek temu koncu Slovenije. Klopotec ni vezan le na slovenski del. Poznajo ga tudi na avstrijski strani, kjer mu v pristni nemščini pravijo 'klapotez', saj tudi tam klopota. Klopotanje je še bolj značilno pri značilni pomurski ptici, pri štorklji, ki z dolgim kljunom klopota prav kakor klopotec. Ali pa seveda obratno. Klopotec je postavljen na visoko palico, ima vrtljivo telo, ki se ravna po vetru in lesen pogonski vijak, propeler. Veter lovi z usmerjanjem zaradi dolgega repa, vijak pa poganja lesene bate, ki jim ponekod rečejo tudi 'kloci' ali 'kemblji', ki prosto padajo na resonančno desko. S tem oddajajo zvok, bolj ali manj prijeten, medtem ko je ritem odvisen od postavitve batov na os. Klopotec je postavljen na izpostavljeno mesto, da ujame čim več vetra, da je čim bolj viden, da se ga sliši čim dlje. Zvok in melodija sta odvisna od velikosti, od vetra in od usklajenosti med velikostjo in vetrom, od izbire lesa in od izvedbe. Zato enotne oblike ali velikosti ni. Manjši klopotci imajo po štiri lopatice, večji po šest, smernik je lahko resonančna deska, včasih pa je za to kar šop koruznice. Posebej vznemirljiva je krajina s klopotci, ko med vinogradi narava ustvarja pravo živo predstavo oblikovanja, ritma, melodije in zvoka, jesenskih barv; ob sporočanju ljudem, da je pridelek zrel in živalim, naj počakajo do 'bratve', ko bodo prišle na vrsto tudi one.

Fishermen along the Drava claim that cormorants have emptied the river and that there are simply no more fish in the formerly rich river. Cormorants are birds like starlings, which descend in flocks on an orchard or vineyard and in an hour or two eat the entire harvest. Our forebears sometimes used to set up scarecrows in the fields, so that the animals were afraid of them. They were wooden constructions, dressed in old clothes, which were filled with straw. But the animals adapted, too, and man is not smarter: a motionless scarecrow no longer scares animals. In Škofja Loka, there is a problem with wild boars, which plough up the fields at night and thus completely destroy the crops. They lead water there, which fills a wooden trough, which gradually overfills, setting off a rattling device so that the wild boars flee. There is a special device in the northeast worked by wind, a wind rattle. This is no longer just rattling, but a pleasant melody, a rhythm, which marks the autumn and gives a special stress to this part of Slovenia. The wind rattle is not just bound to the Slovene part: it is also known on the Austrian side, where it is called 'klapotez', since it rattles there, too. Rattling is more typical of characteristic Pomurian birds, storks, which rattle their long bills just like a rattle. Or vice versa, of course. The wind rattle is set on a high pole; it has a rotating body which follows the wind and a wooden drive screw, or propeller. It follows the direction of the wind with of a long tail and the screw drives a wooden paddle, which in some places is called also a 'koc' or 'kembelj', which simply falls on a resonance board. It thus gives out a sound, more or less pleasant, while the rhythm depends on the setting of the paddle on the axis. A wind rattle is erected in an exposed place so that it captures as much wind as possible, that it is as visible as possible and heard as far away as possible. The sound and melody depend on the size, on the wind and on the harmony between the size and the wind, on the choice of wood and on the execution. So there is no uniform shape or size. Smaller wind rattles have four paddles, larger ones six, the direction finder can be the resonance board but sometimes it is just a bunch of corn stalks. A landscape with wind rattles, when nature creates among the vineyards a real live show of design, rhythm, melody and sound, and autumn colours, is particularly exciting: when people report that the crop is ripe and the animals should wait for the 'brothers', when they too will have their turn.

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<< 1Trnavski breg GPS N 5.170.195 E 599.200

<< 1 Trnavski breg

2 Strehovske gorice GPS N 5.168.635 E 601.110

2 Strehovske gorice

3 Filovski gaj GPS N 5.169.275 E 600.315

3 Filovski gaj

4 Zavrh z Lenartom GPS N 5.154.230 E 563.750

4 Zavrh with Lenart

5 Zavrh GPS

5 Zavrh N 5.154.230 E 563.750

6Teorija Klopotec je idealno učilo za poduk o očrtanem krogu: če je polovica osnovnice kvadrata enota ena, je radij kroga, ki ga orisuje, kvadratni koren iz dve. (risba)

6 Theory A wind rattle is an ideal means of instruction on outlining a circle: if half of the base of a square is a unit of one, the radius of the circle that it outlines is the square root of two. (drawing)

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Hunting tower

Lovska preža je razgledna ploščad in jo uporabljajo predvsem lovci za pregled in za lov. Mnogokrat je pritrjena na drevo, lahko pa je povsem prostostoječa. Po potrebi je skrita v robu gozda ob čistini, ki jo nadzoruje ali pa stoji sredi ravnine. Preža ima svojo konstrukcijo in telo, pa lestev. Konstrukcija je sestavljena navadno iz štirih stebrov, ki so postavljeni pod kotom, da je tloris pri tleh večji od celice zgoraj. Od višine je odvisno, koliko diagonalnih prečk za zavetrovanje ima. Prav majhne preže so lahko tudi brez njih. Telo je odprto ali zaprto, ima klop in naslon ali mizici (za daljnogled, za zvezek z zapiski in za orožje). Odprta izvedba je redkejša, bolj pogoste so zaprte izvedbe, ki imajo stene in le skromne reže za opazovanje. Tako je lovec skrit in ima več možnosti za nadzor. Telo ima tudi streho, ki je včasih prekrita z lubjem, včasih pa je to prava štirikapnica. Stopnice tečejo navadno v eni sami potezi do vrha, redko so dvoramne. Pred celico preže je navadno še podest, na katerega se stekajo stopnice. Material je vedno les, dosegljiv in preprosto tesarsko obdelan, da preže v naravi čim manj opazimo.

A hunting tower is a viewing platform, used mainly by hunters for observation and for hunting. They are often attached to a tree, but can also be completely freestanding. As necessary, they are concealed at the edge of the forest beside a clearing, which they oversee, or they can stand in the middle of a plain. A hunting tower has its own construction and body and a ladder. The construction usually consists of four pillars which are set at an angle so that the ground plan on the ground is larger than that of the cell above. How many diagonal crosspieces there are depends on the height: a very small watchtower can even be without any. The body can be open or closed: it has a bench and a windowsill or table (for binoculars and a notebook and for weapons). An open execution is rarer, they are usually enclosed by walls, with only a modest opening for observation. The hunter is thus hidden and has greater chance of observing. The body also has a roof, which is sometimes covered in bark, while sometimes it is a real broach roof. The ladder normally runs in a single stage to the top, occasionally there are two stages. There is usually a pedestal in front of the lookout tower, to which steps sometimes run. The material is always wood: available and simply worked, so that a hunting tower is as little noticeable as possible in nature.

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<< 1 Spodnji Gasteraj Preprosta, skrbno konstruirana lesena konstrukcija preže stoji sredi polja nad gozdom, da kontrolira sadovnjak, polje in dobršen del gozda. Skladna kompozicija bi bila v ponos tudi strokovnjaku s področja arhitekture. GPS N 5.167.150 E 560.050

<< 1 Spodnji Gasteraj A simple, carefully constructed wooden hunting tower stands in the middle of a field above the forest, to control the orchard, fields and a good part of the forest. The harmonious composition would even be the pride of experts in the field of architecture.

2 Domanjševci Bogatejša konstrukcija z balkonom in z bolj skritim dostopom po lestvah obvladuje ravnino pred Domanjševci. GPS N 5.181.490 E 598.480

2 Domanjševci A richer construction with a balcony and a more concealed access by a ladder controls the plain in front of Domanjševci.

3 Selo Kontrast vrhunski klasični arhitekturi rotunde na Selu je preprosta preža z najenostavnejšo streho. GPS N 5.176.690 E 598.470

3 Selo A contrast to the top classical architecture of the rotunda in Selo is a simple hunting tower with the simplest roof.

4 Osek Zaprta preža nad ribnikom, na čistini ob robu gozda kontrolira različne prostore. GPS N 5.159.190 E 570.370

4 Osek A closed hunting tower above a pond, in a clearing on the edge of the forest, controls various spaces.

5 Ošelj na Pohorju Rob gozda je verjetno najzanimivejši prostor, kjer se zadržujejo živali. GPS N 5.142.415 E 540.285

5 Ošelj na Pohorju The edge of the forest is probably the most interesting place to watch animals.

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Chute

Pohorje je izjemno bogato z lesom. Bajgot nad Rušami je tudi zaščiten pragozd. Obilica lesa zahteva dostope za odvoz debel v dolino in potem do uporabnika. Nekdaj so splavarili les vse do Beograda, koroška železnica je odvažala les po vsej Evropi. Največji problem je bil lokalni transport do splava ali do vlaka, saj cest malone ni bilo, veliki tovornjaki pa so svoje zmogljivosti razvili šele zadnjih nekaj deset let. Pri podiranju drevja so pomagali konji, ko so predvsem pozimi, ko je idealen čas za sekanje (Fellner 2001:23), vlačili težke hlode kar po tleh. To je mogoče le na kratkih razdaljah, saj je učinek vleke razmeroma majhen, pa še nevarno delo je. Tudi vozovi, na katere so nalagali hlode, so bili omejeni zaradi poti in cest, predvsem pa zaradi razdalj; z vrha Pohorja do doline je lahko tudi nekaj deset kilometrov. Idealna naprava za transport hlodov je sistem urejenih poti. Drča je umetni jarek, ki veže več lokalnih centrov drvarjenja z dolino. Je zahtevna za upravljanje in za vzdrževanje, pa še draga je, a zaradi obilice lesa dosegljiva. Zahtevna je predvsem zaradi velike mase in hitrosti hlodov, ki so drveli v dolino. Drča ali lokalno 'riža' je lesena naprava, sestavljena iz plohov, ki tvorijo odprt jarek, ki stoji na leseni konstrukciji, ki izenačuje naklone in premošča višine. To lajša voda, ki jo spuščajo vanjo. Riža na Pohorju je imela tudi kretnice, ki so omogočale združevanje poti z različnih izhodišč, cilj je bil vedno dravski zaliv. Posebej slikovito je bilo na koncu, ko so hlodi z veliko hitrostjo drveli med druge, ki so že plavali v vodi in čakali, da jih izberejo ter povežejo v splave. Riža na Pohorju je bila v uporabi vse do druge vojne ali nekaj čez.

Pohorje is exceptionally rich in wood: Bajgot, above Ruše, is also protected primary forest. The abundance of timber requires access for the extraction of trunks to the valley and then to the user. Timber used to be floated all the way to Belgrade, and the Koroška railway exported timber to the whole of Europe. The major problem was local transport to the raft or to the train, since there were practically no roads, and large trucks have only developed their capacities in the last few decades. Horses helped in the felling of the trees, when, mainly in winter, which is the ideal time for felling (Fellner 2001:23), they dragged the heavy logs along the ground. This is only possible for short distances, since the efficiency of dragging is relatively small and it is dangerous work. Wagons, too, on which they loaded the logs, were limited to tracks and roads, and mainly by the distances: from the top of Pohorje to the valley can be as much as a few kilometres. The ideal device for the transport of logs is a system of arranged paths. A chute is an artificial channel that connects several local timber centres with the valley. It is demanding to manage and for maintenance and still expensive, but feasible because of the abundance of timber. It is demanding mainly because of the large mass and speed of the logs that were run to the valley. A chute, locally 'riža' or 'drča', is a wooden device made of logs that create an open channel, which stands on a wooden construction, and thus equalizes the inclination and bridges heights. This is facilitated by water, which is released down it. The chute on Pohorje also had a switch, which enabled the joining of paths from various starting points; the goal was always the Drava bay. It was particularly picturesque at the end, when the logs rushed with great speed into the others, which were already floating in the water, waiting to be gathered and tied into a raft. The chute on Pohorje was in use right up to the Second World War and a little after.

>> 1 Pohorje, pri Šumiku Danes stoji le še žalosten ostanek junaške konstrukcije pohorske drče. Kot prikaz, kako so spuščali hlode v dolino, ne da bi bilo treba zato delati ceste, voziti po njih. Junaška pravim zato, ker je konstrukcija, ki povezuje vrhove Pohorja z dolino pri Dravi, dejansko podvig, saj je tekla celo po pragozdu, ki mu pravijo Bajgot. Pohorska riža zasluži boljši prikaz te izjemno zahtevne in uspele prometne povezave po pohorskih strminah. GPS N 5.147.495 E 534.110

>> 1 Pohorje, near Šumik Today, only a sad remnant of the heroic construction of the Pohorje chute still stands, as evidence of how they sent logs to the valley without having to make roads and drive along them. I say heroic because the construction that links the top of Pohorje with the valley by the Drava is actually a major achievement, since it even runs through the primary forest called Bajgot. The Pohorje chute deserves better presentation of this exceptionally demanding and successful transport link over the steep Pohorje slopes.

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Belfry

Zvonik je stolp z zvonom. Navadno si predstavljamo cerkveni zvonik, ki vabi, pa urnega, ki odbija čas. V krajih s protestantsko kulturo in z navezavami na Madžarsko pa so postavili zvonik za klicanje s polja opoldne in zvečer. Gre za leseno konstrukcijo vsaj na dveh stebrih, navadno pa so štirje, ki nosijo zvon. Stebri so postavljeni navpično ali pa pod kotom, da je zvonik stabilnejši. Običajno so stebri podprti še s strani s podporami. Zvon sam je zaščiten s streho, ki je dvokapna ali pa štirikapna, običajno v leseni konstrukciji in s pločevinastim obojem. Zvonijo s pomočjo vrvi, ki seže do vznožja. Zvonik je na vasi poseben poudarek prostora, žal pa tudi izginjajoče kulture slovenskega vzhodnega roba.

A belfry is a tower with a bell. We usually imagine a church belfry, which calls the faithful and strikes the hour. In places with a Protestant culture and links with Hungary, belfries were erected for calling the workers from the fields at noon and in the evening. It is a wooden construction on at least two pillars, and normally there are four, which carry the bell. The pillars are set vertically, or at an angle so that the belfry is more stockhouse. The pillars are normally supported by side struts. The bell itself is protected by a roof, which can be saddleback or broach, normally a wooden construction with sheet metal wrapping. It rings with the aid of a rope, which reaches to the foot. A belfry gave a special stress to the space in a village but, unfortunately, is also a disappearing cultural feature of the Slovene eastern fringe.

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<< 1 Domanjševci Zvonik v Domanjševcih je služil, kakor drugod v evangeličanskem svetu, za klicanje ljudi s polja opoldne in zvečer in nima direktne povezave s cerkvijo. Včasih so zvonili vsak dan, danes le še ob sobotah in nedeljah. GPS N 5.181.805 E 599.230

<< 1 Domanjševci The belfry in Domanjševci, as elsewhere in the evangelical world, was used for calling people from the fields at noon and in the evening and does not have a direct link with a church. They formerly rang every day, nowadays only on Saturdays and Sundays.

2 Kamovci Zaprt zvonik je sestav spodnjega dela z vmesno streho, kjer se nadaljuje ožje telo z odprtino za zvonove. Streha je štirikapna. Zvonik stoji prav sredi vasi. GPS N 5.164.820 E 606.000

2 Kamovci The closed belfry consists of a lower part, with an intermediate roof, from which continues a narrower body with openings for the bells. It has a broach roof. The belfry stands right in the middle of the village.

3 Selo, pri rotundi Današnji zvonik je čokat in ima štirikapno streho, po madžarskem vzoru. Stoji v ravnini na vzhodni strani romanske rotunde. GPS N 5.176.580 E 598.540

3 Selo, by the rotunda Today's belfry is stocky, with a broach roof, on the Hungarian model. It stands on the level, on the eastern side of a Romanesque rotunda.

4 Domanjševci, prvotni zvonik 1992 Originalni zvonik je bil pred mnogimi desetletji prinešen z Madžarske in je bil postavljen na dvorišču ob vodnjaku, nad cesto. Imel je dvokapno streho in je bil ožji od današnjega. GPS N 5.181.825 E 599.258

4 Domanjševci, original belfry 1992 The original belfry was brought many decades ago from Hungary and was set up in the courtyard beside the well, above the road. It had a saddleback roof and was narrower than today's.

5 Selo, prvotni zvonik 1991 Izvorni zvonik pri rotundi je imel sicer štirikapno streho, ki je bila navzven zavihana. Zvonova sta bila zaščitena z lesenim obojem, ki je bil spodaj odprt. Zvonik je bil, za razliko od današnjega, izjemno skladen in lep. GPS N 5.176.580 E 598.540

5 Selo, original belfry 1991 The original belfry beside the rotunda had a broach roof, which was curved outwards. The bells were protected by a wooden casing which was open at the bottom. The belfry, in contrast to today's, was extremely harmonious and attractive.

6 Domanjševci 1991 Prvotni zvonik. (risba)

6 Domanjševci 1991 The old belfry that stood above the road is slightly narrower and the roof is also different from today's. (drawing)

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Brickwork screen

Opečna mreža je z opečnimi zidaki pregrajena odprtina, ki služi prezračevanju (Juvanec 1985:5), predvsem podstrešnim prostorom gospodarskih poslopij. Podsterah služi predvsem shranjevanju že posušenega sena za krmo, opečne mreže pa zagotavljajo zračenje, ustavljajo dostop večjim živalim in onemogočajo izpadanje vsebine. Material je opeka. Nekdaj je bila to le normalna opeka za zidanje, pozneje uporabljajo tudi druge opečne elemente: strešnike, votlake ... Opečni ekementi so vstavljani v vseh smereh. Mreža ni nosilni element, je le polnilo. Zračenje je zagotovljeno s približno polovico odprtega prostora. Debelina je najobičajneje širina opeke; včasih je bila to 15, danes je 12 centimetrov. Globina mreže zagotavlja senco, ki vzdržuje čim bolj stalno temperaturo (Juvanec 1985:7). Gospodarska poslopja so postavljana po potrebi, saj dopolnjujejo delovno dvorišče pred bivalno hišo, zato se prilagajajo okolju in nimajo stalne usmeritve po smereh neba. Zato lovijo sončne žarke, se jim izogibajo s prečno postavljenimi opekami, ki tako žarke kot poglede omejujejo ali odpirajo. Odprtine se odpirajo proti vetru in ga lovijo, da je zračenje čim bolj popolno. Zapiranje vsebine predstavlja varovanje pred večjimi vsiljivci, medtem ko so odprtine zadosti velike za mačko, ki lovi glodalce. To je pomembno, v kolikor je na podstrehi še žito. Mreže so zadosti goste, da preprečujejo izpadanje vsebine. Na podstrehi gospodarskega poslopja hranijo predvsem seno, za kar je raster opek zadosti majhen, morebitno žito je v skrinjah ali v kaščah. Oblike mrež so zelo raznolike, od preprostih kvadratov in pravokotnikov, do obokov in okroglih, sestavljenih oblik. Pogost vzorec je tudi križ, ki nastopa vedno en sam, simetrično v sredini. Pomembni so sestavni elementi. Klasična opeka nastopa vedno ortogonalno (v vseh treh razsežnostih), drugi elementi tudi po diagonali. Korci na primer rišejo obrobo, posebej zanimivi so vzorci okroglih preprostih odprtin. Opeke niso nikoli dodatno oblikovane, 'popravljane'. Vedno nastopajo v svojih osnovnih oblikah. Opečne mreže niso nikoli ometane, redko so vidno fugirane. Barve opečnih mrež so vedno rdeče (opečna barva) ali blizu nje. Na belih ometanih stenah so opečne mreže vedno kontrast in poudarjajo objekt. Rdeča opeka je na beli površini že sama kontrast, navadno pa jo še barvajo. Barvanje ni nikoli z vidnim fugiranjem, tako da nastopa kompozicija kot oblika celote in ne kot detajl. Opečna mreža je povsem utilitarna kompozicija z močnim estetskim učinkom in predstavlja značilnost dobršnega dela Slovenije. Ne najdemo je na Krasu zaradi vetra in ne v panonskem svetu zaradi materiala. Zanimiva rešitev 'travnih plošč', tlakovanja, ki v ravnini omogoča rast trave (ima torej luknje), izhaja nedvomno iz izvedbe opečne mreže, kjer idejo razdvajanja in prepuščanja prenaša v horizontalo.

