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S^)6$O'=5I'5P"60& K069-?1Gc=O?I)M8)9=I*0)60&6&:*N0*+,1Gc=DG DPV]=8'=*+,@'6#+15;+E&A0!2'6E:]=9)?*+,I?01&050#0&;PN0&)8EW?-?8DG E",)#+%I0#M'P9EV)]=&:<<1*?0]P 6RE",)#+%?0C5K.VE5W)M`(=1*?0='(=]=60& M@'PK&781G/+,E=9G/)&'4<0/*+,8EW?E) 9/:E",)&'4<0/8EW?E)=0=1*?0]P O?I)M8)60&]OV6-"60M8)%=K#W?=V8E6R-+I)6IV0)886DG1*?0='(= K06#+ 60&1/786O.P*+,P+*+,5.P*+,6N0K=PDPV1!+E)O.P1P+EI9/VI O?I)M8)60&]OV =CE<0E-?0)b *+,1GjP]KV&'4<0/E",)9%</)1*?0]P a/*+,DPV6RE",)1MV0]6/V A0I:P+*+,5.P1*?0='(= 8E?0)D&6RP+ 1#7,8D#?#+A0I:P+*+,5.P1!+E)A0I:1P+EI 1O?=='(=9/VI E",)O?I)*+,1GjP]KV9%</)1*?0]P %I0#1Gc=DGDPVM8)60& M0P15;+E&A0! %I0#1Gc=D#?K/'6G^6M+(%I0E 9/:60&M0P&:E:M8) 60&GL"&WG 6RE",)#06M`(=1*?0='(= a/M8)*'()K#P=+(/VI=9-?1Gc=5?I=15+E #06#0E*'()1! K' I ]@M8)G^ B K0*0)60&1#7 8 )6R %7 8 60&6&:@0E D#? I? 0 @' 6 1Gc=60&6&:@0E&0EDPV K&7860&6&:@0E8N0=0@*0)60&1#78)6R-0# C#1P/8E?0))?0Eb 6R1Gc=60&1!+E)!8*+,@'695P);`)60&D#?16"P#+&WG 9<<M8)60&6&:@0E*+,6N0K=PDPV1!+E)9<<1P+EI (Plott, 1967) 9/: e:='( = 6R D #? 1 6" P #+ 6 0&1/7 8 6M8)5' ) %#1!+ E )O. P 1P+ E IPV I E A0! G&:68<*+, 1 ='(=8F"<0E1&+E<&V8E9/VI;`)60&@'P5&&*+,P"=G/W6!7O 1&0 50#0&;]OV&WG='(=95P);`)&0EDPVG&:O0O0-"&I#]=&:P'<K=`,)*+,@'6 6&:@0EDG]=<&&P050#%= 5?I=9<?)M8)&0EDPV6R9*=PVIE%I0#E0I M8)15V=*+,DG-'()e066'<PV0=-?0)b =+,6R1O?=6'= @:#+%:9==15+E)58) -?8K=`,)*+,@:&.P1MV05W?50#<&"1IJ 9-?%V0=60&1%/7,8=DG5W?1M-87,=8+6 50#1M- K06#+9&)6&:-.V=M8)%I0#1KR=96?G&:CEO=$M8)aWV87,=9/: %I0#8"@e0-0&V8=16"PM`(=9/VI 60&I"1%&0:K$*+,&I#18015V=%I0#!8]@ #0DIVPVIE6R@:-&)6'=6'<1)7,8=DM*+,-V8)60&]KVP./EA0!
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]=8'=*+,@'6-'P5"=6"@60&-?0)b PVIE-=18)8E?0)6IV0)MI0) PVIE1K-.=+( ]=12&34205-&$ 5 I' 5 P" 6 0&='( = @` ) D#? #+ !7( = 40=5N 0 K&' < E7 = E' = I? 0 &'4F&&#=WB]PP+6I?0&'4F&&#=WB87,= 9/:6RD#?#+!7(=40=5N0K&'<E7=E'= I?09=I%"P]PM8)%I0#E.-"F&&#]=60&6&:@0E@:P+6I?09=I%"P87,= 1!&0:60&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J='(=16"P#0@0660&G6%&8) 60&*+,&'4<0/]=&:<8<60&G6%&8)K=`,)*N060&Ck3J0]KV &V0EGH0E5+&:<8<60&G6%&8)87,= 6R1Gc=1!+E)60&]OV8N0=0@G6%&8) 5&V0)I"@0&JB0JM8)-=M`(=#01!7,8O'6@W)9/:<+<<')%'<#"]KV5#0O"6 M8)O. # O=]OV I" @ 0&JB0JM8)1M0DG]=*0)87, = *+, 9 -6-? 0 )886DG !&:&0O<'BB'-"I?0PVIE60&GH8)6'=60&6&:*N08'=1Gc=%8##"I="5-$M8) &'4<0/D*E1#7,8Gd 2495 6R886#0A0E]-VI"@0&JB0JM8)&'4<0/O.P ='(= 9/:DPV]OV-?86'=#0@=;`)G^@@.<'= =',=6R1*?06'<I?0&'4<0/O.P-?8b #0#"DPV]OVI"@0&JB0JM8)-=]KV9-6-?0)886DG K&78#"e:='(=6R1KR=P+ 1KR=)0#-0#6'=DG]=1&7,8)=+( K0]O?I"@0&JB0JM8)GI)O=O0ID*E D#? e:='(=1#7,860&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J='(=16"P#0@0660&G6%&8) 9/VI 6R1Gc=1&7,8)M8)5#0O"6*+,@'6]OVI"@0&JB0J 9/:D#?I?0I"@0&J B0J@'61Gc=1O?=]P6R-0# I"@0&JB0J=+(6R1Gc=!7(=40=M8)S^)6$O'= 5I' 5 P" 6 0&*+, 1 Gc = 1&7, 8 )M8)=CE<0E]=8' = *+, @ :]KV D PV 5 I' 5 P" 6 0&5W ) 5. P 12&34205-&$5I'5P"60&@`)*N0]KV1&050#0&;!"@0&J0&WG9<<-?0)b *+, I"@0&JB0J1K/?0='(=80@95P)886#0@06@.PE7=M8)%I0#%)15V=%) I0*0)-&&6: 9/:*N0]KV1&050#0&;/)%I0#1KR=CPE!"@0&J0@06 K/'6*',IDG5W?I?0=CE<0E8:D&*+,16+,EI6'<60&@'P5&&*&'!E06&@`)@'6P+ *+,5.P]=8'=*+,@:DPVS^)6$O'=5I'5P"60&5W)5.PM8)60&G6%&8)9<<='(= I"O012&34205-&$5I'5P"60&=+(DPVM+PI)@N06'P]KV96?O.#O=DPV ]OVI"@0&JB0J9<<!01&C-8'=16"PM`(=#0@06%?0="E#M8)5')%# K06 I"@0&JB0J9<<=+(D#?1Gc=*+,E8#&'<15+E9/VI 60&I"1%&0:K$=+(6RD#?1MV0 1&7,8)1MV0&0I1*?0='(=18)
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.* ';,:55OL2+AM1)*D1*G8+%' ]=60&8&&;0F"<0E;`)60&I"1%&0:K$-0#9<<e<'<M8)60& K05I'5P"60&5W)5.P-0#9<<!01&C-='(= DPV95P)]KV1KR=%I0#@N01Gc=*+, I?0S^)6$O'=5I'5P"60&8EW?]=KVI)8&&;G&:CEO=$ 9#V@'6#+%I0#@N01Gc= @069=I%"P1O?=='(= 9-?;V0K06M0PP'O=+M8)8&&;G&:CEO=$]=*0) GL"<'-"9/VI6RE?8#1Gc=DGD#?DPV*+,@:95P)60&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J886 #0]=&WG1O?==+( 8E?0)D&6RP+ M85##-"I?0DPV#+60&<&&/.;`)A0I:E8PP+*+,5.P (optimum optimurum) 9/:#0!"@0&J0;`)%.J5#<'-"M8)A0I:=+( 60&DPV - 0#1)7, 8 =DMM8)60&a/" - 9/:60&9/61G/+, E =='( = E? 8 ##+ 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0-?0)b O.PK=`,)5N0K&'<5"=%V09/:G^@@'EM8)186O= 9*V 5N0K&'<6"@6&&#%I<%W?6'=DG*+,&I#1805",)A0E=86DIVPVIE (&0%0 ]=*+,=+(*N060&@?0EPVIEA03+K&781)"=8.PK=.=5N0K&'<5"=%V050F0&J$ K&7 8 5" = %V 0 50F0&J:*+, 1 6" P M`( = ]=*V 8 );", = ) &I#;` ) 5N 0 K&' < 5" = %V 0 50F0&J:9*V<0)8E?0) G^@1@6O=9-?/:%=6R50#0&;*+,@:<&&/.;`) &:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$&:P'<K=`,)!8P+ Z`,)1Gc=&:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$O.P *+, ] KV & :P' < 5I' 5 P" 6 0&5W ) 5. P 1*? 0 *+, @' 6 DPV &0%0-? 0 )b O. P =+( E? 8 #1Gc = M8<1M-@N06'P*+,G^@1@6O=9-?/:%=@'6PN01="=60&9/61G/+,E=-0# G&"#0JG^@@'E9/:5"=%V0*+,#+8EW?='(= 9#V]=*0)GL"<'-"='(=@'61Gc=DGD#? DPV]=60&K0&:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$*+,9-?/:%=@:DPV 9-?6R1Gc=DGDPV*+,@: K0G^@@'E9/:5"=%V0*+,1M0#+8EW? 1#7,86N0K=P8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0-?0)b 9/VI M8<1M-@N06'PM8)G&"#0J5"=%V09/:G^@@'E*+,#+8EW?6R@:*N0]KV1M0 DPV&:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$-0#='(= 9-?/:%=-?0)6R#+G^@@'E9/:5"=%V0 -?0)b 6'=#06#0E ]=C/6*+,#+60&9M?)M'=*+,5#<W&J$CPEDPV5I'5P"60& 5W)5.P='(= 6RE?8#1Gc=DGDPV*+,@'695P)60&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J]=&WG
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 45 :
M8)G&"#0J5"=%V09/:G^@@'E*+,1Gc=-'I9*=P'O=+M8)8&&;G&:CEO=$ 9#V1&0D#?50#0&;K0&:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$*+,1M0%I&50#0&;@:DPV 9-? 1&06R K 0M8<1M-@N 0 6' P *+, 9 -? / :%=%I&6&:*N 0 DPV %I0#5N 0 %' B M8) =CE<0E@`)8EW?*+,60&K0M8<1M-@N06'P-?0)b O.PK=`,)*+,8EW?]=G&:1PR= 9-?]=C/6*+,D#?5#<W&J$='(= 8'=*+,@&")=CE<0E6RG&:@'63$O'P]= -'I9/VII?05&V0)M8<1M-@N06'P]KV96?G^@1@6O= 9-?/:%=6RDPV6&&#5"*F"Y ]=*&'!E$5"=<0)8E?0)9/:#+%I0#50#0&;*N060&9/61G/+,E=Z7(8M0E ]=-/0P*+,D#?5#<W&J$='(= 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%06R1Gc=DG-0#60&6&:*N0 M8)G^@1@6O=]=-/0P 9/:80@DPV&'<8"*F"!/@06=CE<0E16+,EI6'< A03+9/:1)"=8.PK=.= K&7860&6N0K=P&0%060&%I<%.# =86@06='(= G^@1@6O=*'()K/0E-?0)#+5"*F"*+,@'6O7,=O#6'<5"=%V050F0&J: 9#VI?05",) 1K/?0=+(CPE/'63J:M8)#'=9/VI@'6*N060&9/61G/+,E=Z7(8M0E6'=D#?DPV 6R-0# e:='(=@`)!81Gc=DGDPV*+,@:K09/:]OV=CE<0E]=8'=*+,@'6<&&/. ;`)A0I:5W)5.PM8)5I'5P"60& 9/:6R1Gc=DGDPV*+,@'6G&:1#"==CE<0E -?0)b @06*'2=:M8)12&34205-&$5I'5P"60&]=9)?M8)%I0#1K#0: 5#*+,@:K0S^)6$O'=5I'5P"60&*+,G&06L='(=]KVDPV5W)5.P 60&*+, G^ @ 1@6O=%=]P#+ 5" = %V 0 9/:G^ @ @' E 8EW? 9 /V I ='( = 6R 1 Gc = 1!+E)@.PK=`,)]=KVI)5"=%V06'<G^@@'E M8<1M-@N06'P*+,a?0=@.P='(=Z`,) 6N0K=P&:P'<8&&;G&:CEO=$*+,50#0&;<&&/.;`)DPV6RE?8#1Gc=DG-0# 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0='(= 1#7,8@.P]Pb 6RP+G0=b 6'=6'<@.P87,=b <=15V= M8<1M-@N06'P1P+EI6'=-0#&0%0*+,6N0K=PDIV @.P58)@.PP')6/?0IE?8# #+a/-?0)6'=K068'-&05?I=M8)&0%01G/+,E=9G/)DG ]=C/6*+,1Gc=DG -0#60/1I/0='(= 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0E?8#1G/+,E=9G/)-?81=7,8)6'=DG @0660&1G/+,E=9G/)*'()]=S^)6$O'=60&a/"- 60&6&:@0E*+,1/786DIV*+, 1P"#*+,95P)886PVIE5"=%V06'<G^@@'E 9#V@:1K#0:5#9-?9&6 6R80@D#? 1K#0:5#8+ 6 -? 8 DG 1=7, 8 )@06%I0#16+, E ICE)&:KI? 0 )5", ) *+, #+ 8 EW? 6' <
: 46 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
8&&;G&:CEO=$DPV1G/+,E=DG-0#60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)8'-&05?I=M8) &0%0K&781!&0:60&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J18)DPV1G/+,E=DG P')='(= ]= C/6*+,1Gc=DG-0#60/1I/0=+( 1&0@'6-V8)%0PK#0E1)7,8=DMM8)60& 6&:@0E]KV1Gc=DG-0#60&96VDMG&'<G&.)*+,-?81=7,8)6'= 60&96VDM G&'<G&.)80@/./?I)DPVK/0E*0) &WG9<<M8)60&1Gc=1@V0M8)G^@@'E 50#0&;1G/+,E=9G/)DPVPVIEA03+#&P6 A03+*.= A03+*&'!E$5"= Q/Q -0#*+, P" = 9/:*. = 5? I =60&6&:@0E%I0#1Gc = 1@V 0 M8)9&))0=6R 50#0&;1G/+,E=DPVPVIE60&1Gc=*05 60&<')%'<9&))0=9/:60&16Jl$ 9&))0= 60&6&:@0E%.JA0!M8)#=.3E$15+E]K#?6R*N0DPVPVIE=CE<0E 60&2`630 5?I=5"=%V06R6&:@0E15+E]K#?PVIE60&G^=5?I=K&78@'PK0 <&"60&50F0&J:]KV1G/?0 ]=&:<<60&1)"=='(= 60&C8=&0EDPVPVIE A03+ K &7 8 1)" = 8. P K=. = 6R 5 0#0&;]OV 9 *=60&C8=G^ @ @' E 9/:5" = %V 0 G&:60&5.P*V0E%78M8<1M-@N06'PM8)8'-&05?I=M8)&0%06R50#0&; E'6EV0E;?0E1*PVIEA03+ 1)"=8.PK=.= 9/:60&%I<%.#*+,#+8"*F"!/ -? 8 %I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 )60&#+ 5" = %V 0 9/:G^ @ @' E 8EW? ='( = 6' < &:P' < 8&&;G&:CEO=$*+,DPV K061%&7,8)#78K/0E1K/?0=+(]OV8E?0)D#?/)&8E6'= K&78]OV-0#<.B-0#6&&#9/VI a/*+,5:5#-0#60/1I/0E?8#5/'<Z'< ZV8=8+&.)-.)=')*+,5.P 9/:M0PG&:5"*F"A0!8E?0)&V0E9&) CPE*',IDG 1&050#0&;95P)DPVI?060&1G/+,E=9G/)]Pb ]= 60&6&:@0E8'=16"P@0660&1G/+,E=9G/)*0)G&"#0JM8)G^@@'E*+,#+ ='(= PW1K#78=@'6#+G&:5"*F"A0!#066I?0@0660&1G/+,E=9G/)PV0= &0%0 ]=&:<<12&346"@*+,#+60&9/61G/+,E=Z7(8M0E6'=='(= 60&*+,@'6 <&&/.;`)A0I:P+*+,5.P9<<!01&C- @N0-V8)#+60&6N0K=P8'-&05?I=M8) &0%0*+,*N0]KV MRS 1*?06'< Marginal Rate of Transformation (MRT) ]=&WG*+,1K#0:5#*'()5"=%V0186O=9/:5"=%V050F0&J: 60& 9*&69Z)8' - &05? I =M8)&0%01K/? 0 ='( = 1!7, 8 %I0##.? ) K#0E]=60&
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 47 :
6&:@0EE?8#9*&69Z)<&&/.;`)60&@'P5&&P+*+,5.P8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0! 9-? 6 0&6&:@0EPV I E60&]KV 1 Gc = G&" # 0J5" = %V 0 9/:G^ @ @' E E? 8 #D#? #+ MV8@N06'PP')6/?0I 6&:='(=6R-0# ]=*0)GL"<'-"9/VI 6R1Gc=60&)?0E*+,@'6 1G/+,E=9G/)8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0E",)6I?060&]KVPVIEG&"#0J 60&@'PK05"=%V050F0&J:='(=@:-V8)P`)*&'!E06&#0@0660& a/"-5"=%V0186O= G^BK016+,EI6'<%I0#E.-"F&&#I?0]%&%I&15+E5/:6R 1Gc=1!+E)G^BK0M8)60&1/78660&6&:@0EM8)5"=%V0186O=*+,E')1K/78 8EW? 1&7,8)=+(9-6-?0)DG@0660&!"@0&J0;`)G&:5"*F"A0!M8)*0)1/786 -?0)b ]=60&C8=*&'!E06& 60&@'PK0;==50F0&J:PVIE60&16Jl$ 9&))0=-0#!&:&0O<'BB'-"*N0]KV60&C8=*&'!E06&/./?I)DGDPVPVIE 60&1G/+,E=9G/)&WG9<<M8)60&1Gc=1@V0M8)G^@@'E 9&))0=*+,]OV='(= D#?DPV1Gc=M8)G^@1@6O= K069-?1Gc=M8)O.#O=-0#&:E:1I/0*+,&:<. DIV 60&M0PG&:5"*F"A0!M8)&:<<=+(16"PM`(=@0660&@'P5&&9&))0= D#?DPVP+ 1=78, )@069&))0=#+*6' 3:9/:%I0#50#0&;-?0)6'= 8E?0)D&6RP+ 1#7,8#+5"*F"@?0E1)"=9*=9&))0=*+,16Jl$='(=DPV9/VI ]=*0)*[3\+6R ;78I?0DPVM@'P%I0#E.?)E06='(=886DG e:='(= &:<<P')6/?0I@`)6/0E #01Gc=&'OOWG60& (%?0K'I) Z`,)@?0E1Gc=1)"=6RDPV K&78*N0)0=6RDPV 9<<=+( D#? D PV &' < a/6&:*<6&:1*7 8 =]KV a" P 1!+( E =DG@0660&1G/+, E =9G/) 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%0 9-?=',=D#?DPV1Gc=60&E7=E'=I?0 &:<<=+(1Gc=60&<&"K0&)0=*+,P+ *+,5.P K069-?1Gc=I?0*0)*[3\+='(=&:<<=+(D#?;W6<"P1<78=PVIEA03+ 60&16R<A03+@06%?01O?0*+,P"=6R#+G&:5"*F"A0!1*?06'=6'<%?0&'OOWG60& 9-? A 03+ 1 )" = DPV 9 /:A03+ 8 06&='( = *N 0 ]KV #+ 6 0&a" P 1!+( E =DG&:KI? 0 ) Marginal Product (MP) M8)9&))0=6'< MRS &:KI?0)5"=%V06'<60& !'6a?8= %I0#a"P1!+(E==+(16"PM`(=1!&0:G^@1@6O=E')%)1Gc=1@V0M8) G^@@'E9/:#+15&+*+,@:9/61G/+,E=-0#%I0#G&:5)%$ 9-?6R;W6E'<E'()*+,@:
: 48 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
DPVG&:CEO=$1-R#*+,@06C86059/61G/+,E=PVIE60&G&:1#"=A03+*+,16R< @0660&M0E9&))0=9/:@06Z7(85"=%V08EW?<V0) 1#7,8;==988'P9/VI6RD#? 1Gc=5"=%V050F0&J:9*V 60&]OVA03+806& 1O?= 16R<%?0=(>#'= E?8# 1K#0:5##06 60&I"1%&0:K$*N0=8)=+(6R]OV6'<60&GH8)6'=G&:1*2DPV #06 1!&0:1Gc = 60&16Jl$ 9 &))0=-0#!&:&0O<' B B' -" 5 #' E ]K#? =',=18) 9#VI?060&1Gc=1@V0M8)9/:60&%I<%.#9&))0=*+,*N060&&"<180 9&))0=*+,#+8EW?]=&WG9<<M8)60&1Gc=*05='(=@:D#?;W6<"P1<78=PVIE 8'-&05?I=M8)&0%06R-0# 9-?6R#+%I0#E.?)E06/N0<06@0660&M0P G&:5"*F"A0!]=60&@'P5&&9&))0=*+,16Jl$#0CPEG&02@065"*F"*+,@: 1G/+,E=1Gc=1)"= 6'<*'()E')16+,EIMV8)8EW?6'<60&6&:@0EI"@0&JB0J*+, D#?1Gc=DG-0#G6-"*+,I?0O0E&.?=K=.?#aWV#',)%',)%I&@?0EA03+1!7,8G^8)6'= G&:1*2 MV8DPV1G&+E<*0)*[3\+16+,EI6'<60&C8=*&'!E06&DG]KV&'4 PVIE60&6&:@0E%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8)G^@@'E15+E]K#?CPE-&) 9*=*+,@'6]OV 8' - &0A03+ *+, <" P 1<7 8 =60&9/61G/+, E =='( = DPV 1 Gc = 60&5=' < 5=. = MV 8 ;61;+E)]KV#+60&16R<A03+*+,P"=9/:]KV*+,P"=6'<*.=1Gc=M8)5?I=&I# @: 1KR=I?0 K/'6=+(DPV=N0DG]OVGL"<'-"D#?1!+E)9-?]=O.#O=5')%#="E#1*?0='(= 9#V]=60&5)I=Gg0D#V 9K/?)9&? 9/:9K/?)*&'!E06&-?0)b ]=O.#O= M8)C/615&+6R]OVK/'6=+(*'()b *+,D#?DPV1Gc=O.#O=5')%#="E#1/E 1#7,8&0%0a/a/"-9/:&0%0G^@@'E1G/+,E=DG &WG9<<60&1Gc= 1@V 0 M8)G^ @ @' E *+, 1 Gc = 8EW? 6? 8 =='( = 80@*N 0 ]KV 6 0&6&:@0E&:P' < 8&&;G&:CEO=$9-6-?0)6'=DG 1#7,860&1G/+,E=9G/)8'-&05?I=M8) &0%01Gc=DGO',I%&0I 6R!850#0&;OP1OEDPVPVIE60&%I<%.#&0%0 9/:60&G^=5?I= 9-?E",)1Gc=60&1G/+,E=9G/)&:E:E0IM`(= 6RE",)6?8]KV 16"P%I0#E.?)E06#06M`(= 9/:=+,6R1Gc=501K-.M'(=!7(=40=M8)G^BK0 16+,EI6'<&0EDPVM8)163-&6&8EW?*',IDG !7Oa/*+,#+&0%0-,>9/:#+%I0# E7PKE.?=M8)P+#0=P$-?8&0EDPV6R-,>PVIE='(= 1#7,8a/"-A0!]=60&a/"-
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M8)60&1G/+,E=9G/)]=5I'5P"60&DG-0#60/1I/0-?81=7,8)6'=='(=DPV 6V0IK=V0DG1!+E)1/R6=V8E 9/:C/6*+,1G/+,E=9G/)=+(6R1Gc=C/69K?) A0I:P+*+,5.P8'=P'<58) 8E?0)D&6R-0# 60&*+,12&34205-&$5I'5P"60&D#?50#0&;K0 K&781KR=!V8)-V8)6'=16+,EI6'<*0)886M8)G^BK05N0%'BM8)=CE<0E ='( = D#? % I&*N 0 ]KV 1 &09/D#? 1 KR = %I0#@&" ) *+, I? 0 G^ B K0*'( ) GI)M8) =CE<0E*0)12&346"@='(=1Gc=G^BK0M8)5I'5P"60&*0)12&346"@ K061&0#.?)5=]@8EW?1!+E)*+,@'6DPVI"F+60&#0CPE#8)MV0#60&1%/7,8= EV0EM8)%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)I"F+60&6'<@.PK#0EG/0E*0)15+E9/VI 1%&7,8)#78-?0)b =0=0 M8)=CE<0E*0)12&346"@80@=N0DG]OVD#?;W6 *0) %I0##.?)K#0E*+,M8]KV#+60&@V0))0=1-R#*+,6RP+ &0%0#+15;+E&A0! 6RP+ Q/Q #"]O?@.PK#0EG/0E*0) K069-?1Gc=I"F+60& 60&%"P*+,@'6 1/7 8 6K0*0)a5#-? 0 )b M8)I" F+ 6 0&*+, D #? 5 8P%/V 8 )6' = PV I E60&]OV I" @ 0&JB0J='( = E? 8 #1Gc = 5", ) D&V 5 0&: 1!&0:I" @ 0&JB0J='( = 1Gc = !7(=40=M8)I'-;.G&:5)%$ 60&1/786I"F+60&*+,1K#0:5#1!7,8<&&/.;`) @.PK#0EG/0E*0)*+,6N0K=PDIV='(=1Gc=)0=M8)60&I"1%&0:K$ #+8+6#06#0EK/0E8E?0)*+,-V8)*N06?8=*+,='612&34205-&$ 50#0&;E7P868E?0)*:=)]=%I0#50#0&;*+,@'6GL"<'-")0=1O?=I?0='(= DPV 9 -? M J:1P+ E I6' = &' 4 <0/6R < &&1/)DG8E? 0 );W 6 <V 0 )a" P <V 0 )@=]KV 8.G5&&%a?0=!V=DG <0)*+6R1809%?!8G^P5I:]KV!V=-'IG/?8E]KV#'= /8EDG-"P5:5#K#'6K###180DIV1Gc=68)!:1="=1*"=*`6 !8&'4<0/ ]K#?1MV0#09*=6R!8P+5?)6/",=1K#R=K`,)@=96VDM8:D&9*=D#?DPV18015+E 1/E &'4<0/]K#?@`)-V8)1Gc=aWV&'<1%&0:K$6&&#9<6A0&:9<668)ME: 5I:8'=K='68`()180DIV @:*"()6R]O?*+, @:*N0]KVP+6RD#?DPV PVIE1K-.=+(6&:#') 1&0@`)#'6#+9-?&'4<0/G&:1A*G^P5I:DG@=O:-06&&##0;`)1#7,8]P6R#+ 8'2I"=M+,&;;') =',)1&78<"= Gd=1&78&< %&<&:1<"P%&<GT= #0E7=@')6V0
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1/7866I0P180<0)8E?0)DG 9/VIG/?8E]KV8E?0)]K#?!86!W=M`(=#08+6 1Gc=I'L@'6&*+,D#?&WV5"(=Z06@=%=5?I=#065:8"P5:18+E= 8E061G/+,E= &:<<]KV#'=&WV9/VI&WV&8PDG15+E*+ @'6P+@'6&V0E @'6-0E@'61Gc= @'61MRB @'65.M 6RO?0)K'I#'= 60&*+,1&01O7,88E?0)5="*]@I?060&6N0K=P=CE<0E1Gc=1!+E) 1&7,8)M8)I"@0&JB0JCPE-&)@`)D#?]O?6)60&K&78D#?]O?%I0#&'<a"P O8<M8)I"='EM8)12&34205-&$='(= 6R1Gc=60&D#?E8#&'<I?01&0802'E 8EW?]=C/69<<!01&C-=',=18) 9=?/: I"@0&JB0J9<<!01&C-6R1Gc= 1!+E)I"@0&JB0J9<<K=`,)1*?0='(= <0)%=80@<86G^P6RDPV 9-?6?8= *+,='612&34205-&$@:<86G^PCPE9@V)O'PK&78CPEG&"E0E6R-0# 6R@'6 -V8)@N0I?01%V0C%&)*'()K#PM8)*[3\+12&34205-&$P')*+,1&0*&0<8EW? *.6I'==+(DPV5&V0)M`(=#0@06&0640=9<<!01&C- K06<86G^P&0640= 1K/?0='(=15+E9/VI*[3\+P')6/?0I6RD#?5'#!'=F$6'=6'<C/6*+,1&0802'E8EW? =+( 1#7,8-V8)1aO"B6'<G^BK0-?0)b 16+,EI6'<=CE<0EM8)C/6G^@@.<'= 8E?0)=+(9/VI 40=:M8)12&34205-&$P')*+,1Gc=8EW?MJ:=+(E?8#E')D#?1!+E) !8 K&78E')D#?-&)G&:1PR= 9/:='612&34205-&$E?8#1Gc=aWV/)#78 G&:68<2"/Gn='(=E",)#+60&-&:K='66'=]=1&7,8)=+(#06M`(=1*?0]P 9/:E",) #+%I0#!061!+E&*+,@'6<N0<'P1E+EIE05;0=60&J$#06M`(=1*?0]P 6R E?8#1Gc=DGDPV*+,@'6-"PGH0EMV81M+E==+(DPV1&RIE",)M`(=I?0 “/V05#'E”
: 60 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5''6%)S+'$ Arrow, K. J. (1963), /G.-+* %HG-.0 +46 I46-J-6K+* L+*K0,, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley. Breton, A. (1966), “A Theory of the Demand for Public Goods”, %+4+6-+4 MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-., +46 OG*-P-.+* /.-04.0, November, pp. 455-67. Coleman, M. (1959), “The Possibility of a Social Welfare Function”, 5301-.+4 $.G4G3-. Q0J-0R, December, pp. 1105-22. Friedman, M. (1969), (H0 &SP-3K3 TK+4P-PU GN VG40U, Chicago: Aldine. Plott, C. R. (1967), “Equilibrium and Majority Rule”, 5301-.+4 $.G4G3-. Q0J-0R, September, pp. 787-806. Winch, D. M. (1969), “Pareto, Public Goods and Politics”, %+4+6-+4 MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-.,, November, pp. 492508. Winch, D. M. (1970), “Inflation and Resource Allocation”, V.V+,P01 )4-J01,-PUF W0S+1P304P GN $.G4G3-., XG1Y-4Z O+S01, no. 70-11.
