MArchD 2nd Year Project, Part 3

HURRICANE RESISTANT DESIGN

DESIGN STUDIO 2

Vladislav Artyukhov

Oxford Brookes University MArchD 2017-2018

INTRODUCTION

HURRICANES NATURE

STORM SURGE

SEMESTER 1

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATIONS

GRYMSDYKE FARM COMPONENT PROTOTYPING

SITE A ANALYSIS

HURRICANE RESISTANT HOME

CONTACTS

SEMESTER 2

SITE B ANALYSIS

SEAGRASS RESEARCH & RESTORATION CENTRE

Hurricanes are among nature's most powerful and destructive forces. On average, 12 tropical storms, 6 of which become hurricanes form over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, or Gulf of Mexico during the hurricane season which runs from June 1 to November 30 each year. Over a typical 2-year period, the U.S. coastline is struck by an average of 3 hurricanes, 1 of which is classified as a major hurricane (winds of 111 mph or greater)

Hurricane Hazards

• While hurricanes pose the greatest threat to life and property, tropical storms and depression also can be devastating. The primary hazards from tropical cyclones are storm surge flooding, inland flooding from heavy rains, destructive winds, tornadoes, and high surf and rip currents.

• Storm surge is the abnormal rise of water generated by a storm's winds. This hazard is historically the leading cause of hurricane related deaths in the United States. Storm surge and large battering waves can result in large loss of life and cause massive destruction along the coast.

• Storm surge can travel several miles inland, especially along bays, rivers, and estuaries.

• Flooding from heavy rains is the second leading cause of fatalities from landfalling tropical cyclones. Widespread torrential rains associated with these storms often cause flooding hundreds of miles inland. This flooding can persist for several days after a storm has dissipated.

• Winds from a hurricane can destroy buildings. Signs, roofing material, and other items left outside can become flying missiles during hurricanes.

• Tornadoes can accompany landfalling tropical cyclones. These tornadoes typically occur in rain bands well away from the centre of the storm.

• Dangerous waves produced by a tropical cyclone's strong winds can pose a significant threat to coastal residents and mariners. These waves can cause deadly rip currents, significant beach erosion, and damage to structures along the coastline, even when the storm is more than a 1,000 miles offshore.

HURRICANES NATURE

Tropical cyclones form only over warm ocean waters near the equator. The warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward from near the surface causing an area of lower air pressure below.

Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure area warming up and getting moist. As the warm air continues to rise, the surrounding air swirls in to take its place. As the warmed, moist air rises and cools off, the water in the air forms clouds. The whole system of clouds and wind spins and grows, fed by the ocean's heat and water evaporating from the surface. Storms that form north of the equator spin counterclockwise. Storms south of the equator spin clockwise. This difference is because of Earth's rotation on its axis. As the storm system rotates, an eye forms in the center, very calm and clear area with very low air pressure. Higher pressure air from above flows down into the eye. There are distinct levels of progression as a storm becomes a hurricane:

The first stage is a tropical disturbance, which is essentially a significant cluster of showers and thunderstorms.

As it becomes a tropical depression, it is slightly more organized and the winds pick up to 40 to 61 km/h.

It is classified as a tropical storm when winds reach 62 to 117 km/h. Once the winds reach 74 mph, it is classified as a hurricane and its intensity is measured by the Saffir-Simpson Scale. The Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale was developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Bob Simpson, who at the time was director of the U.S. National Hurricane Center.

Category 1: wind 74-95 mph (119-153 km/h)

Category 2: winds 96-110 mph (154-177 km/h)

Category 3: 111-129 mph (178-208 km/h)

Category 4: 130-156 mph (209-251 km/h)

Category 5: exceeding 157 mph (252 km/h)

Live Science Web Site [online] Available at: https://www.livescience.com/22177-hurricanes-typhoons-cyclones.html [Accessed 16 Oct. 2017]

Hurricane names are determined by the World Meteorological Organization in Geneva. The organization maintains six lists of alphabetical names that are used in rotation and recycled every six years. There are separate lists for Atlantic, Eastern North Pacific, Central North Pacific and other zones. Names are retired after a particularly deadly or costly storm. For example, the names Wilma (2005), Rita (2005) and Katrina (2005) have been removed from the lists. More recently, Matthew (2016) and Otto (2016) were retired.