A brickwork screen is an opening made of fired bricks, which provides ventilation (Juvanec 1985:5), mainly to the loft of auxiliary buildings. The loft is used mainly for storing already dried hay for fodder, and the brickwork screen provides ventilation, prevents the entry of larger animals and prevents the contents from falling out. The material is brick. This was formerly ordinary bricks used for building, but more recently they have used other fired elements: roof tiles, hollow bricks etc. The brick elements are set in all directions: the screen is not a bearing element, it is only a filler. Ventilation is provided by roughly half the space being open. The thickness is usually the width of a brick: formerly this was 15, today it is 12 centimetres. The depth of the screen provides shade, which maintains as constant a temperature as possible (Juvanec 1985:7). Auxiliary buildings are erected as necessary; since they fill the working yard in front of a residential house, they are adapted to the environment and do not have a regular compass orientation. The sun's rays are prevented from penetrating by the transversely laid bricks, which thus restrict or obstruct both the sun's rays and people's gaze. The openings let in the wind so that ventilation is as complete as possible. Enclosing the contents provides protection against larger intruders, while the openings are large enough for a cat, which hunts rodents. This is important insofar as cereals are kept in the loft. The screens are dense enough to prevent the contents from falling out: mainly hay is stored in the loft of an auxiliary building, for which the raster of the bricks is small enough; cereal grains are kept in chests or granaries. The designs of the screens are very varied, from simple squares and rectangles to arches and circular composed forms. A cross is also a common pattern, which always appears singly, symmetrically in the centre. The composite elements are important: classical bricks always appear orthogonally (in all three extensions), other elements also diagonally. Barrel tiles, for example, outline the edges; patterns of simple circular openings are particularly interesting. The bricks are never additionally shaped, 'corrected': they always appear in their basic forms. Brickwork screens are never daubed, although they are occasionally visibly mortared. Brickwork screens are always red (brick colour) or close to it. Brickwork screens always stand out against a white daubed wall and stress the object. The red brick is in itself a contrast against the white wall, and it is usually additionally coloured. With colouring, the morter is never visible, so that the composition stands out as a complete design, and not in the details. A brickwork screen is an entirely utilitarian composition with a powerful aesthetic effect and is characteristic of a good part of Slovenia. It is only not found on the Karst, because of the wind. The interesting solution of 'grass tiles', paving that allows grass to grow through (it thus has holes) undoubtedly derives from the execution of brickwork screens, in which the idea of dividing and yielding is transferred to the horizontal.

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<< 1 Bukovci Izjemno dekorativna mreža z različnimi elementi v simetričnem vzorcu. Mreža je ometana v naravni rjavkasti barvi gline in še utrjuje umetniški naboj graditelja.

<< 1 Bukovci An extremely decorative screen with various elements in a symmetrical pattern. The screen is daubed in natural brown clay and further strengthened by the artistic inspiration of the builder.

2 Serdica Preprost vzorec odpiranja zatrepa po vsej površini kaže neskladje med imenitno zasnovo opečne mreže in naklonom strehe. Tako enostavna mreža je pri nas prava redkost.

2 Serdica The simple pattern opening the gable over the entire surface shows discordance between the excellently designed brickwork screen and the inclination of the roof. Such a simple screen is a real rarity here.

3 Voličina Bogata opečna mreža na večjem hlevu ima razne like in niz oblik, ki jih združuje v celoto, povsod tam, kjer je prezračevanje potrebno. GPS N 5.154.980 E 562.610

3 Voličina The rich brickwork screen on the large stable has various figures and strings of forms, which unite into a totality - everywhere where ventilation is needed.

4 Voličina Kontrast pobarvane opeke z belo steno večajo sence kratkega napušča, večji del dneva senci, saj je orientacija objekta skoraj proti severu. GPS N 5.154.300 E 562.810

4 Voličina The contrast of coloured bricks with the white wall increases the shade of the short eaves, the greater part of the day is shaded since the orientation of the building is almost north.

5 Zgorja Ščavnica Bogat sklop več vzorcev: od trikotnika, ki sledi strehi, do srčka in nabožnega znamenja tvori kompozicijo, ki v čelu izrazito izstopa. Kontrast je še večji, ker je telo objekta obarvano z bledo glineno barvo, ki sporoča vsebino; za razliko od bivalne hiše, ki je v Slovenskih goricah navadno bela. GPS N 5.166.900 E 564.960

5 Zgorja Ščavnica The rich complex of several patterns, from the triangle which follows the roof, to a heart and a religious symbol, creates a composition which explicitly stands out as an entirety. The contrast is even greater because the body of the object is a pale clay colour, which indicates the content – in contrast to a residential house, which is normally white in Slovenske gorice.

6 Teorija Opečni zidaki so največkrat postavljeni plosko - kadar pa so vzidani pod kotom, nimajo le estetske vrednosti, pač pa usmerjajo sončne žarke: odvečne zapirajo, tudi vseh pogledov ne dovoljujejo, medtem ko omogočajo nezmanjšano zračenje. (risba)

6 Theory Fired bricks are usually set flat – when they are inserted at an angle they do not just have aesthetic value, but also direct the sun's rays: they close off the unnecessary, do not allow everyone to gaze in, but enable unrestricted ventilation. (drawing)

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Woodpile

Drva so pomemben element kmetskega gospodarstva. Še včeraj so bila edini vir energije za ogrevanje, pa tudi za kuho in za peko. Za drva uporabljajo predvsem trd les, največ bukev. Mehak les je dober le za prvo fazo ognja, z njim ga podkurimo. Mehak les prej zagori, hitreje gori, a ne daje visokih temperatur, prej pogori in ne vzdržuje stalne temperature, ki jo v kmečki peči potrebujemo. Ko drevo posekajo, ga tudi oklestijo, odstranijo mu veje. Debelejše veje so primerne za drva, enako kot tanjši deli debel, ki jih nažagajo na metrsko dolžino, potem pa po potrebi razcepijo na več delov, ki jih spet nažagajo na čevelj dolge dele, ki jih nazadnje s sekiro cepijo v uporabno velikost za v peč. Taka drva je treba najprej posušiti, pa tudi spraviti. Suha drva so zložena v drvarnici, včasih pod napuščem v zadnjem, gospodarskem delu hiše. V Slovenskih goricah in na Goričkem je drugače. Oslica, s poudarkom na oju, je kopica okroglega tlorisa, v katerega zlagajo drva proti centru, tako da visijo navznoter. To je pomembno zaradi počasnega sušenja. Oslica je na vrhu zožena v zaobljen vrh. Včasih so oslice, predvsem v Slovenskih goricah, tudi kvadrataste in vsebujejo veliko kubaturo lesa. Goričke so manjše, vedno okrogle in jih je na ravnini po več skupaj. Bolj sveže so temnejše, suhe pa svetlejše barve. Zaradi svoje značilne oblike so v krajini vedno opažene, saj za večino ljudi predstavljajo uganko. Danes jih le še redko vidimo.

Firewood is an important element of the farm economy. Until very recently, it was the only source of energy for heating, as well as for cooking and baking. Hardwood was mainly used for firewood, above all beech. Softwood is only good for the first phase of a fire; the fire is lit with it. Softwood catches fire first, burns quicker but does not give high temperatures, burns up first and does not retain the constant temperatures needed in a farm stove. When the wood is cut, it is also trimmed, the branches removed. Thicker branches are suitable for firewood, as are the thinner parts of the trunk, which are sawn to meter lengths and then, as necessary, split into several parts, which are then cut into foot long pieces that are finally split into a useful size for a stove. Such firewood has first to be dried, and also stored. Dry firewood is put in a woodshed, sometimes under the eaves in the end, auxiliary part of a house. It is different in Slovenske gorice and Goričko. An 'oslica', with the stress on the 'o', a log pile, is a heap of circular ground plan in which firewood is laid towards the centre so that it rises inwards. This is important because of slow drying. At the top, the woodpile is narrowed to a rounded peak. Woodpiles are sometimes square, especially in Slovenske gorice and contain a large cubic quantity of firewood. In Goričko, they are smaller, always round, and there are several together in an area. The fresher ones are darker, the dry ones a lighter colour. Because of their characteristic shape, they always stand out in the landscape, and they are a riddle to most people. They are rarely seen today.

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<< 1 Lahonci Ponekod pravijo temu sestavu drv oslica (s poudarkom na 'o'), ponekod pa 'zlaganje v kopico'. Ne glede na ime je povsem uporabna oblika tako izrazita, da človek takoj pomisli na kip. GPS N 5.147.750 E 585.610

<< 1 Lahonci This composition of firewood is called an 'oslica' (with a stress on the 'o') in some places, elsewhere merely 'laying in a pile'. Irrespective of the name, the completely functional form is so pronounced that one immediately thinks of a sculpture.

2 Lahonci 89 Razmeroma velika kopica ob domači hiši Lahonci 89, ki je tudi pokrita z drvmi. GPS N 5.148.560 E 585.760

2 Lahonci 89 A relatively large woodpile by the house Lahonci 89; it is also covered by firewood.

3 Lahonci 89 Konstrukcija oslice: obod iz drv, ki so postavljena radialno proti sredini, v notranjosti pa so bolj zračno nametani kosi. Kosi lesa so usmerjeni navznoter in navzdol, da omogočajo počasno in enakomerno sušenje. Tako je na zunaj nosilna konstrukcija, z notranjim delom pa je manj dela. GPS N 5.148.555 E 585.795

3 Lahonci 89 Construction of the woodpile: the periphery made from logs set radially towards the centre, and in the centre pieces placed with more space for air. The pieces of wood are turned inwards and downwards which enables slow and even drying. So the supporting construction is on the outside and there is less work in the inner.

4 Savci V Slovenskih goricah so ponekod oslice prav velike, tudi s po nekaj metrov dolgimi stranicami. Prostor, ki ga zasedajo, je tako manjši, rezultat, sušenje pa ni zelo uspešno. GPS N 5.147.180 E 580.590

4 Savci Woodpiles in Slovenske gorice are really big in some places, with sides as long as two metres. The space that they occupy is less, but the result is that drying is less successful.

5 Lahonci Trata z okroglimi oslicami vzbuja pozornost, še posebej zato, ker so bolj sveže kopice bolj vlažne in temnejše ter tako dajejo vtis namernega vzorca. V vernakularni arhitekturi ni dekoracije, sama je dekorativna. GPS N 5.147.750 E 585.610

5 Lahonci The meadow with circular woodpiles attracts attention, especially because the fresher piles are damper and darker and this gives the impression of a deliberate pattern. There is no decoration in vernacular architecture, it is only decorative.

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Colours

Barva je značilnost površinske obdelave. Kamen in les sta v elementarni obliki siva in rumena, ilovica je rjava. Kadar nastopa kamen brez zaščite, je siv in sčasoma potemni. Bolj se barve spreminajo lesu: trd les postaja temnosiv, mehak les rjav, vse z očitnimi razlikami pod zaščito (vsak previs, ki ščiti spodnji del, vnaša v kompozicijo spekter barv, od originalne do končne, spremenjene v času). Glina nastopa le redko nezaščitena, brez ometa. Sama ilovica je rumene barve, z več peska je sivkasta. A ilovnata stena je vedno prekrita z ometom istega materiala, ki ga je treba obnavljati vsaj enkrat letno. Zato so tudi ilovnate stene vedno svežega izgleda. Omet, tudi ilovnat, je mnogokrat prekrit še s plastjo apnenca, ki površino utrdi in jo obarva belo. Zanimivost in značilnost severovzhoda je, da imajo glinaste hiše sprednje fasade bele ali v svetlih barvah. Mnogokrat apnenemu oplesku primešajo sredstvo za škropljenje vinske trte, modro galico, ki ga obarva modro. In še ena značilnost je: zadnje stene so praviloma temnejše, temnordeče, temnorjave. Ne glede na material konstrukcije, tudi če je ilovnata stena, so zunanji zidovi, predvsem pa vogali oblikovani posebej, da izgledajo stabilnejši. Navadno posnemajo vogalne kamne, ki se v vogalu stikajo izmenično kot vzdolžnik in prečnik. To je 'šivan rob'. Ponekod so kamni tudi izoblikovani v globokem reliefu, vedno pa so izrazito obarvani. Zanimivost pri cimprani in pri butani gradnji je, da so vse odprtine obrobljene z drugo barvo kot celotna stena, tako bivalni kot gospodarski del. Les v podaljšku hiše ni nikoli barvan. Enako je s cimprom, z leseno nosilno konstrukcijo, ki je vedno enake barve kot ostala stena. Pomembni barvani elementi so tudi okvirji okrog oken in vrat, pa okoli zračnikov v zatrepu, ki jih dejansko ni, so le narisani, a vedno označeni. Posebno pisane so hiše na Ptujskem polju, kjer kar tekmujejo med sabo (Bukovci). Barve so praviloma umirjene in pretežno zemeljske, blizu rjavi in rumeni. Na Pohorju in na Kozjaku, kjer so temelj, klet, pa stena za pečjo iz kamna, ni ometa zaradi obstojnega, trdega kamna (granitolit), les pa je potemnjen na soncu. Poseben fenomen so lesene strehe iz 'šintlnov', kjer kalan les še kaka tri leta prav sije v soncu, preden potemni. Prav temen pa je šele tik pred svojim koncem, ko se začne cefrati, ampak to je po nekaj deset letih. Skupnih in značilnih barv na tem področju ni. Čeprav prevladuje bela, tudi strupeno zelena ni izjema. Še najbolj skupna točka je izrazito rumena slamnata streha, ki potemni že čez kako leto. V Sloveniji so izrazito pisano pobarvane hiše doma le na Ptujskem polju in v Pomurju, pa na Goričkem.

Colour is a characteristic of surface processing. Stone and wood are grey and yellow in their primary form, clay is brown. Whenever stone appears without protection, it is grey, which sometimes darkens. Wood changes colour more: hardwood becomes darker, softwood brown, all with clear differences under protection (each overhang that protects the lower part introduces into the composition a spectrum of colours, from the original to the final, transformed by time. Clay only rarely appears unprotected, without a daub. Clay itself is a yellow colour, with more sand it becomes greyish. However, a clay wall is always covered by a daub of the same material, which is necessary to renew, at least once a year. So clay walls always have a fresh appearance. Daub, including clay daub, is often covered with a layer of lime, which strengthens the surface and gives it a white colour. An interesting feature and characteristic of the Northeast is that the front façade of clay houses is white or light colours. The lime wash is often mixed with copperas, used for spraying vines, which gives it a blue colour. And there is another characteristic: the rear wall is normally darker, dark red or dark brown. Irrespective of the material of construction – even if it is a clay wall – the external walls, and above all the corners, are specially designed so that they appear more stockhouse. They normally imitate corner stones, which join at the corners alternating longitudinal and transversal. This is a 'stitched edge'. The stones are sometimes designed in deep relief, and they are always explicitly coloured. There is an interesting feature of timber and rammed clay constructions that all openings are surrounded with a different colour than the wall as a whole, in both living and auxiliary parts. The wood of a house extension is never painted. The same with a timber construction, a wooden bearing construction, which is always the same colour as the rest of the wall. The frames of windows and doors are also important colour elements, and around the ventilation hole in the gable, which it is not in fact such, they are only drawn but always marked. Houses on Ptujsko polje are particularly colourful, where the houses appear positively to compete (Bukovci). The colours are normally tranquil, predominantly earth colours, close to brown and yellow. On Pohorje and on Kozjak, where the foundations, cellars and the stove wall are stone, there is no daub, because of the durable, hard stone (granitolite) and the wood darkens in the sun. Wooden roofs from shingles are a special phenomenon, where the split wood positively gleams in the sun for some three years before darkening. It is really dark only just before its end, when it begins to fray, but this is after some decades. There are no common or characteristic colours in this area: although white predominates, virulent green is no exception. The point most in common is the explicitly yellowish thatch, but even this already darkens after a few years. In Slovenia, explicitly coloured houses are only traditional on Ptujsko polje and in Pomurje, but not in Goričko.

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<< 1 Bukovci Izjemen občutek za naravne, zemeljske barve z belino ometane stene je neverjeten. Človek težko verjame, da to ni delo strokovno usposobljenega strokovnjaka. Ne le gradbeni elementi, tudi les naoknic in kovana mreža sta v sozvočju. GPS N 5.137.690 E 573.890

<< 1 Bukovci The exceptional feeling for natural, earth colours with the whitewashed daub wall is unbelievable: it is hard to believe that this was not the work of a professionally trained expert. Not just the building elements, also the wood window surrounds and metal screen are in harmony.

2 Sakušak, Puchov muzej Značilna domačija je ometana ne glede na konstrukcijo, ki je lahko lesena ali glinena in je vedno bela. Les s časom potemni, enako je s slamo na strehi. GPS N 5.149.980 E 575.470

2 Sakušak, Puch museum A typical farmstead is daubed irrespective of the construction, which can be wood or clay and is always white. Wood darkens over time, as does the roof thatch.

3 Panonska hiša 1985 Značilnost panonske hiše je, da sta sprednji fasadi vedno svetlejši, zadnji pa temnejši. Tako pokažejo prostor za človeka in za delo: spredaj in na dvorišču; proti cesti ali proti hribu pa je zid temno obarvan. Orientacija hiše je logično s svetlim delom proti soncu, s temnejšo barvo na severu se borijo proti vročini, insektom in mrčesu, pa tudi proti vlagi in mahu.Temne stene ni treba obnavljati tako pogosto kot svetle.

3 Panonska hiša 1985 A characteristic of a Pannonian house is that the front façade is always lighter and the rear darker. The space for people and for work are thus shown: the front and the working yard; towards the road or the hill the wall is dark coloured. The orientation of the house is logical, with the light part towards the sun, and the darker to the north fights against heat, insects and vermin, as well as against damp and moss. The dark walls do not have to be renewed as often as the light.

4 Bukovci Skladnost detajla s celoto je nasploh značilnost vernakularnosti. V Bukovcih je to pravilo. GPS N 5.137.690 E 573.890

4 Bukovci The harmony of the detail with the whole is a characteristic in general of vernacular architecture: in Bukovci this is a rule.

5 Bukovci Preprosto pobarvana hiša v enotni barvi, le z belo obrobo in temnejšimi okni. Imenitno. GPS N 5.137.720 E 574.010

5 Bukovci Simply painted house in a uniform colour, except for white surrounds and darker windows. Excellent.

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Shrine

Znamenje je navadno sakralni objekt, ki so ga vedno gradili mojstri. Medtem ko so velike objekte gradili tuji mojstri, ki so prinašali vplive, znanja in smernice svojega časa, so male objekte vedno postavljali domači mojstri. Vernakularna arhitektura je plod nešolanih ljudi, ki niso poznali velikih arhitektur in so vse izumljali znova. Znamenje je poudarek v prostoru, ki spominja ali slavi nek dogodek. Nekatera znamenja svetilniškega tipa, katerih namenje bil ozačevati poti in sumerjati, so predvsem naročilo gosposke. Potemtakem so delo tujih, šolanih mojstrov, predvsem kamnosekov. Take imamo pri Radgoni, njegov posnetek pri Cenkovi in gre predvsem za zahtevna kamnoseška dela, v danem primeru spiralnih utorov vse do vrha, ko se odpre prostor za svetilko, ki je usmerjena le v želeno smer. Vernakularna arhitektura je namenjena vsem, zato ni usmerjena in ne loči uporabnikov, je preprosta za delo in na pogled. Taka znamenja stojijo predvsem v Slovenskih goricah. So iz enega samega kamna, so zidana, imajo le poslikano telo s streho ali pa posamične odprtine, v katere so vlagali kipe nabožne vsebine. Znamenja vernakularne arhitekture nimajo skupnega tipa, ne skupnih značilnosti in ne enotne postavitve. Znamenja stojijo na posebnem kraju, a največ jih je na razpotjih, kjer pomagajo popotniku pri orientaciji.

A shrine is a sacral object, which was always built by a master craftsman. Vernacular architecture is the fruit of untrained people, who were unfamiliar with great architecture and who invented everything anew. A shrine is a stress in space, which marks and celebrates some event. The shrines of lantern type, whose purpose was to mark a path and to guide, were mainly commissioned by landowners and the work is by foreign, trained master craftsmen, mainly stonemasons. There is such a shrine by Radgona, and a copy of it by Cenkova. It is above all demanding masonry work, in this case spiral grooves right to the top, when a space for the light opens, which is directed only in the desired direction. Vernacular architecture is intended for all, so it is not directed and does not distinguish users; it is simple for work and in appearance. Such shrines stand above all in Slovenske gorice. They are from a single stone, or are a masonry construction, they have only a painted body with a roof or individual openings, in which were placed statues of a religious nature. There is no common type of shrine in vernacular architecture, no common characteristics and no uniform erection. Shrines stand in special places, mostly at crossroads, where they help travellers find their way.