: 62 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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%0&$/ #0&$6Z$ (Karl Marx) #+9=I*0)9/:I"F+60&]=60& !'_=0*[3\+12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)-=*+,9-6-?0)DG@06*[3\+ 12&34205-&$60&1#78)%/055"%6?8=#0&$6Z$9/:*[3\+12&34205-&$ =+C8%/055"6K/')#0&$6Z$ <*%I0#=+(1@0:@);`)#&&%I"F+*+,#0&$6Z$]OV]= 60&5&V0)*[3\+M8)1M0P')G&06L1Gc=a/)0=*+,5N0%'B*+,5.PO"(=K=`,)]= G&:I'-"I"O012&34205-&$60&1#78)%78 K=')578 <S1 #%+S-P+*2 3 1/?# O.P1 #&&%I"F+ (method) 1Gc=I"F+60&9/:M'(=-8=]=60&2`630 G^BK0 I"1%&0:K$1!7,8<?)O+(%I0#5'#!'=F$1O")1K-.9/:a/&:KI?0)G^@@'E -?0)b -/8P@=I"F+8=.#0=]KVDPVZ`,)MV85&.G9/:MV8*N0=0E*+,1Gc=&WG F&&# #&&%I" F+ 2` 6 30]=*0)5' ) %#205-&$ #+ & 0640=#0@06I" O 0 B0JI" * E0 (epistemology) ]=*0)G&' O B0 1O? = #&&%I" F+ M 8) 12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6#+/'63J:1Gc=1O")I"1%&0:K$ (analytic) *+, 16+,EICE)6'</'*F"GL"40=="E# (positivism)2 CPE*+,='612&34205-&$ =+C8%/055"6@N0=I=#06@:GL"<'-"-0#6'=CPED#?-'()%N0;0# 1!&0:E`P K/'6 “60&9<?))0=6'=*N0” *0)I"O060&*+,='612&34205-&$@:D#?-'()%N0 ;0#=8650M0I"O0M8)-=18)
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1O? = 1P+ E I6' = 60&I" 1 %&0:K$ 9 <<I" F+ 6 0&a/" - *. = =" E #M8) #0&$6Z$6R#+#&&%I"F+*+,1Gc=1e!0:M8)-=18) Z`,)1Gc=!7(=40=]=60& 5&V0)*[3\+#W/%?09/:#W/%?05?I=16"= -/8P@=MV8%0P%:1=G&:60& -?0)b I?0PVIE6\9/:9=IC=V#9K?)60&!'_=0M8)*.=="E# *+,5N0%'B%78 #0&$6Z$#'6]KV%N08&&;0F"<0E*0)12&34205-&$PVIE='E*0)G&'OB08EW? 15#8 9/:=+,@`)*N0]KV*[3\+12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)1M0#+/'63J: 1P?=!"123DG@065N0='6%"P87,=b *'()K#P E",)6I?0='(=%78 MV8%"P*0) G&'OB09/:#&&%I"F+M8)1M0E')DPV6/0E1Gc=5?I=G&:68<5N0%'BM8) *[3\+5')%#G&:1A*-?0)b *+,!'_=0M`(=K/')E.%#0&$6Z$8+6PVIE ]= 5?I=9&6M8)<*%I0#=+(@:6/?0I;`)60&!'_=0G&'OB0M8)#0&$6Z$]= 40=*+,&'<8"*F"!/@06='6%"P&.?=6?8=1M0%78 1i16/9/:S8E188<0% @06='(=@:=N015=8#&&%I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$*+,1&+E66'=I?0 I"A03I"F+9/: *[3\+ G &:I' -" 2 05-&$ 1K/? 0 =+( %7 8 !7( = 40=*+, # 0&$ 6 Z$ ] OV ] =60&5&V 0 ) *[3\+12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)-=M`(= )* !U!+" O4Q!445%= +15$%'A+TA ]=Gd 1836 #0&$6Z$1MV02`630I"O06\K#0E*+,#K0I"*E0/'E <8==$ 9/:Gd-?8#0DPVEV0E#0*+,#K0I"*E0/'E1<8&$/"= *+,1<8&$/"==+(18) *+,#0&$6Z$DPV2`630I"O0G&'OB09/:G&:I'-"205-&$ ]=Gd 1841 #0&$6Z$ 15=8I"*E0="!=F$1&7,8) “%I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0)G&'OB0F&&#O0-"M8) 1PC#%&"-.56'<18Gj%"I&.5” -?8#K0I"*E0/'E1E=09/:DPV&'<G&"BB0186 ]=Gd='(=18) (McLellan, 1973, ch.2) #0&$6Z$!'_=0AW#"G^BB0M8)-= M`(=]=5A0I:9IP/V8#M8)G&'51Z+E*+,1Gc=&0O0F"GD-E 8=.&'63$="E# *0)60&1#78) 9/:#+G&'OB0M8)1i16/%&8<)N0]=I)I"O060&
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 65 :
]=G&'OB0M8)1i16/ (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel) G&06L60&J$8'=K/06K/0E*'()]=F&&#O0-"9/:]=5')%##=.3E$;W6 8F"<0EI?01Gc=M'(=-8=-?0)b M8)60&!'_=0M8)5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “@"-” (the Spirit) ]=a/)0=O"(=186M8)1i16/O7,81&7,8) “205-&$I?0PVIE -&&6:” (Science of Logic) “@"-” P')6/?0I8EW?]=A0I:M8)%I0#%"P =0#F&&#<&"5.*F"Y CPE1&",#-V=@06#C=*'2=$*0)G&'OB0*+,)?0E9/:=0# F&&#*+,5.P (%78 Being) %?8Eb !'_=01Gc=#C=*'2=$*+,5/'<Z'<ZV8= 9/:1Gc=&WGF&&##06M`(=1&7,8Eb 1O?= G&"#0J (Quantity) %.JA0! (Quality) DG5W?#C=*'2=$*+,5/'<Z'<ZV8=9/:1Gc=&WGF&&#*+,5.PM8)%I0# %"P (*0)G&'OB0) %78 “%I0#%"P5'#<W&J$” (the Absolute Idea) ]=M'(= -?8#0 “@"-” ]=40=:*+,1Gc=#C=*'2=$*0)G&'OB0<&"5.*F"Y6R9G/69E6 -=18)1Gc=#C=*'2=$]=F&&#O0-" 1O?= 1*2: (Space) 60/: (Time) O+ I" - (Life) !7 O (the Plant) 5' - I$ (the Animal) 1Gc = -V = =+, %7 8 “G&'OB0I?0PVIEF&&#O0-"” (the Philosophy of Nature) M8)1i16/ ]=M'(=5.P*V0E%78 “G&'OB0I?0PVIE@"-” (the Philosophy of Spirit) “@"-” DPVKI=6/'<%7=#05W?-=18) <&&/.;`)8)%$186A0!&:KI?0)%I0# %"P<&"5.*F"Y6'<F&&#O0-" Z`,)6R%781Gc= “@"-#=.3E$” (Mind) *+,!'_=0M`(= 1Gc=@"=-A0!*0)5')%#M8)#=.3E$ 1O?= @"-5N0=`6 (Consciousness) 5"*F"Y (Right) @&"EF&&# (Morality) 2+/F&&#5')%# (Social Ethics) 2"/G: (Art) 205=0 (Religion) 9/:G&'OB0 (Philosophy) ]=*+,5.P &:<<G&'OB0M8)1i16/6R%78 60&!'_=0M8) “@"-” @06A0I:=0# F&&#9/:)?0E (abstract-simple) DG5W?A0I:&WGF&&#*+,5/'<Z'<ZV8= (concrete-complex) CPE!/')a/'6P'=60&!'_=0]=*.6M'(=-8=16"P @0660&9-65/0EM8)186A0!A0E]= “@"-” 6?816"P1Gc=9=IC=V#*+, -&)MV0#6'= M'P9EV)6'=9/:-?85WV6'=18)M8)PV0=58)PV0=A0E]= “@"-” ]=M'(=-8=='(= *N0]KV “@"-” 1G/+,E=9G/)DG5W?M'(=-8=*+,5W)6I?01Gc=
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“@"-” *+,#+186A0!]K#?Z`,)6R@:16"P60&M'P9EV)A0E]= 9-6K'6 9/:MV0# !V=DG5W?M'(=-8=*+,5W)6I?08+6 1Gc=1O?==+(1&7,8Eb DG /'63J:M8)60& !'_=0PVIE%I0#M'P9EV)A0E]= 9/:60&5')1%&0:K$ “@"-” M`(=1Gc=8)%$ 186A0!M8)%I0#M'P9EV)*+,5/'<Z'<ZV8=9/:5W)M`(=1&7,8E b =+(18)*+, 1&+E6I?0 “I"A03I"F+” (dialectic)3 G&'OB0M8)1i16/#+%I0#%/.#1%&781MV0]@E06 9/:#+O?8)I?0) ]KV50=.2"3E$-+%I0#DPVK/0E9)?#.# 50=.2"3E$*+,1=V=&:<<G&'OB0*'()O.P M8)1i16/#+9=IC=V#8=.&'63$="E#9/:5='<5=.=&'4<0/G&'51Z+E]= 1I/0='(= MJ:*+,50=.2"3E$&.?=K=.?#5=]@I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/ Z`,)#+='E;`) %I0#M'P9EV)9/:60&!'_=0DG5W?M'(=*+,5W)6I?0M8)5')%##=.3E$9/:@`)#+ 9=IC=V # *+, 6V 0 IK=V 0 6I? 0 !I69&6%7 8 “6/.? # 1i16/16? 0 ” (Old Hegelians) 5?I=!I6K/')%78 “6/.?#1i16/fg0EZV0E” K&78 “6/.?#1i16/ K=.?#” (Left or Young Hegelians) 6/.?#K=.?#=+(#+%I0#D#?!8]@-?8 5A0!*0)5')%#60&1#78)M8)G&'51Z+E]=1I/0='(=9/:!E0E0#]OV I" A 03I" F+ M 8)1i16/#0I" ! 063$ I" @ 0&J$ 5 A0!60&J$ *+, 1 Gc = 8EW? 1 P" # #0&$6Z$]=&:E:9&6DPV1MV0&?I#]=6"@6&&#M8)6/.?#1i16/K=.?#Z`,)MJ: ='( = DPV !.? ) %I0#5=]@DG*+, 6 0&I" ! 063$ 2 05=0 9-? 9 /V I 60&I" ! 063$ 205=0DPV6V0IDG5W?*"2*0)M8)60&I"!063$-'IG&'OB0M8)1i16/18)]= *+,5.P 60&I"!063$G&'OB01i16/DPV<&&/.;`)M'(=5W)5.P1#7,8S8E188<0% (Ludwig Feuerbach) Z`,)1%E1Gc=2"3E$M8)1i16/ 1aE9!&?a/)0= 1&7,8) @!14T57<LJ56"&'1&,#.'()A #(H0 $,,04.0 GN %H1-,P-+4-PU2 ]=Gd 1841 ]=)0=O"(==+( S8E188<0%DPVGL"15FG&'OB0@"-="E#M8)1i16/ CPE5"(=1O")9/:9*=*+,PVIEG&'OB0#=.3E$="E# (Humanism)4 5N0K&'<S8E188<0%9/VI G^BK0]@6/0)M8)G&'OB0#"]O?5",) *+,1&+E6I?0 “@"-” K&78 “%I0#%"P5'#<W&J$” K069-?8EW?*+,-'I#=.3E$18) #=.3E$@`)1Gc=*'()@.P1&",#-V=9/:1Gc=]@6/0)M8)G&'OB0#=.3E$="E#
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S8E188<0%C@#-+G&'OB0M8)1i16/I?0 1Gc=/'*F"2&'*F0="E#9/: /'*F"/`6/'<Z`,)16+,EI!'=8E?0)]6/VO"P6'<205=0 *'()=+( “@"-” K&78 “%I0# %"P5'#<W&J$” 6R%785",)*+,1i16/]OV1%/78<%/.# “!&:1@V0” ]=*0)205=0 180DIV=',=18) S8E188<0%1KR=I?0 205=0#"]O?8:D&87,==86@061Gc= 5",)9G/69E6*+,1Gc=a/"-a/M8)#=.3E$ ='EK=`,) 205=09/:!&:1@V0 1Gc = a/" - a/M8)%I0#%" P M8)#=. 3 E$ 9 /:1Gc = A0!5:*V 8 =M8)-' I #=. 3 E$ 1 8) S8E188<0%]KV % I0#5N 0 %' B 8E? 0 )5W ) 96? % I0#5' # !' = F$ &:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" 1KR=I?0%I0#5'#!'=F$=+(1Gc=6.B9@5N0%'B -?860&1MV0]@;`)1=7(89*VM8)#=.3E$9/:1Gc=@.P1&",#-V=M8)G&'OB0*+, %I&@:1Gc = 60&!' _ =0M`( = M8)205=01Gc = 1%&7, 8 )K#0EM8)%I0# 9G/69E6M8)#=. 3 E$ *+, D #? 1 MV 0 ]@%I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 )-=18)6' < F&&#O0-" ]=MJ:*+,G&'OB0M8)1i16/18)6R#+1=7(89*V*+,1Gc=205=09/: 1*II"*E0O="PK=`,) 60&G/PG/?8E#=.3E$DG5W?15&+A0!@`)<&&/.DPVCPE 60&I"!063$205=09/:G&'OB0M8)1i16/ %I0#%"P1<7(8)K/')M8) S8E188<0%6R%78 60&&7(8STo=G&'OB0I'-;.="E#*+,;78180#=.3E$1Gc=]@ 6/0)M`( = #08+ 6 %&'( ) K=`, ) 1!7, 8 9*=*+, G &' O B0@" - =" E #M8)1i16/ (McLellan, 1969: 85-91) MV8%"PM8)S8E188<0%DPV5?)8"*F"!/-?860&!'_=0%I0#%"P M8)#0&$6Z$8E?0)]KB?K/I) #0&$6Z$]=&:E:1&",#9&66RI"!063$G&'OB0 M8)1i16/-0#9=I*+,]6/V1%+E)6'<S8E188<0% 9/:K'=#0K0MV8%"PI?0 PVIE “#=.3E$” (McLellan, 1969: 101-112) 8E?0)D&6R-0# #0&$6Z$D#? 1KR=PVIE6'<S8E188<0%*+,=86@06@:GL"15F@"-="E#M8)1i16/9/VI6R E')/:*"()I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/DGPVIE ]=*0)-&)MV0# #0&$6Z$E')%) 57<*8P#&&%I"F+*+,1Gc=I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/ #0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 1i16/1Gc= =' 6 %" P %=9&65. P *+, =N 0 15=8I" A 03I" F+ ] =&W G 60&*N 0 )0=*', I DG8E? 0 ) %&8<%/.#9/:#+@"-5N0=`6#06*+,5.P #0&$6Z$E')1KR=I?0 I"A03I"F+M8)1i
: 68 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
16/#+ %. J %? 0 8E? 0 )E", ) ]=60&2` 6 30G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ ] =40=*+, 1 Gc = 6&:<I=60&!'_=01G/+,E=9G/)*+,5/'<Z'<ZV8= a?0=M'(=-8=-?0)b M8)%I0#M'P9EV)9/:186A0! 1!+E)9-?I?0 I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/DPV “6/' < -0/G^ - &” C/6%I0#1Gc = @&" ) 15+ E CPE#8)I? 0 C/6AII" 5' E 1Gc=60&5:*V8=886M8) “@"-” #0&$6Z$6/?0II?0 1M01!+E)9-?*N0]KV I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/K'= “6/'<%7=5W?*"2*0)*+,;W6-V8)” (turn right side up) 9/:P`)18096?=96=*+,5#1K-.5#a/886#0@061G/786=86*+, /`6/'< (1Gc=@"-="E#9/:205=0) M8)1i16/1*?0='(= ]=MJ:*+, 1 i16/#8)I? 0 6&:<I=60&!' _ =0M8)G&:I' -" 205-&$1Gc=60&95P)886M8)60&!'_=08E?0)1Gc=M'(=-8=M8) “@"5'#<W&J$” ='(= #0&$6Z$#8)I?0 G&:I'-"205-&$1Gc=6&:<I=60&!'_=0 M8)%I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 )#=. 3 E$ 6' < #=. 3 E$ A 0E]=5' ) %# (Marx, KI: 29) MJ:1P+EI6'= #C=*'2=$I?0PVIE “#=.3E$” M8)#0&$6Z$6R9-6 -?0)@06S8E188<0% #0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 “#=.3E$” M8)S8E188<0%1Gc= #=.3E$=0#F&&#*+,E7=8EW?/8Eb CPED#?#+%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+, 9=?O'P -/8P@=G&02@0660&-8<C-V8E?0)1Gc=fg0E6&:*N0-?8C/6 AII"5'E #0&$6Z$;78I?0 #=.3E$#"]O?E7=8EW?CPP1P+,EI K069-?!'_=0M`(= A0E]=%I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0)5' ) %#*+, 9 =? = 8= (Marx, 1973: 13-14) #=. 3 E$ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ @` ) 1Gc = #=. 3 E$ ] =5' ) %#*+, #+ 6 0&6&:*N 0 -? 8 6' = 6' < F&&#O0-"9/:1MV0#0#+%I0#5'#!'=F$-?8#=.3E$PVIE6'=]=&WGM8)60& a/"-*0)I'-;.9/:60&a/"-*0)@"-]@ 1!&0:#=.3E$G^@1@6O=CPPb D#? 50#0&;@:#+GL"5'#!'=F$6'<F&&#O0-"1!7,860&8EW?&8P9/:60&!'_=0 %I0#1Gc=#=.3E$M8)1M0DPV K=*0)1P+EI*+,G^@1@6O=@:#+GL"5'#!'=F$ 6'<F&&#O0-"DPV8E?0)#+%I0#K#0E9/:5&V0)5&&%$6R%78 60&1MV0&?I# 6/.?#6'=9/:6?8&WGM`(=1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+,9=?=8==',=18) 9/:6R#+9-?A0E]-V%I0#5'#!'=F$6'<F&&#O0-"<=1)7,8=DMM8)%I0#
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 69 :
5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+,9=?=8=1*?0='(=*+,#=.3E$*0)O+IA0!@:1Gc=#=.3E$ 5')%#*+,#+G&:I'-"205-&$ I'_=F&&# 9/:AW#"G^BB0DPV 5N0K&'<#0&$6Z$9/VI %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6<' F&&#O0-" G&06L1Gc=@&")CPEa?0=%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<#=.3E$PVIE 6'=]=60&a/"-G^@@'E*0)I'-;.1!7,8PN0&)O+!9/:PN01="=6"@6&&#*0)&WG 60&@"-5N0=`6DG!&V8#6'= %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<#=.3E$]= 60&a/"-*0)I'-;.9/:*0)@"-]@P')6/?0I#+/'63J:1e!0:*+,aW6!'=9=< 9=?=8E?0)9E6D#?886@06%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" %I0#5'#!'=F$=+(#+!7(=40=&?I#6'=8EW?*+,6"@6&&#60&a/"-*0)I'-;.1!7,8 60&PN0&)O+!9/:60&8EW?&8PM8)1a?0!'=F$.#=.3E$ 6"@6&&#60&a/"-@`) 1Gc=1)7,8=DM1<7(8)-V=-?86"@6&&#87,=b ]=&:P'<*+,5W)6I?0 1O?= G&'OB0 2"/G: 205=0 9/:O+I"-*0)I'_=F&&# #0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 #=.3E$G^@1@6 O=@:#+60&6&:*N0-?8F&&#O0-"DPV6RCPEa?0=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%# &:KI?0)#=.3E$PVIE6'= (%78a?0=60&&I#6/.?#1!7,8*N060&a/"-*'()*0) I'-;.9/:*0)@"-]@) 1*?0='(= e:='(=#=.3E$@`)#"]O?5",)*+,1e7,8E1=78E*+,;W6 %I<%.#CPEA0I:9IP/V8#8E?0)5"(=1O") 9-?#=.3E$#+%I0#50#0&;]= 60&%"P9/:-'P5"=]@A0E]=%I0#5'#!'=F$='(=b 6/?0IDPVI?0 ]=6&:<I=60&*+,#0&$6Z$I"!063$*'()1i16/9/: S8E188<0%=+(18) *+,1M0DPV!'_=0G&'OB0I"F+%"PM8)1M0M`(=CPE#+*'() #W/F0-.M8)I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/9/:*&&2=:I?0PVIE#=.3E$*+,5'#!'=F$ 6'<F&&#O0-"M8)S8E188<0% 5')1%&0:K$1Gc=G&'OB0I?0PVIE#=.3E$*+, 1KR=I?0 %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" 9/:&:KI?0)#=.3E$ 6'<#=.3E$]=5')%#1Gc=58)PV0=*+,16+,EI1=7,8)6'=M8) “#=.3E$” 9/:1Gc= !7(=40=M8)60&!'_=0G&:I'-"205-&$#=.3E$ *'()=+( /'63J:M8)%I0# 5'#!'=F$*0)I'-;.9/:@"-]@1K/?0=+( -/8P@=/'63J:9K?)60&!'_=0 M8)G&:I'-2" 05-&$#=.3E$ 6R#9+ <<I"F1+ e!0:*+1, Gc= “I"A03I"F”+ (dialectic)
: 70 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
+* D8N%@D87I#42$%'A+TA 9#VI?0I"A03I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$@:1Gc=#&&%I"F+2`630*+,57<*8P#0 @061i16/ 9-?*+,=?0e)=6R%78 #0&$6Z$D#?1%E<&&E0EI"A03I"F+M8) -=18)8E?0)1Gc=&:<<1/E MV8%"P16+,EI6'<I"A03I"F+M8)/'*F"#0&$6Z$*+, 1MV0]@6'=]=G^@@.<'= 9*V*+,@&")1Gc=e<'<*+,1aE9!&?CPE18)16/5$#06 6I? 0 ]=a/)0=5N 0 %' B K/0EO"( = 1O? = 54P-=WKH1-4Z 9/: (H0 W-+*0.P-., GN '+PK10 1Gc=-V= 18)16/5$ ;7 8 I? 0 I" A 03I" F+ 6R %7 8 “6\” 9K? ) 60&!' _ =0 1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5&&!5",) 1M01KR=I?05&&!5",)-'()9-?C/6F&&#O0-" 5')%##=.3E$ 9/:%I0#%"PM8)#=.3E$ /VI=#+6&:<I=60&1G/+E, =9G/) !'_=0*+,1Gc=6\O="P1P+EI6'=%78 I"A03I"F+ 6\P')6/?0I80@5&.GDPV 1Gc= 3 MV8%78 1) /&#!A-BCG17A-6?&/A#.+&OIA'M=,SOW&> 5&&!5",)#+60& 1G/+,E=9G/)!'_=0DG8EW?1Gc=="@ 9/:60&1G/+,E=9G/)P')6/?0I#+@.P 1&", # -V = *+, 6 0&1G/+, E =9G/)1O" ) G&" # 0J*+, %? 8 E1Gc = %? 8 EDG 1O7, 8 )OV 0 5' ) 16-1KR = DPV E 06 @=;` ) @. P b K=`, ) 6R @ :16" P 60&1G/+, E =9G/)1O" ) %.JA0!*+,&IP1&RI 6V0I6&:CPP G&:@'63$O'P !&V8#6'</'63J:M8)5",) ='(=b *+,1G/+,E=@06%.JA0!16?0DG5W?%.JA0!]K#? (Engels, 1970: ch.xii) 2) ,2&+J0E7GL6!AK1AX??0GW&GH1J56/&#>0Y1&!A-BCG1= 7A-6'##>'.C6 60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5&&!5",)#+501K-.#0@06G^@@'E A0E]=M8)5",)='(=b =',=%78 A0E]=5&&!5",)#+9=IC=V#*+,-&)MV0#6'= 9/:M'P9EV)6'=8EW?-/8P1I/0Z`,)-?0)6R#+9=IC=V#!'_=0DG5W?6'=9/:6'= 1!7,89*=*+,6'= 9/:=N0DG5W?60&1G/+,E=9G/)%.JA0!M8)5",)]=*+,5.P
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 71 :
3) AU.!'*7D=6/&#AU.!'* 60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5&&!5",)8'= 1=7,8)#0@06%I0#M'P9EV)A0E]=-=18)=+(#+9=IC=V#*+,PW%/V0E@:I= 6/' < #0Z( > &8E1P" # M8)-' I #' = 18) 9-? % I0#@&" ) 9/V I 1Gc = 60& 1G/+,E=9G/)M8)1=7(89*V*+,E6&:P'<5W)M`(=@061P"#PVIEG&06L60&J$ A0E=86*+,%/V0EM8)1P"# 9-?#"]O?Z(>&8E1P"# (Engels, 1970: ch.xiii) MV85&.GM8)18)16/5$DPV6/0E1Gc=K/'6E`PM8)<&&P0O0I /'*F"#0&$6Z$50E-&)#01Gc=1I/0OV0=0= 8E?0)D&6R-0# 6R#+='6%"P9/: O0I/'*F"#0&$6Z$<0)5?I=*+,GL"15F*&&2=:I"A03I"F+M8)18)16/5$MV0) -V= 9/:DPV!E0E0#9E6I"A03I"F+M8)18)16/5$886@06%I0#%"PPV0= 87,=b M8)#0&$6Z$ 18)16/5$;W6I"!063$I"@0&J$I?0 *N0]KVG&'OB0I"A03 I"F+#+/'63J:6/D6 1Gc=5W-&5N01&R@-0E-'I 9/:5WB15+E/'63J:I"A03 I"F+*+,/:18+EP8?8=Z'<ZV8=DG 501K-.%78 18)16/5$DPV&'<8"*F"!/@06 G&'OB0I"*E0205-&$9<<GL"40=="E# (positivism) *+,1=V=!'_=0 %I0#&WV < =!7( = 40=M8)G&:5<60&J$ * 0)60EA0!K&7 8 a' 5 5: M8)#=.3E$/VI=b PVIEI"F+60&*+,1Gc= “I"*E0205-&$” *N0]KV18)16/5$ #.? ) !' _ =0MV 8 %" P I" A 03I" F+ ] KV 6 /0E1Gc = “205-&$ ” *+, % &8<%/. # *'( ) 3 G&" # Jl/M8)%I0#%" P #=. 3 E$ %7 8 I" * E0205-&$ F &&#O0-" 5')%#205-&$ 9/:6\60&%"PM8)#=.3E$ (Swingewood, 1975: 1132) 5N0K&'<aWV5=]@#0&$6Z$]=-:I'=-6G^@@.<'= 18)16/5$#'6@:;W6 9E6886@06#0&$ 6 Z$ ] =*0)G&' O B0#&&%I" F+ 9/:;W 6 #8)I? 0 1Gc = 5' B /' 6 3J$ M 8)#&&%I" F+ 9 <<6/D6 MJ:*+, I" A 03I" F+ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ PW /:18+EP8?8=6I?0 %/.#1%/789/:@N06'P8EW?9-?#&&%I"F+]=60&2`630 %V=%IV05')%#9/:12&346"@E",)6I?0@:1Gc= “6\F&&#O0-"*+,1Gc=506/”5 #0&$ 6 Z$ 1 8)E8#&' < 8E? 0 )1Gj P 1aEI? 0 I" A 03I" F+ M 8)-=='( = 57<*8P#0@061i16/ 9/:E7=E'=I?0 I"A03I"F+1Gc=I"F+60&*+,1K#0: 5#]=60&2`6309=IC=V#9K?)60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5')%#
: 72 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
“... P')='(= MV0!1@V0@`)G&:6028E?0)1GjP1aEI?0 MV0!1@V01Gc= 2"3E$M8)='6%"PaWVE",)]KB?*?0=='(= (%781i16/) 9/:9#V6&:*',) ]=<**+,I?0PVIE*[3\+#W/%?0 ]=*+,<0)9K?) (M8)K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1) MV0!1@V06RDPV]OV9<<I"F+60&95P)886*+,1Gc=1e!0: M8)1i16/ I" A 03I" F+ D PV ;W 6 *N 0 ]KV 1 Gc = 5", ) /` 6 /' < ]=#7 8 M8) 1i16/ 9-?=+,6R#"DPVGL"15FI?0 1M0%78<.%%/9&6*+,=N015=8&WG 9<<60&1%/7,8=DKI*',IDGM8)I"A03I"F+8E?0)&8<PV0=9/:#+ @"-5N0=`6 I"A03I"F]+ =1i16/DPV;6W *N0]KV6/'<-0/G^-& I"A03I"F+ @:-V 8 );W 6 K' = 6/' < *" 2 *0)]KV ;W 6 *0) 1!7, 8 *+, @ :%V = ]KV ! < 1=7( 8 ]=*+, 5 #1K-. 5 #a/A0E]-V 1 G/7 8 6=86*+, /` 6 /' < ='( = I" A 03I" F+ ] =&W G 9<<*+, /` 6 /' < DPV 6 /0E1Gc = 9SO', = =" E #]= 1E8&#=+ 1!&0:I"A03I"F+PW1K#78=@:*N0]KV5",)*+,PN0&)8EW?]= G^ @ @. <' = 9G/)&W G DG9/:#+ 5+ 5' = 5W ) 5? ) M`( = 9-? I" A 03I" F+ ] = &W G 60&*+, 5 #1K-. 5 #a/6/' < 1Gc = 5", ) 87( 8 e0I9/:=? 0 &' ) 16+ E @ 5N0K&'<O=O'(==0E*.=9/:Ck36*+,)#)0E]=%'#A+&$M8)!I6 1M0 1!&0:]=MJ:*+, I" A 03I" F+ #+ % I0#1MV 0 ]@*+, E 8#&' < -? 8 5&&!5",)*+,PN0&)]=G^@@.<'=='(= I"A03I"F+6R#+%I0#1MV0]@-?8 60&GL"15F5A0!P')6/?0IPVIE='EK=`,) 1MV0]@;`)%I0#!"=02 8E? 0 )#" 8 0@K/+ 6 1/+, E )DPV M 8)5&&!5", ) ]=G^ @ @. <' = 1!&0: I" A 03I" F+ ;7 8 I? 0 &W G 9<<5' ) %#*'( ) GI)*+, !' _ =0]=G&:I' -" 205-&$ /V I =8EW? ] =A0I:8? 8 =DKI9/:60&1%/7, 8 =DKI *+, D #? M 0P50E P' ) ='( = @` ) 1MV 0 ]@5&&!5", ) @06PV 0 =O', I %&0I M8)#'=PVIE I"A03I"F+D#?)#)0E]=5",)]Pb 6/?0I]=9)?1=7(89*V 9/VI I"A03I"F+#+/'63J:I"!063$9/:GL"I'-"” (Marx, KI: 29)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 73 :