Types of tropical storms

• Hurricanes - the storms that form in the Atlantic or Eastern Pacific.

• Typhoons - the storms forming In the Western North Pacific

• Cyclones form in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean

NASA Web Site [online] Available at: https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/ hurricanes/en/ [Accessed 16 Oct. 2017]

Hurricane Structure

NASA Web Site [online] Available at: https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/ hurricanes/en/ [Accessed 16 Oct. 2017]

A storm surge is water that is pushed onto shore by a hurricane. It is rarely a “wall of water” as often claimed, but rather a rise of water that can be as rapid as several feet in just a few minutes. The storm surge moves with the forward speed of the hurricane — typically 10-15 mph. This wind-driven water has tremendous power. One cubic yard of sea water weighs 1,728 pounds — almost a ton

There are three mechanisms that contribute to the storm surge

1.The action of the winds piling up water (more than 85% of the surge).

2.Waves pushing water inland faster than it can drain off. This is called wave set-up, which normally makes 5-10% of the surge.

3.The low pressure of a hurricane sucking water higher into the air near the eye (typically 5-10% of the surge).

The storm surge depends greatly upon the size and intensity of a hurricane, the angle that it approaches the shore at, how deep the water is close to shore (the slope of the seabed at the coastline) and how fast the hurricane is moving.

The storm surge can begin to rise a day before the storm hits, cutting off escape routes when low-lying highways are flooded. This is particularly true along the Gulf of Mexico shore. If you live near the ocean, the storm surge is the most dangerous part of a hurricane’s hazards. The high death tolls of the ten deadliest U.S. hurricane disasters, including the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 (over 8,000 killed), the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928 (2,500 killed), and Hurricane Katrina of 2005 (1,833 killed), were primarily due to the storm surge

Storm Surge

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Flow distortions by a rectangular building. Hosker 1979

Research Applications Laboratory Web Site [online] Available at: http:// www.ral.ucar.edu/lar/2006/priorities/7.3.php [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

Developing a design for a hurricane resistant building it is crucial to investigate all the destructive forces exerted on a building, study physics behind an air onset onto a building and behaviour of the air movement around it. Wind creates air pressure differential inside and outside of a building. There is also difference on windward and leeward sides, which results in drag force occurrence that pushes a building in a direction of air flow. Drag significantly depends on the shape of a building. The most efficient shape with minimal drag coefficient is that similar to an aerofoil.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Drag coefficients in fluids with Reynolds number approximately 10^4

Wikipedia Web Site [online] Available at: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_coefficient [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

Drag force dependence on the shape of an object

Clamback & Hennesy Web Site [online] Available at: https://www. flyplanes.com.au/theory-courses [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

AJC Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.ajc.com/news/national/why-sharkattacks-could-the-rise-around-the-world/jU3avoUXKOAHh1BzQQsnpN/ [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

BIOMIMETICS

A magnified look at shark skin. Credit AMNH Microscopy and Imaging Facility manager Rebecca Rudolph Oregon Coast Aquarium Web Site [online] Available at: http://aquarium.org/why-youneed-sharks/ [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

Looking into how biological organisms have adapted to the environment they live in in order to achieve superior characteristics for fast and silent movement in fluids, the very first example to investigate is a shark. In the course of evolution sharks have developed the specific outer layer in their skin which reduces water friction around their body. This layer is built up from thousands of micro denticles, similar to fish scales but shaped in such way that allows sharks for fast movement. Microturbulence appearing because of denticles makes sharks moving almost without resistance of water. This solution for the skin might be useful in developing a facade surface that would reduce drag effect of wind.