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<< 1 Pod Smrečnim na Pohorju Čokato zidano znamenje stoji pod domačijo ob cesti. Strma, štirikapna streha je krita s kamnom, v zgornjem delu ima odprtine za nabožne kipce. GPS N 5.144.380 E 540.040

<< 1 Below Smrečno on Pohorje The stocky masonry construction shrine stands below the farm by the road. The steep broach roof is covered by stone, the upper part contains an opening for a religious statue.

2 Zgornje Prebukovje Nedaleč od prvega stoji drugo znamenje, a v vasi in pod cesto. Je bolj sloko in ima še strmejšo streho, prav tako v kamnu. GPS N 5.142.230 E 542.070

2 Zgornje Prebukovje Another shrine stands not far from the first but in the village and, today, below the road. It is more slender and has a steeper roof, similarly in stone.

3 Voličina Masivno, razmeroma visoko znamenje v Zgornji Voličini je preprosto oblikovano kot kvader z zgornjim delom, v katerega so vdelane niše. Streha je kamnita, z robom. GPS N 5.155.900 E 561.160

3 Voličina The massive, relatively high shrine in Zgornja Voličina is simply designed as a square block with an upper part in which niches have been made. The roof is stone, with an edge.

4 Čagona Verjetno najmlajše znamenje med omenjenimi stoji v razcepu vaških cest, v senci košatega drevesa. Štirikapna streha je spodaj zavihana, da zmehča svojo višino. Edino med predstavljenimi ima tudi vidni temelj, ki je visoko dvignjen, da v okolju poudari pomembnost objekta. GPS N 5.155.970 E 571.485

4 Čagona Probably the most recent shrine among those mentioned stands at a junction of village roads in the shade of a spreading tree. The broach roof is curved below, which stresses the height. The only one of those presented that has visible foundations, raised high, which highlights the importance of the object in the environment.

5 Zavrh Najmanjše, a tudi najbolj strukturirano zanmenje stoji pod Zavrhom v Slovenskih goricah. Ozko, sloko telo nosi niše, ki v sosednjih stranicah niso poravnane. Streha je iz velikih kamnitih blokov, s poudarkom na sredini. GPS N 5.154.630 E 564.200

5 Zavrh The smallest, but also the best structured shrine stands below Zavrh in Slovenske gorice. The narrow, slender body has niches, which are not equalled in the neighbouring sides. The roof is from large stone blocks, with a stress in the centre.

6 Teorija Znamenje označuje prostor ali vodi popotnika. (risba)

6 Theory Shrines mark a space or guide the traveller. (drawing)

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Details

Detajli so v vernakularni arhitekturi vedno povsem uporabni in delujejo. Edina izjema so nabožna znamenja, ki so sama po sebi res le dekoracija, a so jih nameščali ritualno in navadno po obnovi, prenovi ali po vzdrževalnih delih, po urejanju. Sicer pa so detajli masivni, gradbeni ali konstrukcijski in finejši, mizarski ali rezbarski v podrobnostih. Konstrukcijski detajli so predvsem tesarsko delo, kjer tramovi nosijo, zapirajo, varujejo. Na kozolcu so vsi detajli zanimivi in vsi imajo svojo funkcijo. Krašeni so le ključni in najvidnejši elementi, predvsem ročice in osrednje lege. Te so opremljene predvsem z začetnicami lastnika in navadno z letnico nastanka. Enaki vzorci so vklesani tudi v trdi les stiskalnic.V trdi les zato, ker se mehak les trga, v stiskalnico pa zaradi časa, ko je treba čakati, da sok priteče. Le takrat so imeli ljudje čas opazovati svojo lastnino. Posebno zanimivi so detajli strešnikov, posebno lesenih. Šinkli, šinteljni so kalani proti osi, skodle počez. Potem so zanimive postavitve, ko imamo dvojno kritje s počez, nasproti postavljenimi elementi v obliki ribje kosti, lahko pa je poenostavljena spodnja plast v ravni kritini (ponekod jim pravijo 'skodle', četudi so to deske).Tudi dimenzije se razlikujejo od kraja do kraja. Konstrukcijski detajl stopničenja izgleda dekorativen, a ni. Je čista funkcija. Spodnje tramove, ki previsno gledajo iz zidu v vogalu porežejo, ne zaradi lepote, pač pa zaradi tega, ker tam ne delujejo in bi vogalno zvezo le obteževali. Mizarski detajli so stvar zarezovanja in so predvsem ploskovne kompozicije, zaradi preprostosti izvedbe simetrične na dva elementa. Enako je s kovaškimi dodatki, kot so nasadila, tečaji, ključavnice. V starih zgradbah so klujčavnice mizarsko delo po načelu zobate letve, medtem ko je ključ premakljiv (kar so pri avtomobilski industriji izumili šele pred nekaj leti). Zanimive so peči. Najstarejša je bučna peč. Ime ima po okroglini buče, a vse skupaj temelji na večanju površine, ki jo ogreva. Za razliko od običajnih pečnic so bučne votle in tako je peč še učinkovitejša. Posebni detajli, na primer mlinska kolesa, imajo svoje značilnosti. Medtem ko je pri kolesu na Muri poudarek na dolgem vretenu, na osi, imajo potočni mlini kratka vretena, pa močne prečke kolesa samega. V vernakularni arhitekturi ima vsak detajl svoje mesto in svoje delo. Noben detajl ni narejen 'za lepoto', a je lep, ko deluje in je koristen.

Details in vernacular architecture are always entirely functional. The only exceptions are religious shrines, which are in themselves only decorative, although they were placed ritually and normally during renovation, restoration or after maintenance work. However, details can be massive, built or constructional, or finer, carpentry details. Construction details are primarily rough carpentry work, where beams support, close or protect. All details on a kozolec are interesting and all have their function. Only the key and most visible elements are decorated: mainly the braces and the central purlin. These are mostly fitted with the owner's initials and usually the year of erection. The same patterns are also carved in the hardwood of a press: in the hardwood because softwood tears, on a press because of the time needed to wait for the juice to flow. Only then did people have the opportunity to observe their own property. The details of roof tiles are particularly interesting, especially wooden shingles. They can be split along down the centre ('šinkl' or 'šintl'), or along the radius ('skodla'). The laying is also interesting, when there is a double cover, the upper laid in a herringbone pattern; the lower layer can be simplified with straight shingles (they are sometimes called shingles, sometimes boards). The dimensions also differ from place to place. The construction detail of gradation appears decorative but it is not: it is pure function. The lower beams overhanging the wall are cut at the corner – not for the sake of beauty but because they are not functional there and would only add weight to the corner joint. Carpentry details are a matter of fretwork and are mainly in a flat composition and, because of simplicity of execution, symmetrical on two elements. The same with metal additions, such as handles, hinges and keyholes. In old buildings, keyholes are carpentry work on the principle of a toothed board, while the key is movable (which the automobile industry only 'invented' a few years ago). Stoves are interesting: the oldest is a pumpkin stove. It is named after a globular pumpkin but is based on the larger surface area that is heated. In contrast to ordinary stoves, the casing of a pumpkin stove is hollow and the stove is thus more efficient. Special details, such as mill wheels, have their own characteristics. While the stress on wheels on the Mura is on a long shaft, axle, mills on streams have short shafts and strong spokes to the wheel itself. Every detail has its place and function in vernacular architecture. No detail is made 'for beauty', but it is beautiful when it works and is functional.

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<< 1 Detajli ročic,Tepanje Kozolec je iz prve polovice dvajsetega stoletja. O tem pričajo žeblji, verjetno žičniki. To ne zmanjšuje pomena dobrega oblikovanja, ko elementi konstrukcije najprej nosijo konstrukcijo in šele potem kažejo svojo obliko. Tako je delovanje neokrnjeno, tesar pa je lahko pokazal, kaj zna. GPS N 5.133.450 E 537.610

<< 1 Details of braces, Tepanje The kozolec is from the first half of the twentieth century: this is testified by the nails. This does not reduce the importance of the good design, when elements of the construction first support the construction and only then show their form. The function is thus intact and the carpenter can show what he knows.

2 Streha v slami Slamnata streha ima na Pohorju pleten rob v čelu, panonska pa plete sleme. Tako se borijo proti vetru, ki piha na Pohorju iz drugih smeri kot v Panoniji.

2 Thatched roof A thatched roof on Pohorje has a braided edge to the frontage, and a Pannonian one a plaited ridge; they thus resist the wind, which blows on Pohorje from a different direction than in Pannonia.

3 Šinklni, šinteljni, skodle Bistvo šinkla je, da je kalan in ne žagan kot deske. Zato ima bistveno daljšo življenjsko dobo, je pa tudi dražji, a na strehi izgleda bistveno bolje od drugih kritin.

3 Shingles The essence of a shingle is that it is cleaved and not sawn like a board. It thus has an essentially longer lifespan; it is also more expensive but looks much better on a roof than other coverings.

4 Primarna konstrukcija strehe, Lahonci 89 Streha ima navadno po dve legi, špirovce in poveznik, kar tvori povezan trikotnik. Lahko pa je tam še slemenska lega, ki je potrebna pri večjih razponih. Slemenska lega lahko leži na prečnih zidovih, ima stebre ali pa je podpirana s po dvema tramovoma. To je potem primarna konstrukcija, ki drži nosilni del, sekundarna konstrukcija pa nosi kritino. GPS N 5.148.565 E 585.785

4 Primary construction of a roof, Lahonci 89 A roof normally has two purlins, rafters and a beam that create a connected triangle. There can also be a ridge purlin, which is needed with larger spans: the ridge purlin can sit on the transverse walls, it has pillars or is supported on two joists. This is then the primary construction that holds the bearing parts, and the secondary construction carries the roof cover.

5 Stopničenje ali korbeling (Levovnik nad Dravčami) Korbeling v eni ravnini je stopničenje, ko tramovi v previsu nosijo lego. Z rezanjem (krajšanjem) spodnjih tramov prihranimo material in večamo nosilnost.Vse skupaj izgleda zelo dekorativno, a je čista konstrukcija. GPS N 5.158.205 E 510.040

5 Gradation or corbelling (Levovnik above Dravče) Corbelling in one level is gradation, when beams on an overhang carry the purlins. By cutting (shortening) the lower beams, material is saved and the bearing capacity is increased. Altogether it looks very decorative: but it is purely constructional.

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6 Odprtina glinaste stene Glinasta stena nima, v nasprotju z lesom, določenih oblik, tako da so okna in line povsem poljubni. Ker so dodelani z roko, so tudi oblike povsem naravne, mehke.

6 Openings in a clay wall A clay wall, in contrast to a timber one, does not have specific forms, so that windows and embrasures are entirely arbitrary. Because they are added by hand, the shapes are also entirely natural, soft.

7 Detajl v deskah Delo s tramovi je tesarstvo, z deskami mizarstvo. Kozolec je na primer tesarska konstrukcija in ima detajle mizarja le v poznejših dodelavah. Bistvo mizarjenja je v žaganju, ki ga je z lahkoto mogoče doseči le z odprtimi zarezami. A dve, druga proti drugi obrnjeni zarezi tvorita navidezno zaprt prostor. Zato so lahko taki vzorci prav zanimivi.

7 Details in boards Work with beams is rough carpentry, with boards fine carpentry. A kozolec is an example of rough carpentry and fine carpentry details are only added later. Essentially, fine carpentry is sawing, which can only be achieved with open cuts. Two, however, the second turned towards the first, create a visible open space. So patterns can be really interesting.

8 Tesarske zveze (Vitomarci, vrata v kaščo) Tesarski način dela oblikovanja lesa v prostoru je pri drobnih elementih težak in redek.V Slovenskih goricah so z njim opremljali predvsem kašče. GPS N 5.152.670 E 571.730

8 Timber joints (Vitomarci, door in a granary) A rough carpentry method of shaping timber in space in tiny elements is difficult and rare: in Slovenske gorice mainly granaries are fitted with them.

9 Kovan detajl nasadil za vrata Na istih vratih so tudi drugi detajli dodelani do popolnosti. Kovani deli nosijo pečat dobrega obrtnika. GPS N 5.152.670 E 571.730

9 Metal detail set in a door Other details are also added for completion on the same doors: metal parts bear the seal of a good craftsman.

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10 Peč v dimnici (Pobernik) Preprosta peč se odpira v prostor, iz 'dimnice' pa skozi odprtine oken ali pa nad vrati ven. Peč je prebeljena, a le do svoje višine, nad njo je tudi prostor zadimljen, sajast, črn. GPS N 5.158.005 E 510.270

10 Stove in a smoke room (Pobernik) The simple stove opens into the space and out from the 'smoke room' through the window openings or above the door of the smoke room. The stove is whitewashed, but only to its own height, above it the space is also smoky, sooty, black.

11Bučna peč (Hren pri Sv. Primožu na Pohorju) Bučna peč je ena najstarejših pri nas, ko že imamo čisto 'hišo', brez dima in skoraj vedno s črno kuhinjo. GPS N 5.153.185 E 513.420

11 Pumpkin stove (Hren near Sv. Primož on Pohorje) A pumpkin stove is one of the oldest here, when there was already a clean 'house', without smoke, and almost always with a black kitchen.

12 Pečnica bučne peči Pečnica bučne peči je okrogla in z obliko veča svojo moč oddajanja toplote. Okrogla oblika veča stično površino pečnice z zrakom, ki ga v prostoru ogreva.

13 Notranjsot bučne peči Pečnice bučne peči so votle in še na ta način večajo površino, ki jo oblizuje ogenj. Uporablja enak princip kot na zunanji površini, zato je tako učinkovita.

12 Element of pumpkin stove A tile of a pumpkin stove is convex and its shape increases the heat output: the convex shape increases the contact surface of the tile with the air that it heats in the room.

13 Interior of a pumpkin stove Tiles of a pumpkin stove are hollow and further increase the area close to the heat in this way. It uses the same principle as on the exterior surface and is thus so effective.

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14 Konstrukcija kozolca, detajl Konstrukcija kozolca je značilna po njegovih diagonalah, ki konstrukcijo zavetrujejo. Kompozicija je fina v celoti, v detajlu je groba, kot pravijo tesarji, 'na velikost konjskega nohta'.

14 Construction of a kozolec, detail The construction of kozolec is characterized by its diagonals, which face the wind. The composition is fine as a totality, in detail it is rough, 'to the size of a horse's hoof' as carpenters say.

15 Konstrukcija hiše, detajl v lesu (Pertoča) Drobnejši detajl, delno že mizarski, a še vedno v prostoru. GPS N 5.145.790 E 513.725

15 Construction of a house, detail in wood (Pertoča) Smaller details, already partially carpentry, but still in the open.

16 Masivna konstrukcija mlinskega kolesa (Nogarjev mlin) Les je zaradi velikih obremenitev in stalne vlage masiven, predvsem vreteno, okrog katerega se kolo vrti in poganja mehanizem. GPS N 5.158.205 E 510.040

16 Massive construction of a mill wheel (Nogar mill) The wood is massive because of the large burden and constant damp, above all the axle, around which the wheel turns, and the drive mechanism.

17 Mlinsko kolo na Muri Zaradi velikosti, kolo je široko nekaj metrov, so elementi na videz tanki. Taki so tudi zaradi hitrosti. Mlin na potoku se vrti hitro, na reki počasneje, medtem ko mora biti končni učinek enak. GPS N 5.159.160 E 592.390

17 Mill wheel on the Mura Because of the size, the wheel is some metres wide, the elements appear to be thin. They also seem so because of the speed: a mill on the stream turns quickly, on a river more slowly, while the final effect must be the same.

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Houses that are no more

Vernakularna arhitektura je preprosta, je plod preprostih ljudi in je namenjena takim. Danes smo ljudje bolj ali manj šolani, poznamo svet in arhitekturne dosežke včerajšnjega in današnjega dne. Danes postavljamo arhitekturo arhitekti, strokovnjaki svojega področja. Poseben problem te arhitekture je njena življenjska doba. Zaradi izbranih naravnih materialov in zaradi izjemno kvalitetnih detajlov ter končne obdelave je ta doba razmeroma dolga. Žal pa živimo v času, ki so ga zaznamovale vojne prejšnjega stoletja in prinesle razdejanje tudi na deželo. Predvsem po drugi vojni, ko je bila dežela požgana, se je pojavil nov sistem hitre gradnje, ki je zagotovil streho tisočim, a ob tem spremenil arhitekturo in deželo. Nekdaj je institut 'županovega arhitekta' (kar ni bil nujno tudi res arhitekt) zagotovil umno gradnjo na smiselnih, varnih lokacijah, ki so se izogibale vodotokov, plazišč in so puščale polja kmetu. Po vojni so se razmere spremenile, premalo je bilo prostora in sprostiti je bilo treba vse možnosti. A to bi bilo treba narediti sistemsko in časovno omejeno. Tako pa je, predvsem na vasi, institut 'nadomestne gradnje', sicer dobro zamišljen, ki je zagotavljal hitro in ceneno pridobivanje gradbene dokumentacije, naredil mnogo več škode kot koristi. Enako je s cenenimi katalogi, pa naj bodo beograjski ali domači, od včeraj ali današnji. Za malo denarja malo glasbe. Arhitektura je stvar arhitekta. Zavedati se moramo, da arhitekt, ki arhitekturo zasnuje in jo vodi do konca, prinese vsaj desetkrat toliko prihranka, kot je cena njegovega dela. Objektivno. Kratkoročno pa seveda vsak vse zna, a vsaka napaka potegne za sabo nove in nove. Poseben problem sta staranje prebivalstva in odseljevanje mladih. Toda ob ustreznih posegih je stara hiša enako udobna, energetsko varčnejša, varnejša in lepša od tiste v mestu. Ampak to ni stvar ekonomike, je vprašanje kulture. Strokovnjaki jo moramo le odkriti, jo dokazati, pokazati in razložiti. Ljudje na vasi jo poznajo, le pokazati jim jo moramo spet. Ob tem je treba povedati, da živimo danes in da moramo narediti vse, da bomo jutri živeli bolje. Radi pogledamo dimnico, črno kuhinjo ali stranišče na štrbunk. Pogledamo. Živeti pa moramo boljše, kvalitetnejše in uspešnejše življenje kot včeraj. Kultura? Dobili smo jo od svojih prednikov in to v obliki reda in ne receptov.Tega manj umni ne ločijo. Staro ni zastarelo, zastarel je recept, namen, pot in cilj pa ne. In zato moramo uporabiti zdravo kmečko pamet, tudi s pomočjo računalnika. Ampak računalnik ni nadomestek za pamet, le pot nam krajša, da bomo dosegli to, kar so nam naši predniki želeli. Z več znanja in z večjo zavzetostjo ter s sistemskim delom ustreznih strok bi tudi varstvene organizacije za kulturno dediščino lahko, več – morale bi doseči, da bi imenitne hiše na naslednjih straneh še vedno stale in bi bile v ponos naši kulturi. In mi danes? Bomo boljši? Bomo kaj naredili? Moj prispevek je tale knjiga. Posvečam jo vsej arhitekturi naših dedov, ki nas je naučila, kako živeti bolje. In če bo zaradi mojega dela vsaj ena hiša obnovljena in ji bomo tako skupaj podaljšali življenje, bo moj cilj dosežen.

Vernacular architecture is simple, it is the fruit of simple people and is meant to be such. Today, people are more or less educated, we are familiar with the world and architectural achievements of yesterday and today. Architecture today is made by architects, specialists in their own field. A particular problem of this architecture is its lifespan. Because of the chosen natural materials and because of the exceptional quality of details and the final treatment, this period is relatively long. Unfortunately, the time we live in is marked by the wars of the last century, which also brought destruction to the countryside. Mainly after the Second World War, when the land was scorched, a new system of fast building appeared, which provided a roof for thousands but changed the architecture and the countryside. Formerly, the institution of the 'mayoral architect' (which was not necessary actually an architect) ensured intelligent building in sensible, safe locations, which avoided watercourses, landslips and left the fields for the farmer. After the war, conditions changed, there was too little space and it was necessary to realise all possibilities. This should have been done systematically, though, and for a limited time. So – mainly in villages – the institution of 'replacement building' although well-meant and it provided fast and inexpensive construction documentation, did much more harm than good. It is the same with price catalogues, whether from Belgrade or domestic, yesterday or today. You only get a little music for a little money. Architecture is a matter of the architect. We must be aware that an architect who designs architecture and leads the business to completion brings savings of at least ten times the price of his work. Objectively. In the short-term, of course, everyone knows everything, but every mistake draws more and more in its train. The aging of the population is a particular problem, and young people moving away. Under suitable conditions, though, an old house is as comfortable, more energy efficient, safer and more attractive than those in the city. This is not a matter of economics, it is a matter of culture. We experts must reveal it, show it, prove and explain it. People in the village know it: we just have to show it them again. In addition, it needs to be said that we live today and must do everything to ensure that we will live better tomorrow. We like to look at a chimney, a black kitchen or a privy. We look; but we must live better, higher quality and more successful lives than yesterday. Culture? We got it from our forebears; in the form of order and not as recipes. The less intelligent do not distinguish this. The old is not obsolete, obsolete is a recipe: a purpose, path and aim is not. And so we must use healthy peasant intelligence, even with the aid of a computer – but a computer is not a substitute for intelligence, it merely shortens the path to achieving what our forebears wanted. With more knowledge and greater awareness and with systematic work by the appropriate professional organizations for the protection of the cultural heritage, we could, indeed should do more: we must ensure that the excellent houses on the following pages will remain standing and be the pride of our culture. And what about us today? Will we be better? Will we do anything? My contribution is this book: I dedicate it to all the architecture of our forebears, which taught us: how to live better. And if at least one house is restored because of my work and we thus prolong its life, my aim will be achieved.