8E?0)D&6R-0# 1Gc=60&E06E",)*+,@:&:<.]KV9=?O'PI?0 #0&$6Z$ 8&&;0F"<0EI"A03I"F+M8)-=DIV8E?0)D& 9/:9-6-?0)@06e<'<M8) 18)16/5$1!+E)]P 9#VI?0#0&$6Z$@:#";`)6'<5&.GI"A03I"F+M8)-=886#0 1Gc=6\-0#9<<M8)18)16/5$ 9-?60&G&:E.6-$]OVI"A03I"F+M8)1M0 CPE*',IDG6R58P%/V8)6'<18)16/5$]=50&:5N0%'B 1O?= #0&$6Z$8F"<0E I?0 A0E]-V1)7,8=DM5')%#*+,9=?=8= 60&1!",#]=*0)G&"#0JM8)1)"= -&0 (money) 80@=N0DG5W?60&1G/+,E=9G/)*0)%.JA0!1Gc= “*.=” (capital) MV8=+(58P%/V8)6'<60&9G&@06G&"#0JDG5W?%.JA0!-0#6\ M8)18)16/5$ (Marx, KI: 145, 668) 9/:]=-8=@<M8)K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 #0&$6Z$6/?0I8+6I?0 “9<<I"F+60&%&8<%&8)M8)*.=="E#Z`,) 1Gc=a/#0@069<<I"F+60&a/"-*.=="E#='(==N0#0Z`,)60&a/"-]=&:<8< 6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/9<<*.=="E# =+,1Gc=60&GL"15F%&'()9&6-?8&:<< 6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/M8)G^@1@6O=*+,#+&0640=8EW?*+,9&))0=M8)aWV G&:68<60& (8"5&:) 9-?60&a/"-*.=="E#6R]KV6N01="P60&GL"15F-'I #' = 18)-0#6\F&&#O0-" *+, D #? 9 G&a' = =+, 1 Gc = 60&GL" 1 5F9K? ) 60& GL"15F” (Marx, KI: 715) =86@06=+( 6R1Gc=%I0#@&")8+6*+,I?0 18) 16/5$DPV8?0=-V=e<'< 54P-=WKH1-4Z ]KV#0&$6Z$&'<*&0< 9/:#0&$6Z$ 18)6R&?I#1M+E=<0)5?I=M8)18650&P')6/?0IPVIE%78 <**+, 10 16+,EI 6'<12&34205-&$ (Engels, 1970: 13) 9-?6R1Gc=60&E06*+,@:E7=E'= I?0 5",)*+,18)16/5$1M+E=='(=DPV5:*V8=;`)%I0#1MV0]@*+,9*V@&")*'()K#P M8)#0&$6Z$*+,#+-?8I"A03I"F+9/VI6 ]=1#7, 8 #0&$ 6 Z$ #" D PV 9 5P)I" A 03I" F+ ] =40=*+, 1 Gc = #&&%I" F+ 1861*2P')1O?=*+,18)16/5$6&:*N0 K069-?I"A03I"F+6R#+G&06L8EW?]=a/ )0=M8)#0&$6Z$CPE-/8P e:='(= K=*0)1P+EI*+,1&0@:2`630I"A03I"F+ M8)#0&$6Z$DPV6R%78 2`630%I0#%"PM8)#0&$6Z$]=G&"#Jl/&WGF&&# -?0)b 1!7,8%V=!<I?0 I"A03I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$='(=#+9<<I"F+60&*N0)0=9/:
: 74 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&95P)886*+,1Gc=@&")9/:1Gc=&WGF&&#8E?0)D& Z`,)6R%78 60&2`630 #&&%I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$@06)0=&WGF&&#M8)1M01!7,8]KV1KR=I"A03I"F+M8) #0&$6Z$*+,#+O+I"-9/:6N0/')*N0)0=@&")b #"]O?I"A03I"F+=0#F&&#*+,1Gc= “6\” K&785W-&-0E-'I 6/?0I='EK=`,)%78 ]=6&J+M8)#0&$6Z$ I"A03I"F+ #"]O?&WG9<<#&&%I"F+A0E=86*+,9E6886#0@061=7(8K0M8)60&2`630 #" ] O? # &&%I" F+ = 0#F&&#*+, PN 0 &)8EW? / 8Eb 9-? 1 Gc = #&&%I" F+ 2` 6 30 I" 1 %&0:K$ *+, 1 Gc = 8' = K=`, ) 8' = 1P+ E I6' = 6' < G^ B K0K&7 8 1=7( 8 K0M8)60& 2`630='(=b 8E?0)9E6D#?8867 ;V0!"@0&J0PWI"F+60&I"1%&0:K$M8)#0&$6Z$]=)0=K/0Eb O"(= G&:68<6'= CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=)0=6?8=K=')578 <S1 6R@:!<I?0 I" A 03I" F+ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ #+ % I0#/:18+ E P8? 8 =6I? 0 *+, G &06L]= 54P-= WKH1-4Z 1Gc=8'=#06 #0&$6Z$E7=E'=;`)6&:<I=60&!'_=08E?0)1Gc= I"A03I"F+M8)G&:I'-"205-&$ 9-?G^@@'E*+,95P)<*<0*1Gc=]@6/0)]= 6&:<I=60&=+( 6R %7 8 60&6&:*N 0 8E? 0 )#+ @. P #.? ) K#0EM8)#=. 3 E$ 1 8) 5N0K&'<#0&$6Z$9/VI %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,1Gc=I"A03I"F+&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'< F&&#O0-"='(=<&&/.CPEa?0=9<<I"F+60&a/"- (mode of production) *+,9=?=8=M8)5')%# ]=60&a/"-P')6/?0I #=.3E$DPV#+%I0#5'#!'=F$6'= ]=&WG60&*+,9=?=8= %I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#=+(9K/:*+,6N0K=P5",)*+, 1&+ E 6I? 0 “%I0#1Gc = #=. 3 E$ ” Z`, ) #+ 1 =7( 8 9*V M`( = 8EW? 6' < 60&!' _ =0M8) G&:I'-"205-&$ 1#7,82'6EA0!M8)#=.3E$DPV!'_=05W)M`(= %I0#5'#!'=F$ *0)5' ) %#*+, 9 5P)8861Gc = 60&@' P &:1<+ E <M8)5' ) %#9/:9&))0= -/8P@=%I0#-V 8 )60&*'( ) *0)60EA0!9/:*0)@" - ]@6R #+ 6 0& 1G/+,E=9G/)DGPVIE e:='(= #=.3E$@`)#"]O?a/"-a/*+,1e7,8E1=78EM8)5",) 9IP/V8# 9-?6R#"DPV#+1@-@N0=)15&+*+,@:-69-?)5A0!9IP/V8#DPV-0#]@ O8< “#=.3E$5&V0)G&:I'-"205-&$M8)-=18) 9-?!I61M0#"DPV5&V0)M`(= -0#]@G&0&;=0 !I61M0#"DPV5&V0)G&:I'-"205-&$]=1)7,8=DM9IP/V8#
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 75 :
*+,!I61M01/78618) 9-?A0E]-V1)7,8=DM9IP/V8#*+,6N0/')1aO"BK=V0 CPE-&) PN0&)8EW?6?8= 9/:57<*8P#0@068P+-” (Marx, 1973b: 398) 6&8<60&#8)#=.3E$8E?0)1Gc=I"A03I"F+]=M'(=-V=#+G&06L 8EW? ] =a/)0=M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ 1 &7, 8 ) $.G4G3-. +46 OH-*G,GSH-. V+4K,.1-SP, (1844) #0&$6Z$#8)I?0 9&))0=1Gc=G^@@'EG&:I'-"205-&$ *+,5&V0)#=.3E$9/:5&V0)5')%#M`(= 9&))0=1Gc=*'()57,86/0)&:KI?0) #=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-"9/:&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<#=.3E$ ]=60&]OV9&))0==+( 18)*+,#=.3E$&'<&WV9/:E7=E'=;`)60&PN0&)8EW?@&")M8)-= -&:K='6;`) %I0#5' # !' = F$ *+, 9 =? = 8=&:KI? 0 )-=18)6' < F&&#O0-" 9/:&:KI? 0 ) -=18)6'<1!7,8=#=.3E$ MV89-6-?0)G&:60&5N0%'B*+,5.P&:KI?0)#=.3E$ 6'<5'-I$6R%78 5'-I$8EW?]=6&:<I=60&Z(>Z06O',I="&'=P&$*+,8EW?A0E]= 9/:A0E]-VF&&#O0-"8E?0)5"(=1O") MJ:*+,#=.3E$8EW?]=6&:<I=60& 1G/+,E=9G/)!'_=0D#?&WV@<*+,#=.3E$1Gc=fg0E6&:*N0-?8F&&#O0-"8E?0) #+@.P#.?)K#0E9/:#+5N0=`6 #=.3E$E7,=#78886DG5W?F&&#O0-" 1MV0DG5W? %I0#M'P9EV)6'<F&&#O0-" 9E6-=18)886#0 !'_=01%&7,8)#7860& a/" - M`( = @` ) #+ % I0#5' # !' = F$ 6' < F&&#O0-" 8 E? 0 )#+ @. P #.? ) K#0E 9/: ]=6&:<I=60&1G/+, E =9G/)9/:5' # !' = F$ 6' < F&&#O0-" =+( 1 8)*+, 1 M0 -&:K='6O'P9/:&WV5N0=`6;`)60&PN0&)8EW?M8)-'I1M018) -/8P@=6?8&WG 9/:!' _ =01=7( 8 9*V M 8)%I0#1Gc = #=. 3 E$ M`( = PV I E=( > #7 8 9&))0= @"-5N0=`69/:@"=-=060&M8)1M018)A0E]=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+, 9=?=8= 60&6&:*N0-?86'=&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-"=+(18)*+,1Gc= !7(=40=M8)60&6?8&?0)9/:60&!'_=0M8)5')%##=.3E$ 1Gc=*+,#0M8) %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$PVIE6'=]=5')%#-'()9-?60&@'P-'()60&a/"60&<&"CA% -/8P@=60&!'_=0M8)5')%#]=1O")G&:I'-"205-&$ e:='(= 9&))0=Z`,)1Gc=*'()57,86/0)&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" 9/:&:KI?0) #=.3E$6'<#=.3E$ 9/:1Gc=5'B/'63J$M8)%I0#1Gc=fg0E6&:*N0M8)
: 76 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#=.3E$-?8C/6AII"5'E @`)1Gc=*'()@.P1&",#-V=9/:1GH0K#0E]=*[3\+ I"1%&0:K$5')%#M8)#0&$6Z$ (Marx, 1977) *'()K#P=+(6R%78 1K-.a/]= 1O")G&'OB0*+,#0&$6Z$#+-?860&I"1%&0:K$5')%#*+,;7818060&]OV9&))0= 8E?0)#+@.P#.?)K#0EM8)#=.3E$ (praxis) 1Gc=]@6/0)M8)60&2`630 5')%# ,* >''?)-,'-D1&8?%*&'A:55D1&VS)8Q$ %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,1Gc=I"A03I"F+&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-"1Gc= 6.B9@*+,=N0DG5W?*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$M8)#0&$6Z$ *'()=+( #0&$6Z$1KR= I?0 1!7,8%I0#8EW?&8P9/:1!7,860&!'_=0 #=.3E$6?8=87,=-V8)*N060& a/"- (%7860&C-V-8<8E?0)#+@.P#.?)K#0E9/:#+5N0=`6*+,#=.3E$6&:*N0 -? 8 F&&#O0-" ) 9-? ] =60&a/" - =+( 1 8)*+, # =. 3 E$ G^ @ 1@6O=-V 8 )#+ % I0# 5'#!'=F$-?86'=*+,9=?=8=]=60&&?I##786'=9/:9<?))0=6'=*N0 %I0# 5' # !' = F$ ] =&:KI? 0 )6&:<I=60&a/" - =+( 1 Gc = !7( = 40=M8)60&6? 8 &? 0 ) %I0#5'#!'=F$87,=b M`(=#0]=5')%#%78 60&9@6@?0E 60&<&"CA% -/8P @=6"@6&&#*0)@"-]@9/:*0)G^BB087,= b @06!7(=40=G&'OB0M8)1i16/9/:S8E188<0% -/8P@= G&:5<60&J$ ] =)0=K=' ) 57 8 !" # !$ O? I )Gd 1842-1844 #0&$ 6 Z$ D PV %?8Eb !'_=0*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$M8)1M0M`(= 5N0K&'<1i16/9/VI G&:I'-"205-&$;W6#8)1Gc=6&:<I=60&!'_=0M8) “@"-” CPE#+C/6 AII"5'E1Gc=-'I95P)886 9-?#0&$6Z$6/'<E7=E'=I?0 #"]O?6&:<I=60& M8) “@"-AII"5'E” K069-?1Gc=6&:<I=60&*0)I'-;. ='EK=`,) 60&]OV 9&))0=8E?0)#+@.P#.?)K#0E9/:#+5N0=`6Z`,)#+1)7,8=DM1<7(8)-V=8EW?*+,60& a/"-*0)I'-;.-?0)K06*+,1Gc=&0640=9K?)60&!'_=0G&:I'-"205-&$ #0&$6Z$1&+E6*&&2=:P')6/?0II?0 “*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$I'-;.="E#”
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 77 :
(the materialist conception of history) #0&$6Z$&?I#6'<18)16/5$DPV &I<&I#%I0#%"PI?0PVIEG&:I'-"205-&$9/:1M+E=1Gc=a/)0=%78 (H0 [013+4 I60G*GZU (1845) Z`,)1Gc=60&=N015=8*+,1Gc=&:<<1Gc=%&'() 9&6 9/:DPV E( > 8+ 6 %&'( ) ]= (H0 OGJ01PU GN OH-*G,GSHU (1846) MV 8 %I0#*+, 5 &. G *&&2=:G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ I' - ;. =" E #DIV 8 E? 0 )&I<&' P #+ G&06L8EW?]=%N0=N0M8) 5 %G4P1-\KP-G4 PG PH0 %1-P-]K0 GN OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U (1858) “]=60&a/" - *0)5' ) %#M8)60&PN 0 &)8EW? #=. 3 E$ D PV 6? 8 16" P %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,9=?=8= *+,@N0-V8)1Gc= 9/:D#?a'=9G&DG-0# 1@-@N0=)M8)!I61M0M`(= Z`,)6R%78 %I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-Z`,) 58P%/V8)6'<M'(=!'_=0*+,9=?=8=M8)!/')60&a/"-*0)I'-;. M8)!I61M0 8)%$ & I#M8)%I0#5' # !' = F$ 6 0&a/" - =+( D PV G&06LM`(=1Gc=C%&)5&V0)12&346"@M8)5')%# Z`,)6R%78 1Gc= &0640=*+,1Gc=@&")*+,C%&)5&V0)O'(=<=8'=DPV96? 6\K#0E9/: 60&1#78) DPV6?8&WGM`(= *'()#+&WG9<<M8)@"-5N0=`6*0)5')%#*+, 9=?=8=58P%/V8)6'<%I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-=+(8+6PVIE 9<< I"F+60&a/"-M8)O+I"-*0)I'-;.1Gc=1)7,8=DM96?6&:<I=60& O+ I" - *0)5' ) %# O+ I" - *0)60&1#7 8 ) 9/:O+ I" - *0)G^ B B0 *'()K#P #"]O?@"-5N0=`6M8)%=1&0*+,6N0K=P60&PN0&)8EW? -&) MV0# 60&PN0&)8EW?*0)5')%#M8)!I61M0-?0)K06*+,6N0K=P @"-5N0=`6M8)!I61M0 1#7,8!/')60&a/"-*0)I'-;.M8)5')%# DPV!'_=0DG;`)M'(=*+,9=?=8=6R@:16"P%I0#M'P9EV)6'<%I0# 5'#!'=F$60&a/"-K&78%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)*&'!E$5"= (Z`,)%N0K/') =+(6R1Gc=1!+E)%N0]=1O")6\K#0EM8)%I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-) *+, PN 0 &)8EW? 9 /:1Gc = 6&8<Z`, ) #+ ! /' ) 60&a/" - *0)I' - ;.
: 78 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1%/7,8=DKI8EW?A0E]=CPE-/8P P')='(= %I0#5'#!'=F$1K/?0=+( @`)1G/+,E=@06&WG9<<M8)60&!'_=0!/')60&a/"-#01Gc= CZ?-&I=M8)!/')60&a/"- 1#7,8='(= E.%5#'E9K?)60&GL"I'-" 5')%#6R#0;`)D#?OV06R1&RI 60&1G/+,E=9G/)]=&0640=*0) 12&346"@6R@'6=N0#0Z`,)60&GL"I'-"9G/)C%&)5&V0)O'(=<=8'= ]KB?C-#CKh0&*'()K#P ]=60&58<%V=60&GL"I'-"1G/+,E=9G/)1K/?0=+( 1&0@'6-V8)@N09=6%I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0)58) 5", ) P' ) -? 8 DG=+( 8 EW? 1 5#8%7 8 G&:1A*K=`, ) 1Gc = 60&GL" I' -" 1G/+,E=9G/)*0)I'-;.*+,16"PM`(=]=PV0=1)7,8=DM12&346"@60& a/" - 9/:50#0&;O+( O' P DPV C PE]OV % I0#9#? = EN 0 M8) I" * E0205-&$ F &&#O0-" 8+ 6 G&:1A*K=`, ) 1Gc = &W G 9<<M8) 6\K#0E 60&1#78) 205=0 2"/G: K&78G&'OB0 Z`,)CPE5&.G %78<&&P0&WG60&@"-5N0=`6*+,%=1&0&WV5N0=`6DPV;`)60&G:*:=+( *'()!E0E0#*+,@:180O=:60&G:*:=+(PVIE 1#7,81&0I"="@e'E%= %=K=`,) 1&0E?8##"80@;7818060&#8)-=18)M8)1M01Gc= <&&*'P40=DPV 1O?=1P+EI6'= 1#7,81&0I"="@e'EE.%5#'EM8)60& GL"I'-"1G/+,E=9G/)K=`,)b 1&06R#"80@;78180@"-5N0=`6M8)E.% 5#'E='(=b 1Gc=<&&*'P40=DPV -&)MV0# 1&0-V8)8F"<0E@"-5N0=`6P')6/?0I@06%I0#M'P9EV)]=O+I"-*0)I'-;. @0660&G: *:*+, PN 0 &)8EW? & :KI? 0 )!/' ) 60&a/" - M8)5' ) %#9/:%I0# 5'#!'=F$60&a/"- D#?I?0@:1Gc=&WG60&5')%#]Pb &WG60&5')%# ='(=@'6D#?#+I'=!"=02DG6?8=*+,!/')60&a/"-5?I=*'()K#P@:DPV ME0E886#0CPE5' ) %#='( = E' ) E" = E8#]KV D PV 5? I =%I0# 5' # !' = F$ 6 0&a/" - ]K#? *+, 5W ) 6I? 0 6R @' 6 D#? 1 MV 0 9*=*+, % I0# 5' # !' = F$ 1 6? 0 6? 8 =*+, 1 )7, 8 =DM*0)I' - ;. 9 K? ) 60&PN 0 &)8EW? M 8) %I0#5'#!'=F$]K#?@:5.6)8#M`(=]=6&8<M8)5')%#16?0 P')='(=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 79 :
#=.3EO0-"@`)#+9-?=N015=8A0&:K=V0*+,*+,-=50#0&;96V]KV -6DGDPV1*?0='(= 1!&0:1!+E)9-?58<%V=PW8E?0);+,;VI=6R@:!< DPVI?0 G^BK0CPE-'I#'=18)@:16"PM`(=DPV6R-?81#7,81)7,8=DM]= 60&96VG^BK0='(=]KV-6DGDPVPN0&)8EW?K&788E?0)=V8E6R8EW?]= 6&:<I=60&6?8&WG9/VI1*?0='(= 6/?0ICPE6IV0)b 9/VI @`) 80@#8)DPVI?0 9<<I"F+60&a/"-181O+E E.%C<&0J 2'6P"=0 9/:M8)O=O'(==0E*.=5#'E]K#? 1Gc=E.%5#'E*+,95P);`)60& 6V0IK=V0DGM8)60&!'_=012&346"@5')%# 9<<I"F+60&a/"O=O'(==0E*.=1Gc=&WG9<<GL"G^63$5.P*V0EM8)6&:<I=60& a/"-M8)5')%# %I0#1Gc=GL"G^63$*+,6/?0I]=*+,=+(#"]O?%I0# 1Gc=GL"G^63$M8)G^@1@6O= K069-?1Gc=%I0#1Gc=GL"G^63$*+, 16" P M`( = #0@061)7, 8 =DM60&PN 0 &)8EW? * 0)5' ) %#M8)<&&P0 G^@1@6O= 9-?*I?0 !/')60&a/"-Z`,)!'_=0M`(=A0E]=5')%# O=O'(==0E*.=6RDPV5&V0)1)7,8=DM*0)I'-;.*+,@:96V%I0#1Gc= GL" G^ 6 3$ =+( ] KV - 6DG e:='( = &:E:6? 8 =G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ M 8) 5')%##=.3E$@`)5"(=5.P/)PVIE&WG60&5')%#O="P=+(18)” (Marx, 1973c: 503-504) @06MV8%I0#@:1KR=DPVI?0 *[3\+G&:I'-"205-&$5')%#M8) #0&$6Z$E7=E'=;`)%I0#5N0%'B8'=P'<9&6M8)C%&)5&V0)!7(=40=*0) 12&346"@]=60&8F"<0E60&!'_=0M8)5')%# &I#;`)60&8F"<0E “&WG 60&@"-5N0=`6M8)5')%#” 8'=DPV96? 6\K#0E 60&1#78) 205=0 2"/G: 1Gc=-V= =+,18)*+,95P);`)%I0#1Gc= “/'*F"I'-;.="E#” %78 1&",#*+,!/')60& a/"-9/:%I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-M8)5')%# (Z`,)6R%78 6"@6&&#60&a/"*0)I'-;.) %I0#M'P9EV)&:KI?0)!/')60&a/"-9/:%I0#5'#!'=F$60&
: 80 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
a/"-%78%N08F"<0E*+,9*V@&")M8)60&GL"I'-"5')%#9/:60&1#78) ='EK=`,) 60&!'_=01G/+,E=9G/)]=G&:I'-"205-&$#=.3E$1Gc=a/#0@06%I0# M' P 9EV ) *+, 9 f)f^ ) 8EW? A 0E]=5' ) %#='( = b 18) %I0#M' P 9EV ) A0E]= &0640=12&346"@P')6/?0I95P)8861Gc=%I0#M'P9EV)]=G&"#Jl/ 87, = b M8)5' ) %#%7 8 60&-? 8 5WV 6' = &:KI? 0 )O=O'( = 9/:60&-? 8 5WV * 0) 8.P#60&J$ e:='(= G&:I'-"205-&$@`)#"]O?1&7,8)M8)1K-.<')18"B #"]O? 5&V0)M`(=-0#8N01A8]@CPEI+&<.&.3186O=aWVE",)]KB?K&788N0=0@1K=78 F&&#O0-" 87, = ]P K069-? 1 Gc = a/" - a/M8)%I0#M' P 9EV ) 9/:60&96V %I0#M'P9EV)1K/?0='(=]=5')%#CPE#+%I0#M'P9EV)]=1)7,8=DM*0)I'-;. 1Gc=&0640=9/:@`)1Gc=6&:<I=60&!'_=0*+,#+/'63J:AII"5'E9/: 1Gc=6\16Jl$*+,D#?M`(=6'<1@-@N0=)M8)G^@1@6O=9-?/:%= 8E?0)D&6R-0# *&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$I'-;.="E#P')6/?0IDPV ;W6I"!063$I"@0&J$8E?0)#06#0E*'()@065N0='6%"P%W?G&G^63$9/:@06aWV *+, 2` 6 30#0&$ 6 Z$ 1 8)I? 0 1Gc = /' * F" 1 2&346" @ 6N 0 K=P (economic determinism) /'*F"O:-06N0K=P (fatalism) 9/:/'*F"1*%C=C/E+ 6N 0 K=P (technological determinism) aWV *+, - 61Gc = 1GH 0 M8)60& I"@0&J$8E?0)#066R%7818)16/5$1O?=1%E *'()b *+,%I0#@&")9/VI ]=MV8 1M+E=M8)#0&$6Z$18)6RG&06LMV8%I0#]=1O")12&346"@6N0K=P8EW?D#? =V8E CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=)0=-'()9-? [013+4 I60G*GZU (1846) 1Gc = -V = #0 9-? ;V 0 DPV - &I@58<*&&2=:M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ ] KV / :18+ E P ;+,;VI=M`(=9/VI6R@:!<I?0 *&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$I'-;.="E#*+,6/?0I#0 9/VIE')%)58P%/V8)6'<*&&2=:*+,;78180 “#=.3E$” 1Gc=]@6/0)8EW? =',=18) P')6/?0I9/VII?0 G^@@'E*+,GL"I'-"*+,5.P9/:1Gc=&0640=M8)60& 1G/+,E=9G/)1O")GL"I'-"]=G&:I'-"205-&$M8)#0&$6Z$6R%78 !/')60& a/" - Z`, ) *N 0 ]KV # 0&$ 6 Z$ ;W 6 C@#-+ I? 0 1Gc = !I61*%C=C/E+ 6N 0 K=P G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ 8E? 0 )D&6R - 0# #0&$ 6 Z$ D PV M E0E%I0#I? 0 O=O'( =
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 81 :
6&&#0O+! “1Gc=!/')60&a/"-*+,E",)]KB?*+,5.P]=<&&P01%&7,8)#7860& a/"-*'()GI)” (Marx, 1970: 196) “G&:I'-"205-&$#"DPV6&:*N05",)]P G&:I'-"205-&$#"DPV#+%I0# #', ) %', ) 5#<W & J$ *+, D #? 5"( = 5. P G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ #" D PV / )#7 8 *N 0 5)%&0#18) #=. 3 E$ -? 0 )K061/? 0 *+, 1 Gc = aWV 6 &:*N 0 =' E K=`, ) #=.3E$*+,1Gc=@&")9/:#+O+I"-*+,/)#786&:*N05",)*'()GI)1K/?0=+( *+, %&8<%&8)5&&!5",)9/:*N05)%&0#6'= #"]O? “G&:I'-"205-&$” *+, ] OV # =. 3 E$ 1 Gc = 1%&7, 8 )#7 8 ]=60&<&&/. a /5. P *V 0 EM8)-= 15#78=I?0 -'IG&:I'-"205-&$1Gc=<.%%/G^@1@6O=%=K=`,) G&:I'-"205-&$6R#"]O?8:D&87,==86@066"@6&&#M8)#=.3E$*+, #.?)DG5W?@.PK#0EM8)-=” (Marx, 1956: 125) ='EK=`,) 6&:<I=60&M'P9EV)9/:!'_=0M8)!/')60&a/"9/:%I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-*+,G&06L1Gc=6&:<I=60&AII"5'E='(= CPE 1=7( 8 9*V 9 /V I 1Gc = 60&6&:*N 0 M8)-' I #=. 3 E$ 1 8)*+, 5 &V 0 ) !' _ =0 9/: 1G/+,E=9G/)%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#M8)-= 1Gc=a/M8)60&-'P5"=]@ 9/:60&GL"<'-"M8)G^@1@6O=@N0=I=%J0='<A0E]=%I0#5'#!'=F$ *0)5')%#*+,1Gc=1e!0:Z`,)#+8)%$&I#1Gc=6&:<I=60&!'_=09/:60& G:*:6'=]=G&:I'-"205-&$P')6/?0I 9-?6"@6&&#M8)#=.3E$8'=K/06 K/0E9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8==+(#+1)7,8=DM1<7(8)-V=8EW?*+, “60&@'P-'()60&]OV 9&))0=” *+,95P)8861Gc=60&9<?))0=6'=*N0 %I0#&WV%I0#ON0=0B]= 60&a/"- -/8P@=60&%&8<%&8)G^@@'E60&a/"- 60&!'_=0!/')60& a/"-6?8=87,=6R%78 60&!'_=0E6&:P'<M8)9&))0=M8)#=.3E$ E",)6I?0