ARCH

MENTS

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

QLayers Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.qlayers.com/technology.html [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

University of Minnesota Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.safl.umn.edu/featured-story/featured-researchproject-reducing-wind-turbine-blade-drag-using-riblet-film [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Ability of sharks for swift movement has long been known to scientists. SImilar to sharks’ denticles specific coatings were developed for variety of applications where reduction of fluid friction is beneficial. Riblet film mimicking shark skin, as carried out wind tunnel tests showed, appears to be effective in reducing drag in various applications including passenger aircraft, gas turbine and sail boats. Mono-directional movement of fluids, however, in aforementioned applications results in intrinsic prolongated pattern of riblet shape and its array. The nature of the winds affecting buildings, on the contrary, is poly-directional and could exert pressure on building from either side. That would require modification of the friction reducing surface.

Bionicsurface Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.bionicsurface.com/en/riblet-surfaces/riblets-and-motor-sports/ [Accessed 6 Oct. 2017]

Sailing Anarchy Web Site [online] Available at: http://forums.sailinganarchy.com/index.php?/topic/102723-usa-17-friction-reduction-system/&page=3 [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

Investigating poly-directional fluid movement and its effect on a shape, a golf ball aerodynamics has been studied. The surface of golf balls is covered with dimples that are supposed to reduce air resistance. It can be seen that applying dimples to a surface of objects is not limited to a golf ball, though, and has been employed by various manufacturers in their applications.

The lift coefficient of a golf ball can be considered as an analogue of the drag coefficient. Lift is dependant on ball’s surface and, as some studies suggest, raises when the depth of dimples is shallow, the number of dimples is lessened, dimples are enlarged, or the share of dimples on all surface is lessened. The pattern of dimples, therefore, is a factor of a more efficient movement through the air. As a result of the wind tunnel experiment, in a high flow velocity of 35 m/s or more, a golf ball with shallower dimples has a higher lift coefficient. However, when exceeding a threshold, if it becomes too shallow, a lift coefficient will decline greatly at the low speed of less than 30 m/s. The same effect as when making a shallow dimple is seen by enlarging the dimple and lessening the number. By arranging tiny dimples in the crevices between large dimples, it is able to keep a high lift coefficient. (CORE Web Site [online] Available at: https://https://core.ac.uk/ download/pdf/82288206.pdf).

However, rough surface is able to achieve 25% of drug coefficient reduction, while the airfoil shape is 90% more effective compared to cylindrical shape, which means that working on the overall shape is more productive than experimenting with surface finishes. In normal operation on a road car, for example, skin friction accounts for no more than 1 percent of the total drag since the main drag generation mechanism is the vehicle shape.

Surface with dimples like those that can be found on a golf ball reduces drag in any direction

Today I Found Out Web Site [online] Available at: http://www. todayifoundout.com/index.php/2010/12/why-golf-balls-havedimples/ [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

At variuos speed the dimples perform differently depending on their depth, size and arrangment. Its clear that making them adjusting to certain speed would increase performance.

DH Gate Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.bikeradar. com/road/news/article/louis-garneau-p-09-aero-helmet-firstlook-42037/ [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

Comparison of flow separation and drag on blunt and streamlined shapes

AerospaceWeb Site [online] Available at: http://www. aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0215.shtml [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

(Technical F1 Dictionary Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.formula1-dictionary. net/dimpled_surface_finish.html)

Pattern of dimples on a optimised for better lift golf ball

CORE Web Site [online] Available at: https://https://core. ac.uk/download/pdf/82288206.pdf [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

DH Gate Web Site [online] Available at: https://www. dhgate.com/product/45mm-tubular-dimpled-surface-bicycle-wheelst/389218404.html [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017]

From a plane 10x10 to a vault using negative gravity

From a plane with anchor points, creating Delaunay mesh to a vault using negative gravity

From a box with anchor points, applying forces along Z and X axes

Waffle structure out of an extruded surface

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

As long as the design is meant to be a protective shell around living space, in the search of a global form for the building, study of catenary shapes was carried out. It was investigation of gravity forces applied to a plane that are able to form a vault. Utilizing Grasshopper and Kangaroo physics plugin is resulted in creation of variety of forms.