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<< 1 Brengova 1989 Domačija v Brengovi je stala na imenitnem mestu, nad potokom, ob mlaki, pred trto in seveda z obveznim vrtom pred glavnim čelom. V nadaljevanju je imela tudi vse potrebne prostore za živino, za voz in za orodje. GPS N 5.157.990 E 571.400

<<1 Brengova 1989 The farm in Brengova stood in an excellent position, above a stream, beside a pond, in front of the vines and, of course, with the mandatory garden in front of the main façade. In the continuation it also had all the necessary spaces for animals, for wagons and for tools.

2 Filovci 1990 Intenzivna modra barva je bila nekdaj prav običajna, ne le zaradi dosegljivosti, saj so apnu primešali kar nekaj modre galice, ki je ostala od mešanice za brizganje trte proti škodljivcem.

2 Filovci 1990 The intensive blue colour was formerly quite normal, not just because of availability, although copperas left over from spraying the vines against pests was mixed into the lime.

3 Gančani 1991 Posebno lepa domačija v akel delno stoji še danes, a s popačeno streho po menda podtaknjenem požaru. Ima pravilen redosled prostorov: od človekovega bivanja, prostora za orodje, za hrano, za velike živali, za male, za voz in končno za drva. Še podstreho je umni gospodar uporabljal za spravilo žita. GPS N 5.165.180 E 595.870

3 Gančani 1991 A particularly attractive farmstead at an angle still partially stands today, but with a deformed roof, presumably after a fire. It has the correct succession of spaces: from human dwelling, space for tools, for food, for large animals, for small animals, for wagons and finally for firewood. The intelligent master also used the roof space for the storage of grain.

4 Dolge njive 1985 Skromna hiša z velikimi strehami, tudi prek vhoda v klet, ter s hlevom v podaljšku, je stala še v devetdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja. Ponašala se je z izjemno usklajenimi odnosi. Imela je tri glavna pročelja in hlev, ki se je ločil od drugih delov po tem, da je imel strehol brez čopa. GPS N 5.152.950 E 561.940

4 Dolge njive 1985 A modest house with large roofs, also over the entrance to the cellar, and with the stable in the extension, it still stood in the nineteen nineties. It boasted extremely harmonious proportions: it had three main proceliums and the stockhouse, which was distinguished from the other parts in having no hip.

5 Lendavske gorice 1986 Najbolj žalostno je bilo umiranje kleti v Lendavskih goricah. Kleti, namenjene občasnemu bivanju, ki so večinoma služile kot stalno bivališče manj premožnih ljudi, so bile postavljene okrog leta 1900. In ko so trte postale nedonosne, so se ljudje umaknili s trebuhom za kruhom. Hiše so ostale. Ampak zapuščena hiša je kot zapuščen človek, ni več daleč do konca. Žalostno je pogledati sliko, kako se hiša pogreza sama vase... GPS N 5.157.790 E 612.470

5 Lendavske gorice 1986 The dying cellar in Lendavske gorice is very sad. Cellars intended for temporary dwelling, which for the most part served as permanent residence for less prosperous people, were set up around 1900. And when the vines became unprofitable, the people withdrew in search of a living. The houses remained. But an abandoned house is like an abandoned person: no longer far from the end. It is sad to look at the picture, how the house is immersed in itself alone…

6 Zamušani 1990 (risba)

6 Zamušani 1990 (drawing)

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Glossary (Slovene)

kot ga razume arhitekt v vernakularni arhitekturi antropomorfne mere mere, blizu človeku; prirejene po njem (na primer: palec, čevelj, komolec, seženj..) adobe (angl.) sistem zidanja z glinastimi zidaki, sušenimi na soncu (glej: čerpič)

apnenca apnenica, jama, za žganje apna (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

akel kljuka; hiša 'na akel' je domačija Severovzhoda, zapognjena

arhitektura arhitektura je oblikovanje prostora, pri čemer je prostor vse okrog nas, rezultati pa so gradbeni objekti, ko tvorijo grajeno okolje - smiselno, funkcionalno, konstrukcijsko, estetsko, pomensko; arhitektura skladno sestavlja te elemente v celoto: od detajla do kulturne krajine beseda arhitektura je smiselni prevod iz grščine: arhi tektura = trdno stati (glej: klasična, vernakularna arhitektura)

aklep kapna lega (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) aksonometrija navidezni pogled z višine in od strani: od perspektivnega pogleda se loči, ker tečejo vse linije vzporedno in ne v očišča, je napreprostejša risba, ki ponazarja tri dimenzije Alpe 1 geografski pojem: pri nas Julijske Alpe (Gorenjska) in centralne Alpe (vse do konca Pohorja) 2 gorska veriga, ki se vleče iz osrednje Evrope vse do Pohorja, pri nas so najbolj znane Julijske Alpe, Pohorje pa so del Centralnih Alp ameriški tloris tloris, ki ga gledamo kot klasični tloris, a vidimo sestavne elemente v ogledalu navzgor: da čimbolj popolno prikažemo na primer strešno konstrukcijo animacija oživljena risba; risba, ki predstavlja delovanje antropologija veda o človeku (kot pojavu)

arhitekturna krajina omejen prostor z enakimi značilnostmi arhitekturno oblikovanje oblikovanje, projektiranje arhitekture armiranje učvrščevanje, ojačitev krhkega materiala z vzdolžnimi elementi (slama, veje brina, jeklene žice in palice) arpha (hortus penes Arpham) latinski izraz 'arpha' uporabljajo tudi v Graubuendnu, za naš kozolec pa ga je našel Pirkovič, ko se pojavi leta 1665 artkase švedski izraz za stožčasto stojalo za obdevanje snopov (Laid)

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baba temelj (gl. temelj) pri kozolcu: prvotno neobdelan, masivnejši del stebra, ki kakega pol metra gleda iz zemlje, njegov zgornji rob pa predstavlja računsko izhodišče za proporcioniranje babca temelj (kozolca), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) baita pastirski stan v Dolomitih, ladinsko bajta preprosta, majhna hiša za delavce (na Pohorju za žagarje, drvarje); ladinsko 'baita', pastirski stan v Dolomitih balkon previsna konstrukcija za navidezno povezavo notranjosti z zunanjostjo, v višini balvan velik hlod; v kamnu velika masa materiala, ki tvori neke vrste stopnico basrelief globoki relief, ko je slika na pol oblikovana v globini bat kembelj, kloc (Slovenske gorice), masivnejši

element, ki udarja in s tem proizvaja zvok (pri zvonu, pri klopotcu) beton umetni kamen: pred naravnim ima to prednost, da ga lahko armiramo, učvrstimo - takrat prenaša tudi natege, ki jih liti beton ali naravni kamen ne moreta binkljn železni kotnik (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

s katerim ravnajo polje po oranju 2 navzkriž 'prepleteni' tramovi, ki s križanjem tvorijo čelno ploskev kozolca: zavetruje, nosi in zapira; 'prepletenost' je izvedena z zarezovanjem 3 polje, okno pri kozolcu (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) 4 pri kozolcu na barju: sestav tramov v zemlji (v vodi), na katerem stoji steber: temelj specifične oblike branca plašč, predpasnik pri kozolcu, ko sta eno ali dve polji prekriti kot zaščita pred nenadnim dežjem (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina), glej tudi 'birtah'

bivalna hiša zgradba za bivanje človeka bivalna hiša z gospodarskim delom bivalna zgradba, ki ima v svojem sklopu tudi prostore za gospodarske dejavnosti (hlev, senik, mlekarnica, kokošnjak, svinjak..) birtoh ali birtah narečno 'predpasnik': pri kozolcu je to nadstrešek, navadno le nad enim oknom, glej tudi 'branca' (Gorenjska) blato ilovica, glina kot gradbeni material za blatnjačo in za butanco (po Šarfovi) blatnjača hiša z zidovi iz gnetene ilovice, armiranih z vejami brina; zidovi so končno obsekani v ravnino bobrovec strešnik ploske oblike, ki ga sestavljamo s preklopom (v dveh ravninah, zahteva dvojno kritje): ime je dobil po polkrožnem zaključku, ki posnema bobrov rep

brin (lat.) juniperus, igličast, smolast grm, čigar les sčasoma zatrdi, 'okamni', in se uporablja za učvrščevanje ilovnatih sten, pa kot nosilna konstrukcija strehe (pineta, Sardinija) brod rečno plovilo, ki je vezano na žico: deluje prečno na tok za povezavo obeh brežin bučna peč peč z okroglimi pečnicami, ki imajo izdolbine za povečevanje površine, ki ogreva, tako imenovana zaradi značilne oblike bučnica pečnica bučne peči, ki ima izboklino v obliki buče, da veča površino, ki ogreva butana gradnja grajenje s svežo, pregneteno ilovico v opaže, kjer jo vanje 'butamo'; navadno je ojačana s slamo

boć (z mehkim ć) letev v retoromanščini ('Rumantsch'), po Simonettu bognar kolar (gorenjsko, po Koširju) bor mehak les, iglavec

celica najmanjša zaključena (in popolna) enota: v biologiji ima jedro, maso in obod; teoretično krogla center 1 osrednja točka, okrog katere se vrtijo sestavni deli lika (v dveh dimenzijah) ali telesa (v treh dimenzijah) 2 v mestu: jedro, osrednji del cep ruski izraz za cepec cepec lesena palica iz dveh neenakih delov z zglobom: s cepcem mlatimo žito in s tem ločujemo zrno od plev cepin drvarsko orodje (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) ceplenje kalanje (za kritino: skodel, šinkljnov), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) chischner retoromanski ('Rumantsch') izraz za napravo za sušenje: uporabljajo ga v zahodnem delu kantona Graubuenden v Švici (Simonett, Juvanec) cigla opeka, zidak iz žgane ilovice (iz nemščine: ziegel) ciglar mojster, obrtnik za izdelavo opeke, 'cigle'

butana hiša hiša, grajena v načinu butanja

cimarak sekira s kratkim ročajem (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

butanca hiše, grajena v sistemu butanja

cimr lokalizem: soba; iz nemščine

butanje način gradnje zidu naphane ilovice med dva (lesena) opaža

cimpr streha (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) cimprana hiša tesana hiša iz lesa

bordura obroba caschner oznaka za kozolec v Graubuendnu (Cevc)

bosarvaj vodna tehtnica (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) brana 1 poljedelsko orodje: lesen okvir s križem in s trni,

cašne retoromanski izraz za napravo za sušenje (Scheuermeier)

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cimprman tesar (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) cimprarija tesarstvo (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

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cimper 1 leseno ostrešje, navadno se uporablja kot: lesena konstrukcija 2 lesena konstrukcija hiše vzhodnega dela Slovenije

je čelo navadno leseno, saj je manj pomembno, če je na gospodarskem delu

cimperman tesar (tudi: gorenjsko, po Koširju)

čevelj stara dolžinska mera, med 25 in 45 centimetri, najbolj uporabljani angleški čevelj meri 30.479 cm

cisterna zbiralnik za vodo cm centimeter, stoti del metra (glej meter) cola stara dolžinska enota, palec ali inch, 2.539 cm

čerpič glinast zidak, sušen na soncu

čokat (kozolec) čokatost predstavlja v kompoziciji širino: čokaz kozolec je tip, ki stoji predvsem na Dolenjskem in je širok in visok (nasprotno ozkemu, slokemu, ki je doma na Gorenjskem)

corbelling korbeling (ang.): sistem zidanja v suhem kamnu v prerezu stopničenje, previsevanje; v tlorisu krog; v prostoru neprava kupola

čop mehčanje strehe s kratko strešino, pravokotno na sleme; izhaja iz slamnate strehe, ki je problematiko odprtega zatrepa reševala s štirikapno streho

coslez izvedba besede kozolec iz leta 1659, po Pirkoviču

črep opeka (strešna)

cubit komolec, okrog 50 centimetrov

črna kuhinja kuhinja, v katero se odpira peč: 'črna' je zaradi dima, ki izhaja v prostor in ga odvajamo skozi strop in streho ali v dimnik navzven

cukžaga žaga na poteg, za dva drvarja (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) cvek žebelj (iz nemščine), na Koroškem in na južnem Pohorju je to lesen klin tesarske zveze

čvrsto trdo, trdno

čebelnjak objekt za vzgojo čebel in pridelavo medu čelo sprednji del hiše, navadno bolj ambiciozno oblikovan: mestna hiša ima lahko dve enakovredni čeli (na krajših straneh pravokotnega tlorisa), kmečka (vernakularna arhitektura) pa le eno – v bivalnem delu, zadaj pa

deska tanjši, ploski profil žaganega lesa za oblogo konstrukcije deska je žagana iz debla (zato ima vzdolžno ranjene žile): na streho jo nameščajo drugo zraven druge, s preklopom pa naslednjo plast; za razliko od skodel ima krajšo življenjsko dobo detajl del celote; lahko je zaključen detajl ali pa je sestavni del večjega sklopa diagonala 1 diagonala je prečna povezava dveh nasprotnih točk geometrijskega lika 2 določa razmerje dolžin stranic in s tem lika, ki ga stranici oklepata (trikotnik: s pomočjo simetrije tudi drugi liki) dijnata kvenja črba kuhinja, verjetno iz: dimnata kuhinja (Pomurje, po Mavčcu) dim zunanji, stranski produkt oksidacije (gorenja), ki se zaradi toplote praviloma dviga dim v črni kuhinji 'topli' dim se dviga, a je zaradi isker nevaren 'hladni' dim je dim, ki ga vodimo po najdaljši možni poti (diagonalno) skozi prostor v izhod, da pride v dimnik (ali dimnično odprtino) že ohlajen (prvi dimniki so leseni)

čvrstost trdnost

cviboh oznaka za kozolec, po Cevcu cviter kozolec na kozla ali na psa (po Veri Smole)

dera lesena naprava, pri kozolcu pladenj za sušenje, predvsem prosa; izhaja iz nemščine: doerren, sušiti; ima jo kozolec pod Savo

deblo osnovni, vertikalni del drevesa, ki ga najbolj uporabljamo v tesarstvu in v mizarstvu; teoretično je deblo okroglega prereza decimalni sistem desetiški sistem, kjer je večja enota razdeljena na deset manjših dekor 1 dekor je posamični element, detajl okrasja 2 sistem krašenja dekoracija okrasje: ponavljajoči se detajli, ki predstavljajo krašenje

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dimenzija določena dolžina, razdalja med dvema točkama, a izražena v dogovorjeni merski enoti dve dimenziji določata ploskev, tri dimenzije pa telo dimnica zgradba z osrednjim prostorom, ki ima peč, ki se odpira v prostor; hiša dimnica ima lahko dimnik (v drugem prostoru in ne v 'hiši') ali pa odvaja dim skozi množico oken po vsem čelu zgradbe, ki so majhna in imajo praviloma drsne lopute dimnik arhitekturni element odvoda dima iz gorišča v zrak: najbolj viden je zunanji del dimnika; najbolj značilni zunanji deli so na Krasu (ker morajo

zagotavljati odvod dima tudi v neugodnih vremenskih okoliščinah - v vetru) distančnik vmesnik, ki drži razstoj dveh elementov dm decimeter, deseti del metra doga deska pri lesenem čebru, doge veže kovani obroč, ki je nabit na stožčasto obliko čebra Dolenjska pokrajina južno od Ljubljane dom dom kot pojem predstavlja v arhitekturi domačo hišo

med ljudmi in razpoložljivimi sredstvi

cilja vrača z drugim prevoznim sredstvom

ekonomika 1 določa način udejanjanja razpolaganja z razpoložljivimi sredstvi na osnovi jasno opredeljenega končnega cilja oz. rezultata 2 ekonomika materiala zajema celovit vpogled nad konstrukcijskim materialom od pridelave, načinov vgradnje, načinov vzdrževanja, uporabe in kasnejše predelave materiala

forštnar gozdar (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

eksaktnost točnost (merska, časovna, v izražanju)

funkcija delovanje (funkcioniranje = učinkovitost)

drča 1 lesen žleb za spravilo hlodov v dolino (na Pohorju: riža) 2 lesena konstrukcija za spuščanje lesa v naklonu (gorenjsko, po Koširju)

enojno kritje prekrivanje strehe z elementi v eni sami ravnini: tesnenje je izvedeno z zarezami tako kritje je tanjše in lažje od dvojnega enorednik stegnjeni kozolec v Mirnski dolini (po Veri Smole)

družba skupnost (ljudi) s skupnimi interesi, ki jim arhitektura nudi optimalne možnosti za delo in bivanje

espigueiro sušilnica za koruzo iz kamna, a z detalji lesa, severni del Portugalske

drva les za kurjavo

etaža enota arhitekture v višini (fr.: etage), nadstropje

drvar delavec, ki seka drevesa, ki 'pripravlja' drva

fuga vmesni prostor med gradbenima elementoma

ekscenter dobesedno: iz središča; naprava, ki z vrtenjem spreminja krožno delovanje v vzdolžno (primer pri parnem stroju, pri črpalki vodnjaka itn.) enakostranični trikotnik trikotnik s tremi enako dolgimi stranicami in s tremi enakimi koti (60 stopinj); kolikor je stranica enaka dolžini '1', je višina enakostraničnega trikotnika kvadratni koren iz tri polovic

domačija sestav bivalne hiše z gospodarskimi poslopji (in hišami drugih) ter s funkcionalnimi površinami (dvorišče, gumno itn), ki delujejo v sklopu

frčada strešno okno

duplo prostor votlega drevesnega debla

gabarit 1 razmejnica (grafično: črta) med naravno ali grajeno krajino in nebom 2 skrajne mere kompozicije; teoretično so stalne, v praksi pa se vizualno spreminjajo, odvisno od dimenzij in od oblike objekta, ter od razdalje (od koder gledamo) gankč mostovž, balkon z zunanjimi stopnicami in z vhodom v skedenj, odprtine v podu imajo 'polkna', zapiralna krila (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) gater žaga za žaganje hlodov, tudi 'venecijanka' gebn skedenj (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) geografija zemljepis

feld šmitna kovaška naprava za vpihavanje zraka, meh (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

geografska mreža sistem razdelitve na karti: medtem ko je vodoravnost vedno prikazana horizontalno (vzporedniki), zavisi vertikalnost od sistema ortogonalna, pravokotna mreža je le teoretični približek dejanskega stanja točke, ki leži pravokotno na os skozi center Zemlje geografska mreža je označevana v stopinjah, minutah in sekundah, danes za to uporabljamo meter

efekt rezultat delovanja

flos splav, sestavljivo plovilo iz hlodov, ki sami sebe prevažajo po reki navzdol

gepl pogonska naprava (za mlačev), z zunanjim pogonom

ekonomija veda, ki preučuje in razlaga materialne odnose

flosar splavar, delavec na splavu, ki ga usmerja in se s

getreideharfe nemško: dvojni vezani kozolec, kot ga imenuje Pseiner

dvojno kritje prekrivanje strehe z elementi v dveh ravninah: tesnenje je izvedeno s preklopom, tako kritje je debelejše in težje od enojnega, zahteva močnejšo strešno konstrukcijo

fava ladinski izraz za elemente sušilne naprave (sistem letev) na gospodarskem poslopju