: 82 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
='(=%78 1=7(89*VM8) “60&@'P-'()60&]OV9&))0=” 9/: “60&E6&:P'< 9&))0=M8)#=.3E$” *+,I?0=+(6R%78 %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,1Gc=I"A03I"F+&:KI?0) #=. 3 E$ 6' < F&&#O0-" 9/:&:KI? 0 )#=. 3 E$ 6' < #=. 3 E$ Z`, ) 1Gc = @. P 1&", # -V = *0)G&' O B0G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ P' ) 6/? 0 I9/V I ]=-8=-V = =',=18) e:='(= #=.3E$9/:60&]OV9&))0=8E?0)#+@.P#.?)K#0E9/:#+ 5N0=`6@`)E')%)95P)<*<0**+,1Gc=]@6/0)]=*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$ 9<<I'-;.="E#8 #0&$6Z$DPV]OV*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$MV0)-V=DG!"@0&J0;`) 60&6N01="P 60&!'_=0 9/:60&157,8#5/0EM8)5')%#*.=="E# =',=%78 1!?)1/R)DG*+,6&:<I=60&a/"-M8)*.=="E#Z`,)1Gc=!7(=40=M8)60&9/6 1G/+,E= 60&6&:@0E 9/:6"@6&&#87,=b M8)5')%#*.=="E# CPE*+, A0E]=6&:<I=60&a/"-=+1( 8)*+a, ]WV OV9&))0= %78 O=O'=( 6&&#6& 95P) <*<0*5N 0 %' B A0E]-V % I0#5' # !' = F$ 1 O" ) %? 0 @V 0 )6' < O=O'( = =0E*. = 5N0K&'<12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$ &:<<*.=="E##"]O?&:<< 5' ) %#*+, E7 = E)%)8EW? - /8PDG D#? ] O? % I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0)5' ) %#*+, 1 Gc = “F&&#O0-"” *+,#+#09-?DK=9-?D&9/:*+,@:%)8EW?-/8PDG K069-?1Gc= 1!+E)M'(=-8=K=`,)M8)G&:I'-"205-&$#=.3E$1*?0='(= 5N0K&'<12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/VI %I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%# M8)#=. 3 E$ ] =8P+ - 1%E#+ /' 6 3J:*+, D #? ] O? *. = =" E # (1&+ E 6I? 0 “6? 8 = *.=="E#”) MV8=+(9-6-?0)8E?0)5"(=1O")6'<12&34205-&$6&:95K/'6*+, #8)I?0 %I0#5'#!'=F$9<<*.=="E##+/'63J:1Gc= “F&&#O0-"” #+#09-? DK=9-?D& 9/:@:PN0&)8EW?-/8PDG 5N0K&'<12&34205-&$6&:95K/'6 9/VI %I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0)E.%5#'E='(= #+8EW?9-?1!+E)&:P'<60&!'_=0 9/:]OV1*%C=C/E+ -/8P@= “G^@@'E%)*+,” (1O?= &5="E# 9/:G^@@'E1O") 5;0<'=) 87,=b A0E]=9<<@N0/8)12&346"@9/61G/+,E=M8)6&:95 K/'6 e:='(= #=.3E$P`6PN0<&&!$ #=.3E$E.%6/0) #=.3E$E.%G^@@.<'=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 83 :
K&78#=.3E$]=8=0%- /VI=#+%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)12&346"@5')%#*+,#+1=7(8 9*V8'=1P+EI6'=%78 E7=8EW?<=6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/]=*&'!E$5"= 60& %&8<%&8)G^@@'E60&a/"-9/:a/a/"-CPEG^@1@6O= 60&9/61G/+,E= 9/:-? 8 &8)Z`, ) 6' = 9/:6' = CPE9-? / :fg 0 E#.? ) DG5W? G &:CEO=$ 5W ) 5. P %7 8 %I0#!`)!8]@M8)-=18) a/-8<9*=-?89&))0=D#?I?0]=E.%K"= E.% G^@@.<'= K&788=0%-/VI=#+1=7(89*V8'=1P+EI6'=*'()5"(=%781Gc= “%?0@V0)” ]=*N0=8)1P+EI6'= D#?I?0]=E.%]P5#'E]P a/-8<9*=-?8*+,P"=6R%78 “%?01O?0” 9/:a/-8<9*=-?8G^@@'E60&a/"-*+,#"]O?9&))0= (Z`,);W6 1&+E6I?0 “*.=”) 6R%78 “P861<+(E” *'()5"(= %I0#5'#!'=F$60&a/"-9/:60& 9<?)G^=9<<*.=="E#1K/?0=+(@`)1Gc= “F&&#O0-"” “;0I&” 9/: 9E6D#? 886@066"@6&&#*0)12&346"@M8)#=.3E$D#?I?0E.%]P5#'E]P -* $''=D87IK)!?'@(?%*&'A+%'!$342#42$%'A+TA #&&%I"F+*0)12&34205-&$M8)#0&$6Z$*+,G&06L]=K=')578 <S 1 PW a" I 1a" = 9/V I @:%/V 0 E%/` ) 6' < I" F+ 6 0&M8)=' 6 12&34205-&$ %/055"6 (CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",) &"%0&$CP) 9/:M8)=+C8%/055"6 -N0&0 12&34205-&$#0&$61Z+E=<0)1/?#6R#+9=IC=V#-+%I0##&&%I"F+M8) #0&$6Z$]=*N0=8)P')6/?0I%78 E7=E'=I?0 I"F+2`630M8)#0&$6Z$1Gc=I"F+ 60&8=.#0=1O")-&&6: (deduction) Z`,)1&",#-V=@06MV8E7=E'=!7(=40= (premises) MV85##-" (assumptions) 5##-"40= (hypotheses) 9/: 9<<@N0/8) (models) 9/VI]OVI"F+60&*0)-&&6:K&78%J"-205-&$P`) 180MV 8 5&. G %N 0 -8<K&7 8 =' E *0)*[3\+ 8 86#0 Z`, ) @:-V 8 )#+ 6 0& *P58<@06MV8#W/1O")G&:@'63$ @06='(=6R@:P'P9G/)9<<@N0/8)P') 6/?0I]KV5#@&")E",)M`(=*+/:M'(=-8=PVIE60&/P@N0=I=MV85##-"*+,D#? 5#@&")/)1&7,8Eb (successive approximation)
: 84 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
='61M+E=-N0&0#0&$61Z+E=1K/?0=+(9E6D#?886&:KI?0)#&&%I"F+ M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ 6' < I" F+ 6 0&M8)12&34205-&$ 6 &:95K/' 6 D#? 1 MV 0 ]@I? 0 I"A03I"F+%788:D& 9/:5'<5=6'=&:KI?0)I"F+60&I"1%&0:K$M8)#0&$6Z$ 6'<M8)=+C8%/055"69 ]=I"F+60&9<<8=.#0=1O")-&&6:='(= ='6*[3\+@:1&",#-V=@06 <*#W/40= (postulates or premises) 5##-"G^@@'E-?0)b *+,1Gc= -'I9*=M8)-'I95P)]=C/6%I0#@&")M`(=@N0=I=K=`,) -/8P@=5##-" 1)7,8=DM9IP/V8#87,=b G&:68< Z`,)6R%78 MV85##-" (assumptions) PVIE60& “5##-"]KVG^@@'E87,=b %)*+, (ceteris paribus)” 9/VI]OVI"F+60& *0)-&&6:]=60&I" 1 %&0:K$ 6 0&6&:*N 0 &:KI? 0 )6' = M8)G^ @ @' E K&7 8 -' I 9G&1K/? 0 ='( = A0E]-V 1 )7, 8 =DM5##-" P' ) 6/? 0 I =N 0 DG5W? =' E *0) ![-"6&&#<0)G&:60&*+,1&+E6I?0 5##-"40= (hypotheses) G&:60& K/')5.P=+(@:]KV='E*+,1e!0:1@0:@)9/:5')16-1KR=DPV 1Gc=MV8*N0=0E (predictions) *+,@:=N0DG1*+E<1%+E)6'<MV8#W/*0)G&:5<60&J$1!7,8 E7=E'=K&78GL"15F5##-"40=]=-8=-V=8+6*0)K=`,) *[3\+*+,5&V0)M`(= PV I E6&:<I=60&P' ) 6/? 0 IE' ) 50#0&;!' _ =0-? 8 DGDPV C PE60& 1G/+,E=9G/)MV85##-" (assumptions) <0)G&:60&]KV%?8Eb ]6/V 1%+E)6'<C/69K?)%I0#1Gc=@&")#06M`(= 9/:5')16-I?0 MV8*N0=0E9/: 60&*P58<1O")G&:@'63$#+a/1G/+,E=9G/)DG#06=V8E1!+E)]P 60& P'P9G/)MV85##-"<0)MV81!7,8]KV*[3\+50#0&;8F"<0EG&06L60&J$ *+, 1 6" P M`( = @&" ) DPV ] 6/V 1 %+ E )E", ) M`( = *+ / :M'( = =+( 1 &+ E 6I? 0 successive approximation ]=6&:<I=60&P'P9G/)MV85##-"=+( ='6*[3\+@: 5')16-PW60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)%N08F"<0E9/:%N0*N0=0EI?0 E')%)#+ %I0#1*+,E)-&)1!+E)]P ;V060&G&'<MV85##-"P')6/?0I*N0]KVMV85&.G M8)9<<@N0/8)K&78*[3\+1P"#16"P60&1G/+,E=9G/)8E?0)#06;`)6'< DGGL"15FMV85&.G]=M'(=&0640=9/VI 6R='<I?0 6&:<I=60&%"P*0)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 85 :
*[3\+P')6/?0IG&:5<%I0#/V#1K/I 9-?;V0MV85&.G#"DPV1G/+,E=9G/) DG#06='6 6R6/?0IDPVI?0 9<<@N0/8)K&78*[3\+='(=E')%)1Gc=*+,E8# &'<6'=DPV (Sweezy, 1942: 11-13) %I0#@&")9/VI #&&%I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$]=K=')578 <S1 #+/'63J: 1e!0:*+,9-6-?0)DG@06I"F+60&*0)-&&6:M8)12&34205-&$6&:95 K/'68E?0)5"(=1O") %I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0)#0&$6Z$6'<='6%"P6&:95K/'6 1&",#-V=-'()9-?@.P#.?)K#0EM8)60&2`630 ='612&34205-&$-?0)5N0='6 9/:-?0)E.%5#'E#+1&",#-V=@06@.P#.?)K#0E*+,9-6-?0)6'= 1O?= “/'63J: 9/:*+,#0M8)CA%*&'!E$M8)G&:O0O0-"” (5#"F) “6\*+,%I<%.#60& 6&:@0Ea/a/"-M8)5')%#” (&"%0&$CP) K&78 “![-"6&&#M8)#=.3E$]= 40=*+,1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)@.P#.?)K#0E6'<I"F+60&*+,K0E06 Z`,)#+ K/0E*0)1/786” (&R8<<"=5$) @.P#.?)K#0E*+,9-6-?0)6'==N0DG5W?1GH0 K#0E G^@@'E 9/:G^BK060&I"1%&0:K$*+,9-6-?0)6'= 1O?= &"%0&$CP#.?) 2`63060&6&:@0Ea/a/"- 9<<@N0/8)M8)&"%0&$CP@`)1Gc=1&7,8)60& 1G/+, E =9G/)]=60&6&:@0Ea/a/" - &:KI? 0 )50#O=O'( = (=0E*. = %=)0= 1@V0*+,P"=) 8'=1Gc=a/@0660&1!",#G&:O06&9/:60&/P=V8E ;8E/)M8)a/a/"-]=A0%163-& CPE*+,60&6&:@0E&0EDPV@:5?)a/ 6&:*<-?860&1@&"B1-"<C-*0)12&346"@ (K&7860&5:5#*.=) 8+6*8P K=`,) 5?I=12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6#.?)2`63060&@'P5&&*&'!E06& 8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0! @`)5##-"]KV60&6&:@0E6&&#5"*F"YG^@@'E60& a/"-#+5A0I:%)*+, 9/:1!?)1/R)DG*+,6&:<I=60&6N0K=P&0%05"=%V0]= -/0PZ`, ) 1Gc = 5' B B0J6N 0 K=P60&@' P 5&&*&' ! E06&1!7, 8 60&a/" -/8P@=1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$1O")5;"- J @.PK=`,)M8)1I/0 K&781O")5;"1G&+E<1*+E< CPED#?%N0=`);`)60&1@&"B1-"<C9-?@.P#.?)K#0E]=60&I"1%&0:K$M8)#0&$6Z$='(=9-6-?0)886 DG PV I E*&&2=:G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ I' - ;. =" E #MV 0 )-V = %I0#5=]@M8)
: 86 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#0&$6Z$@`)8EW?*+,60&I"1%&0:K$C%&)5&V0)5')%#5?I=*'()K#P 9/:%V=K0 ]KV!<;`)G^@@'E6N0K=P9/:6\16Jl$9K?)60&1G/+,E=9G/)!'_=0M8) 5')%# 9-?%I0#5=]@*0)12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$CPEK/'6 9/VI#"]O?60&2`6305')%#*',Ib DG K069-?1Gc=5')%#*.=="E#]=E.%M8) 1M018) P')1O?=*+,1M0DPVG&:602DIV]=%N0=N0K=')578 <S1 I?0 “@.P#.?) K#0E*V0E5.PM8)K=')578=+(%78 60&1GjP1aE;`)6\9K?)60&1%/7,8=DKI *0)12&346" @ M8)5' ) %#G^ @ @. <' = ” (Marx, KI: 20) =' E K=`, ) 12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$#.?)8F"<0E;`)/'63J: C%&)5&V0) G^@@'E6N0K=P 9/:60&!'_=01G/+,E=9G/)M8)5')%#*.=="E# -/8P @=%V=]KV!<!/')*+,1Gc=9&)a/'6P'=60&1G/+,E=9G/)P')6/?0I 8E?0)D&6R-0# 5')%#*.=="E##+8)%$G&:68<8'=5/'<Z'<ZV8= Z`, ) 5:*V 8 =8861Gc = #C=*' 2 =$ * 0)*[3\+ *+, K /06K/0E 1O? = *. = 9&))0= %?01O?0 %?0@V0) P861<+(E 6N0D& 6&&#5"*F"Y Q/Q 60&2`630 %I&1&",#-V=@06@.P]P? 12&34205-&$%/055"69/:=+C8%/055"6Z`,)]OV I" F+ 2` 6 309<<8=. # 0=1O" ) -&&6:-? 0 )6R 6N 0 K=P@. P 1&", # -V = @06<* #W/40= (postulates) Z`,)E7=8EW?<=%I0#1O7,8K&78G&'OB0<0)8E?0) 1O? = 12&34205-&$ % /055" 6 1&", # @06<*#W / 40=1&7, 8 ) “60&1@&" B 1-"<C-” K&78 “60&1!",#CA%*&'!E$” MJ:*+,12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6 1&",#@06<*#W/40=I?0 #=.3E$-V8)60&%I0#!8]@5W)5.P@06*&'!E06& *+,#+8EW?8E?0)@N06'P 1Gc=-V= <=!7(=40=1O?==+( 5#"F@`)1=V=DG*+,60& ME0E-'IM8)-/0P6'<60&9<?))0=6'=*N0 &"%0&$CP1=V=a/"-A0!]= A0%163-&9/:G^ B K0%? 0 1O? 0 MJ:*+, 5N 0 =' 6 =+ C 8%/055" 6 1=V = *+, 8&&;G&:CEO=$M8)aWV<&"CA%6'<6N0D&5W)5.PM8)aWVa/"- 9-?@.P1&",#-V= M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ ='( = 9-6-? 0 )886DG ]=-V = &? 0 )*[3\+ 1 2&34205-&$ 60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$Z`,)1Gc=-V=6N01="PM8)K=')578 <S1 *'()50#1/?#9-? DPV&'<60&-+!"#!$]=A0EK/')9/:;W61&+E6I?0 [1K461-,,0 #0&$6Z$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 87 :
I"@0&J$='612&34205-&$%/055"6 CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)%78 &"%0&$CP *+, 1&",#-V=*[3\+M8)1M0*+, “%?01O?0*+,P"=” #0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 5N0K&'<5')%# *.=="E#9/VI %?01O?0*+,P"=#"]O?8)%$G&:68<5N0%'B*+,5.P*0)12&346"@ “5')%#O=O'(==0E*.=1Gc=60&@'P-'()60&a/"-*+,1@&"B*+,5.P9/: 5/'<Z'<ZV8=*+,5.P]=G&:I'-"205-&$ P')='(= <&&P0#C=*'2=$ (categories) *+, 9 5P);` ) %I0#5' # !' = F$ = 0=0O=" P M8) *.=="E# -/8P@=%I0#1MV0]@*+,#+-?8C%&)5&V0)M8)*.=="E# ]=MJ:1P+EI6'=='(= 6R80@O?IE]KV1&0#8)*:/.;`)C%&)5&V0) 9/:%I0#5' # !' = F$ 6 0&a/" - M8)&W G 9<<5' ) %#*'( ) GI)*+, D PV !"=02DG6?8=9/VI 5')%#O=O'(==0E*.=DPV5;0G=0M`(=<= Z06G&'6K'6!')9/:8)%$G&:68<M8)&WG9<<5')%#1K/?0=+( 9/:]=8)%$G&:68<P')6/?0I 6R#+8EW?5?I=K=`,)*+,1Gc=Z061P=*+, E')D#?;W6*N0/0E 9/:E')%)K/)1K/788EW?]=G^@@.<'= ...” ]=5')%#6?8=*.=="E# %?01O?09/:6&&#5"*F"Y*+,P"=1%E1Gc=8)%$ G&:68<*+,5N0%'B*+,5.PM8)5')%# 9-?... “]=5')%#O=O'(==0E*.=='(= 5A0!60&J$6/'<1Gc=-&)MV0# 163-&6&&#='<I'=9-?@:6/0E1Gc=1!+E)8.-50K6&&#50M0 K=`,)1*?0='(=9/:;W6%&8<)N0CPE*.=8E?0)5"(=1O") %?01O?0*+,P"= 6R 1 Gc = 1O? = =+( ]=&W G 9<<5' ) %#*+, 6 &&#5" * F"Y *+, P" = #+ 4 0=: G6%&8) %I0#5'#!'=F$F&&#O0-"@:E')%)#+40=:1K=786I?0 9-?]=&WG9<<5')%#*+,*.=#+40=:G6%&8)='(= 8)%$G&:68<*+, 5&V 0 )CPE5' ) %#9/:G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ #+ 4 0=:%&8<)N 0 ;V 0 D#? 1MV0]@*.=6RD#?80@1MV0]@%?01O?0*+,P"=DPV 9-?;`)9#V@:D#?1MV0]@
: 88 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
%? 0 1O? 0 *+, P" = 1&06R E' ) 80@50#0&;1MV 0 ]@*. = =" E #DPV 8 E? 0 ) 9=?=8= *.=1Gc=!/')%&8<)N0*0)12&346"@-?85",)*'()GI)]= 5' ) %#O=O'( = =0E*. = *. = @' 6 -V 8 )1Gc = @. P 1&", # -V = 9/:6R 1 Gc = @.P@<PVIE @'6-V8)DPV&'<%N08&&;0F"<0E6?8=6&&#5"*F"Y*+,P"= 1#7,8DPV!"@0&J0*'()58)5",)9E66'=9/VI 6R@'6-V8)!"@0&J0;`) %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)6'=M8)*'()58)PVIE” (Marx, Grundrisse: 105-107) =',=%78 ]=60&2`6305')%#*.=="E# #0&$6Z$1&",#@06@06G^@@'E *+, #+ % I0#5N 0 %' B *+, 5. P ]=C%&)5&V 0 )5' ) %#*. = =" E # 8' = DPV 9 6? “*. = ” (capital) @.P1&",#-V=M8)60&2`630#"]O?!"@0&J0@0660&1&+E)/N0P'< *0)G&:I'-"205-&$I?0 5",)K&78G^@@'E]P!'_=0M`(=6?8=K/')-0#/N0P'< 1I/0 9-?-V8)PW*+,/N0P'<%I0#5N0%'BM8)G^@@'E1K/?0='(=]=C%&)5&V0) 5')%#*.=="E#*+,DPV!'_=05W)5.P]=M'(=G^@@.<'= 9-?*I?0 5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “*.=” ]=12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$#+/'63J:!"1239-6-?0) DG@06 “*.=” M8)5N0='6=+C8%/055"6 (Z`,)#'6@:K#0E;`)G^@@'E60& a/"-*+,#"]O?9&))0= Z`,)6R%78 “5",)M8)” K&78 “I'-;.” 8'=DPV96?8.G6&J$ 1%&7,8)@'6& C&))0=) 5N0K&'<#0&$6Z$9/VI *.=1Gc=!/')*0)5')%#O="P K=`,) 1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+,1Gc=1e!0:]=&:<<*.=="E# *+,Z`,) *.65",)*.68E?0)&I#*'()!/')9&))0= (labour power) M8)#=.3E$1Gc= 5" = %V 0 *+, = 0E*. = ]OV ] =6&:<I=60&a/" - 1!7, 8 6N 0 D& %I0#5' # !' = F$ &:KI? 0 )=0E*. = 6' < %=)0=1Gc = /' 6 3J:1e!0:M8)5' ) %#O=O'( = =0E*. = #C=*' 2 =$ “*. = ” M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ K #0E#.? ) DG*+, % I0#5' # !' = F$ &:KI?0)*.=6'<9&))0==+(18) 9/:6RCPEa?0=%I0#5'#!'=F$=+( =0E*.= DPV MW P &+ P %=)0=9/:5', ) 5#%I0##', ) %', ) M`( = ]=PV 0 =G&06L60&J$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 89 :
A0E=869/VI “*.=” 95P)8861Gc=G^@@'E60&a/"-*+,%&8<%&8)CPE =0E*.=9/:;W6]OV1Gc=1)7,8=DM]KV%=)0=aWVG&02@06G^@@'E60&a/"-V8)E8#M0E!/')9&))0= e:='(= “*.=” ]=&WGM8)G^@@'E60&a/"-@`)#+ 1)7, 8 =DM8EW? *+, % I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0)5' ) %#&:KI? 0 )=0E*. = 6' < 6&&#6& #0&$6Z$@`)#"DPVI"1%&0:K$ “*.=” ]=40=*+,1Gc= “I'-;.” 9-?]=40=:*+,1Gc= %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)O=O'(=K/'6M8)5')%#*.=="E# *[3\+12&34205-&$1Gc=A0!5:*V8=8E?0)1Gc=&:<<9/: 8E?0)#+5N0=`6-?8%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)12&346"@*+,1Gc=@&") G^@@'E*0) 12&346"@*+,1Gc=@&")5:*V8=1MV0#0]=*[3\+12&34205-&$1Gc=#C= *'2=$ 1Gc=G^@@'E9/:-'I9G&*0)*[3\+ P')='(= ]=*[3\+12&34205-&$ *.6&:<<@`)#+G^@@'EK&78-'I9G&6/.?#1P+EI6'=K&78]6/V1%+E)6'= 1O?= 9&))0= *.= G^@@'E60&a/"- %?0@V0) P861<+(E %?01O?0 Q/Q 1!+E)9-? I?0*[3\+12&34205-&$9-?/:5N0='6@:#+I"F+60&&:<.%I0#K#0E #.# #8) 9/:60&-+%I0##C=*'2=$1K/?0=+(9-6-?0)6'=DG 12&34205-&$ 60&1#7 8 )M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ 6R G &:68<DGPV I E#C=*' 2 =$ * 0)12&346" @ @N0=I=#06#0E*+,#+%I0#K#0E 9/:%I0#5'#!'=F$-?86'=1Gc=1e!0: 9-?60&I"1%&0:K$#C=*'2=$*0)*[3\+1K/?0=+(M8)#0&$6Z$#+/'63J: !"123%78 1Gc=I"A03I"F+ 6?8=87=, #0&$6Z$1&+E6#C=*'2=$*0)*[3\+M8)-=I?0 category Z`,)1Gc=60&1P"=-0#G&'OB0@"-="E#1E8&#'=M8)%V0=*$9/:1i16/*+, 1&+E6#C=*'2=$*0)G&'OB0M8)-=I?0 category 1O?=6'= G^BK09&6 M8)60&2`630%78 @:1&",#-V=@06*+,]P? @:1&",#-V=@06 #C=*'2=$K&78 category ]P6?8=*?0#6/0) category *0)12&346"@*+,#+8EW?#06#0E %J0='<? #0&$6Z$96VG^BK0=+(-0#I"F+60&M8)1i16/%78 1&+E)/N0P'< category -0#&:P' < %I0#1Gc = &W G F&&#9/:%I0#5/' < Z' < ZV 8 = (concrete-complex) M8) category ='(= CPE1&",#-V=@06 category *+,
: 90 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E*+,5.P (abstract-simple Z`,)6R%78 1Gc=&WGF&&# 9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8==V8E*+,5.P) DG5W? category *+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'< Z'<ZV8=#06*+,5.P E",)6I?0='(=%78 60&a?0=@06#C=*'2=$K&78 category *+,=0# F&&#9/:)?0EDG5W?#C=*'2=$*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=M`(=1&7,8Eb =+( #"]O?60&1&+E)/N0P'<%N0="E0#M8)#C=*'2=$-?0)b 8E?0))?0Eb -&)DG -&)#0 (1K#78=60&*N0!@=0=.6&#) 9-?1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$#C=*'2=$ ]Pb 8E?0)/:18+EP/:88;`)%I0#K#0E %N0="E0#9/:='EM'P9EV)]=9)? #.#-?0)b G&:60&5N0%'B%78 60&I"1%&0:K$#C=*'2=$=0#F&&#9/:)?0E =+( (the simple-abstract) @:=N0DG5W?A0!M8)%I0#M'P9EV)A0E]= #C=*'2=$K&78%I0#5'#!'=F$='(=b 8'=@:1Gc=9&)a/'6P'=]KV16"P60& 1G/+,E=9G/)DG5W?#C=*'2=$]K#?*+,5#<W&J$6I?0 #C=*'2=$]K#?=+(1Gc=60& 5')1%&0:K$6'=1MV0M8)%I0#M'P9EV)]=#C=*'2=$16?0 <&&/.Z`,)186A0! M8)#C=*'2=$]K#?Z`,)*'()PWPZ'<9/:MV0#!V=%I0#M'P9EV)16?0180DIV]= -'I#'=18) =',=%78 #C=*'2=$16?0*'();W6MV0#!V=9/:6R;W6&I#8EW?A0E]= #C=*' 2 =$ ] K#? ] =MJ:1P+ E I6' = 1Gc = %I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0)5' ) %#M8) *.=="E#]=&:P'<*+,Z'<ZV8=M`(= #C=*'2=$]K#?=+(@`)#+%.JA0!*+,1Gc=&WG F&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=6I?0#C=*'2=$16?0 1&+E6I?0 #C=*'2=$K&78 category &WGF&&#Z'<ZV8= (the concrete-complex) 9-?1&0@:&WVDPV8E?0)D&I?0 category K=`,) b 1O?= category A #+ % I0#1Gc = &W G F&&#9/:%I0#5/' < Z' < ZV 8 =#066I? 0 K&7 8 =V 8 E6I? 0 category 87,= b 1O?= category B? 8:D&%78#0-&I'PI?0 category A 1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E6I?0 (Z`,)6R%78 1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8= =V8E6I?0) category B? #0-&I'P8EW?*+,DK=?