RCH ENTS

Looking into ways of creating an adaptive skin that would respond to weather conditions change. Experimenting with snapping transitions in shells with curved creases. These forms are able to change the form by rapid snapping that is probable through the pressure on a surface. Beyond certain point the accumulated tensions within material release curved skin mirroring it on other side of a crease.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Structural elements that are able to form complex spatial structures by additive algorythm. Rotating and mirorring self iterating elements allows for structural variety. Combination with modified elements increases growing tree brunches’ connections.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Moving forward exploring transformative surfaces as a prototype for an adaptive shell. Origami has been successful in recent aerospace and medical applications because of its flexibility and ability to unfold to larger forms. Learning how to make a pattern of creases can be benefitial in the shell design.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

As a part of adaptive surface study, posibilities of making a skin able to change the size and depth of dimples has been explored. Following previous research on the golf ball aerodynamics, the model of the facade panel has been made with concavities, which are potentially able to adjust to the wind speed and air pressure outside the building. The difference in the shape of concavities is for investigating the movement of round and hexagonal parts of dimples.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Flat surface

Dimples mode

Dimples’ depth adjustment controlled to maintain the least drag effect of the building

To investigate aerodynamic properties of various forms along with finding out an effect of dimples on a surface of objects, the hand-made wind tunnel was built. For tests a number of streamlined forms were made featuring different surface properties. Additionaly, for comparison three objects with blunt geometry were tested in the tunnel.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

Clay models for wind tunnel test with smooth surface and with dimples of different sizes

Objects for comparison against streamlined clay models for wind tunnel test

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

The tests have shown that there is no visual difference in air flow around clay models. Behind each of them a negative pressure area was formed that pulled the air in opposite direction. Thus, the effect of dimples has not been registered, unless being tested with specific measuring equipment. Overall, the boundary air layer promotes to the end of the shape creating less turbulence behind.

RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTS

As for comparative objects, the difference is more obvious. Particularly for the box, which demonstrated the massive air compression on windward side, the wide front of detached stream and low pressure behind the box. These all normally are cause eventual destruction of the buildings. The ball and cylinder less resulted in turbulence but due to their cross-sectional area they recieved increased pressure compared to clay models.

GRYMSDYKE FARM COMPONENT PROTOTYPING

DESIGN CONCEPT

The initial concept for the project suggested a living capsule to be raised above the ground to respond to floods, and the outer shell for protection from hurricane debris. Its streamlined shape is designed to reduce drag force exerted on the building at high wind speed. The main feature of the shell is its transforming wings geometry which can take a pillow-like shape by clamping edges of both upper and lower tessellated flexible surfaces. In this position they form rigid structural shape able to withstand hurricane onset. In normal weather conditions it can open up its edges allowing natural light in and to provide shading from the sun radiance. Rolled out to the ground level it provides access to the living area of the building.

GRYMSDYKE FARM COMPONENT PROTOTYPING

An alternative concept keeps the principle of the raised living capsule above the ground level from previous option. It also features streamlined shape for a better drag coefficient. The shell of the building is made of hexagonal wood frame which covers the capsule and extends further to larger footprint to create protected yard below the building.

Cells of the wood frame incorporate origami-like folding wood shatters. The purpose of the shatters is to create inpenetrable for hurricane debris surface protecting the living space inside. When open they form a light permeable lattice lightening space inside the shell. In this design there is no cladding elements with dimples on a surface as such approach to reducing the drag forces is considered as ineffective. Priority in an aerodynamically effective design is given to the shape of a building itself as it can be more beneficial in hurricane resistance.

For the prototyping the armature of four arms was developed as a component of armatures array that constitute the adaptive shell of the initial concept. Intended to be built from wood it incorporates the system of rotating levers connected in pairs as scissors. Each pair is connected to another one at levers’ tips through ball joints allowing flexible movement. Arms on their top side connected by hinges. When scissors folding together they force arms to move up allowing the whole armature bend upwards.