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glina naravni material, ki z vodo in s peskom tvori konstruktivni material: ilovico gliste ('v glistah') prekajevalnica, lesen zbit prostor za prekajevanje na podstrehi (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) gorica majhna gora; bolj običajno se uporablja kot 'vinska gorica', nasad vinske trte; 'gorice' (množina) - glej Slovenske gorice

tleh je to utrjena površina, kjer mlatijo s cepci ali pa v okroglem gumnu to opravljajo živali 2 pri kozolcu je gumno prostor v zadnjem delu prve etaže, je zaprto, a brez stropa; zaradi premočnih tresljajev ne uporabljajo cepcev, pač pa navadno mlatijo z nogami 3 gumno kakor v Sloveniji, navadno na odprtem: utrjen, tlakovan prostor za mlačev: na Hrvaškem, tudi v Rusiji (po Aleksandrovi), v Italiji 'aja' – odprti objekti so okrogli, ko za delo uporabljajo živali (pogon, hoja v krogu)

Goričko pokrajina hribovja, severno od Mure

hlad stanje temperature pod človeku prijazno stopnjo hlajenje ustvarajanje, vzdrževanje hladu, temperature pod človeku prijazno stopnjo hlapec 1 fizični delavec, pomočnik pri kmetskih delih 2 premična, priročna, konzolna naprava, nameščena na letve kozolca, da kmet na njem stoji in obdeva, ponekod imenovan tudi stolček hlev objekt, namenjen bivanju domačim živalim

gospodar 1 vodja kmečkega gospodarstva, navadno najstarejši lastnik 2 glavni tram v 'hiši', najpomembnejši konstrukcijski element primarne konstrukcije

harfa redek izraz za kozolec (po Veri Smole)

gospodarsko poslopje objekt, ki je namenjen gospodarstvu na podeželju, združuje več namembnosti: hlev, senik, kašča, delavnica itn

harpfe nemški izraz za kozolec; Melik ga je pri nas našel tudi na Kočevskem

horizont vodoravna črta, ki loči Zemljo od neba

harpfen kozolec, omenjan po Geigerju 1710

horizontala vodoravnost, horizontalno je vodoravno

harpffen izraz, ki ga je uporabil Valvasor 1689

horreo sušilnica za koruzo, v prepletu, v lesu in v opeki: Galicija, Španija

gospodarstvo 1 ekonomija 2 gospodarstvo pomeni na severovzhodu kmečko posestvo, gospodarsko enoto GPS Global Positioning System (globalni sistem) umeščanja v prostor, pozicioniranja; lociranje GPS naprava napravo GPS uporabljamo za usmerjanje v prostoru in za umeščanje, lociranje točk gradbeni oder montažna konstrukcija za delo na višini (okrog zgradbe) grafično oblikovanje to je dvodimenzionalno oblikovanje na raznih medijih gradnja graditev objekta guemlo (Prekmurje), glej gumno, glej škegenj gumno 1 odprt ali polzaprt prostor, kjer mlatijo žito; na

harfen Hermannov izraz za kozolec iz leta 1780

hassja švedski izraz za stojalo za sušenje žita (Laid) hayrack (ne najboljši) izraz za kozolec (angleško) histe nemški izraz za vertikalno napravo za sušenje (Weiss) hiša 1 objekt arhitekture, zgradba 2 bivalni prostor kmečke hiše hiša 'na akel' domačija Severovzhoda, zapognjena hiša 'v ključ' nazaj zavita hiša, sestav treh ravnin, ki tvorijo delovno dvorišče hiška kamnita zgradba v korbelingu (suhozid, brez veziva ali betona), kamnito zatočišče, predvsem za pastirje, na Krasu; pri Lokvah tudi 'šiška'

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hlevič hlev pod gospodarskim delom, v podaljšku hiše (Pohorje) holcar drvar (gorenjsko, po Koširju); tudi: golcar

hrast trd les za nosilne konstrukcije, listavec huefna, huenja kuhinja, po Ložarju v Prekmurju hvapc hlapec, obešeno stojalo za obdevanje v kozolcu (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

identiteta sklop skupnih značilnosti, temeljna značilnost, istovetnost iglavec drevo z iglicami (ki pozimi ne odpadejo, razen pri macesnu), praviloma mehak les ila ilovica, glej: ilovica

ilovica zmes gline in peska, ki z vodo na zraku zatrdi do krhkosti: na ognju pa pridobi na trdnosti in na obstojnosti, temeljni material za opeko, tudi ila inča (angl. 'inch') palec, 2.539 cm

umetno jezero; na Štajerskem je to jezero nad jezom jutro stara ruska površinska mera: kolikor obhodimo v enem jutru

istovetnost sklop skupnih značilnosti, temeljna značilnost, identiteta izba prostor, soba, kamra, 'cimr'; navadno zadnja soba izolacija (osamitev) ločevanje dveh ali več elementov: zunanje od notranjega, toplo od hladnega itn; izolacija pred vlago, temperaturo, zunanjimi vplivi, zvokom, pogledi itn iža 1 prostor, soba, kamra, 'cimr'; navadno zadnja soba (po Ložarju) 2 hiša (Pomurje)

kajža manjša hiša za pomočnika pri kmetskih delih, mnogokrat so vanjo nameščali ostarele kajžar uporabnik, najemnik, praviloma ni lastnik kajže kala pečnica, uporaba kot 'kalnata peč' (beseda je poenostavljena iz 'kahla', kar je komercialno ime kermaike iz tovarne v Nemčiji), po Mavčcu kalanje kalanje je vzdolžno klanje (eksaktno sekanje) pripravljenega lesa za skodle: gorenjska skodla je kalana postopoma v več udarcih (ker je daljša) koroška skodla je kalana z enim samim zamahom, zato mora biti seveda tudi krajša (ponekod se ločita 'skodla' in 'šinkeljn' tako, da je skodla kalana tangencialno, šinkeljn pa v smeri proti centru: po Koširju) bistvo kalanja je ohranjanje žil v lesu, pri čemer lesa ne ranimo (kot pri žaganju), s tem pa je življenjska doba bistveno daljša

jasli stojalo, objekt za krmljenje divjadi v gozdu jedro 1 centralni sklop enega ali več elementov 2 v mestu: jedro, osrednji del jama primitivno, prvo zatočišče pračloveka: ščiti hrbet, medtem ko sprednji, odprti del varuje človek sam jamska risba prva grafična izpoved pračloveka, ohranjen na stenah jam (narisano z naravnimi barvami ali vklesan, vpraskan)

kalup model, okvir kamen naravni material, kamnina: trd, obstojen, a težko obdelovan

kamnito zatočišče preprosto zatočišče za pastirja ali za živino, v kamnu, konstrukcija je korbeling ali previsevanje

jesen trd les, iglavec (najbolj značilen kot bela, ribana mizna površina v kmečki 'hiši')

kamra soba, tudi 'cimr' (Gorenjska), po Ložarju zadnja soba (na desni) Prekmurje

jez fizična zajezitev reke ali potoka; za jezom nastane

kantrč gospodinjska omara (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

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kapitel zgornji, razširjeni del stebra: služi za boljši oprijem in za krajšanje razpona zaradi pomembnosti je tudi estetski poudarek elementa kapnica voda, zbrana s streh; deževnica kašča objekt za spravilo kmetskih pridelkov: žita, mesnin kazon redek izraz za kozolec (po Veri Smole) kazuc oznaka za kozolec po Cevcu keisn izraz, ki se uporablja za kozolec v Karniji kejšn nemška oznaka za kozolec na Sorici, po Cevcu kembelj bat (v zvonu), kloc (Slovenske gorice), ki udarja na resonančni les in s tem proizvaja zvok khoese po Moserju, prvi zapis kozolca iz leta 1558 klanica lesena skodla, po Mušiču klasična arhitektura to je kulturna kategorija arhitekture, ki so jo gradili strokovnjaki določene kulture (na primer grška, rimska..) klesanje tesarsko delo s sekiro ali z dletom

kamnosek mojster kamnitih konstrukcij

jelka mehak les, iglavec

kap odkapni rob strehe, tudi strešna ravnina (primer: dvokapna streha ima dve stranici, dve kapi)

klet 1 prostor spodnjega dela hiše, navadno uporabljan kot vlažna shramba 2 objekt za spravilo; vinska klet za vino: severovzhod Slovenije pozna klet kot objekt za občasno rabo klin, tudi klinc 1 lesen čep za povezovanje klin ima spredaj/zgoraj širši del (da ne izpade) in

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

zadaj/spodaj koničasto ožino, da lahko najdemo odprtino spodnjega dela konstrukcije; deluje le, če je od vlage napet - izsušen izpade 2 zagozda, ki razpira in lajša žaganje (gorenjsko, po Koširju) ključ 1 orodje za odpiranje ključavnice, varovalne naprave za zapiranje 2 nazaj zavita oblika; domačija 'na ključ' je trodelna, nazaj zavita zgradba, ki tvori delovno dvorišče 3 pri vodnjaku: palica (okrog 4 do 5 m dolga) s pravokotnim natičem, za za dviganje vedra z vodo, po Korenovi (glej 'vretina na ključ') kloc bat pri klopotcu (Slovenske gorice) klopotec to je naprava za proizvodnjo glasu, ki izkorišča veter: s tem v sadovnjaku ali v vinogradu aktivno odganja ptice slično dejavnost opravlja strašilo, ki z likom (človeka) pasivno plaši in s tem odganja ptice km kilometer, tisoč metrov kmečka peč notranja ali zunanja naprava za ogrevanje, pečenje in za kuhanje, navadno ima kamnit temelj, opečni, zidan obokan strop in kontroliran odvod dima kobile podstavek, stebra za sprednji del staje v bohinjskih planinah (množinska oblika) kocka geometrijsko telo iz šestih enakih kvadratov koča majhna, skromna hiša, praviloma le z bivalnim delom in s kletjo kočar uporabnik skromne hiše, koče; navadno ni lastnik koese Moser navaja ta nemški izraz v Ziljski dolini koesn beseda, ki označuje kozolec na Tirolskem koesse nemški izraz za kozolec

kokošnjak prostor, redkeje samostojni objekt za kokoši; tudi kurnik količina matematično ali dogovorno izražena mera komolec 1 stara dolžinska mera, nekaj nad 50 centimetrov (angl. cubit) 2 v zgodovini poznamo nekaj sto različnih komolcev: egipčanski na primer meri kakih 52 cm kompozicija celota, sestavljena iz posamičnih detajlov, ki med seboj fizično delujejo; dobra kompozicija je predvsem skladna - tudi estetika je sestavni del kompozicije končnica zaključni sprednji ali zadnji del konstrukcije; glej tudi: panjska končnica konsistenca gostota materiala, ko je mešan (z vodo: na primer 'tekoča' ali 'trda' ilovica) konstrukcija nosilni del kompozicije, odvisen predvsem od materiala (vertikalna, horizontalna, prostorska konstrukcija) kontrast nasprotje

korba košara (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) korbel (ang. ) konzola, korbeling (angl. 'corbelling') previsevanje, gradnja s pomočjo horizontalnih gradbenih plasti, kjer vsaka naslednja previseva spodnjo; značilni tloris je krog, v prerezu pa nastopa enakostranični trikotnik, stopničenje; rezultat korbelinga v treh razsežnostih je neprava kupola korec 1 opečna kritina enega samega elementa (korca), kjer so spodnji elementi obrnjeni navzgor (da lovijo in odvajajo vodo), enaki zgornji pa prekrivajo spoj spodnjih dveh (kot pri prekrivanju): izhaja iz latinske kritine, ki so jo uporabljali Rimljani, pri čemer so imeli oni spodnjega oglatega in zgornjega polkroglega 2 lesena posoda za vodo, katere ročaj je podaljšan segment oboda koren (glej: kvadratni koren iz dve) kormoran ptič, ki se prehranjuje predvsem z ribami v rekah kornhassja švedsko: sestavljeni objekt za sušenje s streho v blagem naklonu, podprta konstrukcija govori o začasni uporabi (Laid)

konzola previsni, izpostavljeni del konstrukcije (tram, nosilec itn), korbel

kornhiste beseda za sušilno napravo (tudi v Švici: Scheuermeier) Koroška pokrajina severne Slovenije, na obeh straneh meje z Avstrijo (Koroška / Kaernten)

koordiniranje usklajevanje, kontrolirano sestavljanje celote iz manjših modulov

koruznjak sušilnica za koruzo, najstarjši so v prepletu, kasnejši v okvirni leseni konstrukciji iz letev

kopica, stog okrog vertikalne palice (višine do kakih sedem metrov) obdevano seno, ki se oža proti vrhu; zunanji del sena služi kot kritje in na soncu ter na zraku potemni, notranjost pa je za živino še dolgo užitna

koselz izraz po Janezu Adamu Geigerju iz leta 1710

kontrola nadzorovanje (postopka, dela, izvedbe, uporabe..)

kopizh snop v Dictionarium quatuor linguarum iz leta 1592

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kosouz Peter Pavel Glavar omenja ta izraz leta 1776 kostanj trd les za konstrukcije, listavec koš okrogla ali ovalna košara za prenašanje, iz ličkanja

vejami, ki v prerezu tvorijo trikotnik: stojalo (Laid)

ali iz šibja; v poveznjenem košu je tudi preprost panj

kras območje s kraškimi pojavi, ko voda razjeda mehak apnenec

koza 1 oznaka za stegnjeni kozolec v Ziljski dolini, poroča Melik 2 krajša stran 'cvitra', kozolca na kozla (po Veri Smole)

Kras regija Slovenije, arhitekturna regija

koze (množinska oblika) stojalo, podstavek v obliki črke 'A'

kripa koš za listje (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) kritina, krovni material krovni materiali so les, kamen in glina, kovine, sestavljeni materiali, drugo les je slamnata kritina, skodle, ki so lahko gorenjske (debele) ali koroške (tanke) kamen je lahko tanek ali lomljen, lahko pa je debel in zato težak glinasta kritina je oblikovana ilovica, pečena v ognju: oblike so lahko ravne, valovite ali s preklopom

kozlovišče redek izraz za kozolec (po Veri Smole) kozouc oznaka za kozolec po Cevcu kozol redek izraz za kozolec (po Veri Smole) kozolec kozolec je vertikalna, samostojna in stalna, pretežno lesena in odprta, pokrita naprava za sušenje in spravilo

kurta lesene sani za spravljanje hlodov (gorenjsko, po Koširju) kvader podolgasto telo šestih stranic, od katerih sta vsaj po dve enaki

kret krmilno veslo na brodu

kozel stegnjeni kozolec ob Zilji (Melik)

kurnik prostor, redkeje samostojni objekt za kokoši; tudi kokošnjak

krog geometrijsko mesto točk, enako oddaljenih od centra, ima le eno dimenzijo: radij

kvadrat geometrični lik, ki ma štiri stranice (po dve in dve vzporedni), vse enake, in štiri enake kote (90 stopinj) kvadratni koren iz dve kvadratni koren iz dve je dolžina diagonale kvadrata s stranico ena (prečna povezava dveh enako dolgih stranic, med katerima je pravi kot 90 stopinj) kvadratni koren iz tri to je višina enakostraničnega trikotnika, če je osnovnica dolga dve: pri stranici 'ena' (1) je višina kvadratni koren iz tri polovic (√3/2) kvamfa, tudi klamfa (iz nemščine) jeklena skoba, ki deluje na principu deformacije

krušna peč notranja ali zunanja naprava za ogrevanje, pečenje in za kuhanje, navadno ima kamnit temelj, opečni, zidan obokan strop in kontroliran odvod dima

kozouc Janez Žiga Popovič omenja 1750 izraz kozouc kozuc oznaka za kozolec po Cevcu

lajtmsar rezilnik (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

krovni material (gl. kritina)

kožarica, tudi kožarca zasilno bivališče, krito z lubjem (gorenjsko, po Koširju)

kuhinja prostor za kuhanje in pečenje z odprtim ognjiščem, kmečko pečjo ali s štedilnikom

konzola situacija, kjer zgornji element previseva spodnjega, kjer sega preko njega; previs

kukuručnjak koruznjak, Prekmurje (po Ložarju)

krajina omejena, skladna celota v naravi; krajina je lahko pozidana, grajena in naravna

kumes verjetno utor; izraz 'v kumes spodbita hiša' kupola princip oboka v prostoru, v treh dimenzijah; prva in najbolj popolna kupola je Pantheon v Rimu (v prelomu tisočletja)

krajina, arhitekturna omejen prostor z enakimi značilnostmi arhitekture krake švedski izraz za 'sušilnico' (Laid) krakmarr švedska beseda za sušilno napravo z vertikalnimi

kurjava ogrevanje, tudi material za ogrevanje, navadno les, drva

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lastavičji rep konstrukcija vogala z zarezovanjem, kjer je zunanja širina repa večja od notranje: s tem zagotavlja, da se konstrukcija ne razpre lata glej: letev ledenica vertikalna vkopana, obzidana jama, v kateri hranijo led lega lega je horizontalni tram, ki leži vzdolž na zidu in nosi špirovce, s tem pa streho samo; legi sta navadno povezani s poveznikom, ki teče pravokotno nanju in s špirovcema tvori trikotno strešno konstrukcijo. lega je lahko kapna (ob kapi,

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

na spodnjem robu), slemenska (na vrhu, v slemenu) ali vmesna lego kocka 1 otroška poučna igračka, komercialno ime 2 najmanjši gradnik, element konstrukcije igračke, ki se sestavlja: 3 teoretično / s sestavljanjem v ravnini in s preklopom v višini 4 praktično / s pritiskavcem les naravni material iz debla drevesa: tram, ploh, deska, skodla, furnir, iveri, drva letev bolj ali manj kvadraten profil lesa za manjše, nenosilne konstrukcije; letev pri kozolcu, do 9 x 1o cm debel les, na katerega nakladajo seno lev prostor za zrnje, neka vrsta kašče (Prekmurje)

lifranje spuščanje hlodov v dolino (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) listavec drevo z listi (ki preko zime praviloma odpadajo) lojta (gorenjsko, po Koširju) lopa najprej veža in potem 'črna kuhinja', odkoder polnijo peč v 'hišo' lopatica dobesedno majhna lopata; pri mlinskem kolesu ali pri turbini sestavni del, ki lovi vodo loputa pokrov odprtine, ki se odpira na horizontalnih tečajih v vertikalni smeri, navzgor luknja v arhitekturi kontrolirana odprtina

macesen mehak les, iglavec: med mehkimi lesovi najtrši, ker počasi raste v neugodnih razmerah, je značilne rdečkaste barve

mah preprosta rastlina, ki ima le steblo in liste; na Pohorju ga uporabljajo kot tesnilo med tramovi; z mahom je prekrita slabo oskrbovana, severna stran slamnate strehe material v arhitekturi osnovno gradivo: kamen, les in glina, danes tudi drugi, sestavljeni materiali matica 1 osrednji element 2 čebela, ki rojeva; v panju je le ena mera 1 enota (v arhitekturi: enota razsežnosti), 2 dimenzija (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

vertikalni osi (za mletje) mlinsko kolo navadno je to leseno kolo z lopaticami, ki izkoriščajo moč vodnega padca ali toka pri nas imamo le kolesa s horizontalno osjo: gnana so z malo vode in z večjim padcem nad kolesom ali z več (počasnejše) vode pod njim model kalup, okvir modul najmanjši, značilen in sestavljiv element sestava; značilnost so predvsem odnosi dolžin

merska enota dogovorjena enota mere

modularna koordinacija teoretična veda o sestavljanju (celot) iz (manjših) enot; m.k. poenostavlja delo in izključuje napake rezultat je skladnost celote

mesto funkcionalni sklop bivalne, upravne, obrambne, industrijske, obrtne, kulturne, prometne in druge arhitekture

most 1 1 povezava dveh bregov (reke, potoka) 2 zunanji dostop (z vozom) na gospodarsko poslopje (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

meteorna voda deževnica, proste vode kot rezultat dežja

mostovž zunanji dostop v zgradbo, navadno v višji nivo (najbolj so uporabni mostovži pri dostopih z vozom v skedenj, včasih celo na podstrešje)

meter dolžinska mera: prvotno štiridesetmilijonti del (1/40 000 000) Zemljinega obsega; meter je deljen na 10 dm, na 100 cm in na 1000 mm: 1000 metrov je kilometer mizarstvo obrt lesene opreme in oboja mlačev mlatenje žita za ločevanje zrna od plev

možic vertikalni sestav kamna, stolpič, vertikalni poudarek (na skodlasti strehi lesen, na slamnati slamnat, na opečni je to navadno glinen petelin) mreža, opečna z opekami zapolnjena okenska odprtina za zračenje, ki regulira zračenje in senco mvatnja mlačev (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

mlaka jama z vodo: predvsem za živino (razen za konje), zaradi varnosti je mnogokrat ograjena, na Goričkem s prepletom (po Korenovi) mlin objekt ob vodi ali z napeljano vodo za mletje žit na Muri imajo mline na vodi, tudi na čolnu mlin na veter objekt na izpostavljenem mestu, ki z vetrnico izrablja moč vetra za vrtenje (mletje) mlinski kamen mlinski kamen je okrogel kamen, ki se vrti na