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 91 :
1O?=6'= #0&$6Z$]OVK/'616Jl$60&@N09=6&:P'<%I0#)?0EK&78 Z'<ZV8=M8) category 1O?=1P+EI6'<1i16/ %78 “category A 1Gc==0# F&&#9/:)?0E6I?0 category B 1#7,81&050#0&;I"1%&0:K$9/:="E0# category A DPVCPED#?-V8)8V0)8");`) category B MJ:*+,]=*0)-&) MV0# 60&I"1%&0:K$9/:="E0# category B @:*N0DPV6R-?81#7,8 1&0DPV I"1%&0:K$9/:="E0# category A 6?8=9/VI1*?0='(=” 1O?==+( 1&0@:-'P5"= DPVI?0 “category A 1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E6I?0 category B K&78='E K=`,) category A 1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8==V8E6I?0 category B” e:='(= ]=60&8&&;0F"<0E*0)*[3\+ category A @:-V8)#06?8= category B -'I8E?0)1O?= ]=*[3\+M8)#0&$6Z$ &:KI?0) “5"=%V0” (the commodity) 6'< “1)"=-&0” (money) 60&I"1%&0:K$9/:]KV="E0# “5"=%V0” -V8)#06?8=60&I"1%&0:K$9/:]KV="E0#M8) “1)"=-&0” 1!&0: #0&$6Z$;78I?0 1&050#0&;8F"<0E “5"=%V0” DPVCPED#?-V8)8V0)8");`) “1)"=-&0” 1/E (1O?= ]=&:<<9/61G/+,E=5"=%V0-?85"=%V0) 9-?1&0@:D#? 50#0&;8F"<0E “1)"=-&0” DPV1/E;V01&0D#?8F"<0E9/:="E0# “5"=%V0” ]KV1Gc=*+,1MV0]@6?8= 9-?*I?0 1#7,8='612&34205-&$60&1#78)/)#782`630G^BK0 /)#78I"1%&0:K$5')%#12&346"@ 5",)*+,1M01aO"BK=V01Gc=1<7(8)9&6%78 &:<<12&346"@@&")*+,#+%I0#5/'<Z'<ZV8=8E?0)*+,5.P8'=1Gc=8)%$&I# M8)G^@@'E*0)12&346"@#06#0E%J0='< 1O?= G&:O06& 60&9<?) )0=6'=*N0 60&a/"- 5"=%V0 1)"=-&0 9&))0= *.= Q/Q e:='(= A0&: K=V0*+,]=1<7(8)9&6%78 60&I"1%&0:K$9E69E:&:<<12&346"@8'=Z'< ZV8==+( @N09=6/)1Gc=#C=*'2=$K&78 category -?0)b ]=M'(==+( @.P1&",# -V=M8)60&I"1%&0:K$%78 &:<<12&346"@@&")5?I=*'()K#P*+,#+%I0# 1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8=#06*+,5.P (the concrete-complex whole) =' 6 I" 1 %&0:K$ 1 &", # -V = @065? I =*'( ) K#P*+, Z' < ZV 8 ==+( %? 8 Eb
: 92 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
9E69E:G^@@'E-?0)b 886#01!7,8%V=]KV!<<&&P0G^@@'E*+,1Gc==0# F&&#9/:)?0EE",)M`(= =+,1Gc= “60&1P"=*0)” M8)60&%"P@06 category *+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8= PN0P",)/)5W? category *+,1Gc==0#F&&# 9/:)?0Eb #0&$6Z$1&+E6I";+%I0#%"P=+(I?0 “I"F+60&9K?)60&58<%V=” (the method of enquiry) @06='(= 1#7,8='612&34205-&$60&1#78)DPV %V=!<G^@@'E*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E9/VI 1M06R@:1MV05W?6&:<I=60& 5')1%&0:K$ CPE1&",#-V=@06G^@@'E!7(=40=*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E*+,5.P %?8Eb ]KV%N08F"<0E9/:="E0#96?G^@@'E1K/?0='(= -/8P@=]OVG^@@'E 1K/?0=+(1Gc=!7(=40=%?8Eb 1%/7,8=DG5W?%I0#%"P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'< Z'<ZV8=M`(=1&7,8Eb *+/:M'(=b @=*V0E5.P 60&5')1%&0:K$6R@:<&&/.;`) &:P'<*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8=*+,5.P 8'=DPV96? &:<<12&346"@ 5?I=*'()K#P8+6%&'()K=`,) 60&5')1%&0:K$*+,1&",#-V=@06 category *+,1Gc= =0#F&&#9/:)?0EDG5W?A0!5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'< ZV8=*+,5.P=+(9K/:*+,#0&$6Z$1&+E6I?0 “I"F+60&9K?)60&=N015=8” (the method of presentation) CPE5&. G %7 8 =' 6 12&34205-&$ 6 0&1#7 8 )1&", # -V = @0660& I" 1 %&0:K$ *+, & :<<12&346" @ *+, 1 Gc = &W G F&&#9/:5/' < Z' < ZV 8 =*+, 5. P %? 8 Eb PN 0 P", ) /)5W? G^ @ @' E *+, 1 Gc = =0#F&&#9/:)? 0 EM`( = 1&7, 8 Eb @=;` ) G^ @ @' E *+, 1 Gc = =0#F&&#9/:)? 0 E*+, 5. P @06='( = =' 6 12&34205-&$ 60&1#78)6R@:1P"=*0) “EV8=6/'<” CPE1&",#-V=@06G^@@'E*+,1Gc==0# F&&#9/:)?0E*+,5.P %?8Eb 5')1%&0:K$G^@@'E1K/?0=+(M`(=*+/:M'(= *N0]KV %I0#%" P 1Gc = &W G F&&#9/:Z' < ZV 8 =M`( = 1&7, 8 Eb 5W? & :P' < M8)&:<< 12&346"@5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8=*+,5.P8+6%&'() K=`,) &:<<12&346"@*.=="E#5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'< ZV 8 =@` ) 1Gc = *'( ) @. P 1&", # -V = 9/:@. P @<M8)60&2` 6 30 8E? 0 )D&6R - 0# &:<<12&346" @ &W G F&&#9/:Z' < ZV 8 =8' = 1Gc = @. P 1&", # -V = 6' < &:<<
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 93 :
12&346"@5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=8'=1Gc=@.P@<]=*V0E 5. P (Z`, ) 1Gc = a/a/" - M8)60&2` 6 30) #+ % I0#9-6-? 0 )6' = ]=1O" ) %.JA0! 1!&0:&:<<12&346"@&WGF&&#*+,1Gc=@.P1&",#-V=='(= 1Gc=A0! 5?I=*'()K#P*+,5'<5=8/K#?0= PW1K#78=G&02@066\16Jl$ *"2*0) -/8P@=9=IC=V#]Pb *+,1Gc=1e!0: 9/:1Gc=9-?1!+E)60&a5#a15 M8)G^@@'E*0)12&346"@@N0=I=%J0='<*+,E')G&02@06%I0#5'#!'=F$ 1O")1K-.9/:a/ 5?I=&:<<12&346"@*.=="E#5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WG F&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=*+,1Gc=@.P@<9/:1Gc=a/a/"-M8)60&5')1%&0:K$]= *V0E5.P='(= 1Gc=A0!8'=9@?#O'PM8)&:<<12&346"@*+,G&:68<DGPVIE 6\16Jl$ *"2*0) 9=IC=V# -/8P@=%I0#5'#!'=F$A0E]=*+,9=?=8= &:KI?0)G^@@'E-?0)b 8E?0)1Gc=1K-.9/:a/ #0&$6Z$8F"<0EI?0 I"O0 12&34205-&$60&1#78)]=E.%9&6 (%7812&34205-&$60&1#78)%/055"6 M8)5#"F9/:&"%0&$CP) 1P"=-0#I"F+%V=%IV0]=%&`,)9&6 (%78@06&WGF&&# 9/:Z'<ZV8=5W?=0#F&&#9/:)?0E) MJ:*+,12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8) #0&$6Z$18)1P"=-0#I"F+%V=%IV0]=%&`,)K/') (%78@06G^@@'E*+,1Gc==0# F&&#9/:)?0EDG5W?5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=) (Marx, Grundrisse: 100) 8E?0)D&6R-0# 1&0D#?%I&#8)60&I"1%&0:K$]=%&`,) 9&66'<60&5')1%&0:K$]=%&`,)K/')I?0 9E6M0P@066'=9/:;61;+E)I?0 I"F+60&]P#+%I0# “;W6-V8)” E",)6I?06'= K069-?*'()58)6&:<I=60&%"P /VI=1Gc=M'(=-8=60&!'_=0M8)%I0#%"P9/:%I0#&WV@06%N0;0#DG5W? 60&%V=%IV0 60&8F"<0E 60&-8<%N0;0# #+a/"-a/1Gc=*[3\+9/: 5.6)8#1Gc= “205-&$” ]=*+,5.P 80@6/?0IDPVI?0 I"F+%V=%IV0]=%&`,)9&6 1Gc = O? I )60&6? 8 -' I 9/:!' _ =0M`( = M8) “205-&$ ” MJ:*+, I" F+ %V = %IV 0 5' ) 1%&0:K$ ] =%&`, ) K/' ) 1Gc = O? I )-6a/` 6 M8)%I0#%" P /)1Gc = &:<< *[3\+ ]KV6/0E1Gc= “205-&$” *+,!'_=05.6)8#9/VI
: 94 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
.* R='2*'H%2#420)12*34 >S) ]=12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$ G^@@'E*+,1Gc=K'I]@%78 5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “*.=” (capital) 9-?#0&$6Z$#"DPV5##-" “*.=” M`(=#08E?0) /8Eb CPEG&02@0660&I"1%&0:K$*0)-&&6:/?I)K=V0 %N0I?0 “*.=” ]= 12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$K#0E;`)%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+, 1Gc = 1e!0:M8)5' ) %#*. = =" E # Z`, ) 6R %7 8 %I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0)O=O'( = &:KI? 0 )O=O'( = =0E*. = 6' < O=O'( = %=)0= O=O'( = =0E*. = #+ % I0# 5'#!'=F$6'<O=O'(=%=)0=CPEa?0=6&&#5"*F"YM8)-=]=G^@@'E60&a/"9/:CPE60&Z7(8!/')9&))0= (labour power) @06O=O'(=%=)0= 9-? %I0#5'#!'=F$=+(;W61%/78<%/.#9/:;W6*N0]KV/`6/'< 6&:*',)#"80@1MV0]@ DPVCPEI"O012&34205-&$6&:95K/'6Z`,)#8)=0E*.=1Gc= “aWVa/"-” 9/: aWVM0E5"=%V0 MJ:*+,%=)0=1Gc= “G^@@'E9&))0=” 5?I=G^@@'E60&a/"-*+, #"]O?9&))0= (DPV96? 1%&7,8)@'6&8.G6&J$ C&))0=) ='(=;W61&+E6I?0 “*.=” ='EK=`,) ]=I"O012&34205-&$6&:95K/'6 “*.=” Z`,)9*V*+,@&")1Gc=%I0# 5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#6/'<;W6#8)8E?0)<"P1<78=9/:;W6/P&WG/)#01Gc= 9%? “I'-;.” ]=6&:<I=60&a/"-9/:9/61G/+,E=1*?0='(= (Marx, KIII, ch. 48) 8E?0)D&6R-0# “*.=” ]=*[3\+M8)#0&$6Z$#"]O?#C=*'2=$*+,1Gc= =0#F&&#9/:)?0E*+,5.P ]=K=')578 “*.=” #0&$6Z$1&",#-V=*+, “5"=%V0” (the commodity) ]=40=*+,1Gc=G^@@'E*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E*+,5.P]= <&&P0G^@@'E*'()GI)M8)5')%#*.=="E# “5"=%V0” ]=M'(=*+,1Gc==0#F&&# 9/:)?0E*+,5.P=+(;W6="E0#9-?1!+E)I?01Gc= “5",)*+,]KVG&:CEO=$]OV58E9/: 50#0&;9/61G/+,E=DPV” %N0="E0#=+(=N0DG5W?9=I%"PI?0PVIE #W/%?060& ]OV (use-value) #W/%?09/61G/+,E= (exchange-value) #W/%?0 (value) 9&))0= (labour) &W G 9<<M8)#W / %? 0 (the value-form) 1)" = -&0
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 95 :
(money) 9/:]=*+,5.P%78 60&9/61G/+,E= (exchange) 60&I"1%&0:K$ 6&:<I=60&9/61G/+,E= (%781)"=-&09/66'<5"=%V0 aWVZ7(81aO"BK=V0 6' < aWV M 0E) =N 0 DG5W? 9 =I%" P I? 0 PV I E60&K#. = 1I+ E =1)" = (money circulation) 9/:60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V0 (commodity circulation) @.P K'I1/+(EIK'I-?8M8)12&34205-&$60&1#78)@`)1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$1G&+E< 1*+E<60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V058)O="P*+,-?0)6'=%78 60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V0 8E?0))?0E (simple commodity circulation) Z`,)#+ I)@&5"=%V0-1)"=5"=%V0 (C-M-C) 6'<60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V09<<*.=="E# (capitalist commodity circulation) Z`,)#+I)@&1)"=-5"=%V0-1)"= (M-C-M’) CPE*+, 1)"=8'=1Gc=a//'!F$#+G&"#0JK&78#W/%?0#066I?01)"=*+,1Gc=@.P1&",#-V= ='EK=`,) I)@&60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V09<<*.=="E#6R%78 60&K#.=1I+E= M8)#W/%?0*+,a?0=&WG9<<A0E=861Gc=1)"=9/:5"=%V0 CPE*+,]=9-?/: &8<M8)I)@&=+( #W/%?0@:1!",#!W=-'I#'=18)M`(=1&7,8Eb 1Gc=#W/%?0*+, 1%/7,8=DKI9/:)861)EM`(=8E?0)D#?#+*+,5"(=5.P #W/%?0*+,1%/7,8=DKI9/: )861)EDPV=+(9K/:*+,#0&$6Z$1&+E6I?0 “*.=” 9-?*I?0 60&I"1%&0:K$*+,/:18+EP1Gc=&WGF&&#M`(=95P)]KV1KR= I?0 “*.=” (K&78 #W/%?0*+,1%/7,8=DKI9/:)861)EDPV) =+(#+1)7,8=DM8EW?*+, 60&Z7(8M0E5"=%V0!"123O="PK=`,) 5"=%V0!"123=+(6R%78 !/')9&))0= (labour power) *+,%=)0=M0E]KV96?=0E*.==',=18) ='EK=`,) “*.=” CPE1=7(89*V6R%78 %I0#5'#!'=F$*0)O=O'(=&:KI?0)=0E*.=6'<%=)0= E",)6I?0='(= ]=M'(=-?8DG #0&$6Z$E')95P)]KV1KR=I?0 %I0#5'#!'=F$]= -/0P5"=%V0&:KI?0)=0E*.=6'<%=)0=]=40=:aWVZ7(86'<aWVM0E (1)"= 9/66'<!/')9&))0=) =+(1Gc=1!+E)8)%$G&:68<A0E=86M8) “*.=” MJ:*+,8)%$G&:68<A0E]=6R%78%I0#5'#!'=F$]=6&:<I=60&a/"&:KI? 0 )=0E*. = 6' < %=)0=]=40=:M8)aWV MW P &+ P 6' < aWV ;W 6 MW P &+ P (&:KI?0)aWV1Gc=1@V0M8)G^@@'E60&a/"-9/:a/a/"-PV0=K=`,)6'<aWVa/"-
: 96 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
CPE-&)8+6PV0=K=`,)) @06='(= 60&I"1%&0:K$M8)#0&$6Z$6R1MV05W?60& 2`6306&:<I=60&9&))0=M8)60&a/"- (labour process) *+,95P);`) &0E/:18+EP60&MWP&+P]=6&:<I=60&a/"-*+,=0E*.=6&:*N0-?8%=)0= 1!7,8]KVDPV#0Z`,)#W/%?05?I=16"= (surplus value) *'()K#P=+( #0&$6Z$-V8) ]OV1=7(8*+,;`)58)]=50#M8)K=')578 <S1 1/?#9&6 (G&:#0J 530 K=V0 @06*'()K#PG&:#0J 750 K=V0) CPE5?I=*'()K#P9/VI 12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$;W6 9<?)8861Gc= 3 G&"#Jl/ Z`,)-&)6'<K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1, 2 9/: 3 CPE5?I=9&6%78 K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 I?0PVIE60&a/"-*.=="E# 5?I==+( 1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$ “*.=” ]=&:P'<60&a/"-9/:6\*0)12&346"@*+,16+,EI !'=CPE-&)6'<60&a/"- P')6/?0I9/VII?0 ]=5?I==+( 12&34205-&$ 60&1#78)1&",#-V=*+, “5"=%V0” “#W/%?0” “&WG9<<#W/%?0” “1)"=-&0” “60& 9/61G/+,E=” “!/')9&))0=” 9/: “*.=” -/8P@=60&a/"-#W/%?05?I= 16"= 9/:*V0E5.P%7860&5:5#*.= *'()K#P=+(1Gc=1&7,8)M8) “*.=” ]= &:P'<6&:<I=60&a/"- ]=A0I:*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E *'()=+(#"DPV 6/?0I;`)60&K#.=1I+E=*.=*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8= (%7860&Z+(8M0E 5"=%V0 60&K#.=1I+E=5"=%V0 9/:60&K#.=1I+E=*.=]=&:P'<-/0P *. = =" E #) 9/:60&6&:@0EK&7 8 60&9<? ) G^ = #W / %? 0 5? I =16" = ]=K#W? =0E*.= 9-?8E?0)]P “*.=” ;W6I"1%&0:K$]=40=*+,1Gc=6&:<I=60&a/"-'()9-?&:P'<6&:<I=60&9&))0= (%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)%=)0=6'< I'-;.9K?)60&a/"-8'=DPV96? I'-;.P"< 9/:1%&7,8)#788.G6&J$) ;`)&:P'< %I0#5'#!'=F$1O")MWP&+PZ`,)=0E*.=5W<&+P180#W/%?05?I=16"=@06%= )0=CPEa?0=6&:<I=60&a/"-P')6/?0I 5?I=*+,58)%78 K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 2 I?0PVIE60&K#.=1I+E= 9<<*.=="E# (capitalist circulation) 8'=1Gc=M'(=-8=*+, “*.=” DPV6V0I 886DG@066&:<I=60&a/"-1MV05W?6&:<I=60&K#.=1I+E=*+,#+%I0#
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 97 :
1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8= “*.=” ]=K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 ='(=E')1Gc= “*. = CPE*', I DG” (general capital) %7 8 E' ) D#? #+ 6 0&@N 0 9=68)%$ G&:68<A0E]=8861Gc=*.=E?8Eb *+,9<?)K=V0*+,6'=*N0 9-? “*.=” ]= 1/?#*+, 2 =+(1Gc=*.=1e!0:*+,#+C%&)5&V0)1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=E",)M`(= CPE#+60&@N09=68)%$G&:68<A0E]=8861Gc=*.=50M0-?0)b 60& @N09=68)%$G&:68<A0E]=M8) “*.=CPE*',IDG” 1&",#-V=*+,I)@&60& K#.=1I+E=*.= (capital circuits) Z`,)#+ 3 M'(=-8=%78 *.=1)"=-&0 *.= 60&a/"- *.=5"=%V0 (money capital productive capital commodity capital) *.=#+60&K#.=&8<a?0= 3 M'(=-8==+(&8<9/VI&8<1/?0 Z`,)]=*+,5.P “*.=CPE*',IDG” =+(6R9-68861Gc=*.=1e!0:*+,9<?))0=6'= *N08E?0);0I& 3 50M0DPV96? *.=60&1)"=-*.=8.-50K6&&#-*.=!0J"OE$ (financial capital - industrial capital - commercial capital) 6&:<I=60&a/" - Z`, ) I" 1 %&0:K$ D IV ] =K=' ) 57 8 <S 1 1/? # 9&6CPE1Gc = 6&:<I=60&8"5&:9/:!81!+E)]=-=18)='(= #0<'P=+(60/6/'<G&06L I?0 6&:<I=60&a/"-=+(#"]O?1Gc=8"5&:@&")8+6-?8DG K069-?#+1)7,8=DM aW6!'=6'<60&K#.=1I+E=8E?0)9E6D#?886 =',=%78 M`(=8EW?6'<60&Z7(8 M0E]=&:P'<-/0P ='EK=`,) 60&a/"-@:PN01="=DG8E?0)&0<&7,=6R-?8 1#7,8=0E*.=50#0&;K0Z7(8G^@@'E60&a/"-9/:!/')9&))0=#0GH8= 6&:<I=60&a/"- 9/:1#7,8=0E*.=50#0&;=N0a/a/"-M8)-=886M0E 1Gc=1)"=]=-/0PDPV5N01&R@ %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,M`(=-?86'=9/:6'=&:KI?0) 60&a/"-6'<60&K#.=1I+E=Z`,)Z?8=1&V=8EW?]=K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 ='(= <'P=+(DPV1GjP1aE-=18)886#08E?0)C@?)9@V)]= <S1 1/?#*+, 2 9/:DPV&'< 60&I"1%&0:K$8E?0)/:18+EP]=A0%5.P*V0EM8)1/?#*+, 2 I?0PVIE60& a/"-Z(>M8)*.= (the reproduction of capital) Z`,)#0&$6Z$DPV=N015=8 9<<@N0/8)60&a/"-Z(>8'=#+O7,815+E)M8)1M0=',=18)10
: 98 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5?I=*+,50#%78 K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 3 I?0PVIE60&a/"-*.=="E# 5?I=*'()K#P (capitalist production as a whole) 5?I==+(1Gc=A0% 5')1%&0:K$6'=1MV0M8)58)5?I=9&6MV0)-V=%78 1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$&:<< 12&346"@*.=="E#5?I=*'()K#PZ`,)1Gc=*'()8)%$186A0!9/:%I0#M'P 9EV)&:KI?0)60&a/"-6'<60&K#.=1I+E= &:<<12&346"@5?I=*'()K#P=+( G&:68<M`(=@06<&&P0G^@@'E=0#F&&#9/:)?0E]=K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 9/: 2 6/0E1Gc=&:<<*.=="E#*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=]=&:P'< *+,5')16-DPV “*.=” (Z`,)]=M'(=*+, 1 1Gc= “*.=CPE*',IDG” 9/:]=M'(=*+, 2 1Gc=*.=1e!0: 3 50M0) ]=M'(=5.P*V0E=+(DPV!'_=0M`(=1Gc= “*.=G^@1@6 O=” (individual capital) %78 *.=E?8Eb ]=6&&#5"*F"YM8)=0E*.= 9-?/:&0E Z`,)-?0)1aO"BK=V06'=]=40=: “%W?9M?)M'=” *+,-V8)1O78P1e78= 6'=]=-/0P8E?0)1801Gc=180-0E 9/:]=40=: “%W?%V0” *+,-V8)Z7(8M0E 9/:]KV (K&78&'<) 5"=1O7,8]=K#W?=0E*.=PVIE6'= #C=*'2=$M8) “*.=” ]= &:P'<&WGF&&#*+,5.P=+(6R%78 -/0P 60&9M?)M'= 9/:5"=1O7,8 Z`,)1#7,8 I"1%&0:K$9/VI6R%78 6&:<I=60&9<?)5'=G^=5?I=#W/%?05?I=16"= (Z`,) MWP&+P#0@06O=O'(=%=)0=) A0E]=K#W?=0E*.=PVIE6'=18)CPE802'E 6/D660&9M?)M'=K&78aW6M0P1Gc=-'I-'P5"=I?0 =0E*.=9-?/:&0E%I& @:DPV&'<#W/%?05?I=16"=#06K&78=V8E1!+E)]P ]=&:P'<60&I"1%&0:K$=+( #W / %? 0 5? I =16" = *+, E` P 6. # CPEO=O'( = =0E*. = @:;W 6 9<? ) 5&&1Gc = 6N 0 D& 8.-50K6&&# (*.=8.-50K6&&#) 6N0D&!0J"OE$ (*.=!0J"OE$) 9/: P861<+(E (*.=60&1)"=) =86@06=+( #W/%?05?I=16"=8+65?I=K=`,)E')-V8) 9<?)886]=&WG%?01O?0DG]KV96?O=O'(=1@V0*+,P"= Z`,)#+6&&#5"*F"YaW6M0P ]=*+,P"= (1@V0M8)*+,-'()C&))0= 1@V0M8)S0&$# Q/Q) *'()K#P=+(6R%78 “*.=” *+,!'_=05.6)8#1-R#*+,9/VI G&06L1Gc=&:<<12&346"@*.=="E# *+, 1 Gc = &W G F&&#9/:5/' < Z' < ZV 8 =*+, 5. P *+, #+ % I0#M' P 9EV ) A0E]=8' = 9K/#%# CPE95P)8861Gc=I"6[-60&J$O="P-?0)b M8)&:<< (9=I
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 99 :
C=V#8'-&06N0D&1e/+,E/P/) I'L@'6&12&346"@) 6&:*',)&:1<"P8861Gc= I"6[-60&J$ (crises) 9/:A0I:12&346"@-6-?N01Gc=%&'()%&0I 1!7,896V %I0#M'P9EV)1e!0:K=V0]KV-6DG 9/:STo=SW “P./EA0!” M8)&:<<M`(= #0]K#? (Z`,)6R@:!'_=0DG5W?%I0#M'P9EV)9/:I"6[-60&J$8+61Gc=%&'()b DG) (Marx, KIII: 25) CPE5&.G%78 12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$9<?)8861Gc= 3 G&"#Jl/%78 G&"#Jl/60&a/"- G&"#Jl/60&K#.=1I+E= 9/:G&" #Jl/5?I=*'()K#P G&:60&K/')5.P=+(#"]O?G&"#Jl/9E68"5&:@06 58)5?I=9&6 K069-?1Gc=8)%$5')1%&0:K$M8)186A0!9/:%I0#M'P 9EV)M8)58)G&"#Jl/9&6 5?I=*+, 1 #+#C=*'2=$*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/: )?0E 9/:1!",#%I0#1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:5/'<Z'<ZV8=M`(=1&7,8Eb ]=5?I=*+, 2 MJ:*+,5?I=*+, 3 1Gc=A0!5?I=*'()K#P*+,5')1%&0:K$58)5?I=9&61MV0 PVIE6'=1Gc=#C=*'2=$*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=*+,5.P E",)DG6I?0='(= 60&1%/7,8=-'IM8)%I0#%"P@06A0!=0#F&&# 9/:)?0E*+,5.PDG5W?5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=*+,5.P=+(E') 58P%/V8)6'<60&1%/7,8=-'I*0)%I0#%"P@06 “1=7(89*V” (essence) *+, 1Gc=1=7(8]=*.=="E# (Z`,)5')16-D#?1KR=9/:!"5W@=$*P58<DPVE06) 886 #05W?A0!A0E=86*+,1Gc= “G&06L60&J$” (phenomenon) Z`,)5')161KR=9/:!"5W@=$*P58<DPV8+6PVIE 60&@N09=6AII"5'E8861Gc= “1=7(8 9*V” 9/: “G&06L60&J$” ]=12&34205-&$60&1#78)6R1O?=1P+EI6'< G&:1PR=87,=b M8)#0&$6Z$%78 1Gc=60&57<*8PI"A03I"F+M8)1i16/ A0!M8)12&346"@*.=="E#*+,1&0#8)1KR= 5'#a'59/: “!"5W@=$” DPV*'=*+ ='(= 5N0K&'<#0&$6Z$9/VI 6R1Gc=9-?1!+E) “G&06L60&J$” -'I/:%&*0) 12&346" @ -? 0 )b 1O? = =0E*. = %=)0= 1@V 0 *+, P" = -? 0 )6R # 8) G&06L60&J$ =+( @ 06@. P E7 = *+, 1 Gc = 1e!0:M8)-=9/:-' P 5" = ]@95P) ![-" 6 &&#DG@06@. P E7 = P' ) 6/? 0 I 9-? * I? 0 1<7( 8 )K/' ) /` 6 /)DG]=
: 100 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
6&:<I=60&*0)12&346"@*+,#8)1KR=DPV9/:5'#a'5DPV8EW?*.61#7,81O7,8 I'==+(6R%78 “1=7(89*V” *+,#8)D#?1KR=9/: “!"5W@=$” D#?DPV]=*'=*+ 9-? G&:68<1Gc=&0640=*+,#0-/8P@=1Gc=G&"#Jl/M8)<&&P0G^@@'E 6N0K=P*+,8EW?1<7(8)K/')G&06L60&J$A0E=861K/?0='(= K=V0*+,M8)I"O012&34205-&$60&1#78)6R%78 60&#8)*:/.a?0= G&06L60&J$M8)&:<<*.=="E# /)DG5W?1=7(89*VM8)#'= 1!7,8%V=]KV!< &0640=*+,#0 G^@@'E6N0K=P 9/:6\16Jl$ -/8P@=9=IC=V#5?I=/`6 *+,O?IE]KV1&050#0&;1MV0]@;`) “1K-.a/” M8)G&06L60&J$A0E=86 60&a?0=@06G&06L60&J$1@0:/`6/)DG5W?1=7(89*V6R%786&:<I=60& 1P+EI6'=6'< “I"F+60&9K?)60&58<%V=” (the method of enquiry) P') 6/? 0 IMV 0 )-V = %7 8 60&PN 0 P", ) M8)%I0#%" P @065? I =*'( ) K#P*+, 1 Gc = &W G F&&#9/:Z' < ZV 8 = (%7 8 G&06L60&J$ M 8)&:<<*. = =" E #*+, PW 1K#7 8 =5' < 5=8/K#? 0 = D&V 6 \16Jl$ ) /)DG5W? # C=*' 2 =$ !7( = 40=*+, 1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E (%781=7(89*VA0E]=M8)&:<<*.=="E#) ]=*0) -&)MV 0 # 60&a? 0 =@061=7( 8 9*V M`( = #05W? & :P' < G&06L60&J$ 6R %7 8 6&:<I=60&1P+EI6'=6'< “I"F+60&9K?)60&=N015=8” (the method of presentation) P')6/?0IMV0)-V= %78 60&E6&:P'<%I0#%"P@06G^@@'E*+, 1Gc = =0#F&&#9/:)? 0 E M`( = #05W? A 0!5? I =*'( ) K#P*+, &W G F&&#9/: Z'<ZV8= (1Gc=&:P'<G&06L60&J$8+6%&'() 9-?PVIE%I0#1MV0]@8E?0) ;W 6 -V 8 )-? 8 6\16Jl$ 9 /:9=IC=V # *+, 1 Gc = @&" ) *+, 8 EW? 1 <7( 8 )K/' ) G&06L60&J$1K/?0='(=) K=')578 <S1 *'()50#1/?#M8)#0&$6Z$PN01="= -0# “I"F+60&9K?)60&=N015=8” =+(18)9/:@`)1Gc=60&1%/7,8=-'I@06 “1=7(89*V” ]=K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 1 (=0#F&&#9/:)?0E) M`(=#05W?&:P'< “G&06L60&J$” ]=K=')578 <S1 1/?#*+, 3 (&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8=)11 5N 0 K&' < &:<8<12&346" @ *. = =" E #9/V I G&06L60&J$ A 0E =86*+, 5N 0 %' B *+, 5. P %7 8 %I0#5' # !' = F$ 1 O" ) 9/61G/+, E =*+, 1 5#8A0%
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 101 :
&:KI?0)%=)0=6'<=0E*.= =',=%78 %=)0=1Gc=aWVM0E9&))0= 9/: =0E*.=1Gc=aWVZ7(8 CPE-?0)fg0E#+8N0=0@-?8&8)9/:G&02@0660&]OV 6N0/')8N0=0@1MV0<')%'<Z`,)6'=9/:6'= 1Gc=60&-?8&8)9/:9M?)M'=6'= 8E?0) “E.-"F&&#” *+,*.6fg0EDPVG&:CEO=$ 9-?#0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 5",)1K/?0=+( 1Gc=1!+E)G&06L60&J$*+,1%/78<%/.#1=7(89*VM8)*.=="E#DIV 1=7(89*V M8)*.=="E#%78 60&MWP&+P*+,O=O'(==0E*.=6&:*N0-?8O=O'(=%=)0= CPEa?0=60&aW6M0P6&&#5"*F"Y]=G^@@'E60&a/"-9/:PVIE “60&<')%'< *0)12&346"@” (economic compulsion) %78 PVIE%I0#@N01Gc=M8) %=)0=*+,-V8)M0E9&))0=1!7,8E')O+! 12&34205-&$60&1#78)@:-V8) #8)*:/.G&06L60&J$/)DG5W?1=7(89*V 9/:]OV%I0#1MV0]@*+,;W6-V8)-?8 1=7(89*V='(=1Gc=!+(=40=]=60&8F"<0EG&06L60&J$A0E=868E?0)1Gc= &:<<9/:#+1K-.a/ O?8)I?0)&:KI?0)G&06L60&J$6'<1=7(89*V=+(18)*+, *N 0 ]KV I" * E0205-&$ 9 /:60&%" P 9<<=0#F&&#1Gc = 5", ) @N 0 1Gc = “9-? I"*E0205-&$*'()GI)@'61Gc=5",)D#?@N01Gc= ;V0G&06L60&J$A0E=86 9/:1=7(89*VM8)5",)#+%I0#58P%/V8)6'=8E?0)-&)DG-&)#0” (Marx, KIII: 814-815) #0&$ 6 Z$ ] KV 6 0&E8#&' < 8E? 0 )I" ! 063$ -? 8 =' 6 12&34205-&$ %/055"6 (5#"F9/:&"%0&$CP) I?0#+%I0#!E0E0#]=&:P'<K=`,)*+,@: 1@0:*:/. G &06L60&J$ M 8)*. = =" E #/)DG5W? 1 =7( 8 9*V 9-? # 0&$ 6 Z$ I"@0&J$='612&34205-&$]=E.%M8)1M018)8E?0)&.=9&)I?0 K/)8EW?9-? G&06L60&J$A0E=86*+,a"I1a"=M8)*.=="E# -/8P@=!E0E0#]KV%N0 8F"<0E8E?0)KE0<b 9/:1Gc=50#'B5N0=`6-?8G&06L60&J$='(= -/8P @=1Gc=60&5&V0)%I0#O8<F&&#]KV96?&:<<*.=="E# #0&$6Z$1&+E6 “*[3\+” 1K/?0=+(I?0 “12&34205-&$50#0=E$” (vulgar economy) #0&$6Z$1KR=I?0 60&I"1%&0:K$M8) “='612&34205-&$50#0=E$” *+,#8) 9-?G&06L60&J$A0E=86M8)*.=="E# #8) “*.=” 1Gc=1!+E)I'-;.