Arms Scissors

Hinges

Prior to making the real scale component model the 1:10 scale model was made in order to determine if the selected design is working. The model demonstrated the full working order lifting up the armature by pushing scissors’ levers against each other.

GRYMSDYKE FARM COMPONENT PROTOTYPING

Japanese saw

Circular saw

Ban saw Sanding machine

After the scale model proved the concept is working, a real scale model set up to be built. A number of machinery used in fabricating included ban saw, circular saw, sanding machine, japanese saw, screwdrivers. The most challenging part was to make scissors joints. The problem lied in the changing angle of the joints while scissors folding and unfolding. This kind of movement implied the joints to be flexible and not jamming with each other.

Scissors joints

Final testing of the component model showed the viability of the concept but raised a number of questions regarding the weight of the entire armature, materials’ selected for the design and their structural capacity. These issues should be considered in further design in order to make it viable.

Assembled armature

Two arms of armature

SITE A ANALYSIS

Site

Google Maps [online] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/maps/@25.6846884,-80.2595582,3a,75y,112.96h,89.74t/ data=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1sz48Uv17NC8HCQmdbfEfdTQ!2e0!7i13312!8i6656?hl=en [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

SITE A ANALYSIS

Old Cutler, Coral Gables

Selected place for the project is an empty lot located on Solano Prado road in Old Cutler neighborhood of Coral Gables City, a close suburb of Miami in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The community is a housing enclave surrounded by water with the only access through gates on the west from Old Cutler road running south from Miami downtown.

Old Cutler Neighborhood

Site Location

Site location has been driven by a number of criteria. For the hurricane-proof design testing it should be susceptible to those weather conditions when hurricane appears. Additionaly, it should be vulnerable to storm surges as a collateral threat during tropical storms. Once the site location has been identified, a thorough analysis has been carried out to find specifics of the area, its history and culture, demographics, climate, infrastructural elements.

Snazzymaps Web Site [online] Available at: https://snazzymaps.com/style/15/subtle-grayscale [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

Google Maps [online] Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/maps/@25.6861316,-80.2584583,3a,75y,159.48h,107.02t/ data=!3m8!1e1!3m6!1sAF1QipNhVmNvaCuJUXJ0T9legLPB1s2kSiSRGu4fpOPy!2e10!3e11!6shttps:%2F%2Flh5.googleusercontent.com%2Fp%2FAF1QipNhVmNvaCuJUXJ0T9legLPB1s2kSiSRGu4fpOPy%3Dw203-h100-k-no-pi-2.3510637-ya349.483 7-ro-0.40084863-fo100!7i7776!8i3888?hl=en [Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

A OLD CUTLER - CORAL GABLES - MIAMI DADE - FLORIDA

SITE A

OLD CUTLER - CORAL GABLESMIAMI DADE - FLORIDA

SITE A ANALYSIS

Site Surroundings

Google Maps [online] Available at: https://www. google.co.uk/maps/@25.6846884,-80.2595582,3a, 75y,112.96h,89.74t/data=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1sz48Uv17NC8HCQmdbfEfdTQ!2e0!7i13312!8i6656?hl=en

[Accessed 7 Oct. 2017]

The site, bounded with adjacent houses on the north and south sides and Solano Prado street on the west, has direct access to water of Biscayne Bay on the east sitting at the brink of the land. There is highly dense housing environment with many one-two storey mansions around. Although the site is exposed to the sun, plenty of greenery in the neighborhood is able to provides shade in hot days that are in abundance in South Florida.

Being located at the water edge it is highly vulnerable to floods and storm surge during hurricanes.

Dimensions of the site - 45x65 m

Orientation is along East-West axis.