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nabijanca hiša, grajena z nabijanjem, butanjem (po Šarfovi) na poudne opisno: 'proti jugu' (orientirana strešina) po Mušiču na veter opisno: postavljeno na vetrovni lokaciji, v smeri vetra; po Mušiču

oblikovnik oblikovan element (poljubnega materiala), zidak, ki je namenjen sestavu v zid zaradi sestavljanja morajo biti njegove stranice pravokotne in v določenih razmerjih (najbolj uporabno razmerje oblikovnika je 1 : 2 : 4, ker omogoča prečnike in vzdolžnike, prekrivanje zidu v dveh in v treh debelinah, sestav v vogal)

načrt načrt je tehniška risba zgradbe ali dela zgradbe osnovni načrti so: tloris, prerez in pogled; za boljšo preglednost služita aksonometrija in perspektiva načrtovanje snovanje, planiranje

oboj zapiranje (pri zgradbi na primer zatrepa ali sten) z deskami, da zaščitimo vsebino pred zunanjimi vplivi (dežjem, vetrom) in da preprečimo izpadanje vsebine

nadstrešek podaljšan, izbočen del strehe, ki ščiti pred padavinami nadstropje enota arhitekture v višini napajalnik dolgo, navadno leseno korito za napajanje živine; lahko je del vodnjaka napušč previs pod strešino, zaščita pred dežjem ali soncem neprava kupola rezultat korbelinga (lažnega oboka) v prostoru, previsevanja horizontalnih plasti (kamna, opeke, čerpiča) nepravi obok rezultat korbelinga, stopničenja v ravnini (v dveh dimenzijah) nivo ravnina arhitekture (objekta), raven

obok ločna konstrukcija, kjer elementi premoščajo razpetino z vpetjem sil v stranske, nosilne zidove; njegova značilnost je, da ima elemente, ki so simetrični; obok ima dve oprijemališči, lok in sklepnik (ključni kamen, večji in težji, ki zaključuje in definira obok sam)

oblikovanje dajanje oblike; v arhitekturi obstajajo grafično oblikovanje (dvodimenzionalno), oblikovanje izdelkov (tridimenzionalno), industrijsko oblikovanje, (angl.: design) oblikovanje, grafično grafično oblikovanje je dvodimenzionalno oblikovanje na raznih medijih

ogrevanje vzdrževanje toplote, praviloma nad človeku prijazno mejo okno 1 okno je v hiši kontrolirana odprtina za zračenje, razsvetljavo in za poglede 2 pri kozolcu je okno polje v stranskem pogledu: kozolec na dve okni na primer kaže od strani dve polji in tri stebre opaž sestavljivi kalup, model, okvir opečna mreža z opekami zapolnjena okenska odprtina za zračenje, ki regulira zračenje in senco

oder, gledališki gledališki oder je dvignjeni prostor za predstavljanje, igranje

opeka zidak iz gline, pečene na visoki temperaturi

oder, gradbeni montažna konstrukcija za delo na višini (okrog zgradbe)

odnos razmerje dveh ali več količin, proporcija

obdevati vlagati žito ali seno med letve tako, da otep vtaknemo med dve letvi in ga prepognemo, da se povesi na obe strani: vzgon ga tako razpira in suši

ojačitev učvrščevanje krhkega materiala z vzdolžnimi elementi (slama, veje brina, jeklene žice in palice), armiranje

obred ritual, sakralni ali etnološki postopek

odkap detajl roba z dvignjeno notranjo ravnino (lahko je le zareza), ki odvaja vodo in preprečuje zatekanje

nova hiša kamra, zadnja soba, (Kobansko, po Ložarju)

ograja razmejnica

odprtina v arhitekturi kontrolirana luknja ogenj ogenj je pojav oksidacije: teoretični elementi ognja so center, radialnost; praktični pa so rezultati tega pojava: vročina, svetloba, toplota, strah, varnost ognjišče prostor za ogenj ognjiščnica zgradba brez dimnika, kjer je osrednji prostor 'hiša' z odprtim ognjiščem

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optimum izvedba, ki omogoča najboljše delovanje vseh elementov v sklopu, najuspešnejši kompromis or odprtina za odvod dima v ognjiščnici in v dimnici nad vhodnimi vrati; iz nemščine 'rohr', cev, po Mavčcu ortogonalni pogled resnični, pravi pogled (kjer je vertikala res navpična in horizontalna res vodoravna) - v fotografiji so te linije žal popačene (teoretično: pogled iz neskončnosti) ortogonalnost sestavljenost v pravilnih oblikah, vodoravno in navpično osamitev (tudi izolacija) ločevanje dveh ali več elementov: zunanje od notranjega, toplo od hladnega itn; izolacija pred vlago, temperaturo, zunanjimi vplivi, zvokom, pogledi, posegi itn oslica konstrukcija, sestav nasekanih drv v višini z

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

okroglim tlorisom in z zaokroženim zgornjim delom (v prerezu), Goričko, Slovenske gorice; za pečenje zlagajo ilovnate zidake v oslice, ki so pokrite s slamo (Pomurje, po Mavčcu) Osrednja Slovenija centralni del Slovenije, regija, tudi arhitekturna ostrnica konstrukcija (vertikalna - naravno ali umetno rogovilasta palica) za sušenje žita ali sena ostrv kompozicija otepa ali otepov žita, navadno treh ali petih, pripravljenih za sušenje na prostem otep otep slame (žita) je snop, ki ga objamemo z eno roko (da ga lahko obdelujemo, vdevamo, obdevamo)

parma zadnji prostor gospodarskega dela hiše, brez stropa in z dostopom na podstrešje, za svežo krmo (Pomurje, po Mavčcu) parna prostor (pod streho) za slamo (Pohorje) paštva sušilnica (za sadje) peč 1 naprava za ogrevanje, kuhanje in za pečenje krušna ali kmečka peč definira čisti bivalni prostor, ko se odpira v 'črno kuhinjo' (tako za polnjenje kot za odvod dima), glej tudi 'bučna peč' 2 naprava za žganje (apna, gipsa, ilovice, lana..)

ovin sušilnica za žito: dvoceličen objekt, kjer je v enem delu (v zemlji) ognjišče, v dvignjenem pa sušijo žito; objekt je zaprt in stalen, največ jih je na robu moskovske gubernije (Aleksandrova)

pečnica zunanji obložni element, dvakrat žgana glina do leska (zaradi čiščenja) perspektiva grafični prikaz prostora, globine, kjer se oddaljenost izgublja v bežišče; v konstrukciji navidezna globina, v ideji misel v bodočnost

ozorod začasna sušilna naprava v Belorusiji - brez strehe in postavljena po potrebi (Aleksandrova)

petr podstrešje na gospodarskem poslopju (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) pitlin (tudi piklin, po Korenovi) leseno vedro, spodaj ožje kot zgoraj, pri katerem sta dve nasprotno ležeči dogi daljši (za prijem), Prekmurje

palec stara dolžinska mera, cola ali inča (angl. inch): 2.539 cm

plajba svinčnica (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

panj bivalni prostor čebel

plan načrt, risba arhitekture

panjska končnica zaključni, zunanji vidni del panja; slikarija na panjski končnici je pomemben element slovenske kulture

planiranje načrtovanje, snovanje

Panonija SV del Slovenije ob madžarski meji, del panonske kotline; Panonska nižina para oblika vode v plinastem stanju paralelepiped geometrijsko telo, ki ima po dve in dve stranici vzporedni ter po dva in dva kota enaka parapet zid pod okensko odprtino

plankača tesarsko orodje, sekira zd olgim ročajem za obtesovanje (gorenjsko, po Koširju) plastnica horizontalna razmejnica višin v terenu plašč plašč je pri kozolcu enostranski, nesimetrični nadstrešek, navadno nad enim oknom (glej tudi 'birtah') plenkača sekira, orodje za obsekovanje; v Pomurju za

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ravnanje gnetenih zidov blatnjače (po Šarfovi) pletenica 1 pletena kita; polproizvod pri pletenju košev in košar 2 pletena žica, je gibka in močnejša od enojne žice ploh debelejši ploskovni element žaganega lesa za konstrukcijo plot ograja, navadno lesena (ves Severovzhod) pod 1 gumno, prostor za živinsko krmo v gospodarskem poslopju (predvsem na Gorenjskem) 2 zaprt prostor (brez stropa) za mlatenje žita, kjer utrjenega prostora na tleh ni, na primer na barju; tam je pod postavljen v višino na zadnjem delu kozolca; sinonim je tudi 'gumno' podsek spodnji del lesene konstrukcije: navadno iz kostanja ali iz hrastovega lesa, medtem ko je zgornji del cimprane hiše na Severovzhodu iz jelovega lesa (Ložar) podstin pokrit prostor okrog hiše; Ložar pravi: 'tla so nabita s tlakom, imajo lesen rob' (Prekmurje) podstrešje prostor v zgradbi pod streho; zaradi nagnjenosti in problema z osvetlitvijo je manj uporaben pogled 1 pogled je to, kar vidimo, kar objamemo s pogledom 2 tehnična risba: pogled ali fasada; tehnična risba prikazuje ortogonalni pogled (kjer je vertikala res navpična in horizontalna res vodoravna) Pohorje gorski greben ob Dravi, najvzhodnejši del Centralnih Alp pojeta vmesni, na pol odprt prostor, ki veže sprednji del domačije z zadnjim (le v hiši an akel ali v ključ), po Mavčcu pok stojalo, držalo za ročno obdelavo (nem.: bock = kozel), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

vertikalni smeri)

pokrajina 1 regija, območje s skupnimi značilnostmi 2 pogled, veduta

prostorsko načrtovanje planiranje v izbranem prostoru

preša domač izraz za stiskalnico (iz nemščine)

poleno kos lesa za kurjavo (cca 3o cm)

prešpan lokalni izraz (Goričko) za glavni tram v stiskalnici

polkn leseno krilo za pokrivanje horizontalnih odprtin na 'gankču' (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

prevžitkar človek po zaključku aktivne delovne dobe, ki opravlja manj zahtevna dela

Pomurje predel okrog Mure: Prlekija, Prekmurje in Goričko posestvo kmečko gospodarstvo, zaključena gospodarska enota

prevžitkarska hiša hiša prevžitkarja previs prostor pod konzolo; situacija, kjer zgornji element previseva spodnjega, kjer sega preko njega - pod njim je previs

posestnik lastnik posestva (veleposestnik, mali posestnik kot lastnik malega posestva)

preža naprava za opazovanje, nadzor in za lov

poveznik poveznik povezuje trikotno strešno konstrukcijo, da se kapni legi na stebrih ali na zidu ne razpreta (zaradi obtežbe podstrešja) prava kupola (glej: kupola, tudi neprava kupola) pravi kot kot, ki oklepa 90 stopinj in riše četrtino kroga pravokotnik geometrijsko telo, ki ima štiri stranice, po dve in dve enako dolgi, ter štiri enake prave kote, 90 stopinj preddverje pokrit prostor pred vrati, trem preklada horizontalni element konstrukcije preko razpetine

priklet, priklt neke vrste veža, predprostor; po Ložarju sekundarna veža

preplet preplet je ploskev, sestavljena iz tankih lesenih trakov ali vej, ki so v okvir prepleteni med sabo prerez tehnična risba: objekt ali detajl je prerezan (v

ptičja perspektiva pogled od zgoraj, kakor tloris, a na streho objekta (kakor ga vidi ptič), tudi 'pogled od zgoraj' puetra posoda iz žgane gline, navadno črna, z ročajem in s kljunom za nalivanje vode puntika sekira s podaljšanim rezilom za izsekovanje lukenj (na primer kozolca; gorenjsko, po Koširju)

princip sistemski način Prlekija predel pod Muro, južno

računalniška risba posebna vrsta risbe, ki jo omogoča računalnik

profil 1 pogled od strani, iz profila 2 prečni prerez konstrukcijskega elementa (stebra, trama, stojke); navadno ga izražamo z odnosom dimenzij (na primer: letev 2 x 3 cm)

raka lesena konstrukcija, ki uravnava višino in vodi vodo k mlinskemu kolesu

proporc (glej proporcija)

Prekmurje predel preko Mure, severno od te reke

prukca redek izraz za 'hlapec' (po Veri Smole)

radialnost radialno je krožno okrog nekega centra: popolna radialnost riše krog; teoretično so vsi elementi na krogu enaki, imajo enake pogoje

propeler pogonski vijak (pri letalu ali pri klopotcu)

preklop konstrukcijski princip, kjer zgornji element prekriva spodnja dva, ki se v ravnini plosko stikata

protiutež utež na nasprotni strani, ki napravo uravnava; v stiskalnici je protiutež velik, okrogel kamen

proporcija odnos, razmerje dveh ali več količin proporcioniranje razmerje dolžin nekaterih elementov, ki je v stalnem, izbranem odnosu in ga lahko matematično izrazimo primer: največji možni kvadrat, ki ga iztešemo iz okroglega debla, je definiran s kvadratnim korenom iz dve, ki je diagonala kvadrata, če je njegova osnovnica enaka ena - proporcijski sistem raste in pada s 2

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rame tehnično premoščanje dveh višin s stopniščem (rame: srednji spol; enoramne stopnice; dvoramne stopnice) rascana, tudi rascan italijanski izraz za napravo za sušenje žita: uporabljajo ga v zahodnem delu kantona Graubuenden in v Ticinu (Airolo) v Švici (Scheuermeier, Juvanec) raschena italijanska beseda za napravo za sušenje v Graubuendnu v Švici (Scheuermeier) raven ravnina arhitekture (objekta), nivo razdalja oddaljenost med dvema točkama

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

razmejnica črta, ki ločuje

roj družina čebel

razsežnost dimenzija, dolžina, enota velikosti; izraz navadno razumljen kot 'velik ...'

ror odprtina za odvod dima v ognjiščnici in v dimnici nad vhodnimi vrati; iz nemščine 'rohr', cev, v Pomurju, po Mavčcu

razpetina razdalja med dvema vertikalnima elementoma, ki jo premoščamo rega vmesni prostor med gradbenima elementoma regija pokrajina, prostorska enota s skupnimi značilnostmi regionalno načrtovanje planiranje prostora regije ali večjega dela krajine

rovt senožet, rut (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) rugesi švedsko: vertikalno stojalo za sušenje žita (Laid) ruša, travna strnjena plast trave, ki jo lahko od zemlje ločimo rušt ostrešje, iz nemščine

ribja kost vzorec, kjer so elementi izmenično usmerjeni drug na drugega, tudi 'prince de galles' rigel spodnja prečka v brani (Vera Smole)

rut senožet, rovt (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

sat voskasta stena šesterokotnikov, v katerih čebele negujejo mladiče in vanje vnašajo med satje več satov v sklopu ene družine čebel sekira drvarsko in tesarsko orodje

riga stožčasta konstrukcija, sušilnica za žito z odprtim ognjem: rusko (po Aleksandrovi)

sendvič sestavljena konstrukcija več plasti, iz več materialov (kjer vsaka služi svojemu namenu: nosi, izolira, učvrščuje, varuje)

ritual obred, sakralni ali etnološki postopek

senik objekt za spravilo sena (ne za sušenje)

riža lesena drča za spravilo hlodov v dolino (Pohorje; tudi na Gorenjskem, po Koširju)

serija vrsta

ročica ročica je prečka, ki zavetruje konstrukcijo, da se ne zloži; praviloma je nameščena v vogal okvirne konstrukcije in teče diagonalno rogljičenje tesarski ali mizarski princip konstrukcije vogalne zveze z 'roglji'; ti so lahko navzven vidni ali skriti v notranjosti

simetrala središčnica kompozicije, ko je leva stran odslikava desne simetrija odslikava situacije preko osi; simetrična kompozicija je enaka na obeh straneh osi, z ozirom na os je uravnotežena simulacija navidezno delovanje, tudi prikaz

rep 'rep' je podaljšek dvojnega vezanega kozolca: lahko je en sam, lahko sta dva; rep izgleda kot stegnjeni kozolec resonanca sozvočje (resonančni les lepo zveni)

silaža silaža je tehnološko predelano seno v silosu naphano seno se v silosu tehnološko spremeni (kisanje), zato ga živina nima prav rada silos vertikalna (zaprta) ali horizontalna (odprta) naprava za spravilo sena

serijska proizvodnja industrijska proizvodnja enakih elementov severovzhod severovzhodni del (Slovenije: od Maribora do madžarske meje) SV okrajšava za severovzhod

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Slovenske gorice predel severne Slovenije pod Muro, od Maribora do Gornje radgone skedenj 1 kombiniran objekt več dejavnosti: hlev, senik, mlekarnica, klavnica.. 2 prostor (pod streho) za seno (Pohorje) skica prostoročna risba; prva misel prostora na papirju ali na drugem mediju skladni razvoj usklajen razvoj več elementov, ki delujejo med sabo, ki omogočajo delovanje celote in ki medsebojno vplivajo; rezultat je skladnost (v arhitekturi razumljen predvsem v odnosu do narave) skladnost skladnost je rezultat usklajenega delovanja ali stanja, ko vsi elementi delujejo optimalno in zagotavljajo tudi najboljši rezultat (v arhitekturi: fizično, tehnično, estetsko) sklepnik najvišji element oboka, ki združuje in zaključuje konstrukcijo skodla 1 skodla je krovni material, v kalanem lesu koroška skodla: dolga je do devetdeset centimetrov, široka do deset in debela na enem koncu dva do tri milimetre in na drugem do centimetra; na streho so položene v dveh, včasih v treh plasteh, v prerezu rišejo sistem ribje kosti

(prince de galles) gorenjska skodla je daljša, do metra dvajset, tudi do metra in pol, in debela dober centimeter po vsej širini; sestavljajo jo drugo zraven druge, s preklopom naslednje plasti po višini Mušič navaja tudi izraz 'klanica' 2 lesen krovni element, kalan tangencialno (za razliko od šinkeljna, ki je kalan v smeri proti centru, po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) 3 'žagana deska 16' (široka 16 cm ali šest palcev: Gorenjska) kot spodnji sloj lesene strehe, ko je na njej le ena plast 'šinkeljnov' (jugozahodna stran Pohorja)

skrilj kamnina, ki ste lomi v plasteh; dopušča oblikovanje plošč, ki so zelo primerne za kritino (škofjeloško: 'škalce') slama slama in slamnata kritina: slama je steblo žitaric, slamnata streha pa je s slamo krita streha slanijek iz letev zbita omara za sušenje mesa na podstrehi (Slovenske gorice) slatina mineralna voda, kisla voda sleme sleme strehe je najvišji del strehe, je prelomnica dveh strešin; pri strehi predstavlja najproblematičnejši del

sloki (kozolec) ozka izvedba kozolca, ki je doma predvsem nad Savo slop vmesna stopnja med zidom in stebrom

snovanje načrtovanje, planiranje

stog bohinjski izraz za kozolec, včasih ga izgovarjajo skoraj kot 'stoh' (temni, grleni 'h')

soba prostor v hiši soha vertikalni nosilni element konstrukcije

splavar delavec na splavu, ki ga usmerja in se s cilja vrača z drugim prevoznim sredstvom, (na Dravi in na Savinji) flosar

skupnost družba (ljudi) skupnih interesov in potreb, ki jih ta elementa družita

slog (stil) kulturna značilnost nekega obdobja (na primer: romanika, gotika, barok..)

stoh oznaka za kozolec po Cevcu stemnim 'h', skoraj 'g'; stoh (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

splav sestavljivo plovilo iz hlodov, ki sami sebe prevažajo po reki navzdol; flos

skorja, smrekova lubje; zunanji del, ki oklepa deblo; smrekova skorja služi kot strešni material na drvarski ali žagarski bajti (Pohorje); lesena konstrukcija, prekrita s smrekovim lubjem za drvarje je na Gorenjskem 'kožarica'

slepec zgornja pečnica, Prlekija (po Ložarju)

snop količina požetega žita, ki ga objamemo z eno roko

stog, kopica okrog vertikalne palice (višine do kakih sedem metrov) obdevano seno, ki se oža proti vrhu; zunanji del sena služi kot kritje in na soncu ter na zraku potemni, notranjost pa je za živino še dolgo užitna stoika ruska beseda za napravo za sušenje, stojalo (Aleksandrova) stojka navpična konstrukcija enega samega trama ali nosilca