: 102 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
(1O?= “1)"=*.=”” K&78G^@@'E60&a/"-*+,#"]O?9&))0=”) *+,]KVa/-8<9*= 1Gc= “6N0D&” K&78 “P861<+(E” 1O?=1P+EI6'<*+,P"=*+,]KVa/-8<9*=1Gc= “%?01O?0” 1K/?0=+( 1Gc=60&#8)*+,a"I1a"= 9/:=N0DG5W?MV85&.G*+,96V-?0)]KV 96?&:<<*.=="E# O'6@W)]KV1KR=A0!&:<<*.=="E#*+,G&:50=6/#6/7= 5'=-" 1Gc= “F&&#O0-"” 9/:E7=E)O',I="&'=P&$ 9/:G6GjP%I0#@&")*+,I?0 6&:<I=60&*0)12&346" @ *'( ) K#P#+ & 0640=&? I #6' = 8EW? *+, 6 0&]OV 9&))0=9/:60&MWP&+P9&))0=M8)6&&#6& -/8P@=%I0#M'P9EV) &:KI?0)O=O'(==0E*.=6'<O=O'(=6&&#6& 8+6*'()%I0#5'#!'=F$*0) 12&346"@P')6/?0I6R#+/'63J:O',I%&0I9/:1Gc=1!+E)M'(=-8=K=`,)M8) G&:I'-"205-&$#=.3E$1*?0='(=12 MV85')16-%78 I"F+60&M8)#0&$6Z$=+(9-6-?0)8E?0)5N0%'B@06 I" F+ 6 0&M8)GL" 4 0==" E # (positivism) 9/:G&:5<60&J$ =" E # (empiricism) M8)12&34205-&$ 9 /:5' ) %#205-&$ 2 -I&&3*+, 20 G&' O B0GL" 4 0==" E #9/:G&:5<60&J$ =" E #!E0E0# “8F" < 0E” G&06L60&J$PVIE “*[3\+” -?0)b 1O?=6'= 9-?5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “*[3\+” 9/: “6\” M8)!I61M06R1Gc=1!+E)MV8%"PI?0PVIE%I0#5'#!'=F$*+,1Gc= G&6-" 1Gc=G&:@N09/:%)15V=%)I0 &:KI?0)-'I9G&-?0)b *+,5')16-DPV 9/:I'PDPV1*?0='(= *'()=+(CPEE7=8EW?<=%I0#1O7,8*+,I?0 “%I0#&WV” *+,1Gc= I" * E0205-&$ -V 8 )16+, E I!' = 6' < 5", ) *+, 5' # a' 5 DPV 9 /:6' < 1K-. 6 0&J$ 1 O" ) G&:5<60&J$*0)-&)*+,16"PZ(>b Z06b 8E?0)%)15V=%)I01*?0='(= 9-? 5N 0 K&' < #0&$ 6 Z$ *[3\+ *+, 9 *V @ &" ) -V 8 )1@0:/` 6 /)DG5W? % I0#5' # !' = F$ A0E]=*+,8EW?1<7(8)K/')G&06L60&J$ 1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$*+,D#?80@5')161KR = DPV C PE-&) 9-? 1 Gc = G^ @ @' E 6N 0 6' < %I0#1Gc = DG*'( ) GI)*+, 1 Gc = G&06L60&J$ @06=+( @ :1KR = DPV I? 0 5N 0 K&' < aWV *+, 1 KR = PV I E6' < #&&%I" F+ M 8) #0&$6Z$9/VI 60&GL"15F12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$CPEKE"<
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 103 :
eIE1801K-.60&J$9/:G&:5<60&J$*0)-&)#01Gc=MV8C-V9EV)8E?0) KE0<b ='( = 1Gc = 5", ) *+, D #? ! 81!+ E )8E? 0 )E", ) PV I E1K-. =+( MV 8 C-V 9 EV ) &:KI?0)12&34205-&$58)6&:956R%)@:D#?#+I'=#+MV85&.G-&0<1*?0*+, &0640=*0)G&'OB09/:#&&%I"F+M8)*'()58)E')%)-&)MV0#6'=8EW? /* *'S, <*%I0#=+( D PV ! E0E0#8&&;0F" < 0E9/:5&. G MV 8 %" P *0) G&'OB0 *&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$ 9/:#&&%I"F+2`630M8)#0&$6Z$CPE 5')1MG 1K/?0=+(1Gc=!+(=40=*+,#0&$6Z$]OV]=60&!'_=012&34205-&$ 60&1#78)M8)1M0M`(= 9/:1Gc=5",)@N01Gc=*+,M0P15+E#"DPV5N0K&'<aWV]P 6R-0#*+,-V8)60&2`630#0&$6Z$ 9/:1!7,8*+,@:1MV0]@;`)6&&#I"F+60&%"P 60&I" 1 %&0:K$ &W G F&&#-=0#F&&# -/8P@=/' 6 3J:!" 1 23M8) 12&34205-&$ 6 0&1#7 8 )M8)#0&$ 6 Z$ *+, 9 -6-? 0 )8E? 0 )#06@06 12&34205-&$5N0='687,=b 6.B9@5N0%'B-?860&1MV0]@#0&$6Z$]=*+,=+(6R%78 I"A03I"F+ 9/:*&&2=:G&:I'-"205-&$*+,#8)#=.3E$I?01Gc=G^@@'E*+,1Gc= fg0E6&:*N09/:18060&180)0=]=%I0#5'#!'=F$6'<F&&#O0-"9/:6'< #=.3E$PVIE6'= %I0#5'#!'=F$-?86'=]=&:P'<&0640=='(=PN01="=a?0= -'I6/0) (mediator) Z`,)6R%78 60&/)#78GL"<'-" ]OV9&))0=8E?0)#+@.P #.?)K#0E9/:#+5N0=`6M8)#=.3E$18) CPE95P)8861Gc=6&:<I=60& !' _ =0M8)G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ a? 0 =%I0#M' P 9EV ) 9/:186A0!&:KI? 0 ) G^@@'E*0)12&346"@5')%#-?0)b #0&$ 6 Z$ # 8)&:<<*. = =" E #<=!7( = 40=M8)%I0#%" P *0) G&'OB0P')6/?0I 8'==N0DG5W?I"F+60&*0)12&34205-&$60&1#78)*+,CE) %I0#5'#!'=F$*+,1Gc=I"A03I"F+&:KI?0)5?I=*'()K#P*+,1Gc=&WGF&&#9/: Z'<ZV8= 6'<G^@@'E&0640=*+,1Gc==0#F&&#9/:)?0E 9/:&:KI?0)1=7(8
: 104 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
9*VA0E]=6'<G&06L60&J$A0E=86 *'()K#P=+(6R%78186/'63J$M8) 12&34205-&$60&1#78)*+,;78180 “*.=” 1Gc=K'I]@M8)60&2`630 -/8P @=#+%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#&:KI?0)O=O'(=%=)0=6'<O=O'(==0E*.= 1Gc=!+(=40= @.P1&",#-V= 9/:%N08F"<0E-?8G&06L60&J$*'()K/0E8'= 5/'<Z'<ZV8=M8)*.=="E#
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 105 :
!M824''V %I0#@&")9/VI K=')578 *.= M8)#0&$6Z$#+ 4 1/?# CPE1/?#*+, 4 #+O7,8I?0 Theories of Surplus Value 9-? 6 0&I" 1 %&0:K$ 9 <<I" F+ 6 0&a/" *.=="E#8E?0)1Gc=&:<<='(= #+G&06L8EW?]= 3 1/?#9&6 5?I=1/?#*+, 4 #+ 1=7(8K0*'()K#P1Gc=60&2`6309/:I"!063$<&&P0*[3\+12&34205-&$ 60&1#78)6?8=#0&$6Z$ 9/:*[3\+12&34205-&$50#0=E$ (vulgar economy) ]=E.%M8)#0&$6Z$ e:='(= 60&2`630*[3\+12&34205-&$ 60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$5?I=]KB?@`)@N06'P8EW?*+,K=')578 <S1 50#1/?#9&6 1*?0='(=
1
/'*F"GL"40=="E# (positivism) 1O7,8I?0 %I0#&WV*+,9*V@&")@:-V8)8EW?<= !7(=40=M8)G&:5<60&J$*0)a'55: (sensory experience) 1*?0='(= <&&P05##-"40=9/:*[3\+@:-V8)!'_=0#0@0660&2`630I"1%&0:K$ MV 8 #W / *0)a' 5 5:CPEG&02@06%I0#%" P 1<7( 8 )-V = (a priori knowledge) *+,D#?80@!"5W@=$DPV (Blackburn, 1996: 294) 9=IC=V# M8)/' * F" G L" 4 0==" E #%7 8 60&!E0E0#]KV 5' ) %#205-&$ ] OV # &&%I" F+ 1P+EI6'=6'<I"*E0205-&$F&&#O0-" 1O?= August Comte !E0E0#*N0 ]KVI"O05')%#I"*E01Gc= “I"*E0205-&$” ]=MJ:*+, Alfred Marshall 6R !E0E0#*N0]KVI"O012&34205-&$1Gc= “I"*E0205-&$” 1O?=6'= 2
aWV5=]@]=&0E/:18+EPG&'OB09/:#&&%I"F+M8)1i16/ 50#0&;PW<* I"1%&0:K$ 5&.GE?89/:%N08F"<0E8E?0))?0EDPV@06 Findlay (1958) 9/: Stace (1955) 3
PW6"@6&&#9/:9=I%"PM8) “6/.?#1i16/K=.?#” ]= McLellan (1969) 5N0K&'<6"@6&&#9/:9=I%"PM8)#0&$6Z$]=O?I)=+(PW McLellan (1980) 4
: 106 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&GL"15F18)16/5$P')6/?0IDPV;W6-'()MV85)5'ECPE<&&P0aWV5=]@ %I0#%" P #0&$ 6 Z$ - 18)16/5$ 8 EW? <V 0 ) PW 1 K#7 8 =I? 0 /' 6 3J:*+, D #? !` ) G&0&;=0]=*0)G&'OB08'=DPV96? I'-;.="E#8E?0)KE0< (*+,1O7,8I?0 “I'-;.” 6N0K=P “@"-” 1!+E)PV0=1P+EI) /'*F"O:-06N0K=P 8A"G&'OB0 F&&#O0-" Q/Q /VI=;W6CE=DG]KV18)16/5$15+EK#PMJ:*+,#0&$6Z$ G/8P!V=@06MV8K0e6&&@$1K/?0=+( 9#V@:#+K/'640=8EW?<V0)*+,95P)I?0 #0&$6Z$18)DPV “6&:*N0<0G” ]=*N0=8)1P+EI6'= ='6%V=%IV0<0)%= !E0E0#1&+E6&V8)M8%I0#1Gc=F&&#]KV96?18)16/5$<V0) (Timperano, 1980: 73-134) 5
9#V I? 0 I" A 03I" F+ @ :D#? 1 Gc = K' I MV 8 2` 6 30*+, C PP1P? = #06=' 6 ]=I)60& 12&34205-&$60&1#78) 9-?I"A03I"F+6/'<1Gc=*+,5=]@2`6309/:;6 1;+ E )6' = #06!85#%I&]=9IPI)G&' O B0I" * E0205-&$ 9 /: %J"-205-&$ CPE#'6;78180 “6\I"A03I"F+” *'()50#MV8M8)18)16/5$ 1Gc=-'I-'() 1O?= Levins and Lewontin (1985) G&:E.6-$]OVI"A03I"F+ ]=50M0O+II"*E09/:*[3\+I"I'_=060& K&78 Georgescu-Roegen (1971) Z`,)E7=E'=I?0 1=7(8K0M8)I"A03I"F+='(=M'P9EV)8E?0)5"(=1O")6'< 1*%="%*0)%J"-205-&$ Z`,)*N0]KV1&0D#?50#0&;G&:E.6-$1*%="%1O") G&"#0J1MV06'<*[3\+12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8)#0&$6Z$DPV MV85&.G=+( 1Gc=*+,E8#&'<6'=CPE*',IDG 9#VI?0@:#+MV8;61;+E)<V0) 1O?= Rosser (2000) 9EV)I?0 %I0#@&")9/VI 1&080@G&:E.6-$]OV1*%="%1O")G&"#0J *+,#"]O?15V=-&) (non-linear) #08F"<0E6&:<I=60&M8)I"A03I"F+DPV CPE1e!0:8E? 0 )E", ) %7 8 60&!' _ =0/? 0 5. P M8)*[3\+ Z' < ZV 8 =9/: *[3\+D&V&:1<+E< (catastrophe theory and chaos theory)
6
G^BK0*+,I?0 “I"A03I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$9-6-?0)@06I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/ 8E?0)D&” 1Gc=G&:1PR=;61;+E)6'=#06]=K#W?aWV5=]@G&'OB0#0&$6 7
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 107 :
1Z+E= aWV*+,6?8]KV16"P60&C-V9EV)#06*+,5.P9/:&.=9&)*+,5.P%=K=`,)%78 8'/FW9Z&$ (Althusser and Barlibar, 1977) Z`,)E7=E'=I?0 I"A03I"F+M8) #0&$6Z$]=K=')578 <S1 ='(=9-6-?0)8E?0)5"(=1O")6'<I"A03I"F+M8)1i16/ G^BK06R%78 5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “I"A03I"F+” M8)8'/FW9Z&$6/'<6/0E1Gc=I"F+ 60&M8)/'*F"C%&)5&V0)="E# (structuralism) 8'/FW9Z&$E7=E'=I?0 I"F+ 60&]=K=')578 <S1 %78 “60&6N0K=PC%&)5&V0)” (the determination of a structure) (p.134) 1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$CPE@N09=6&:<<8861Gc= C%&)5&V0)&:P'<-?0)b ZV8=6'=M`(=DG CPE*+,C%&)5&V0)1e!0:5?I=@: ;W66N0K=P@06C%&)5&V0)5?I=*'()K#P Z`,)6R%78 #+C%&)5&V0);W6%&8< )N 0 (subordinate structure) 6' < C%&)5&V 0 )%&8<)N 0 (dominant structure) 8'/FW9Z&$1&+E6I"F+60&1O?==+(I?0 overdetermination (p.188) aWV1M+E=18)#8)D#?1KR=I?0 I"F+60& “6N0K=PCPEC%&)5&V0)” =+(@:1&+E6I?0 “I"A03I"F+” DPV8E?0)D&6'= I"F+60&M8)8'/FW9Z&$CPE1=7(89*V6R%78 60& GL"15FI"A03I"F+9<<1i16/*+,G&06L8EW?8E?0)O'P1@=]=K=')578 <S1 9/:180I"F+60&M8)5')%#205-&$6&:95K/'650EC%&)5&V0)="E##0 5I#*'<1MV0DG9/VI-'()O7,818018)I?0 “I"A03I"F+” 8E?0)D&6R-0# #+='6%"P *[3\+@N0=I=#06*+,1P"=-0#I"F+60&M8)8'/FW9Z&$9/:;W61&+E6&I#b I?0 /'*F"#0&$6Z$9<<C%&)5&V0)="E# (Structural Marxism) PW&0E /:18+EP1!",#1-"#]= Benton (1984) %I0#1O7, 8 *+, I? 0 *&&2=:G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ 1 Gc = “/' * F" 12&346"@6N0K=P” E')%)1Gc=%I0#1MV0]@a"P*+,9!&?K/0E8EW?*',IDG]= K#W?aWV*+,#"DPV2`630#0&$6Z$CPE/:18+EP9#VI?0@:#+a/)0=I"@'E16+,EI6'< #0&$6Z$*+,GL"15FMV86/?0IK0P')6/?0I886#0#06#0E9/VI6R-0# “/'*F" 12&346"@6N0K=P” @`)E')%)1Gc=MV86/?0IK0Z(>Z06*+,='612&34205-&$ 60&1#7 8 )#0&$ 6 1Z+ E =-V 8 )%8E-8<C-V 8 EW? 1 5#8 PW -' I 8E? 0 )1O? = Wetherly (2001) 8
: 108 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&-+ % I0##&&%I" F+ M 8)#0&$ 6 Z$ 1 MV 0 K0I" F+ 6 0&M8)12&34205-&$ 6&:95K/' 6 PW 1 K#7 8 =@:#0@06 Sweezy (1942: 11-12) -0# #0PVIE-N0&01<7(8)-V=16+,EI6'<12&34205-&$/'*F"#0&$6Z$8+6K/0E1/?# 1O?= Fine (1984: ch.2) Junankar (1982: 7-8) Howard and King (1985: 55) 9/: Catephores (1989) !'_=060&/?05.P%78 &'<180I"F+ 60&9/:9=I%"PM8)=+C8%/055"6*'()P.V= (1O?= ![-"6&&#60&1/786*+, “5#1K-.5#a/” CPEG^@1@6O= 9/:1*%="%60&K0%?05W)5.PK&78-,>5.P optimization) ]=a/)0=M8)6/.?#='612&34205-&$*+,;W6M=0==0#I?0 “/'*F"#0&$6Z$1O")I"1%&0:K$” K&78 “/'*F"#0&$6Z$I?0PVIE60&1/7868E?0) 5#1K-.5#a/” (Analytical Marxism or Rational Choice Marxism) PW-'I8E?0))0=]=6/.?#=+( 1O?= Elster (1978; 1985) 9/: Roemer (1980; 1982; 1986) a/)0=E.%9&61K/?0=+(1Gc=*[3\+<&"5.*F"Y1O?= 1P+ E I6' < *[3\+ @. / A0%M8)=+ C 8%/055" 6 9-? 6R #+ a /P` ) PW P ]KV #+ 6 0& !' _ =0-? 8 #0CPE!E0E0#G&' < MV 8 5##-" 4 0=]KV 5 #@&" ) M`( = 1!7, 8 G&:E. 6 -$ 1 MV 0 6' < &:<<12&346" @ *. = =" E #*+, 1 Gc = @&" ) PW a /)0= 1O? = Lebowitz (1992; 1994) 9
PW<**+, 5 ]= !"O"- /"M"-6"@5#<W&J$ (2546), <Q$RB!"#$%"&'(#) /&#!+456, 5>='6!"#!$#K0I"*E0/'EF&&#205-&$
10
%I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 )#C=*' 2 =$ = 0#F&&#9/:)? 0 E 6' < #C=*' 2 =$ &WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8= 1Gc=8+6K'IMV8K=`,)*+,#+60&;61;+E)6'=]=K#W?aWV 5=]@I"A03I"F+M8)#0&$6Z$ G&:1PR=%78 “I"F+60&9K?)60&=N015=8” (the method of presentation) =+(1%/7,8=@06A0I:=0#F&&#9/:)?0EDG5W? A0I:&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8==+( #+G&06L8EW?]=%N0=N0M8)#0&$6Z$Gd 1857 (G^@@.<'=!"#!$1Gc=%N0=N0]= [1K461-,,0 9/:1&+E66'=E?8b I?0 The 1857 Introduction #+aWV15=8I?0 #0&$6Z$DPV “1G/+,E=%I0#%"P” K/')
11
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 109 :
@061M+ E =%N 0 =N 0 Gd 1857 =+( 9 /:DPV G &' < 1G/+, E =I" F+ 6 0&15+ E ]K#? Z`, ) G&06L]=K=')578 <S1 (Nicolaus, 1973; Echeverria, 1978) ='EK=`,) I"F+60&M8)#0&$6Z$]=K=')578 <S1 9-6-?0)@065",)*+,#0&$6Z$DPV<&&E0E DIV18)]=%N0=N0Gd 1857 9-?6R#+aWV9EV)]=*0)-&)MV0# %781KR=I?0 I"F+60& M8)#0&$6Z$]=K=')578 <S1 E')%)1Gc=8'=K=`,)8'=1P+EI6'=6'<I"F+60&*+, G&06L]=%N0=N0Gd 1857 =',=%78 1Gc= “I"F+60&9K?)60&=N015=8” *+, 1%/7,8=@06A0I:=0#F&&#9/:)?0EDG5W?A0I:&WGF&&#9/:Z'<ZV8= 1!+E)9-?I?0 ]=K=')578 <S1 #0&$6Z$DPVG&'<G&.)&0E/:18+EP*[3\+<0) G&:60&1!7,896VMV8<6!&?8)]= [1K461-,,0 1*?0='(= (Marquit, 1977) aWV1M+E=1KR=PVIE6'<*&&2=:M8)fg0EK/') MV8I"!063$M8)#0&$6Z$-?8 “12&34205-&$50#0=E$” ]=E.%M8)1M0#+ G&06L&0E/:18+EP]=K=')578 *[3\+#W/%?05?I=16"= 1/?#*+, 3 (Marx, TSVIII: addenda) K=')578 <S1 50#1/?#6R@</)PVIE<*I"!063$ “12&34205-&$50#0=E$” 1O?=6'= (Marx, KIII: part vii) 5",)*+,#0&$6Z$ 1=V=C@#-+%78 5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “5W-&!&:&'-=-&'E” (the trinity formula) DPV 9 6? *+, P" = ]KV 6N 0 1=" P %? 0 1O? 0 9&))0=]KV 6N 0 1=" P %? 0 @V 0 ) 9/:*. = ]KV 6N01="P6N0D& (G^@@.<'=1G/+,E=1Gc=P861<+(E) ='612&34205-&$60&1#78) #0&$61Z+E=]=E.%K/')b #+9=IC=V#*+,@:CE) “12&34205-&$50#0=E$” ]=E.%M8)#0&$6Z$ (-V=-6/0)2-I&&3*+, 19) 1MV06'<12&34205-&$ =+C8%/055"6*+,!'_=0M`(=]=G/0E2-I&&3*+, 19 -?8-V=2-I&&3*+, 20 <0)%=;`)6'<I"!063$12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6]=G^@@.<'=8E?0)-&) DG-&)#0I?0 #+/'63J: I"F+60& 9/:1=7(89*V*+,1Gc= “12&34205-&$ 50#0=E$” *'()K#P 1!+E)9-?15&"#9-?)PVIE1%&7,8)#7860&I"1%&0:K$*+,PW 5/'<Z'<ZV8=9/:MW?MI'B%=E",)M`(=*.6*+1*?0='(= (Rowthorn, 1980: ch.1) 12
: 110 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5''6%)S+'$ Althusser, L. and E. Balibar (1977), Q0+6-4Z E%+S-P+*!F Translated by B. Brewster, 2nd ed., London: New Left Books. Benton, T. (1984), (H0 Q-,0, +46 ^+** GN /P1K.PK1+* V+1_-,37 5*PHK,,01 +46 `-, I4N*K04.0, London: Macmillan. Blackburn, S. (1996), W-.P-G4+1U GN OH-*G,GSHU, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Catephores, G. (1989), 54 I4P1G6K.P-G4 PG V+1_-,P $.G4G3-.,, London: Macmillan. Echeverria, R. (1978), “Critique of Marx’s 1857 Introduction”, $.G4G3U +46 /G.-0PU, Vol.7, No.4, November, pp.333366. Elster, J. (1978), “The Labour Theory of Value: A Reinterpretation of Marxist Economics”, V+1_-,P O01,S0.P-J0,, Vol.1, No.3, Fall, pp.70-101. Elster, J. (1985), V+Y-4Z /04,0 GN V+1_, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Engels, F. (1970), `011 $KZ04 WKH1-4Z!, Q0JG*KP-G4 -4 /.-04.0 #54P-=WKH1-4Z2, New York: International Publishers. Findlay, J. N. (1958), `0Z0*7 5 Q0=$_+3-4+P-G4. London: George Allen & Unwin. Fine, B. (1984), V+1_!, E%+S-P+*!, 2nd ed., London: Macmillan. Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1971), (H0 $4P1GSU a+R +46 PH0 $.G4G3-. O1G.0,,, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Howard, M. C. and J. E. King (1985), (H0 OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U GN b+1* V+1_, 2nd ed., London: Longman. Junankar, P. N. (1982), V+1_!, $.G4G3-.,, Oxford: Philip Allan Publishers. Lebowitz, M. A. (1992), c0UG46 E%+S-P+*!7 V+1_!, OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U GN PH0 XG1Y-4Z %*+,,, London: Macmillan. Lebowitz, M. A. (1994), “Analytical Marxism and the Marxian Theory of Crisis”, %+3\1-6Z0 MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-.,, Vol.18, No.2, pp.163-179. Levins, R. and R. Lewontin (1985), (H0 W-+*0.P-.+* c-G*GZ-,P, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. McLellen, D. (1969), (H0 dGK4Z `0Z0*-+4, +46 b+1* V+1_, London: Macmillan. McLellen, D. (1973), b+1* V+1_7 `-, a-N0 +46 (HGKZHP, London: Macmillan. McLellen, D. (1980), V+1_ \0NG10 V+1_-,3, 2nd ed., London: Macmillan. Marquit, E. (1977), “Nicolaus and Marx’s Method of Scientific Theory in the Grundrisse”, /.-04.0 +46 /G.-0PU, Vol.XLI, No.4, Winter, pp.465-476. Marx, K. (1956), (H0 `G*U ^+3-*U, Moscow: Progress Publishers. Marx, K. (1970), (H0 OGJ01PU GN OH-*G,GSHU, Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House. Marx, K. (1971), %+S-P+*7 5 %1-P-.+* 54+*U,-, GN %+S-P+*-,P O1G6K.P-G4, Vol. I, translated by S. Moore and E.
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Aveling, edited by F. Engels, Moscow: Progress Publishers. (cited as KI) Marx, K. (1971a), %+S-P+*7 5 %1-P-]K0 GN OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3UF LG*8II7 (H0 O1G.0,, GN O1G.0,, GN %+S-P+*F edited by F. Engels, Moscow: Progress Publishers. (cited as KII) Marx, K. (1971b), %+S-P+*7 5 %1-P-]K0 GN OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3UF LG*8III7 (H0 O1G.0,, GN %+S-P+*-,P O1G6K.P-G4 +, + XHG*0, edited by F. Engels, Moscow: Progress Publishers. (cited as KIII) Marx, K. (1973), [1K461-,,0F ^GK46+P-G4, GN PH0 %1-P-]K0 GN OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U #QGKZH W1+NP2, translated and foreword by M. Nicolaus, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. (cited as Grundrisse) Marx, K. (1973a), “Theses on Feuerbach”, in Marx and Engels (1973). Marx, K. (1973b), “The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonarparte”, in Marx and Engels (1973). Marx, K. (1973c), “Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy”, in Marx and Engels (1973). Marx, K. (1977), (H0 $.G4G3-. +46 OH-*G,GSH-. V+4K,.1-SP, GN 1844, Moscow: Progress Publishers. Marx, K. (1978), (H0G1-0, GN /K1S*K,=L+*K0 #LG*K30 IL GN %+S-P+*2, Part III, translated by S. Ryazanskaya, Moscow: Progress Publishers. (cited as TSVIII) Marx, K. and F. Engels (19732, b+1* V+1_ +46 ^10601-.Y $4Z0*, /0*0.P06 XG1Y, -4 3 LG*K30,, Vol. I, Moscow: Progress Publishers.
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Nicolaus, N. (1980), “Foreword to Marx’s Grundrisse”, in Marx (1973). Roemer, J. E. (1980), “A General Equilibrium Approach to Marxian Economics”, $.G4G30P1-.+, Vol.48, No.2, March, pp.505-530. Roemer, J. E. (1982), 5 [0401+* (H0G1U GN $_S*G-P+P-G4 +46 %*+,,. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Roemer, J. E. (1986), 54+*UP-.+* V+1_-,3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rosser Jr., J. B. (2000), “Aspects of Dialectics and Non-Linear Dynamics”, %+3\1-6Z0 MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-.,, Vol.24, pp.311-324. Rowthorn, B. (1980), %+S-P+*-,3F %G4N*-.P +46 I4N*+P-G47 $,,+U, -4 OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U, London: Lawrence and Wishart. Stace, W. T. (1955), (H0 OH-*G,GSHU GN `0Z0*7 5 /U,P03+P-. $_SG,-P-G4, London: Dover Publications (first published 1924). Sweezy, P. (1942), (H0 (H0G1U GN %+S-P+*-,P W0J0*GS304P7 O1-4.-S*0, GN V+1_-+4 OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U, London: Monthly Review Press. Swingewood, A. (1975), V+1_ +46 VG6014 /G.-+* (H0G1U, London: Macmillan. Timpanaro, S. (1980), &4 V+P01-+*-,3, Translated by L. Garner, London: New Left Books, Verso Edition. Wetherly, P. (2001), “Marxism and Economic Determination: Clarification and Defense of an “Old-Fashioned” Principle”, Q0J-0R GN Q+6-.+* OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3-.,, Vol.33, No.3, pp.273-279.