Aerial View of Old Cutler. Image Courtesy of Google Earth

Site

LOCAL HURRICANE SHELTERS

OLD CUTLER - CORAL GABLES - MIAMI DADE - FLORIDA

The city of Miami is named after the Miami River, which derived its name from Lake Mayaimi. The Mayaimi were Native American people who lived around Lake Mayaimi (now Lake Okeechobee) in the Belle Glade area of Florida from the beginning of the Common Era until the 18th century. The southeastern parts of present-day Florida were inhabited by Tequesta, a small, peaceful, Native American tribe.They had lived in the region since the 3rd century BC, and remained for roughly 2,000 years having disappeared by the time that Spanish Florida was traded to the British, who then established the area as part of the province of East Florida. The Tequesta numbered about 800, but they started to die out as a result of settlement battles, slavery, and disease. By the 1800s, the Tequesta tribe had only a few survivors. (Wikipedia, [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tequesta)

Until 1842 there was slow settlement of Miami, mostly because of devastation after three major wars waged by Seminoles tribe against the US Government. The Village of Miami was established that year. Thanks to efforts of Julia Tuttle, the landlord of the north bank of the river Miami, the railroad line was extended to Miami by 1896 and The City of Miami was incorporated by vote of 444 citizens that had right to vote at that time.

Since its establishment Miami underwent transformation and gradual growth being promoted by John Collins and Carl Fisher who built shops, hotels and hightclubs. This boom lasted until Great Miami Hurricane hit the area in 1926 which led the city into the Great Depression. After Art Deco re-development and later on after WWll the economy was stabilized, partly because of hundred of thousands servicemen training in South Florida who returned to Miami when the war ended pushing another development boom by 1950.

In recent years, Miami has experienced economic boost reporting increase in taxable property values and increase in construction planning and permitting activity. There is also greater numbers of visitors arriving through the City’s ports each year, higher hotel room occupancy rates, and consequently bigger financial influx into the city's economy. (City of Miami Web Site, [online] Available at: http://www.miamigov.com/home/history.html)

SITE A ANALYSIS

Aerial view of Miami, 1926

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https:// www.floridamemory.com/items/show/5441 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Due to mass exodus of people from Cuba in 1959, where Fidel Castro came to power, Miami sheltered hundreds of thousands of Cuban refugees. Since the late 1960's the city has become a mix of cultural influences from African-American and Caribbean population, and by 1980's adding Haitians and Nicaraguans who also fled their countries.

Enlarging its territories Miami has become the headquarters for many multi-national companies and financial institutions. Despite the reputation of attractive location for the rich and famous, the city ranks as one of the top poorest cities in the country.

Florida

Royal Palm Hotel on the Miami River at Biscayne Bay, Miami, 1900

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https:// www.floridamemory.com/items/show/30031 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Miami Avenue, Miami, 1926

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https:// www.floridamemory.com/items/show/41596[Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Aerial view of Miami Beach, 1937

Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https:// www.floridamemory.com/items/show/5595 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Coral Gables

Coral Gables is a part of Miami metropolitan area. It was one of the first planned communities, and prefigured the development of the gated community and the homeowners association. It is infamous for its strict zoning regulations. The city was developed by George Merrick during the Florida land boom of the 1920s. (Wikipedia, [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Gables,_ Florida)

Incorporating secluded residential enclaves and commercial areas inspired by the architectural style of the Mediterranean, Merrick envisioned a City that would offer every amenity to its residents and at the same time would become a center for international business. In 1973 Coral Gables was one of the first cities in Florida to adopt a Historical Resources Ordinance, creating a Historical Resources Board and establishing a procedure for local landmark designations. Since then, the past has also been preserved in the form of buildings — significant either because of their architecture or because of the historic events or important figures associated with them. Today, Coral Gables is home to approximately 155 multinationals and 26 consulates and trade offices. It is also known as the Fine Dining Capital of South Florida and has the highest concentration of live theatre in Miami-Dade County. Growth in the commercial sector has brought a wealth of new activities for residents, including nighttime entertainment, live music, casual and fine dining, and new retail options. It has also helped maintain low property taxes. At the same time, the residential areas have remained protected from commercial intrusion.