Sredozemlje Mediteran, pokrajine okrog Sredozemskega morja; v Sloveniji obmorski kraji

stolček redkeje uporabljan izraz za hlapec (po Veri Smole)

Sredozemski del (Slovenije) arhitekturna regija Primorja, Krasa in Posočja

stolec redkeje uporabljan izraz za hlapec (po Veri Smole)

staja objekt za občasno bivanje domačih živali

stolica redkeje uporabljan izraz za hlapec (po Veri Smole)

stan pastirska staja (glej: staja)

stolik redkeje uporabljan izraz za hlapec (po Veri Smole)

stau za senu rezat ročna slamoreznica (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

stopnica tehnični element postopnega dviganja z ene višine na drugo

stavba zgradba, gradbena celota,s tavba steber steber je navpični nosilni element, ki nosi konstrukcijo; lahko je lesen, sestavljen, zidan ali vlit stena vertikalna razmejnica med zunanjim in notranjim prostorom, med prostori v objektu; razmejuje, vodi ali nosi stil (slog) kulturna značilnost nekega obdobja (na primer: romanika, gotika, barok..) stiskalnica naprava za stiskanje (sadja na primer), po domače 'preša'

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stopničenje konstrukcijski princip, kjer je vsaka naslednja raven pomaknjena navznoter (na primer pri stopničasti piramidi): obraten način kot pri previsevanju, korbelingu stopnišče sestav stopnic za povezovanje dveh višin storhassja dolgo stojalo za sušenje, brez strehe, na več oken; švedsko (Laid) storhassjor norveško: stojalo za sušenje (Laid) stožnik, tudi stožnjk lesen steber (gorenjsko, po Koširju)

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

stranica stranska stena, v arhitekturi zid stranišče sanitarni prostor, toaleta stranišče 'na štrbunk' suho stranišče nad gnojno jamo ali nad svinjakom strašilo lik (človeka), ki na polju ali v sadovnjaku, vinogradu (pasivno) plaši in s tem odganja ptice enaka, a aktivna dejavnost je značilnost klopotca, ki za to dejavnost izrablja veter in vrtenje: rezultat je ritmični glas streha streha je zaščita arhitekture pred vplivi z vertikalne strani streha je lahko enokapna (ki je v vernakularni arhitekturi ni), dvokapna ali štirikapna: dvokapna ima dve enaki strešini, štirikapna pa navadno po dve in dve enaki, skupaj štiri streha s čopi rešuje probleme odprtega zatrepa, čop je praviloma visok četrtino ali tretjino višine zatrepa, včasih je višina določena tudi z zlatim rezom (slamnata streha) strešna konstrukcija to je nosilna konstrukcija, ki nosi krovni material; navadno je sestav leg (kapna lega pri kapi, slemenska lega pri slemenu), poveznikov (ki vežejo kapne lege) in špirovcev (ki z letvami nosijo strešni material) večje strehe imajo lahko zahtevne sisteme vmesnih leg, škarij in vertikalnih soh, ki premoščajo večje razpetine najstarejša strešna konstrukcija ima primarno in sekundarno konstrukcijo: primarna nosi slemensko lego, sekundarna strešni material; vmesna lega navadno definira čop studenec umetno grajen vodnjak (po Korenovi); jašek z zunanjim telesom, s streho z napravo za dvig vode (navadno vreteno) strašilo umetna, s slamo napolnjena podoba človeka na polju, ki 'straši', odganja ptice stzda steza (za vlačenje hlodovine), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

sušilnica objekt vernakularne arhitekture za sušenje: sadja, lanu, mesa, hmelja itn. svetišče sveti kraj kot vmesnik med človekom in božanstvom v zgodovini arhitekture imamo ohranjenih mnogo svetišč: ne zaradi njihove pogostnosti ali pomembnosti - temveč zato, ker so bila svetišča grajena v trajnejših materialih (od domačih hiš) in so se obdržala do danes

predvsem za pastirje, na Krasu; tako jo imenujejo le okrog Lokev šivani rob vogal dveh zidov, kjer si konstrukcijski elementi izmenjaje sledijo po višini, od strani je videti kot: vzdolžnik / prečnik škarje 1 orodje 2 v tesarski konstrukciji strehe povezovalni tram (navadno sta dva na vsaki strani špirovca)

svinjak hlev za svinje: lahko je v sklopu drugega objekta, samostojen ali pa prislonjen zaradi velikosti, mase in moči živali je svinjak navadno predimenzionirana okvirna konstrukcija svinjska kuhinja navadno zunanji, samostojen prostor kotlom za kuhanje hrane živalim

škegenj gumno, tudi guemlo, skedenj, pol odprt prostor, predvsem za mlačev (Pomurje, po Mavčcu) škompa otep (slame), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

svisli senik, lahko tudi del večjega objekta za spravilo sena

šnajdca sekira s kratkim ročajem (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

šapanje otepanje (žita), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) šator odprta lopa, trem, vhodni del z 2, 3 ali 4 slopi (Ložar, Prekmurje) šintelj lesen krovni element, kalan v smeri proti osi, Pohorje šinkeljn lesen krovni element, kalan v smeri proti osi (za razliko od skodle, ki je kalana tangencialno; po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) šintlni (množinska oblika, Zgornja Savinjska dolina, Slovenska Koroška)) lesen krovni element, (glej: skodla, 'šinkeljn') šiša po Ložarju izba, soba, zadnja soba (Pomurje) šiška 'hiška', kamnita zgradba v korbelingu (suhozid, brez veziva ali betona), kamnito zatočišče,

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škorec ptič (jeseni v jatah pobirajo pridelke)

špirovec lesen tramič, ki teče vzporedno s padcem strehe; špirovci ležijo na legah; razstoj špirovcev je pogojen z dimenzijo letev, ki tečejo pravokotno nanje, te pa z maso kritine škalce kamnita kritina iz skrilja, doma predvsem ob Sorah škarje horizontalni povezovalni tramič (včasih sta dva vzporedna, na vsaki strani špirovcev), ki povezuje špirovca v višini škopa slama, tudi šopa (Prlekija, po Ložarju) šopa slama (Prlekija, po Ložarju) šorfkantk tram ali tramič s štirioglatim prerezom (nem.: ostrorobi), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) štala hlev, iz nemščine; mnogokrat se izraz uporablja tudi za vse gospodarsko poslopje s hlevom štant okno kozolca, Dolenjska (po Veri Smole)

štava (bolj zračen) prostor od skednja, za spravilo stelje in krme (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

tesar delavec, ki teše les; cimprman (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

stožnjk stber pri kozolcu (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

tesarstvo obrt lesenih konstrukcij večjih dimenzij (tramov) v ročni obdelavi

šterna zbiralnik kapnice, deževnice; cisterna (po Veri Smole)

tip tip (hiše) je sklop značilnosti po konstrukciji, materialu, obliki, proporcijah... tipika značilnost, skupna, sistemska značilnost

štibelc 1 mala soba, zadnja soba (Pohorje), po Ložarju: kamra 2 mala soba, zadnja soba (Pomurje), po Mavčcu

tipologija sistem, ki uporablja tipiko

štrica klin za poravnavanje (vrvice), (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) štor ostanek debla

trnac prostor pod napuščem okrog hiše (po Mavčcu) trn 1 klin, zob (pri zobatem kolesu an primer) 2 vrsta lesa, akacija tuenka način konserviranja mesa: v lesenem čebru, v masti (Slovenske gorice) tučenca, tuečenca zgradba iz ilovice, v tehniki nabijanja, butanja (Prekmurje, po Šarfovi) tumpasto topo, neostro (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

tloris tehnična risba, ki reže objekt v vodoravni smeri in gleda od zgoraj; praviloma je to prikaz meter nad tlemi, razen če ni drugače dogovorjeno in označeno

turbina naprava, ki vodni ali parni curek spreminja v vrtenje, turbina je hitrejša od mlinskega kolesa

toplar izraz za dvojni (iz nemščine) vezani kozolec, uporabljajo ga predvsem na Dolenjskem

štrbunk padec (v povezavi s 'straniščem na štrbunk') švajfarca ozka žaga ža izrezovanje (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

toplota človeku prijazna temperatura, pri telesu 37 stopinj Celzija, v prostoru nad okrog 2o stopinj

talina italijanski izraz za napravo za sušenje: uporabljajo ga v kantonu Ticino v Švici teč izraz za sušilno napravo v Švici (Scheuermeier) temelj temelj je vmesnik med gradbeno konstrukcijo in nosilnimi tlemi; to je spodnji del konstrukcije v materialu, ki mora biti odporen na vlago tehniška risba risba z določenimi pravili, ki prikazuje element, aparat, zgradbo v celoti; navadno je sestav tlorisa, prereza in pogleda

trajnostni razvoj manj primerno preveden angleški izraz 'sustainable', dobesedno 'vzdržen' (gl. skladni razvoj) tram kvadraten ali pravokoten profil lesa za konstrukcijo; gred (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

urbanizem prostorsko urejanje mestnega (pre)dela, da ta omogoča delovanje, vplivanje in vnaša v prostor delovanje, estetiko, humanost bistvo urbanizma so skupni sklopi višje organizacijske vrednosti: bivalnih, upravnih, kulturnih, športnih, prometnih, industrijskih, obrtnih in drugih objektov učvrščevanje armiranje, ojačitev krhkega materiala z vzdolžnimi elementi (slama, veje brina, jeklene žice in palice)

transmisija prenos (za pogon z enega vrtečega se kolesa na drugega) trdnost čvrstost trem preddverje, pokrit prostor pred vrati

temperatura stopnja toplote (pri ogrevanju)

trikotnik trikotnik je geometrijski lik, ki ima tri stranice; njegove značilnosti so odvisne od odnosa dolžin stranic in od kotov

tesač drvar (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

triba oznaka za kozolec po Cevcu

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v kumes spodbita hiša okvirna konstrukcija lesene hiše, kjer 'v kumes spodbijajo' vertikalne tramove kot polnila; kumes verjetno pomeni utor (po Mavčcu) v dve drevesi kozolec v dve drevesi ima dve vzdolžni ploskovni brani, ki omejujeta notranji prostor; tako je prostor bolje izkoriščen, vsebine tudi ni treba obdevati, pač pa jo v notranjost kar natlačimo v eno drevo kozolec v eno drevo ima notranje, vzdolžno

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

zavetrovanje izvedeno v ploskvi, z eno samo brano; notranjega uporabnega prostora tako nima, je pa bolj zračen

vmesnik vmesni element, ki bodisi razpira ali veže konstrukcijo

vaka vlaka, neke vrste jarek za usmerjanje spuščanja hlodovine v dolino (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina)

voda 1 H20 2 streha na dve vodi (dvokapna streha); streha na štiri vode (štirikapna streha)

valj geometrijsko telo okroglega profila; valji se uporabljajo pri novejših mlinih namesto mlinskih kamnov - valjčni mlin vas prostorski sklop domačij, ki zaradi skupnih interesov živijo v omejenem prostoru; bistvo vasi je sklop posamičnih heterogenih enot (vsaka enota ima vsaj bivalni in gospodarski del) veduta pogled; navadno je v veduto vključena razmejnica z nebom, horizont vedro lesena okrogla posoda, spodaj širša kot zgoraj (obratno od pitlina), za vodo vejanje pri mlačvi: ločevanje zrn od plev z 'vetrom', s tokom zraka Vend Slovenec, poimenovan na Goričkem (med ogrsko nadvlado), po Mavčcu veranda na pol zaprt prostor s slopi pred hišo (madžarski vpliv), po Mavčcu vernakularna arhitektura vernakularna arhitektura je arhitektura, ki je plod neukih (nešolanih) mojstrov, ki so svoje znanje gradili na tradiciji, na dediščini prednikov in na svojih izkušnjah (neformalna edukacija) vertikala navpičnica, vertikalno je navpično veža lopa, prvotno le nadkrit prostor pred 'hišo', osrednjim prostorom v zgradbi; kasneje se razvije v 'črno kuhinjo' vijak 1 spojni element s spiralnim navojem 2 svora, pri stiskalnici vertikalno, špiralno vreteno z navojem

vodnjak naprava ali objekt za pridobivanje vode vodnjak na čigo (ali na vzvod) vodnjak, ki deluje s protiutežjo (globina do petih metrov), po Korenovi vodnjak na vreteno (ali na kolou) vodnjak z vretenom, na katerega navijajo vrv z vedrom, za vrtenje uporabljajo kolo ali križ vodnjak na črpalko (ali s pumpou) vodnjak z leseno ali z litoželezno črpalko, ročni pogon z nihanjem, redkeje s kolesom (na ekscenter) vogl oblič (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) vrata vez zunanjega z notranjim prostorom (medtem ko je okno navidezna povezava, so vrata dejanska vez) vretina vodnjak kot izvir vode: tekoče, talne, z delno zaščito (ograja, cev, streha) vretina na ključ vretina na ključ je plitev vodnjak, kjer vodo zajemamo v vedro na dolgi palici s 'ključem' (zavihkom) vzdržni razvoj (gl. skladni razvoj, trajnostni razvoj), dobeseden, a vsebinsko manj primeren prevod angleške besede 'sustainable'

zaključeni dom zaključenih tlorisov domačij v slovenski kulturi praktično ni (vse so odprte), obstajajo pa domačije pribežnikov (Uskoki, Bela krajina), ki imajo zaprta celo dvorišča, nekatere domačije pa so celo sklop le treh krakov zapažiti z mahom zatesniti leseno steno (Pohorje, Prekmurje, po Ložarju) zareznik ploščat krovni element, ki ga sestavljamo z naslednjim z zarezo: omogoča enojno kritje zaselek manjši sklop vsaj treh domačij, ki tvorijo zaključeno celoto (v organizacijskem smislu, ko imajo skupne interese) zatočišče skromno zavetje zatrep odprt ali zaprt, navadno trikotni del ostrešja v čelu zgradbe zaščita zaščita ali varnost je efekt varovanja pred zunanjimi vplivi: lahko je aktivno ali pasivno zavetrovanje zavetrovanje je sistem prečnih opor, ki preprečuje, da bi se konstrukcija zložila; pri kozolcu je to brana, najpreprostejše enojno, vzdolžno zavetrovanje pa je ročica zaviti dom zaviti dom je domačija, ki ima tri krake, ki objemajo delovno dvorišče zapognjeni dom po domače 'na akel' (SV Slovenija), domačija je zapognjena v obliki črke 'L' zbiralnik zbiralnik je zatesnjena posoda za hrambo vode, tudi cisterna (lok. šterna)

zadnja hiša kamra, zadnja soba, včasih služi tudi kot shramba, kašča (Prekmurje, po Ložarju) zajetje umetno jezero, ki nastane po zajezitvi

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zgradba gradbena celota, objekt, stavba zid stena, zidana iz zidakov

zidak oblikovnik (iz sušene gline: čerpič; iz žgane gline: opeka; iz kamna: kamniti blok; iz drugih materialov: oblikovnik, na primer betonski itn.) zob izboklina, klin: ki se ujame z drugim za prenos

žičnik sodobna izvedba žeblja, industrijska proizvodnja iz žice žičnik je enake debeline po vsej dolžini, na koncu ima konico

zobato kolo kolo z zobmi za tekoče poganjanje

žlota najnižji, vzdolžni, padajoči stik dveh strešin, horizontalno ali pod kotom; nasprotno od slemena

zobata letev letev s klini ali z izrezanimi zobmi, za kratko premikanje

žnura vrv (vrvica za označevanje ravnin; gorenjsko, po Koširju)

zrcalo ogledalo

žnuranje označevanje ravnin s pomočjo barve, ki jo nanašamo na osnovo z vrvico (gorenjsko, po Koširju)

zrcalna slika obrnjena slika, kjer sta leva in desna stran simetrično zamenjani

žrmlje ročni mlin za žito

zvonik stolp z zvonom

zvonik navpična zidana ali lesena konstrukcija, ki nosi zvon

žaga orodje za rezanje lesa, za žaganje žagar obrtnik, ki upravlja žago, ki žaga žaplka manjša sekira s kratkim ročajem (po Koširju, Zgornja Dolina) žebelj kovan železen klin za spajanje (deluje po principu deformacije) žebelj je praviloma koničen od glave do konice žesel redkeje uporabljan izraz za hlapec (po Veri Smole) žganje 1 vzdrževanje visoke temperature 2 alkoholna pijača, žgana v kotlu za žganjekuho, destilacija žganjekuha kuhanje žganja (pijače)

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ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Indeks Index

Ademuz

20, 42

Gančani Genterovci Goričko Gorišnica Gradišče

Bogojina Brda Brengova Brezje Bukovci

44, 110 100 58, 158 70 37, 46, 64, 68, 74, 132, 140

Haloze Hudinja

Cagliari

Egipt

Fala Filovci Filovski breg Filovski gaj Francija

Mahrib Mali Okič Malna Markovci Matmata Melinci Moravci Mura

39 82 62 62, 110 32 114 82 94, 114, 154

Nadbišec

Osek Ošelj Ošelj

64, 122 62 122

Pernica Pertoča Pohorje

90 68, 154 43, 62, 58, 74, 102, 110, 122, 124, 144, 148, 152 41 43, 62, 70, 106, 110, 132, 140

64, 90 38 34 94, 114

144

Jemen Destrnik Djerba Dobrava Dobrina Dolge njive Domanjševci

19, 43, 68, 70, 80, 82, 106, 136, 148 86

34 Iljašovci Islandija Italija Ižakovci

Čagona

158 64 21, 33, 43, 45, 68, 78, 82, 106,118, 122 58, 106 100

80 33 62 80 158 74, 90, 122, 128

39, 40 Portugalska Ptujsko polje

Kamovci Korzika Kozjak Krog Kupetinci

128 31 43 114 90

Lahonci Legen Lendavske gorice Leskovec Lovrenc na Pohorju

68, 136, 148 100 78, 158 106 58, 74, 102

Razborca Rogašovci Rogla

94, 154 106 86, 96

110 58, 158 68 45, 82, 118 20, 31

182

Sakušak 140 Santiago de Compostela Sardinija 34 Savci 136 Selo 122, 128 Serdica 132 Shibam 39 Sintra 41 Slaveči 94

Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Slovenske gorice

86, 100 100 16, 21, 43, 58, 62, 70, 74, 90, 118, 132, 136, 144, 150 144 Smrečno Sovjak 36, 48 Spodnji Gasteraj 122 Spuhlja 70 Stara Gora 94 Strehovske gorice 78, 118 Sv. Ana v Slovenskih goricah 58 Sv. Primož na Pohorju152

Ženik

Šalamenci 106 Šentjanž nad Davčami 62, 68, 148 Šetarova 74 Španija 20, 41, 42 Šumnik 124

Tepanje Terbegovci Tozeur Trnavski breg Tunizija

100, 148 47 47 68, 90, 118 32, 47

Valencia Veržej Vitomarci Voličina Vukovje

41 94 70, 150 47, 132, 144 90

Zabovci Zamušani Zasadi Zavrh Zgornja Ščavnica Zgornje Prebukovje Zgornji Velka

35, 62, 106 158 70 22, 43, 118, 144 132 74, 82, 144 16

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

183

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Viri Bibliography

1875 Achenza,M 2005 Aleksandrova,B 1967 Berge,B 2003 Bogataj,J 1981 Brojan, L 2009 Brunskill,R 2000 Cevc,T 1993 Cevc,T ed 1997 Correia,M 2007 Doli,F 2001 Egenter,N 2003 Egenter,N 1992 Egenter,N 1994 Fellner,J 2001 Fister,P 1986 Fister,P 1993 Fletcher,B 1996 Frattari,A 2000 Gabrijelčič,P 2002 Grobovšek,J 2003 Guillaud,H 2008 Hohmann,H 1987 Juvanec,B 1985 Juvanec,B 1986 Juvanec,B 1995 Juvanec,B 1998 Juvanec,B 2001 a Juvanec,B 2001 b Juvanec,B 2002 a Juvanec,B 2002 b Juvanec,B 2003 a Juvanec,B 2003 b Juvanec,B 2004 a Juvanec,B 2004 b Juvanec,B 2004 c Juvanec,B 2005 Juvanec,B 2006 a Juvanec,B 2006 b Juvanec,B 2007 a Juvanec,B 2008 Juvanec,B 2008 a Juvanec,B 2009 Kajzelj, 1997 Koprivec,L 2009 Koren,V 1962 Košir,S 2004 Košir,S 2oo8 Kresal,J 2002 Langhein,J 2003 Lassure,C 2004 Lassure,C 2008 Le Corbusier 1963 Ložar,R 1944 Martin Galindo J 06 Maučec,M 1967