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P`)PWPM8)%I0#%"P='(=DPV 9/:6R#+<0)%&'()Z`,)#'61Gc==0=b %&'()*+, G&:5<60&J$ ] K#? MV 8 1*R @ @&" ) ]K#? 9/:%I0#1Gc = @&" ) ]K#? 1 K/? 0 =+( a/'6P'=]KV='6%"P='6*[3\+-V8)1aO"B6'<G^BK060&*<*I=&:<< %I0#%"P='(=M'(=#W/40= 8'==N0#0Z`,)60&95I)K06&8<%I0#%"PK&78 !0&0DP#$ (Paradigm) ]K#? aWV1M+E=%"PI?0 G^BK060&8'<-'=M8)%I0#%"P5')%#="E#K&78 /'*F"#0&$6Z$*+,6N0/')1aO"B8EW?]=MJ:=+(=?0@:@'P8EW?]=6&J+*V0E5.P I"O012&34205-&$16"PM`(=!&V8#b 6'<60&5;0G=05')%# 8.-50K6&&#]=2-I&&3*+, 19 “60&I"@0&J$12&34205-&$” M8)%0&$/ #0&$6Z$ (Karl Marx) 6R1Gc=a//'!F$8E?0)K=`,)*+,5:*V8=886#0]=1O") M'P9EV)-?85')%#8.-50K6&&#=+( ]=-8=9&6 !I6#0&$6Z"5-$1KR=I?0 6\60&1%/7,8=DKIM8)12&346"@*.=="E#*+,#0&$6Z$DPV8&&;0F"<0EDIV ]=K=')578 %+S-P+* M8)1M0 DPV]KV#.##8)*0)*[3\+16+,EI6'<%I0# 157,8#*&0#M8)&:<<*.=="E#*+,@:=N0DG5W?60&GL"I'-" “5')%#="E#” %I0#1O7, 8 =+( -? 8 #0DPV 6 /0E1Gc = 5", ) *+, D #? 5', = %/8=1#7, 8 I/0P" #+ &$ 1/=" = (Vladimir Lenin) G&:5<%I0#5N 0 1&R @ ]=60&=N 0 !&&%<8/1OI"6GL"I'-"G&:1*2&'51Z+E]=Gd 1977 16"P%I0#1O7,8*+,I?0 <'P=++(G&:I'-"205-&$C/6DPV1&",#6V0I1MV05W?6&:<I=60&*+,1Gc=@&")M8)60& 1G/+,E=EV0E@06 “*.=="E#” DG5W? “5')%#="E#” 9/VI %I0#&'<&WV1O?==+( 1Gc=%I0#&'<&WV&?I#*+,8EW?1<7(8)K/')![-"6&&#M8) “fg0E6V0IK=V0” K&78 “fg0EZV0E” *'()GI) D#?I?0G&:1*2DK=]=C/6 1!7,8*+,@:*V0*0E&:<<I"F+%"P9<<#0&$6Z"5-$P')6/?0IMV0)-V= %I&@:*N0%I0#1MV0]@/'63J:!"123M8)6&8<%I0#%"PK&78!0&0DP#$ M8)/'*F"#0&$6Z$I?01Gc=6&8<%I0#%"PK&78!0&0DP#$*+,#+8)%$G&:68< #0@06*[3\+ “8P+-” *[3\+ “G^@@.<'=” 9/:*[3\+ “8=0%-” 6/?0I %7 8 #0&$ 6 Z$ 1 &", # -V = %I0#%" P M8)1M0@0660&5;0G=0 “*[3\+
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8P+-M8)8=0%- 1=7,8)@06D#?#+]%&1Gc=1@V09K?)60/1I/0K&788EW? 1K=7 8 60/1I/0 8P+ - @` ) 1Gj P 6IV 0 )15#85N 0 K&' < =' 6 %" P =' 6 a@BA' E *+, @ :DG<. 6 1<" 6 95I)K015V = *0)]K#? b PV I E!/' ) 9K? ) @" = -=060& *0)G&:I'-"205-&$M8)-'I1M018) <0)*+60&a@BA'E]=E.%=+(80@@: D#?]O?60&a@BA'E]=60&-?85WV1!7,81G/+,E=9G/)5')%#1K#78=O?I)-V= 2-I&&3*+, 20 9-?80@@:1Gc=1K#78=8E?0)*+, Gd1-8&$ P&'6168&$ (Peter Drucker) 1%E6/?0IDIV1#7,8Gd 1979 I?01Gc=E.% “Advantures of a Bystander” (60&a@BA'EM8)aWV*+,E7=PW8EW? 9-?D#?#+5?I=16+,EIMV8)PVIE) 1=7,8)@06%I0#]KB?C-M8)G^BK0 ]=*+,=+( aWV1M+E=@:1!?)%I0# 5=]@-? 8 6&:95%I0#%" P *+, 6N 0 /' ) MV 0 #!V = %I0#%" P 5' ) %#=" E # CPE @N06'P1e!0:]=5?I=*+,16+,EI6'<*[3\+ “8P+-” 1*?0='(= )* +%'V+!VI Q 2>%2$''=D8 7I # 42!?'@(?%*&'A ' -0D9 % 2D8 7I 1!23a56786c +15D87I S;<78an86=e 6&:95%I0#%"P*+,=N015=8!0&0DP#$]K#?#09*=*+,%I0#%"P 5' ) %#=" E # 50#0&;57 < 50I&? 8 )&8EEV 8 =K/' ) DPV ;` ) Gd 1944 (5+, Gd K/')60&-0EM8) /+88= *&8-56+ (Leon Trotsky)) ]=)0=1M+E=M8) %0&$/ CG/'=E+ (Karl Polanyi) 1&7,8) (H0 [10+P (1+4,NG13+P-G47 (H0 OG*-P-.+* +46 $.G4G3-. &1-Z-4, GN &K1 (-30 (1944) @:I?0 DG9/VI K=')5781/?#=+1( Gc=1!+E)K=')578G&:I'-2" 05-&$12&346"@*+,16+,EI 6'<G&:I'-"205-&$ “60&GL"I'-"8.-50K6&&#” M8)G&:1*28')6[39/: a/M8)#'=1*?0='(= 9-?%I0#K#0EK&78='E5>%'BM8)K=')5781/?#=+(%78 60&15=8#.##8)]K#?*+,D#?1%E#+#06?8= CG/'=E+1=V=I?0 12&346"@9<<-/0P (market economy) M8)E. C &G]=2-I&&3*+, 19 Z`, ) 8EW? 1 <7( 8 )K/' ) 60&6? 8 -' I M8)I" O 0 12&34205-&$ 5 #' E ]K#? ='( = #" D PV #+ !7( = 40=M8)60&%)8EW? (raison
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detre) 9<<1Gc=506/K&78860/"C68E?0)*+,#'6@:1MV0]@6'= 9-?6/'< 1Gc=&:<<*+,5;0G=0M`(=#0DPVA0E]-V1)7,8=DM*+,1Gc=6&J+E61IV=#06 6/?0I%78 “60&GL"I'-"8.-50K6&&#1Gc=1K-.60&J$M8)G&:1*28')6[3 12&346"@9<<-/0P 60&%V015&+ 9/:&:<<#0-&40=*8)%N0 (The gold standard) 6R1Gc=5",)G&:P"34$M8)8')6[31O?=6'=” (Polanyi, 1944: 30) “60&GL" I' -" 8. - 50K6&&#” DPV *N 0 ]KV & :<<12&346" @ (economic system) Z`, ) 9-? 1 P" # 1Gc = &:<<E? 8 EM8)&:<<5' ) %# (K#0E%I0#I?0 ]=5')%#163-& 8.-50K6&&#6'<163-&6&&#E')D#?DPV 9E61Gc=8"5&:@066'=) -V8)9E6-'I886#01Gc=&:<<1861*2*+,1&+E6 I?0 “self-regulating market” K&78-/0P “*+,50#0&;@'P-'()60&PN01="= O+I"-*0)12&346"@CPE&I#DPV CPED#?-V8)!`,)%I0#O?IE1K/78K&78 60&9*&69Z)@06A0E=86” (Polanyi, 1944: 43) A0E]-V&:<<=+( “%=” 6/0E1Gc= “#=.3E$12&346"@” (economic man) *+,#.?)95I)K0 a/G&:CEO=$5W)5.P1!7,8-=18)1Gc=K/'6 9/:*+,P"=6'<9&))0=Z`,)CPE 1=7(89*V#"DPV1Gc= “5"=%V0” 6R@:;W65##-"]KV1Gc= “5"=%V0” 1!7,8]KV16"P60& 9/61G/+, E =8E? 0 )*', I DGM`( = ]=&:<<=+( &:<<1O? = =+( G /? 8 E]KV 6 /D6 -/0P*N0)0=6'=18) CPE5"=%V0*+,1Gc=5",)5##-" 6/0E1Gc=1GH0M8)60& 95I)K0a/G&:CEO=$ (CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)1)"= 8'=1Gc=5",)5##-"*+, O'P1@=*+,5.PM8)&:<<=+() 16"P60&6/'<-0/G^-&M`(=]=%I0#5'#!'=F$ &:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<#=.3E$ 9/:#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" Z`,)1&7,8)=+( #0&$6Z$ DPV*N060&!"="@!"1%&0:K$DIV8E?0)9K/#%#@06#.##8)M8) “%I0# 9G/69E6” (alienation) CG/'=E+1KR=I?0 ;V0G/?8E]KV6/D6-/0P *N0)0=6'=18)DG-0#/N0!') *V0E*+,5.P@:=N0#0Z`,)60&5WB15+E “%I0# 1Gc=%=” M8)#=.3E$ 9-?]=%I0#1Gc=@&")9/VI “5')%#” @:#+6/D6 GH8)6'=-'I18) (self-protection of society) 1!7,8E'<E'()a/6&:*< 1O")*N0/0E-?0)b *+,16"P@0660&*N0)0=M8)6/D6-/0P
: 122 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
“60&I"@0&J$12&34205-&$” M8)CG/'=E+='(= K06PW1a"=b 9/VI @:&WV5`6I?01Gc=60&I"@0&J$!I65N0='6=+C8%/055"61Gc=K/'6 9-?@&")b 9/VI aWV*+,CP= “/W6K/)” 1MV08E?0)@')@0660&I"@0&J$=+(PVIE6R%78 /'*F" #0&$6Z$ CG/'=E+1KR=I?0 “*[3\+12&34205-&$” *+,!'_=0M`(=#0@06 5')%#*+,-'()8EW?<=&:<<5##-" 1O?= 12&346"@9<<-/0P E?8#D#?80@ =N0#0]OV]=60&*N0%I0#1MV0]@&:<<12&346"@9/:&:<<5')%#M8) #=.3EO0-"CPE1e!0:]=8P+-DPV “D#?#+5')%#]Pb K&86*+,50#0&;PN0&)8EW?DPV9#V1!+E)O',I%&W? ;V05')%#='(=D#?#+12&346"@G&:1A*]PG&:1A*K=`,)8EW?PVIE 6? 8 =K=V 0 E. % M8)1&0='( = D#? 1 %E#+ 1 2&346" @ ]P1/E*+, ;W 6 %I<%.#CPE-/0P 9#V1!+E)]=*0)K/'660&6R-0# 9/:6?8= K=V 0 =+( 6R D #? 1 %E#+ 9 #V 9 -? 1 !+ E )%&'( ) 1P+ E I*+, a /G&:CEO=$ 9 /: 6N 0 D&@0660&9/61G/+, E =@:95P)<*<0**+, 5N 0 %' B ]= 12&346"@M8)#=.3E$ 1!&0:9#VI?0-/0P1Gc=5;0<'=*+,9!&? K/0E#0-'()9-?E%. K"=]K#? 9-?<*<0*M8)#'=6RD#?#06DG6I?0 -'IG&:68<F&&#P0]=O+I"-*0)12&346"@1*?0='(=” CG/'=E+D#?1KR=PVIE6'<G&:1!J+*'2=:*+,#8)6/.?#5')%#]=E.% -V=b K&78G&:I'-"205-&$]=O?I)K#7,=Gd6?8=I?01Gc=1!+E)60&CK#C&) (prelude) M8)G&:I'-"205-&$9K?)%I0#2"I"D/Z$*+,9*V@&")]=E.%M8)1&0 Z`,)1&",#-V=-'()9-?Gd 1776 5#'E*+, 8P'# 5#"F (Adam Smith) 1M+E= (H0 X0+*PH GN '+P-G4, 886#0 1!&0:*' 2 =:1O? = =+( @ :1KR = I? 0 I'_=F&&#*'()K/0EM8)#=.3E$*+, “D#?2"I"D/Z$” 1K/?0=+(/VI=D#?#+%I0# 16+, E IMV 8 )]Pb 6' < 60&*N 0 %I0#1MV 0 ]@G^ B K0-? 0 )b ]=E. % M8)1&0 (Polanyi, 1994: 45) Z`,)I"F+60&96VDM “%I0##+50E-05'(=” ]=60&
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 123 :
#8)1O?==+( 1M01O7,8I?050#0&;*N0DPVCPE60&1O7,8# “G&:I'-"205-&$ 12&346"@6'<#0=.3EI"*E05')%#” 1MV0PVIE6'= (the linking up of economic history with social anthropology) 1!&0:#.##8)1O?==+( @:*N0]KV1&050#0&;!"@0&J05')%#-?0)b 8E?0) “1*?01*+E#6'=” DPV 5",)*+,!`)-&:K='68+6G&:60&K=`,)]=#.##8)9<<CG/'=E+6R%78 1M01O7, 8 ]=%I0#E06*+, @ :1G/+, E =9G/)M8)#=. 3 E$ ]=40=:*+, 1 Gc = “5'-I$5')%#” (the changelessness of man as a social being) 1!&0: “%.J5#<'-"CPEF&&#O0-"M8)#=.3E$='(=@:G&06LM`(=#08+6 8E?0)O'P1@=9=?=8=]=*.6b 5')%# D#?I?0*+,DK= 1#7,8DK&? 9/:1)7,8=DM 1<7( 8 )-V = *+, @N 0 1Gc = 5N 0 K&' < 60&%)8EW? M 8)5' ) %##=. 3 E$ 6R PW 1 K#7 8 =@: D#?1G/+,E=DG” G^BK0@`)8EW?*+,I?0 %I0#E06*+,@:1G/+,E=K&78%I0# D#?1G/+,E=M8)#=.3E$]=40=:*+,1Gc= “5'-I$5')%#” =+( @:G&06L886#0 ]KV1KR=]=1=7(8K0]P1*?0='(= “CPE*',IDG 12&346"@M8)#=.3E$='(=@:@#8EW?]=%I0#5'#!'=F$ *0)5')%#*'()K/0EM8)-'I#=.3E$18) #=.3E$#"DPVG&:![-"DG ]=K=*0)1!7,8G6GH8)a/G&:CEO=$5?I=<.%%/M8)1M0*+,8EW? ]=&W G M8)60&1Gc = 1@V 0 M8)5" = *&' ! E$ * 0)I' - ;. (8' = 1Gc = 5##-"40=M8)*[3\+12&34205-&$5#'E]K#?—aWV8V0)) 9-? #=.3E$@:G&:![-"DG]=K=*0)1!7,8G6GH8)40=:*0)5')%# 5" * F" * 0)5' ) %# 9/:*&' ! E$ 5" = *0)5' ) %#M8)-' I 1M018) #=.3E$@:E8#&'<%.J%?0M8)5"=*&'!E$*0)I'-;.6R-?81#7,85",)=+( &' < ]OV 1 GH 0 K#0EMV 0 )-V = =+( 1 *? 0 ='( = ...Z`, ) ]=6&J+ =+( &:<< 12&346"@@:PN01="=DGPVIE9&)@W)]@*+,D#?]O?12&346"@ (non– economic motives)” (Polanyi, 1944: 46)
: 124 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
]=5' ) %#*+, D #? #+ 5 ;0<' = *+, 1 Gc = 1861*2*+, O' P 1@=-'( ) 8EW? < = 9&)@W)]@*0)12&346"@1O?==+( 5",)*+,&'<G&:6'=60&*N0)0=M8)&:<< 12&346"@ (K&78&:1<+E<]=60&a/"-9/:60&9@6@?0E) %78 K/'660& 9K?)%I0#G&:![-" 2 G&:60&*+,I?0PVIE “reciprocity” (60&167(86W/ Z`,)6'=9/:6'=) 6'< “redistribution” (60&=N0#09@6@?0E]K#?) K/'6 60&M8) “60&167(86W/Z`,)6'=9/:6'=” 5?I=]KB?@:PN01="=DG]=8)%$6& *0)5')%#*+,9<?)-0#1!2 Z`,)6R%78%&8<%&'I1%&78B0-" 5?I=K/'660& M8) “60&=N0#09@6@?0E]K#?” ='(= 5?I=]KB?@:#+a/-?8*.6aWV%=*+,8EW? A0E]=60&G6%&8)M8) “K' I K=V 0 ” E6-' I 8E? 0 )1O? = ]=6&J+ M 8) K/'660& “167(86W/Z`,)6'=9/:6'=” ='(= “60&E')O+!M8)%&8<%&'I 5-&+9/:1PR6 1Gc=K=V0*+,M8)B0-" fg0E9#? 5?I=aWVO0E6R@:]KV!7O*+,P+*+,5.P96?!+,50I=V8)50IM8) 1M09/:%&8<%&'IM8)1F8 a/M8)60&6&:*N01O?==+( 5",)*+,1M0 DPV&'<%78 ‘16+E&-"%.J’ ]=%I0#G&:![-"8'=P+)0#M8)1M0 CPE9*<D#?DPVa/G&:CEO=$*0)I'-;.1Gc=60&-8<9*=1/E 9-?;V01M016+E@%&V0= 5",)*+,@:157,8#15+E1Gc=8E?0)9&66R%78 O7,815+E)M8)1M0 #'=@:1Gc=a/G&:CEO=$96?A&&E09/:<.-& M8)1M0PVIE K06K/'660&M8)60&167(86W/Z`,)6'=9/:6'==+( *N0)0=” (Polanyi, 1944: 47-48) 5?I=]=6&J+M8)K/'660& “=N0#09@6@?0E]K#?” ='(=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 125 :
“a/a/"-5?I=]KB?M8)160:@:;W6=N0#0#8<]KV96?K'IK=V0 Z`,)1Gc=aWV16R<&'630 9-?1=7,8)@066"@6&&#M8)O.#O=*'()K/0E 1Gc=60&e/8) 1-V=&N0 9/:!"F+6&&#87,=b (Z`,)6R@:=N0a/a/"*+,16R<&'630DIV=+(#0<&"CA%) &:<<60&16R<&'630@`)#+%I0# 5N0%'B#06]=5')%#1O?==+(” (Polanyi, 1944: 48) 8=`,) 60&*+,K/'660&9K?)%I0#G&:![-"*'() 2 G&:60&=+(@: 50#0&;5N09P)G&:5"*F"A0!M8)#'=DPVCPED#?@N01Gc=-V8)#+60&<')%'< %I<%.#='(= 5')%#@>1Gc=-V8)#+9<<9a= (patterns) *0)5;0<'=PN0&) 8EW? Z`,)DPV96? “symmetry” (%I0#5##0-&6'=) *+,&8)&'<K/'660& “167(86W/Z`,)6'=9/:6'=” 9/: “centricity” (%I0#1Gc=]@6/0)) *+,&8)&'< K/'660& “=N0#09@6@?0E]K#?” (;V01Gc=60&-+%I0#9<<#0&$6Z"5-$ @:1KR=I?0 60&*+,a/a/"-5?I=]KB?M8)160:;W6=N0#0#8<]KV96?K'IK=V0 1!7,89@6@?0E]K#?='(= #"]O?16"P@069<<9a=%I0#1Gc=]@6/0)M8) O.#O=='(= 9-?16"P@0660&;W6E`P%&8)1805?I=16"=*0)12&346"@M8) O.#O=#08EW?]=60&%&8<%&8)M8)K'IK=V08'=1Gc=aWVG6%&8)) E')#+K/'660&G&:60&*+, 3 8+6G&:60&K=`,)Z`,)CG/'=E+1KR=I?0 DPV 1 %E#+ < *<0**+, 5N 0 %' B ]=G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ =', = %7 8 K/' 6 60&M8) “%&'I1&78=” (householding) 8'=1Gc=K/'660&M8) “60&a/"-1!7,8]KV -=18)]OV58E” (Polanyi, 1944: 53) Z`,)1&0D#?80@<86DPVI?060&a/"1!7,8]KV-=18)]OV58E=+(#+%I0#16?096?6I?060&167(86W/Z`,)6'=9/:6'= 9/:60&=N0#09@6@?0E]K#? 9/:9<<9a=*0)5;0<'=*+,&8)&'<K/'6 60&M8) “%&'I1&78=” =+(6R%78 “autarchy” (60&E')O+!PVIE-=18)) 5&.G 9/VI
: 126 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
“&:<<12&346"@*'()K#P*+,1&0&WV@'6@=6&:*',);`)60&5"(=5.P M8)&:<<SjIP'/ (feudalism) ]=E.C&G-:I'=-6='(= /VI=9/VI 9-? ;W 6 @' P -'( ) CPEK/' 6 60&167( 8 6W / Z`, ) 6' = 9/:6' = 60&=N 0 #0 9@6@?0E]K#? 9/:%&'I1&78= K&78D#?6RCPE60&a5#K/'660& *'() 3 =+(1MV0PVIE6'= K/'660&1K/?0=+(;W6*N0]KV1Gc=5;0<'= CPE%I0#O?IE1K/78M8)8)%$6&*0)5')%#*+,]OV9<<9a=M8) %I0#5##0-&6'= %I0#1Gc=]@6/0) 9/:60&E')O+!PVIE -=18) A0E]-V6&8<=+( 60&a/"-9/:60&9@6@?0E*&'!E$ (goods) 8E?0)#+&:1<+E< @:PN01="=DG]=*?0#6/0)%I0# K/06K/0EM8)9&)@W)]@M8)9-?/:<.%%/*+,;W6fp6f=CPE K/'660&*',IDG9K?)%I0#G&:![-" ]=*?0#6/0)9&)@W)]@ 1K/?0=+( a/G&:CEO=$#"DPV#+%I0#5N0%'B1*?0]P='6 G&:1!J+ 6\K#0E D5E205-&$ 9/:205=0 &? I #6' = O' 6 =N 0 ]KV G^ @ 1@6<. % %/-V 8 )8=. C /#E8#-0#6\9K? ) %I0#G&:![-" Z`,)1Gc=-'IG&:6'=60&*N0)0=M8)1M0]=&:<<12&346"@” (Polanyi, 1944: 54-55) I"F+%"P16+,EI6'< “12&34205-&$” M8)CG/'=E+='<I?09G/6]K#? #06 D#? I? 0 @:#8)@06!I6=+ C 8%/055" 6 K&7 8 !I6#0&$ 6 Z" 5 -$ CPE 1e!0:1#7, 8 %N 0 =` ) I? 0 ]=5#' E ='( = (9/:9#V @ =5#' E =+( ) #+ % I0#1O7, 8 I? 0 1%&7,8)#78M8)I"O012&34205-&$5N0='6 “=+C8%/055"6” 50#0&;=N0#0 G&:E.6-$]OV]=60&I"1%&0:K$5')%#P`6PN0<&&!$DPV 1!&0: “6\M8)60& 95I)K08&&;G&:CEO=$ 5W ) 5. P CPE60&1/7 8 6G^ @ @' E 1%&7, 8 )#7 8 *+, K 0 DPVE06='(= 1Gc=6\*+,]OVDPV6'<*.6E.%5#'E D#?I?06'<5')%#]Pb” I"F+%"P
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 127 :
1O?==+( CPE!7(=40=9/VI6RD#?-?0)DG@06!I6#0&$6Z"5-$*+,1O7,8I?0 *[3\+ I' - ;. =" E #G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ *+, #+ # C=*' 2 =$ K /' 6 b %7 8 9<<I" F+ 6 0&a/" %I0#5'#!'=F$*0)60&a/"- 9/:!/')60&a/"- 50#0&;=N0#0G&:E.6-$ ]OV]=60&I"1%&0:K$5')%#DPV*.65')%# -'()9-?5#'EP`6PN0<&&!$@=;`) G^@@.<'=E'=8=0%CG/'=E+1&+E6I"F+60&*N0%I0#1MV0]@ “12&346"@” 9<<=+(I?0 60&*N0%I0#1MV0]@9<< “formalistic” (E`P-"P6'<&WG9<<) Z`,)1Gc=60& ="E0#%I0#K#0EM8) “12&346"@” -0#-&&6:*+,I?0PVIE%I0#5'#!'=F$ &:KI?0)1GH0K#0E6'<I"F+60& ]=MJ:*+,1M01&+E6I"F+60&*N0%I0#1MV0]@ “12&346"@” -0#9<<M8)1M0I?0 “substantive” (E`P-"P6'<-'I-= 1=7(8K0) Z`,)1Gc=60&="E0#%I0#K#0EM8) “12&346"@” @06%I0# 5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" 9/:&:KI?0)#=.3E$PVIE6'=18) CPE!"@0&J0@0660&5'<1G/+,E= (interchange) &:KI?0)#=.3E$6'< 5A0!9IP/V8#*0)5')%#9/:F&&#O0-"*+,*N0]KV16"PG^@@'E-8<5=8) %I0#-V8)60&*0)I'-;.M8)#=.3E$ 9=? = 8= 5N 0 K&' < -' I aWV 1 M+ E =18)#+ % I0#1KR = 1O? = 1P+ E I6' < CG/' = E+ I? 0 5N 0 K&' < ]=#" -" M 8)*[3\+ “8P+ - ” 60&*N 0 %I0#1MV 0 ]@ “12&346"@” 9<< substantive @:*&)!/')6I?09<< formalistic #06 (*'() 2 9<<=+(1Gc= 2 PV0=M8)="E0#M8)12&346"@*+,1Gc=K=`,)1P+EI) 5?I=60&="E0#I"O012&34205-&$9<< positive 6'< normative *+,1Gc= *+,&WV@'66'=P+='(= 9*V@&")9/VI1Gc=60&="E0#]=1O") formalistic ]=#"-"M8) *[3\+ “G^@@.<'=” 1*?0='(= aWV*+,5=]@2`630G&:I'-"205-&$12&346"@ @`)%I&8E?0)E",)*+,@:S^)*'2=:M8) Polanyi 8E?0)180]@]5?
: 128 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
“-V=-8M8)#C=*'2=$]=1O")-'I-==+(%78 12&346"@]=%I0# 1Gc = @&" ) *+, D PV G &:5<#0 K&7 8 6/? 0 I8+ 6 =' E K=`, ) 1Gc = 6&:<I=60&*+, 6 /0E1Gc = 5;0<' = M8)GL" 5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 ) #=.3E$6'<5A0!9IP/V8# (the economy as instituted process)” (Polanyi, 1968: 145) e:='(= C%&)5&V0)1O")-'I-= (substantive) M8)12&346"@ *+,CG/'=E+15=8]KV=N0#0]OV9*=*+,60&*N0%I0#1MV0]@9<<E`P-"P6'< &WG9<<6R%78 “6&:<I=60&12&346"@” *+,#+8)%$G&:68<*'()*0)PV0= 5')%# 1*%C=C/E+ 9/:="1I2I"*E0=',=18) CPE*+,%N0I?0 “6&:<I=60&” ]=*+,=+(K#0E;`)60&1%/7,8=DKIM8)5",)M8) 8'=DPV96? 60&1G/+,E=9G/) *0)5;0=*+, (1O?= 60&a/"- 60&M=5?)) 9/:60&1G/+,E=9G/)]=60& %&8<%&8) 9-? “6&:<I=60&12&346"@” =+(#"]O?G/0E*0)]=60& I"1%&0:K$*0)12&34205-&$ 9-?1Gc=@.P1&",#-V=1*?0='(= G^BK05N0%'B 8EW? *+, I? 0 @:*N 0 %I0#1MV 0 ]@16+, E I6' < 1=7( 8 K0*+, 6 /0E1Gc = 5;0<' = M8) 6&:<I=60&12&346"@='(=DPV8E?0)D& Z`,)#.##8)1O?==+(1&+E6&V8)60& !"@0&J012&346"@9/:5')%#M8)#=.3EO0-"8E?0)5?I=*'()K#P #"]O? 60&#8)8E?0) “pure economist” 9<<*[3\+12&34205-&$5#'E]K#? K&7860&#8)9<< “economic determinism” (/'*F"12&346"@6N0K=P) K&7 8 40=12&346" @ 6' < C%&)5&V 0 )5? I =<=9<<*[3\+ I' - ;. =" E # G&:I'-2" 05-&$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 129 :
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9-?]=Gd 1937 1M06/'<15=8]KV#+60&GL"I'-"*0)60&1#78)PVIE60& /.6i78-"P80I.FC%?=/V#&:<<M.==0) %I0#/V#1K/I]=60&I"1%&0:K$G^BK0 “/'*F"M.==0)” M8) *&8-56+9/:!&&%!I61&",#-'()9-?60&/P*8=G^BK0 “/'*F"M.==0)” ]KV 1 Gc = 1!+ E )G^ B K0%I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 )6&&#6&6' < O0I=0 Z`, ) 5:*V8=886#0]=60&-?85WVA0E]=!&&%%8##"I="5-$CZ1I+E- CPE*+, ]=Gd 1927 !I61M0*N060&9<?)6&:9560&1#78)A0E]=!&&%8861Gc= 3 6&:95%7 8 (1) 6&:95M8)fg 0 EMI0 Z`, ) DPV &' < 8" * F" ! /@06!I6 O0I=06/0)9/:&IE (2) 6&:95M8)fg 0 EZV 0 E Z`, ) 1Gc = -' I 9*= a/G&:CEO=$M8)!I6O0I=0@=9/:6&&#0O+! 9/: (3) 6&:95M8) fg0E6/0) Z`,)1Gc=aWV6.#8N0=0@A0E]=!&&%9/:&'4 9/:1Gc=-'I9*= a/G&:CEO=$M8)!I6M.==0) 1=7,8)@06!I61M0 (Z`,)5')6'P8EW?]= 6&:95*+,58)) 1KR=I?0 !I66&:95*+,50#=+(#+!7(=40=D#?#',=%) 1!&0: D#?#+O=O'(=&8)&'< e:='(= E.*FI"F+M8)!I61M0%78#.?)60&C@#-+DG*+, fg 0 EMI0 (6&:95*+, K =`, ) ) CPEP` ) fg 0 E6/0)]KV 1 Gc = 6/0) K&7 8 ]KV C=V#18+E)#0*+,fg0EZV0E *'2=:1O?==+(*N0]KV!I61M0D#?80@#8)1KR= I"I'_=060&M8)&:<<60&1#78)9/:&:<<5')%#O="P]K#?*+,6N0/')6?8-'I M`( = ]=5KA0!CZ1I+ E -DPV P' ) ='( = ]=Gd 1928 1#7, 8 6/.? # O0I=0&IE K&78!I6 kulak *N060&-?8-V0=&'4<0/CZ1I+E-CPE60&)P5?)!7Oa/ (5.I"='E, 2524: 152) !I6fg0E6/0)@`)1/"6@'<#786'<fg0EMI01!7,8 C@#-+fg0EZV0E 9-?K'=#0]OV=CE<0E18+E)ZV0E9/:6I0P/V0)!I6fg0E MI09*= 1#7,8;`)-8=='(= !I6fg0EZV0E<0)5?I=A0E]=!&&%1&",# 5WB15+E*"2*0)]=60&-?85WV 9/:K'=DGE8#@N0==6'<!I6fg0E6/0) a/5.P*V0E fg0EM.==0)DPV*N0/0E*'()fg0EMI09/:fg0EZV0E*'()K#P A0E]=!&&% !I6fg0EZV0E@`)1&",#-&:K='6I?0 -'IG^BK0*+,9*V@&")M8) 5')%#CZ1I+E-='(=6R%78&:<<M.==0)*+,#+8"5&:CPE5'#!'*F$=+,18)
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1Gc=1&7,8)=?05/P]@8E?0)E",)*+,9#V1#7,8;`)I0&:5.P*V0EM8)O+I"*&8-56+ 6R E' ) %)G6GH 8 )&' 4 CZ1I+ E -]=40=:*+, 1 Gc = “&' 4 %=)0=” 1=7,8)@06-&&6:*+,I?0 G^@@'E60&a/"-E')1Gc=M8)&'4 *>]KVO=O'(=*+, G6%&8)&'4=+(E')1Gc=O=O'(=%=)0=8EW? CPE*+,!I6M.==0)1Gc=1!+E) “I&&J:8A" 5" * F"Y O =” *+, K? 0 )1K" = @06#I/O=1*? 0 ='( = a/M8)60& G6GH8)&'4CZ1I+E-M8)*&8-56+*N0]KV1M0-V8)5WB15+E1!7,8=&?I#*0) #"-&&?I#&<DG1Gc=@N0=I=D#?=V8E 9-?5.P*V0E9/VI 5",)*+,*&8-56+f^)]@ 6RD#?50#0&;1Gc=%N0-8<96?60&I"1%&0:K$G^BK0 “5')%#="E#” DPV *&8-56+]OV “6&&#5"*F"YM8)&'4” 1Gc=#0-&40=5#<W&J$1!+E)K=`,)1P+EI ]=60&%(>G&:6'= “%I0#1Gc=6&&#0O+!” M8)&'4CZ1I+E- CPE*+,D#?1%E DPV1e/+EI]@1/EI?0 &WG9<<*&'!E$5"=*+,1Gc=M8)&'4=+(9K/:%78&WG9<< *+,1K#0:5#*+,5.P5N0K&'<!I6M.==0)8A"5"*F"YO=*+,@:]OV1Gc=150K/'6 ]=60&G6%&8) !I61&0-V8)&8@=6&:*',)I"--$CS16/#01e/E]= &1-04P+* W0,SGP-,37 5 %G3S+1+P-J0 /PK6U GN (GP+* OGR01 (1957) ;`)DPV&WVI?0]=C/6=+(E')#+5')%#<0)G&:1A**+,1%E#+K/'660& ]=60&G6%&8)5')%#9<<1P+EI6'<CZ1I+E-#09/VI 5')%#*+,I?0='(=%78 “5')%#9<<181O+E” K&78 “5')%#9<<-:I'=886” K&78 “5')%#!/')=(>” !I6#0&$6Z"5-$ “=86%86” 6/.?#87,=*+,D#?1KR=PVIE6'<60& I" 1 %&0:K$ M 8)*&8-56+ 5? I =]KB? /V I =DGa" P *0)*'( ) ='( = 8E? 0 )1O? = Tony Cliff (1948) *+,1KR=I?0 5KA0!CZ1I+E-1Gc= “*.=="E#9K?)&'4” (state capitalism) ;`)9#V1M0@:]OV6\M8)#W/%?0#08F"<0E*.=="E# aW6M0PCPE&'4]=CZ1I+E-I?0#+60&MWP&+Pa/a/"-9&))0=5?I=16"=DPV 6R @ &" ) (Chapter 7) 9-? 1 M06R D #? 8 0@8F" < 0E8E? 0 )1Gc = &:<<;` ) despotic power *+,1Gc=9<< total 9/: not benevolent (Wittfogel, 1957: Chapter 4) M8)5KA0!CZ1I+E-DPV