SITE A ANALYSIS

Aerial view of the Anastasia Building at University of Miami, Coral Gables, 1935

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/42350 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Coral Gables has been named a "Tree City USA" for 26 consecutive years; it has an award-winning Communications Division and offers one of the most comprehensive Parks and Recreation programs in the state. (Coral Gables Web Site, [online] Available at: http://www.coralgables.com/index.aspx?page=324)

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/37636 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https:// www.floridamemory.com/items/show/32089 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Florida Memory Web Site [online] Available at: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/29798 [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Aerial view of Riviera, Coral Gables, 1925

Aerial view of the City of Miami, Coral Gables, 1925

Aerial view of the Coral Way, Coral Gables, 1926

Tracked paths of hurricanes in last century NOAA Web Site [online] Available at: https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/ [Accessed 12 Nov. 2017]

Florida has seen many hurricanes in its history and withstood more direct hurricane strikes than any other state but its been often grazed by storms making landfall elsewhere.

Four major hurricanes struck the United States in 1964, and three made landfall in Florida: Dora, Isbell and Cleo. The latter passed over Miami and Fort Lauderdale bringing 110 mph winds that caused $125 million in damage. The next season was calm, and only one storm made landfall. That hurricane, Betsy, slammed into Key Largo on its way to the Gulf Coast, where it killed at least 75 and caused more than $1.4 billion in damage. (Lazaro Gamio, [online] Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/one-hundred-years-of-hurricanes/)

SITE A ANALYSIS

The worst hurricanes hit Florida in last century Washington Post Web Site [online] Available at:https://www. washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/one-hundred-years-of-hurricanes/ [Accessed 30 Nov. 2017]

Before Hermine in 2016 there was more than a decade without direct stikes from significant storms. This standstill came after two active hurricane seasons in 2004 and 2005, which produced more than 40 named storms and 13 major hurricanes.

Among the most devastating storms pummeled the state was Andrew that caused 65 deaths and more than $26 billion in damage in 1992. It destroyed more than 28000 homes and damaged at least 107000 others. It would be the costliest natural disaster in US until Katrina in 2015.

In the 1980s, few storms made landfall in Florida. Only once Hurricane Elena was forced to veer toward the state by cold front in 1985.

In 1960, Hurricane Donna roared across South Florida with an 11-foot storm surge, 150 mph winds and more than $300 million in damage with 13 people died.

Isamadora Hurricane (Key Largo) made famous by the movie Key Largo, crossed the Keys at Isamadora, and killed 408 people and wiped out the roadroad to Key West. Most of the victoms of this storm will fleeing the hurricane by means of the railroad when a tidal wave swept the train from the tracks. Okeechobee Hurricane roared ashore at Palm Beach September 16, 1928. It killed 2000, mostly because of irruption of Okeechobee lake which was filled by rain.

Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 / Fort Lauderdale and Miami Areas. The death toll was estimated to be from 325 to perhaps as many as 800. No storm in previous history had done as much property damage.

Florida Keys Hurricane, 1919. It was the only hurricane to form in the Atlantic that year. The storm killed more than 800 people, although the exact total will never be known.More than 500 were lost on ten ships that either sunk or were reported missing.

(http://pparker.org/hurricanes/hurricane_history.htm)

Structures withstood hurricanes

https://www.usatoday.com/picture-gallery/news/nation/2017/08/07/hurricane-andrew-a-look-back/104369028/

Hurricane Andrew, 1992

http://www.actionnewsjax.com/news/photos/photos-hurricane-andrew24-years-ago-on-aug-24/429012347

SITE A ANALYSIS

Analysing photos of destruction hurricanes cause, it is interesting to notice among rubble the lonely standing water towers that endured the strong onset of winds and despite its hight staying structurally intact. There is a number of factors appears to be that let these structures withstand hurricanes. First of all, they are designed to be structurally stable due to their purpose of storing large amount of water inside at very high level above the ground. Secondly, because of their rounded shape. Water reservoirs tend to be of cylindrical or spherical shape because it is more effective forms to store liquids, which is beneficial in terms of aerodynamic properties of the structure overall. Air flow more easily bypasses curved surfaces and exerts less pressure on structure.