BAUORDNUNG /STAVBNI RED ZA KRANJSKO HOUSES AND CITIES BUILT IN EARTH Russkie istorIČESKI etnografičeski atlas The Ecology of building Materials Mlini na Dolenjskem, doktorska naloga Oblikovanje prostora, Lenart 2008 ILL. DICTIONARY OF Vernacular ArchIT. Slovenski kozolec Pastirske staje, zbornik TAIPA NO ALENTEJO Arkit. tradicionale popullore Kosoves IMPLOSION, CDRom ARCHITECTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY SEMANTIC AND SYMBOLIC ARCHITECTURE ALTE HOLZREGELN Umetnost stavbarstva na Slovenskem Arhitekturne krajine in regije Slovenije HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE EDIFICI RURALI DEL TRENTINO RURIZEM IN RURALNA ARHITEKTURA DOKTRINA 1, ICOMOS Int. Charters Terra Incognita, Preserving Earthen Arch. ZIEGELGITTER IM ALPEN ADRIA RAUM Opečne mreže, raziskava Hiša, raziskava Vodnjaki / The Wells, raziskava Arhitektura pri Lenartu Reinventer les abris en pierre Vernacular Architecture, http://www.thezaurus.com Šuplja gromila, Šibenik Six Thousands Years and more El bombo, La Mancha Čebelnjak kot arhitektura, v: Kranjska čebela Vernakularna arhitektura, kompleksnost preprostosti Desenvolumpament de construccio The stone, www.stoneshelter.org KAMEN NA KAMEN Tan leyos y tan cerca, v: Piedras con raices 14, 29-40 Chischner, nepravi sorodnik kozolca LES 7 06 Kozolec kot tehnični spomenik, v: ŽIT 1/07 Chozo de Extremadura, joya en piedra, Hvalnica lesu, v: LES 7-8 Arhitektura Slovenije 1, Alpski del / AS 1, Alpine Part Bovška hiša Vpliv gradiv na oblikovanje fasadnega ovoja, dokt. n. Oskrba z vodo in oblike vodnjakov v Prekmurju Pohn kufr ga mam V coklah na pot GRADIVA V ARHITEKTURI Allgemeine Proportiontheorie CABANE EN PIERRE SECHE DE FRANCE LA PIERRE SECHE, MODE D'EMPLOI Modulor Kmečki dom in kmečka hiša LA ARQUITECTURA VERNACULA Kmečka hiša in njena funkcija v Prekmurju

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samozaložba Argumentum Nauka Architectural Press Univerza, Filozofska fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, FA Faber and Faber AGENS SAZU Argumentum Dukagjini DOFSBT Structura Mundi Structura Mundi OKK Cankarjeva založba MOP RS Architectural press Universita di Trento Univerza v Ljubljani, FA ICOMOS Argumentum Int. Staedteforum Univerza v Ljubljani, FAGG Univerza v Ljubljani FAGG ICEA Jasama UNESCO/ICOMOS Canada Inst. for Slovenian Studies Prostor, znanstveni časopis UNESCO / ICOMOS Prostor 2003/2 Čebelarski muzej AR Arhitektura raziskave Pedra seca 8/2004 p 10-14 Ljubljana University I2 ARTE ZLS TZS ARTE Zveza lesarjev Slovenije I2 in Univerza v Ljubljani Debora Univerza v Ljubljani, FA Slovenski etnograf xv 85-101 samozaložba samozaložba Univerza v Ljubljani, FA Ordo et Mensura viii Edisud Eyroles L'architecture d'aujourd'hui Klas, Znanstvena knjižnica Disputacion de Badajoz Etnografija Pomurja I Pom. zal.

Ljubljana Lisboa Moskva Amsterdam Ljubljana Ljubljana London Zirovnica Ljubljana Lisboa Prishtina Zuerich Lausanne Lausanne Wien Ljubljana Ljubljana Oxford Trento Ljubljana Ljubljana Lisboa Graz Ljubljana Ljubljana Coventry Lenart Montreal Victoria Zagreb Paris Zagreb Radovljica Ljubljana Barcelona Ljubljana Ljubljana Caceres Ljubljana Ljubljana Caceres Ljubljana Ljubljana Ljubljana Ljubljana Ljubljana Gozd Martuljek Žirovnica Ljubljana Berlin Aix en Provence Paris Boulogne Ljubljana Badajoz Murska Sobota

Melik,A 1931 Moškon,D 1975 Moser,O 1974 Moser,O 1994 Mušič,M 1963 Olafsson,G 2000 Oliver,P 2003 Oliver,P ed 1997 Oliver,P 2006 Oliver & Vellinga 07 Pavel,A 1930 Potokar,R 2002 Skalicky,J 2004 Skalicky,J 2005 Šarf,F 1971 Vegas,F, Mileto,C 2007 Vellinga,M ed Vilfan, S 1970 Zaccaria, ed 1990 Zaccaria,C 1999 Zaragoza,C 2000 Zbasnik,M, Kresal,J 2002 Zupančič,D 2003 Zupančič,D 2009 Žiberna,I et al 2004

Kozolec na Slovenskem Gradbeno tehnološka raziskava ilovnatega naboja DAS BAUERNHAUS Des lebens Wirklichkeit Arhitektura slovenskega kozolca rec. Medieval Farm in Thorsardalur DWELLINGS, The Vernacular House World wide ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VERNACULAR ARCHIT BUILT TO MEET NEEDS: VERNACULAR ARCH ATLAS OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE Odprta ognjišča v kuhinjah rabskih Slovencev GORENJSKA, ARHITEKTURNI VODNIK Ljudsko stavbno izročilo žetalske občine, v: Žetale in Žetalani O stavbni dediščini Haloz, v: Svet Belanov Kmečka hiša v slovenskem panonskem svetu Renovar Conservando VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN THE 21ST Kmečka hiša, v: Gosp. in družbena zgodovina Slov. ARCHITETTURA IN PIETRA A SECCO LA CATALOGAZIONE DEL PATRIMONIO ARQUITECTURA RURAL PRIMITIVA EN SECA Površinska obdelava gradiv v arhitekturi SARDINIJA, ARHITEKTURA KAMNA Economy and Common Sense Teorija in praksa regionalizacije Slovenije

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187

Razprave znanstvenega društva FAGG Institut za oblikovanje Landesmuseum Geschichtsverein Zalozba Obzorja National Museum Phaidon Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press Etnolog iv 125-145 Saving Občina Žetale Halo Slov. etnografski muzej Municipio Rincon A., Taylor and Francis SAZU SCHENA Editore Adriatica Colleccio Politecnica 10 Univerza v Ljubljani, FA Univerza v Ljubljani, FA Mediterra (Craterre Grenoble) Uverza v Mariboru PeF

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Ljubljana Ljubljana Klagenfurt Klagenfurt Maribor Reykjavik New York Cambridge Cambridge Cambridge Ljubljana Ljubljana Žetale Cirkulane Ljubljana Ademuz London Ljubljana Fasano Bari Valencia Ljubljana Ljubljana Cagliari Maribor

IzvleÄ?ki Abstracts

Serija Arhitektura Slovenije je načrtovana v obsegu petih delov z delovnimi naslovi: 1 Alpski del; 2 Severovzhod; 3 Osrednja Slovenija; 4 Južna hribovja; 5 Kraško-mediteranski del Slovenije. Arhitektura je oblikovanje prostora. Sestavni deli po Vitruviju so konstrukcija, funkcija in estetika. Vernakularna arhitektura ni tista za kralje, za mrtve ali za bogove, pač pa za vsakodnevno življenje in delo malega človeka.Vernakularna arhitektura ni plod šolanih ljudi. Zamislili so si jo, jo izvedli in jo uporabljajo tisti, ki so znanje dobili od prednikov kot dediščino, s kulturo. Njihova naloga pa je, da to znanje, oplemeniteno z izkušnjami, nadaljujejo in razvijajo v obliki kulture. Vernakularna arhitektura je neponovljiva. Danes še obstaja, nova ne nastaja več. Danes je arhitektura plod strokovnjakov, arhitektov in drugih. Dobra arhitektura danes pa je boljša, če upošteva in kaže tisto kulturo naših dedov, ki se je ohranila do danes. Ne v detajlu, ne v materialu – v misli. Vernakularna arhitektura alpskega dela Slovenije pokriva dobršen del gorate Slovenije: Julijske Alpe, Karavanke, Kamniške in Savinjske Alpe, vse do Pohorja (Centralne Alpe). Drugi del AS2 sega od zahodnega Pohorja do madžarske meje, od Hodoša do Haloz. V uvodnem delu prinaša teoretična izhodišča, osnove vernakularne arhitekture in poenostavljen opis objektov, ki to arhitekturo predstavljajo. Poudarek je na arhitekturi gline, saj je ta na tem območju prevladujoča, a najmanj poznana in najmanj obdelana. Drugi del prinaša grafično gradivo o objektih samih: kratek opis in nekaj primerov na fotografijah (krajina, celota, objekt, notranjost, pa tudi nekaj značilnih detajlov). Pomemben del je grafično gradivo: prostoročne skice, ki razlagajo tehniko, tehnologijo, sestav, delo in uporabo materiala. Objekti, predstavljeni v tem delu, so: domačija kot sklop bivalne hiše z gospodarskimi objekti; bivalna hiša; bivalna hiša z gospodarskim delom; skedenj kot kombiniran objekt kmetskega gospodarstva, običajno v sklopu hiše; hlev kot objekt za bivanje živali; sušilnica kot objekt za sušenje, predvsem z ognjem, pa sušilnica kot koruznjak; kašča kot zgradba za spravilo hrane; čebelnjak kot pomemben del naše

arhitekturne dediščine; klet kot samostojen objekt; mlin – ti so na Muri posebej zanimivi, so namreč plavajoči. Vsaka slika je opremljena z opisom lokacije in s podatkom GPS, da lahko objekt tudi najdemo, tako na karti kot v naravi. V seriji je predviden CDRom s temeljnimi podatki ter usmerjevalno tehniko ('kako doseči kako domačijo ali objekt') v obliki digitalne in risarske grafike, kar je mogoče tudi natisniti – za programiranje obiska, izleta, ekskurzije, za edukativne namene, za pomoč pri domači nalogi. Na koncu so še indeks pojmov, 'slovarček, kot ga razume arhitekt' in seznam virov, ki so za tematiko najpomembnejši.

190

The series Architecture of Slovenia is planned in five parts, with the working titles: 1, Alpine Part; 2, Northeast; 3, Central Slovenia; 4, Southern Hills; 5, Karst – Mediterrannean Part of Slovenia. Arhitecture is the design of space: according to Vitruvius, the composite parts are construction, function and aesthetics. Vernacular architecture is not for kings, for the dead or for the gods, but for the everyday life and work of little man. Vernacular architecture is not the fruit of trained people: it is conceived, constructed and used by people who gained their knowledge from their forebears as heritage, as part of their culture. Their task is to continue this knowledge, enriched with experience, and develop it in the form of culture. Vernacular architecture is unrepeatable: it still exists today, but is no longer newly created. Today, architecture is the fruit of experts: architects and others. Good architecture is today better if it respects and portrays the culture of our ancestors, which has been preserved to the present. Not in details, not in materials, but in concept. The vernacular architecture of the Alpine part of Slovenia covers a good part of the mountains of Slovenia: the Julian Alps, Karavanke, Kamnik and Savinja Alps, as far as Pohorje (Central Alps). Part two, Architecture of Slovenia 2, covers the area from western Pohorje to the Hungarian border, from Hodoš to Haloze. The introductory part contains the theoretical starting points, the foundations of vernacular architecture and a simplified description of the objects that represent this architecture. The stress is on the architecture of clay, since this predominates in this area, but which is least well-known and has been least thoroughly treated. Part two contains graphic material about the objects themselves: a short description and some examples in photographs (landscape, as a whole, the objects, interiors, as well as some characteristic details). The graphic material is an important part: freehand drawings that explain the techniques, technologies, composition, work and use of materials. The objects presented in this part are: farmstead as a complex of a dwelling with functional outbuildings: residential house, residential house with functional elements attached; barn, as a combined object of the farm economy, normally within the context of a house; stockshed, as an object for

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

housing animals; drying kiln as an object for drying, mainly using fire, and drying house as corn dryer; granary as a building for storing food; b as an important part of our architectural heritage; cellar as an independent object; and mills, which are particularly interesting on the Mura – they are floating. Each picture is fitted with a description of the location and with GPS data, so that the buildings can also be found on the map as well as in nature. A CD is planned in the series, with basic data and with guideline techniques ('how to achieve either farms or objects') in the form of digital and hand drawn graphics, which can also be printed – for programming visits, excursions, for educational purposes or for assistance in homework. At the end are an index of concepts, a 'glossary as understood by an architect' and a list of sources that are most important for the theme.

191

ARCHITECTURE OF SLOVENIA, NORTHEAST

Eine Serie der Architektur Sloweniens ist in einem Fünfteiler geplant, mit den Arbeitstiteln: Alpen-Teil; Nordosten; Mittel Slowenien; Südgebirge; Kraško – Mittelmeer Teil Sloweniens. Architektur ist die Gestalltung vom Raum: Der Hauptbestandteil nach Vitruviju sind die Kostruktion, Funktion und Ästhetik. Die Vernaculare Architektur ist nicht die der Könige, für die Toten oder die Götter, sondern für das tägliche Leben und die Arbeit eines kleinen Mannes. Die VernaculareArchitektur ist nicht die Frucht der gebildeten Menschen: sie wurde erdacht, ausgeübt, und von jenen benutzt, die Ihre Kenntnisse mit der Kultur von Ihren Vorfahren als Erbgut erhielten. Ihre Aufgabe ist es, dieses Wissen, reich an Erfahrungen weiter zu prägen und in Form von Kultur zu entwickeln. Die Vernaculare-Architektur ist einzigartig: heute gibt es sie noch, eine Neue entsteht leider nicht. Heute, ist die Architektur das Ergebnis von Sachverständigen, Architekten und anderer. Gute Architektur heutige ist besser, wenn sie die Kultur unserer Großväter respektiert und diese wiederspiegelt, die bis heute beibehalten wurde. Nicht im Detail, nicht im Material: im Gedanken. Die Vernaculare Architektur des Alpen-Teils Sloweniens, erstreckt sich über ein großen Teil des Slowenischen Gebirges: Julischen Alpen, Karawanken, Kamniške und Savinjske Alpen bis hin zu Pohorje (Zentral-Alpen). Der zweite Teil, AS2 erstreckt sich vom westlichem Pohorje bis zur Ungarischen Grenze, vom Hodoš bis zum Haloze. Im einleitenden Teil werden theoretische Ausgangspunke erbracht, von der Theorie zur Praxis, die Basis der Vernacularen-Architektur und eine vereinfachte Beschreibung der Objekte, die diese Architektur vertreten. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Tonarchitektur, da sie in diesem Gebiet domninierend ist, jedoch weniger bekannt und gering bearbeitet wurde. Der zweite Teil beinhaltet grafisches Bildmaterial der Objekte selbst: eine kurze Beschreibung und einige Beispiele auf Fotos (Lanschaft, Gesamtheit, Objekt, Innere, und einige spezifische Detaile). Ein wichtger Teil ist das Bildmaterial: Handgefärtigte Skizzen, die die Technik, Technologie, Zusammensetzung, Arbeit und die Verwändung der Materialien erklären.

Die Objekte, die in diesem Teil dargestellt werden, sind: Ein Bauernhaus mit Wohnhaus und anderen wirtschaftlichen Anlagen; Wohnhaus, Wohnhaus mit wirtschaftlichem Teil; Scheune, als kombinierte Anlage eines Bäuerlichen Betriebes in der Regel in Zusammenhang des Hauses; Stallung, als Einrichtung für den Aufenthalt von Tieren; Trockenanlage, als eine Einrichtung zur Trocknung, insbesondere mit dem Feuer und als Maistrockner; Speicher, als Gebäude zur unterbringung der Nahrung; Bienenhaus als ein wichtiger Teil unseres architektonischen Erbes; Keller als selbstständiges Objekt; Mühle, die an der Mur besonders Interessant sind – diese sind nemlich auf dem Wasser schwimmend. Jedes Bild ist mit einer Beschreibung und der Lage mit GPS-Daten gekennzeichnet, damit das Objekt auf der Karte als auch in der Natur zu finden ist. In der Serie ist eine CD-Rom geplant, mit den grundlegenden Daten und Routing-Technik ( »wie erreiche ich das Bauerhof oder das Objekt«) in Form von digitalen Zeichnungen und Grafikendie auch ausgedruckt werden können – für die Planung des Besuches, Reise, Ausflug, pädagogische Zwecke, zur Unterstützung der Hausaufgabe. Am Ende findet man die Index Bezeichnungen, »Wörterbuch, wie der Architekt ihn versteht« und Liste der Quellenangabe, der wichtigsten Thematiken.

192

La série de l'architecture de la Slovénie est conçue en cinq parties portant les titres de travail suivants : 1) La région des Alpes ; 2) Le Nord-est ; 3) La Slovénie centrale ; 4) Les collines du sud ; 5) Le Karst – la Slovénie méditerranéenne. L'architecture est la conception d'un espace. Selon Vitruvius, ses composantes sont la construction, la fonction et l'esthétique. L'architecture vernaculaire n'est pas destinée aux rois, aux morts ou aux dieux, mais à la vie et au travail quotidiens des petites gens. L'architecture vernaculaire n'est pas le fruit d'érudits : elle a été conçue, développée et utilisée par des personnes qui ont hérité ces connaissances de leurs aïeux, avec leur culture. Leur tâche est de perpétuer ces connaissances enrichies par l'expérience, de les poursuivre et de les développer dans une forme de culture. L'architecture vernaculaire ne peut pas être répétée : elle existe encore à ce jour, mais elle n'est plus créée à neuf. Aujourd'hui, l'architecture est le produit d'experts, d'architectes et d'autres personnes spécialisées. La bonne architecture est meilleure encore quand elle respecte et démontre la culture de nos aïeux qui est préservée jusqu'à ce jour. Pas dans les détails, pas dans les matériaux, mais dans la conception. L'architecture vernaculaire de la Slovénie alpine traite une partie des montagnes slovènes : les Alpes juliennes, le massif des Karavankes, les alpes de Kamnik-Savinja et le massif du Pohorje (alpes centrales). La seconde partie de l'Architecture de la Slovénie s'étend du Pohorje occidental jusqu'à la frontière hongroise, de Hodoš à Haloze. L'introduction présente des données théoriques, les éléments de base de l'architecture vernaculaire et une description simplifiée de sujets qui représentent cette architecture. L'accent est mis sur l'architecture de l'argile, vu sa dominance dans cette région, bien que très peu connue et à peine traitée. La deuxième section fournit du matériel graphique des sujets en question : une brève description et quelques photographies (le paysage, la vue d'ensemble, le bâtiment, l'intérieur ainsi que quelques détails caractéristiques). Une partie très importante est le matériel graphique tel que les croquis faits à la main, qui expliquent la technique, la technologie, la structure, le travail et l'emploi du matériel. Les sujets présentés dans cette partie sont : une ferme comme complexe de

ARHITEKTURA SLOVENIJE, SEVEROVZHOD

bâtiments d'habitation et d'exploitation ;la maison d'habitation ; la maison d'habitation avec bâtiments d'exploitation ; la grange, en tant que bâtiment combiné destiné à l'exploitation agricole et faisant en général partie de la maison ; l'étable comme bâtiment destiné au bétail ; le séchoir comme endroit pour sécher, avant tout à l'aide du feu, ou le crib comme séchoir à maïs ; le grenier pour loger les vivres ; la ruche comme pièce importante de notre patrimoine architectural ; la cave en tant qu'édifice indépendant ; les moulins –d'un intérêt spécial : les moulins flottants de la rivière Mura. Chaque image est munie d'une description de l'emplacement ainsi que des données GPS, afin de pouvoir localiser l'endroit autant sur la carte que dans la nature. Un CD-Rom est prévu contenant les données de base et une technique d'orientation (« comment atteindre telle ferme ou tel endroit ? » en forme de graphiques digitales et figuratives qui peuvent être imprimées afin de programmer visites, excursions, mais aussi pour des fins éducatives et comme aide pour les devoirs. Le glossaire à la fin donne des éclaircissements sur des expressions utilisées dans l'architecture ainsi qu'une liste des sources les plus importantes en cette matière.

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borut juvanec

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