http://www.actionnewsjax.com/news/photos/photos-hurricane-andrew-24-

http://www.actionnewsjax.com/news/photos/photos-hurricane-andrew-24years-ago-on-aug-24/429012347

Water tower in Rowlett, TX, after Hurricane Andrew, 1992

Water tower in Florida City, FL, after Hurricane Andrew, 1992

Miami has a tropical monsoon climate with hot and humid summers, short warm winters, and a marked drier season in the winter. Its sea-level elevation, coastal location, position just above the Tropic of Cancer, and proximity to the Gulf Stream shape its climate.

With January averaging 20.7 °C, winter features warm temperatures. Cool air usually settles after the passage of a cold front, which produces much of the little amount of rainfall.

The wet season usually begins during the month of May and continues through mid-October. During this period, temperatures are in 29–35 °C range, accompanied by high humidity, though the heat is often relieved by afternoon thunderstorms or a sea breeze that develops off the Atlantic Ocean, which then allow lower temperature.

SITE A ANALYSIS

Miami receives abundant rainfall, one of the highest among major cities in the United States. Most of this rainfall occurs from mid-May through early October. Miami has an average annual rainfall of 1570 mm.

Miami reports more thunderstorms than most US cities, with about 80 days per year having thunder reported. These storms are often strong, with frequent lightning and very heavy rain. Occasionally, they can be severe with damaging straight line winds and large hail.

Wikipedia Web Site [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Miami [Accessed 8 Oct. 2017]

Miami Weather Conditions

Tips Trip Florida Web Site [online] Available at: http://www.tipstripflorida.com/2014/04/ climate-and-weather-of-miami.html [Accessed 8 Oct. 2017]

TOPOGRAPHY

Florida is not as much vulnerable to earthquakes as it is to relatively moderate rises of sea level. South Florida has remarkably flat topography. While the only highest natural elevation - a limestone ridge running from Palm Beach to south of the city of Miami - counts around 4 meters, half the area that surrounds Miami is less than 1,5 meters above sea level. With just 1 meter of sea-level rise, more than a third of Southern Florida will disappear, at 2 meters more than half will be gone. If the seas rise 3 meters, South Florida may become an isolated archipelago surrounded by abandoned buildings.

Recent

Earthquake Track Web Site [online] Available at: https://earthquaketrack.com/p/united-states/florida/recent [Accessed 6 Oct. 2017]

1 meter

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Web Site [online] Available at: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Web Site [online] Available at: https://coast.noaa.gov/slr/#/layer/slr/0/-8934692.079459032/2960378.4864441827/15/dark/ none/1/2050/interHigh/midAccretion [Accessed 8 Oct. 2017]

NASA Web Site [online] Available at: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view. php?id=4818 [Accessed 6 Oct. 2017]

Old Cutler Floods Map. Current level,

and 2 meters sea level rise.

Earthquake Activity

Florida Map at 5 and 10 meters Sea Level Rise.

HURRICANE RESISTANT HOME

AERODYNAMICS COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

ISOSURFACE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

SHELL OPENING PATTERNS

ADAPTIVE SHELL STRUCTURE

Total Area 122 m2

LEVEL 2

Total Area 147 m2

Terrace 120 m2

Single family house for a couple with two children. The advantage of the design is the ability to provide a shelter for inhabitants during hurricane season without a need to evacuate to pablic shelters.

SITE B ANALYSIS

Site B is located in Florida Keys, a chain of islands connected by the only one road, US1 Highway, which becomes the only evacuation route for the Florida Keys’ residents when hurricanes category 3 to 5 approach the region.

Site location was informed by population density pattern of Florida Keys, free land availability and local ecosystem factors.

SITE B ANALYSIS

Monroe County

Site B

Site B

Miami-Dade County

Upper Sugarloaf Key

Cudjoe Key

POPULATION DENSITY