: 136 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
P')='(= -?8@06=+(1&0@:DG!"@0&J0;`)%I0#%"PM8) %0&$/ I"--$CS16/ ]=40=:*+,1Gc=aWV15=89=I%I0#%"P]K#?*+,6N0/')@:MV0#!V= /'*F"#0&$6Z$ 1!&0:I"--$CS16/1G&+E<15#78=6'< “CG/'=E+” ]=I)60& #0&$6Z"5-$ 5?I=CG/'=E+6R1G&+E<15#78=1Gc= “I"--$CS16/” ]=I)60& 12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6=',=18) ,* >+%'+H%D+'-RGG? #42D8&&ARO!+" I"--$CS16/1Gc=*'()aWV*+,1O+,EIO0B1&7,8)@+=9/:&'51Z+E 8+6*'() 1%E#+8P+-1Gc=#0&$6Z"5-$9/:5#0O"6!&&%%8##"I="5-$1E8&#=+ (1M0 G/+6-'I@06!&&%]=Gd 1939 1!7,8G&:*VI)60&*+,5-0/"=*N05=F"5B ' B0 &?I##786'<i"-1/8&$) &I#*'()1Gc=aWV*+,STo=SW60&]KV%I0#5N0%'B6'<60& 2`630 “I";+60&a/"-9<<181O+E” -'()9-?O?I)6?8=5)%&0#C/6%&'()*+, 2 ;V0#8)@06%I0#e/0PK/')1K-.60&J$ 6RD#?#+]%&1K#0:5#6I?01M0 8+69/VI*+,@:I"1%&0:K$ “5KA0!CZ1I+E-” CPE1G&+E<1*+E<]KV1KR=;`) “181O+E” M8) “G&:1*25')%#="E#” @069)?#.#*+,9*<D#?1%E#+]%&#8) 1KR=#06?8= 9*=*+,I"--$CS16/@:I"1%&0:K$ “5')%#CZ1I+E-” PVIE#&&%I"F+ M8)*[3\+M'(=-8=60&!'_=0*0)12&346"@8'=1Gc=I"F+*+,="E#]OV]= G&:I'-"205-&$12&346"@1K#78=*+,a?0=#0 1M06/'<I"1%&0:K$#'=]= 40=:*+,1Gc= “I'_=F&&#” K=`,)*+,6?8-'IM`(=#0*0)G&:I'-"205-&$ 8'= 1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$C%&)5&V0)]=1O") “G&:1A*” (type) D#?]O?]=1O") “M'(=-8=” (stage) Z`,)60&I"1%&0:K$1O?==+(=N0#05W?60&15=8*'2=:*+,I?0 5')%#CZ1I+E-#"]O? “5')%#="E#” 8'=1Gc=!'_=060&*0)G&:I'-"205-&$ M'(=1K=786I?05')%#*.=="E# 9-?1Gc=5')%#*+,%/+,%/0EA0E]-V<&"<* 6&:95*0)G&:I'-"205-&$M8)G&:1*2&'51Z+E CPE#+%I0#57<1=7,8)9/: 60&57<50E-?8#0@06&:<<Z0&$ (Tsar)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 137 :
8' = *+, @ &" ) #. # #8)1O? = =+( 1 Gc = M8)F&&#P0#065N 0 K&' < =' 6 G&:I'-"205-&$*',Ib DG 9-?1Gc= “1&7,8)*+,16"=%I0#1MV0]@” 5N0K&'<aWV*+, f^)K'I]= “/'*F"#0&$6Z$-1/="=” @.P1G/+,E=9G/)%&'()]KB?]=O+I"-*0) G^BB0M8)I"--$CS16/16"PM`(=]=Gd 1947 1#7,81M08?0=K=')5781&7,8) (H100 XHG V+60 + Q0JG*KP-G4 M8) 1<8&$ 9 *&# P+ . IW / Sn (Bertram D. Wolfe) Z`,)1Gc=K=')57816+,EI6'<O+IG&:I'-"M8)1/="= *&8-56+ 9/:5-0/" = 1=7( 8 K0-8=K=`, ) M8)K=' ) 57 8 1/? # =+( * >]KV I"--$CS16/16"P “PI)-01KR=F&&#” M`(=#0*'=*+*'=]P K/')@06*+,1M0 -V8)*.&=*.&0E-?85WV*0)%I0#%"P1Gc=1I/0=0=6'<%I0#D#?O8<#0 !06/M8)%'#A+&$ “/'*F"#0&$6Z$” ]=5#'E='(=*+,E7=E'=I?0CZ1I+E-1Gc= 5')%#="E# @=]=*+,5.P-V8)G/+6-'I886@06!&&%%8##"I="5-$1E8&#=+ ]=Gd 1939 1=7( 8 K0-8=P' ) 6/? 0 I%7 8 I" I 0*: (debate) &:KI? 0 ) 1/=" = 6' < @8&$ @+ 1!/60=8S (Georgi Plekhanov) ]=*+, G &:O. # 5#'OO0]KB?*+,6&.)5-86Ci/$#M8)!&&%5')%#G&:O0F"GD-E&'51Z+E ]=Gd 1906 1#7,81/="=15=8]KV “60&E`P*+,P"=1Gc=M8)&'4” 1Gc=5?I=K=`,) ]==CE<0EK/'6PV0=163-&6&&#M8)!&&% MJ:*+,1!/60=8SC-V9EV) I?0 60&*N01O?==+(@:6?8]KV16"P8'=-&0EM8) “60&STo=SW6/'<#0M8) /'63J:9<<181O+E” ]=-8=='(= (1906) 1Gc=O?I)*+,a?0=60&GL"I'-" ]=Gd 1905 #0KE6b 1/="=-&:K='6;`)!/')GL"I'-"M8)O0I=0 @`) 8E0615=8%N0MI'B*+,@:50#0&;&:P#!/')M8)!I6O0I=01K/?0=+( #0]OV 1M0@`)15=8%N0MI'BI?0 “]KV&'<*+,P"=M8)1@V0*+,P"=9/:*N0*+,P"=]KV 1Gc=M8)&'4” (6?8=K=V0=+(1/="=15=81!+E)]KV9<?)*+,P"=%7=]KV96?O0I=0 8E? 0 )1Gc = F&&#6' < ]KV ] OV *+, P" = 5? I =K=`, ) 5N 0 K&' < 60&!' _ =0*. = =" E # 1*?0='(=) 5?I=1!/60=8S='(= 9#V1M0@:E8#&'<I?0=CE<0E9<?)*+,P"= %7=]KV96?O0I=0='(=D#?1!+E)!8 9-?6RD#?1KR=PVIE6'<=CE<0EE`P*+,P"= ]KV1Gc=M8)&'4 1K-.a/6R%78 =CE<0EP')6/?0I@:6?8]KV16"PGL"6"&"E0 1!&0:5:*V8=9/:58P%/V8)6'<C%&)5&V0)*0)@"-I"BB0JM8)O0I=0
: 138 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
&' 5 1Z+ E *+, ;W 6 G/W 6 f^ ) 1O" ) G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ *? 0 #6/0)60&G6%&8)9<< “1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886” (Oriental Despotism) Z`,)1O7,8I?0 *+,P"=1Gc=M8)&'4 (M8)63'-&"E$) e:='(= K06MV81&+E6&V8)=+(;W6*N0]KV G&06L1Gc=@&") 80@@:*N0]KV6)/V8G&:I'-"205-&$K#.=6/'< K&7816"P 60&STo=SW&:<8< Oriental Despotism M`(=#0]=&'51Z+E8+66R1Gc=DPV %N 0 !E06&J$ M 8)1!/60=8S9K/#%#D#? 9 !V %N 0 !E06&J$ M 8) *&8-56+ Z`, ) *N 0 =0EI? 0 C%&)5&V 0 )!&&%9<<&I#2W = E$ 8 E? 0 )!&&% <8/1OI"6M8)1/="=@:=N0DG5W?8'=-&0EM8)&:<8<1aPR@60&CPE!&&% 9/:58P%/V8)6'<%I0#1Gc=K?I)M8)1/="=]=O?I)I0&:5.P*V0EM8) O+ I" - 60&-? 8 5WV 1 6+, E I6' < /' 6 3J:9<<G&:1!J+ P'( ) 1P" # *+, 1 Gc = “9<< M.==0)” 1Gc= “9<<181O+E” K&78 “6`,)181O+E” Z`,)16"PM`(=9/:9!&?K/0E *'()A0E]=!&&%9/:&'4<0/K/')60&GL"I'-"1P78=-./0%# 1917 8E?0)D&6RP+ %N0!E06&J$*'()M8)1!/60=8S *&8-56+ 9/: 1/="= -?0)1Gc=15#78=%=-0<8P 3 %=%/N0OV0)-'IK=`,)%=/:-N09K=?) 1*? 0 ='( = %N 0 !E06&J$ M 8)9-? / :%=@` ) E' ) D#? 8 0@]KV %N 0 8&&;0F" < 0E 16+,EI6'<A0!!@=$M8) “OV0)” *+,;W6-V8)DPV A0!!@=$M8) “OV0)” *+, ;W6-V8)9/:5#<W&J$@:G&06LM`(=6R-?81#7,8DPV#+60&&I<&I#9/:*N060& -?85?I=-?0)b M8)A0!1K/?0=+(1MV0PVIE6'=1*?0='(= Z`,)60&-?8A0!=+( -? 8 #0DPV 5N 0 1&R @ /. /? I )PV I Efd #7 8 M8)I" - -$ C S16/]=<*%I0#1&7, 8 ) “Russia and Asia” M8)1M0Z`,)-+!"#!$]= XG1*6 OG*-P-., (Vol. 2, No. 4, July 1950) 1M015=8]KV#+60&9<?)9E6]=1O")#C=*'2=$]KV 9@?#O'P CPE6/?0II?0 “80&EF&&#-:I'=886*+,E",)]KB?M8)C/6E.%C<&0J #+%I0# 9-6-? 0 )M'( = !7( = 40=6' < !' _ =060&M8)E. % 6/0)9/:E. % C<&0J]=*0)-:I' = -6 <*<0**+, 5N 0 %' B M8)60&<&" K 0&
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 139 :
60&163-&M8)&' 4 <0/]=P" = 9P=-:I' = 8861K/? 0 =+( (CPE 1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=60&GH8)6'==(>*?I#9/:60&%I<%.#60& O/G&:*0=M=0P]KB?) *N0]KV@N01Gc=-V8)#+&:<<*+,1PRPM0P ]=60&%I<%.#*0)12&346"@ 60&1#78) 9/:5')%# &'4<0/ M8)5' ) %#9<<-:I' = 886*+, MV 0 !1@V 0 8E06@:1&+ E 6I? 0 1Gc = “5')%#!/')=(>” =+( #+K=V0*+,9-6-?0)DG@06&'4<0/!0J"OE="E#M8)E.C&G*+,1Gc=9<< ‘5#<W&J0B05"*F"Y’ ” (Wittfogel, 1950: 47) I"--$CS16/E')DPVO+(I?0 ]=G&:1PR==+( 5')%#9<<-:I'=8866'< 5')%#CZ1I+E-#+%I0#%/V0E%/`)6'=#06 6/?0I%78 “]=PV0=60&<&"K0&='(= 1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=8866'< 5KA0!CZ1I+ E -#+ @. P *+, % /V 0 E%/` ) 6' = #06 -&)*+, &' 4 <0/*+, 1PRPM0P-V8)<&&/.K=V0*+,]=*0)12&346"@1Gc=5N0%'B E",)DG 6I?0='(= &'4CZ1I+E-E')&.PK=V0DG6I?0&'4M8)5')%#9<<-:I'= 88615+E8+6 CPEPWDPV)?0Eb @06%I0#9-6-?0)*0)1*%C=C/E+ &:KI? 0 )5' ) %#9<<-:I' = 886*+, #+ 6 0&163-&1Gc = K/' 6 6' < 5KA0!CZ1I+E-*+,6N0/')6/0E1Gc=5')%#8.-50K6&&#” (Wittfogel, 1950: 448) ]=6&J+M8)1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886='(= &'4<0/&'< K=V0*+,]=60&PN01="=60&%I<%.#60&O/G&:*0=M=0P]KB? 9-?60& a/"-5?I=]KB?6/'<#8<]KV9-?/:%=DG*N060&1!0:G/W66'=18) CPE&'4
: 140 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
16R<5?IE9*= 5?I=]=5KA0!CZ1I+E-='(= &'4<0/@:*N060&%I<%.#]= M8<1M-*+,6IV0)MI0)6I?060&%I<%.#]=6"@6&&#60&a/"-9/:60&9@6 @? 0 E*+, 5N 0 %' B *'( ) K#P*'( ) ]=A0%8. - 50K6&&#9/:A0%163-&6&&# 60&]OV 6 0&1G&+ E <1*+ E < “G&:1A*M8)5' ) %#” ]=1O" ) 5;0<' = M8) I"--$CS16/#0I"1%&0:K$5')%#CZ1I+E-@:1Gc=5",)*+,D#?5#<W&J$K061&0 1!+E)9-?1G&+E<1*+E<1O")5;0<'=K&781O")O+I"-%I0#1Gc=8EW? (mode of life) M8)5')%#1*?0='(= 1!&0:@&")b 9/VI ]=&'51Z+E*0)PV0=E.C&G D#?1%E#+1/E9#V9-?%&'()1P+EI*+,&'4<0/M8)&'51Z+EPN01="=6"@60&%I<%.# 60&O/G&:*0=M=0P]KB? Z`,);V0!"@0&J08E?0)a"I1a"=1!+E)9%?=+( 6RD#?%I&@'P5')%#&'51Z+E1Gc=G&:1A*K=`,)M8) “5')%#!/')=(>” 9-?;V0 K061&0I"1%&0:K$9<<1G&+E<1*+E<]=1O")!/I'- CPE!"@0&J0@06 C%&)5&V0)*0) “I'_=F&&#” 9/VI E?8#50#0&;@'P5')%#&'51Z+E1Gc= G&:1A*K=`,)M8)&:<8<1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886DPV e:='(= “;V 0 K061&0@N 0 6' P 60&!" @ 0&J01e!0:G&:5<60&J$ M 8) -:I'=-69/VI %N0E7=6&0=M8)5-0/"=*+,6/?0II?0 &'4CZ1I+E1Gc=&WG60&J$]K#?M8)&'4*+,E')D#?1%E#+-V=9<<*0)G&:I'-"205-&$#06?8= 6R@:1Gc=%I0#@&") 9-?;V01&0!"@0&J01G&+E< 1*+E<6'<G&:5<60&J$*0)5;0<'=M8)#=.3EO0-"*'()K#P PW 9 /V I @:!<I? 0 #' = ;W 6 -V 8 )9/:1Gc = I" * E0205-&$ 6 I? 0 *+, @ : E7=6&0=I?0&:<<8N0=0@M8)&'51Z+E]K#? (CZ1I+E-) #+%I0# %/V 0 E%/` ) *0)C%&)5&V 0 )8E? 0 )57 < 50E-? 8 #0@06&:<8< 1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886...9=?=8=I?0#+%I0#1Gc= DGDPV *+, @ :I" 1 %&0:K$ 5' ) %#CZ1I+ E -CPE]OV # 0-&40=M8) -:I'=-6/VI=b 9-?;V0/8)]OVDG9/VID#?=0=='6 1&0@:!<I?0 #C=*'2=$M8)-:I'=-61K/?0=+(D#?1K#0:5# @N01Gc=@:-V8)#+
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 141 :
60&96VDMK&789*=*+,PVIE9=I%"P (category) *+,DPV%N0=`);`) 60&%&8<)N09<<1PRPM0P1<RP15&R@M8)&'49/:<*<0*M8) &'4PVIE Z`,)]=G&:1PR==+( &:<<5;0<'=-?0)b M8)181O+E@:]KV 9)?%"P*+,1Gc=60&O+(9=:*+,P+6I?0M8)-:I'=-6*'()]=E.%C<&0J 9/:SjIP'/1Gc=8E?0)#06” (Wittfogel, 1950: 458) “60&!"@0&J01G&+E<1*+E<6'<G&:5<60&J$*0)5;0<'=M8) #=.3EO0-"*'()K#P” %78#.##8)]K#?*+,aWV1M+E=1KR=I?0@:50#0&;MV0# !V=/'*F"#0&$6Z$ (Z`,)#+!7(=40=#0@06 “60&!"@0&J01G&+E<1*+E<6'< G&:5<60&J$ * 0)5;0<' = M8)E. C &G-:I' = -6”) ]=5? I =*+, 1 6+, E I6' < *[3\+ “8P+-” 9/:1Gc=5",)1O7,8#I"--$CS16/6'<CG/'=E+1MV0PVIE6'= aWV1M+E=1KR=I?0 =+,1Gc=#.##8)]K#?*+,@:50#0&;MV0#!V=M+P @N06'P]=60&I"1%&0:K$5')%#D*E9<<#0&$6Z"5-$DPVPVIE CPE60&K'=DG G&:1#"=K&785')1%&0:K$)0=1M+E=O"(=5N0%'Bb 16+,EI6'<60&I"1%&0:K$ 5')%#D*E5#'E6?8= 8E?0) 54.-04P /-+30,0 [GJ014304P +46 563-4-,P1+P-G4 (1965) M8) 18O. @+ . %I8&" - O$ 1I/5$ (H. G. Quaritch Wales), (H0 &1Z+4-f+P-G4 GN (H+- /G.-0PU -4 PH0 $+1*U c+4ZYGY O01-G6F 1782=1873 (1969) M8) #.&.I.8%"= &!+!'_=$ (Akin Rabibhadana), A#820(.'06,+I<G'+0GF:#&O/=51"(2##$<BC 25 (!.2. 2523) M8) O'E 1&78)2"/Gn, %&101E#I>#= (!.2. 2505) M8) M@& 5.M!0="O, #8::I>#=H1'06,+I<G >8"8 2411=2453 (!.2. 2526) M8) GjE:e'-& Gj-:I&&J PVIE#.##8)]K#?MV0)-V= 1&0%)@: DPV “A0!” M8)5')%#D*E5#'EG^@@.<'=*+,-?0)DG@069)?#.#1P"# (*+,1Gc= 9<<#0&$6Z"5-$/VI=b) 9/:DPV9=I*0)]K#?]=60&96VDMG^BK0M8) 5')%#D*E]=5#'EG^@@.<'=*+,9-6-?0)DG@069)?#.#1P"#PVIE
: 142 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
*N 0 D#1&0@` ) 6/? 0 II? 0 #. # #8)]K#? *+, 1 5=8CPEI" - -$ C S16/ 50#0&;MV0#!V=*[3\+I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$M8)#0&$6Z$DPV? A#8/&#7#/ I" - -$ C S16/D#? 1 KR = PV I E6' < K/' 6 *[3\+ M 8) I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$*+,]OV “6&&#5"*F"Y” 1Gc=-'I6/0)]=60&6N0K=P O=O'(=G6%&8)M8)5')%#='(= ]=<**+, 8 1&7,8) Classes in hydraulic society ]= Section A. K'IMV8 The need for a new sociology of class M8)K=')578 &1-04P+* W0,SGP-,3 (1957) 8'=1Gc=)0=O"(=186 M8)1M0 6/?0IDIVI?0 “60&I"1%&0:K$1O")5;0<'=5#'E]K#?16"PM`(=]=5')%#*+,6?8-'I M`(=#0CPE1)7,8=DM-?0)b M8)6&&#5"*F"Y P')='(= ='6I"O060& aWV<.61<"6PV0=5')%#I"*E05#'E]K#?16+,EI6'<O=O'(= @`)@'P9<?) 6/.?#O=K/'6b M8)5')%#-0#&WG60&J$K/'6M8)6&&#5"*F"Y 5?I=<.%%/9/:G&:1A*M8)&0EDPV” (Wittfogel, 1957: 301) ;V0#8)@06*'2=:1O?==+( -'I9*=M8)&'4<0/@:8EW?]=40=: &8)b 9/:1Gc=1!+E)aWV1Gc=G061Gc=15+E)]KV96?O=O'(=aWV#+6&&#5"*F"Y *+,1Gc=O=O'(=G6%&8)1*?0='(= CPE*+,-'I&'4<0/K&78-'IMV0&0O60&18) D#?50#0&;1Gc=O=O'(=G6%&8)DPV 9-?I"--$CS16/6/'<1KR=I?0*'2=: 1O?==+(D#?1Gc=@&")15#8DG]=*.65')%# *'()=+(1!&0: “60&1-"<C-M8)&'4<0/M=0P]KB?]=G&:1*28.-50K6&&# 5#'E]K#?@N0=I=#06 9/:60&G&06L-'IM8)&'41aPR@60& 9<<1<RP15&R@]=5KA0!CZ1I+E-9/:1E8&#=+ *N0]KV1&0-V8)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 143 :
-&:K=' 6 ;` ) <*<0*M8)8N 0 =0@&' 4 ]=40=:*+, 1 Gc = G^ @ @' E 6N0K=PC%&)5&V0)*0)O=O'(=*+,5N0%'B*'()]=G^@@.<'=9/:]= 8P+- 9/:MV81*R@@&")1K/?0=+(E')*N0]KV1&0-&:K='68E?0)O'P9@V) M`(=6I?01P"#;`)%I0#5N0%'BM8)8N0=0@]=60&5;0G=0O=O'(= G6%&8)M`(=]=5')%#!/')=(>8+6PVIE” (Wittfogel, 1957: 302) 60&180-&&6:M8) “5')%#I"*E0I?0PVIE6&&#5"*F"Y” *+,]OVDPV ]=60&I" 1 %&0:K$ O =O'( = M8)5' ) %#-:I' = -6#0]OV ] =60&I" 1 %&0:K$ O=O'( = M8)5' ) %#-:I' = 886 9*=*+, @ :]OV - &&6:M8) “5' ) %#I" * E0 I?0PVIE8N0=0@” 80@=N0DG5W? “%I0#K/)a"P*0)-&&6:” DPV A#8/&#<BC'56 @+. 98/. 8'/1#= (G. L. Ulmen) aWV1M+E= (H0 /.-04.0 GN /G.-0PU7 (GR+16 +4 )4601,P+46-4Z GN PH0 a-N0 +46 XG1Y GN b+1* 5KZK,P X-PPNGZ0* (1978) DPV15=8*'2=:*+,=?05=]@I?0 %I0#%"PM8)I"--$CS16/1Gc=%I0#%"P*+,!'_=057<1=7,8)50=-?8@06 G&:1!J+ * 0)%I0#%" P M8)=' 6 %" P *0)5' ) %#O0I1E8&#' = *+, E", ) ]KB? 2 %=%78 %0&$/ #0&$6Z$ 6'< #'6Z$ 1I1<8&$ (Max Weber) CPE1e!0: 8E? 0 )E", ) %I0#%" P M8)I" - -$ C S16/aW 6 !' = 6' < 1K-. 6 0&J$ * 0) G&:I'-"205-&$C/6]=2-I&&3*+, 20 8E?0)/`6Z`() 9-?%I0#%"PM8) I" - -$ C S16/E06*+, % =F&&#P0@:1MV 0 ]@ 1!&0:1M0!E0E0#!W P ;` ) G^ @ @. <' = CPE*N 0 60&I" 1 %&0:K$ 8 P+ - 1M06/? 0 I;` ) 181O+ E 1!7, 8 EV 8 =#0 *<*I=E. C &G (-:I' = -6) 1M0G&:J0#/' * F" % 8##" I =" 5 -$ 9 -? M 8< !&:%.J#0&$6Z$ (@06 Preface) 9-?1M01K#78=#0&$6Z$9/:1I1<8&$ -&)*+,1Gc= “%==86” (outsider) ]=E.%5#'EM8)1M0
: 144 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#0&$6Z$#+O+I"-9/:1M+E=)0=]=E.%*+,&:<<*.=="E#9/:5')%# 6&:\q#!+1&",#6?8-'I9/:6N0/')1@&"B1-"<C- 9-?]KV%I0#5=]@181O+E9/: 5?I=87,=M8)C/61!+E)G&:G&0E1*?0='(= 5?I=1I1<8&$Z`,)1Gc=='62`630 1#7,8#0&$6Z$15+EO+I"- #+O+I"-9/:1M+E=)0=]=O?I)5.PE8PM8)&:<< *.=="E#9/:5')%#6&:\q#!+ 9#V1I1<8&$@:#+*'2=:*+,-?0)@06#0&$6Z$ 9-?6R#+%I0#5=]@1K#78=6'= 6&:='(= 1I1<8&$6R1&+E=&WV@06#0&$6Z$ D#?=V8E 9#V1M0@:2`6301O")1G&+E<1*+E<6'<181O+E#066I?0#0&$6Z$ 6R-0# 9-? “-:I'=-6” 6RE')1Gc=]@6/0)M8)%I0#5=]@9/:)0=1M+E= M8)1M08EW?P+ 1#7,81I1<8&$15+EO+I"-/) MJ:='(=I"--$CS16/E')1Gc= ='62`6308EW? 1M01&",#-V=O+I"-*0)G^BB0@0660&I"!063$*.=="E#9/: 5')%#6&:\q#!+ 9/:K'=#02`630181O+E1!7,8I"1%&0:K$1G&+E<1*+E< 1O?=1P+EI6'<#0&$6Z$9/:1I1<8&$ 9-?1M0-?0)6'<#0&$6Z$9/:1I1<8&$ -&)*+, “181O+E” K&78 “-:I'=886” 1Gc=]@6/0)M8)%I0#5=]@9/: )0=1M+ E =M8)1M0 *'( ) =+( 1 =7, 8 )@069&)P/]@@061K-. 6 0&J$ * 0) G&:I'-"205-&$C/6]=2-I&&3*+, 20 =',=%78 “60&-6-,>/)M8)-:I'= -6” (the decline ot the west) 9/: “60&-7,=-'I” M8)&'51Z+E9/: 181O+E (CPE60&GL"I-' )" (1978: 1-2) 8'/1#=6/?0II?0 I"--$CS16/1Gc=aWVK=`,)*+,*V0*0E5')%#205-&$ *+,;78E.C&G1Gc=]@6/0) (European-centered social science) CPE GL"15F8E?0)5"(=1O")-?8%I0#%"P*+,1KR=I?0@:50#0&;1MV0]@C/6*'()K#P CPE1e!0:5?I=*+,1&+E66'=I?0C/6*+,50# DPV]=1*8#M8)60&!'_=0M8) 5')%#-:I'=-6 9#V@:#+='6%"P&.?=6?8=@N0=I=#061%E2`630 “5')%# 9<<-:I'=886” 9-?1M01Gc=%=9&6*+,DPVE6&:P'<I"*E40=:M8)60& I"1%&0:K$ “5')%#9<<-:I'=886” ]KV5W)M`(=1*+E<1*?060&I"1%&0:K$ “5')%#6&:\q#!+” M8)#0&$6Z$9/:1I1<8&$ CPE1M0DPV5&V0)#C=*'2=$ 9/:I"1%&0:K$ “181O+E” ]=1O")&WG9<<5;0<'=8E?0)&8<PV0= (total
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 145 :
institutional pattern of Asia) =',=%78 60&I"1%&0:K$*'()1)7,8=DM*0) F&&#O0-" 12&346"@ 9/:5')%# &I#*'()%I0#5'#!'=F$M8)5",)1K/?0=+( 6'<C%&)5&V0)*0)60&1#78) (1978: 3) A#8/&#<BC'&+ I"--$CS16/1KR=I?0 5'@!@=$ (proposation) M8)*[3\+ I' - ;. =" E #G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ Z`, ) I" 1 %&0:K$ 5' ) %#CPE9<? ) 12&346"@1Gc=40=6'<9<?)5?I=*+,1K/781Gc=C%&)5&V0)5?I=<=*+,-'()8EW? <=40=9/:;W 6 6N 0 K=PM'( = *V 0 E5. P CPE40=12&346" @ ='( = #" D PV 1 Gc = 5'@!@=$*',IDG 1!&0:!I6#0&$6Z"5-$E`P#',=-"P8EW?6'<5'@!@=$=+( @`) *N 0 ]KV D #? 8 0@I" 1 %&0:K$ 5' ) %#CZ1I+ E -1Gc = 8E? 0 )87, = DPV = 86@06 “&' 4 %=)0=*+,;W6*N0]KV-6-,>/)CPE&:<<M.==0)” ]=MJ:*+,I"--$CS16/ 1KR=I?0 ]=5')%#9<<181O+E='(= &'4#"DPV1Gc= “C%&)5&V0)5?I=<=” 9-? 1Gc=5?I=G&:68<*+,5N0%'B*+,5.PM8) “40=” 1/E*+1P+EI 9/:-'IM.==0) 6R#"DPV1Gc=-'I9*=*0)60&1#78)M8)#W/=0EM8)5')%#*+,%I<%.#G^@@'E 60&a/" - 9/:5? I =16" = *0)12&346" @ *+, a /" - DPV 9-? ! I61M0=+, 9 K/: *+,1Gc=-'I#W/=0E15+E18) EW805: *01%C8: (Yuasa Takeo) aWV1M+E= b$Ig5IMI'= Q)I[5b)='&=M&/$(/) (A%+:<2.3&+&1S$G2.<G&!"#$%/.?) (1983) DPV5&.G*'2=:M8)I"--$CS16/MV0)-V= CPE*N0]KV1Gc=5'@!@=$ *',IDG P')-?8DG=+(%78 9*=*+,@:I"1%&0:K$5')%#CPE9<?)8861Gc=40= 6'<C%&)5&V0)5?I=<=1K#78=*[3\+I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$ %I&@: !" @ 0&J05' ) %#K=`, ) b ]=40=:*+, 1 Gc = &:<<I' _ =F&&# (cultural system) 8'=K=`,) Z`,)&:<<I'_=F&&#@:G&:68<M`(=#0@06&:<<E?8E (sub-system) K/0Eb 8'=*+,5?)a/5:1*78=Z`,)6'=9/:6'= (1O?= &:<< 12&346"@ &:<<60&1#78) &:<<205=0 &:<<%&8<%&'I) 5",)*+,1Gc= -'I6N0K=PC%&)5&V0)M8)&:<<I'_=F&&#6R%78 1)7,8=DM*+,6?8-'IM`(=#0 *0)G&:I'-"205-&$ Z`,)@:-V8)!"@0&J08E?0)1Gc=&WGF&&# (*+,5N0%'B%78
: 146 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1)7, 8 =DM*0)F&&#O0-" 1)7, 8 =DM*0)12&346" @ 9/:1)7, 8 =DM*0) 5;0<'=) 1K-.*+,]OV&:<< “I'_=F&&#” #01Gc=#C=*'2=$K/'69*=*+, “9<<I";+60&a/"-” 6R1!&0:I?0%N0=+(E7PKE.?=6I?0 %&8<%/.#6I?0 9/: D#?#+e'=*0%-"-?812&346"@ (60&a/"-) #06@=16"=DG A#8/&#<BC 'BC 1#7, 8 1KR = PV I E6' < *' 2 =:*+, I? 0 1&0D#? 8 0@5&V 0 ) “*[3\+*',IDG” 5N0K&'<60&I"1%&0:K$5')%##=.3EO0-"8E?0)1Gc=M'(= -8=*0)G&:I'-"205-&$1K#78=8E?0)*+,*[3\+I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$ 15=8 Z`,)1Gc=60&!"@0&J09<< formalistic I"F+60&2`6305')%# #=. 3 EO0-" *+, 1 Gc = DGDPV 6R 1 K/7 8 9%? 6 0&I" 1 %&0:K$ C PE1G&+ E <1*+ E < (comparative analysis) 8'=1Gc=60&!"@0&J09<< substantive 1*?0='(= 60&I" 1 %&0:K$ C PE1G&+ E <1*+ E <]=*+, =+( K #0E;` ) 60&1G&+ E < 1*+E<C%&)5&V0)*0)AII"5'EM8)5')%# O=O0-" K&78I'_=F&&#-?0)b M8)#=.3EO0-" CPE2`630/'63J:&?I#9/:/'63J:-?0)b M8)9-?/: I'_=F&&# 9/VI=N0#0@'PK#IPK#W?]KV1Gc= “G&:1A*” I"F+60&2`630 9<<=+(-'()8EW?<=60&E8#&'<]=%I0#K/06K/0EM8)C%&)5&V0)5')%# %I0#K/06K/0EM8) “@"-I"BB0J” (ethos) %I0#K/06K/0EM8) I'_=F&&# %I0#K/06K/0EM8)O=O0-"*+,1Gc=aWV9<6&'<1=7(8K0*+,1Gc= -'I-=M8)I'_=F&&#9/:M8)5;0=60&J$M8)C/6G^@@.<'= @069)?#.# M8)%I0#M'P9EV) 60&6/7= 60&9a?8"*F"!/ 60&G:*:G&:50=*0) I'_=F&&# ;V09<?)G&:1A*M8)5')%##=.3EO0-"-0#&:<<I'_=F&&# 1*?0*+,a?0=#0 #=.3EO0-"DPV1aO"B (K&786N0/')@:1aO"B) 6'<G&:1A* M8)5' ) %#]KB? b 1!+ E ) 4 G&:1A*1*? 0 ='( = %7 8 1) hunting and gathering society 2) agricultural society 3) industrial society 9/: 4) information society 50#G&:1A*9&61Gc = 5' ) %#*+,
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 147 :
#=.3EO0-"DPV1aO"B#09/VI 5?I=G&:1A*5.P*V0E1Gc=5')%#*+,#=.3E$ 6N0/')@:1aO"B]=2-I&&3K=V0 9/:%I0#M'P9EV)K/'6M8)C/6*+,DPV 1aO"B9/:6N0/')1aO"B8EW?-/8P2-I&&3*+, 20 =+(6R%78%I0#M'P9EV) &:KI?0)5')%#8.-50K6&&#9<< “-:I'=-6” *+,#+5K&'481#&"601Gc= K'IC@6 6'<5')%#8.-50K6&&# “-:I'=886” *+,#+5KA0!CZ1I+E-1Gc= K'IC@6=',=18) *'2=:9<<186="E#8E?0))?0Eb M8) “60&-?85WV*0) O=O'(=” E?8#D#?50#0&;8F"<0E%I0#Z'<ZV8=M8)%I0#M'P9EV)-?0)b *+, #+ 8 EW? ] =G^ @ @. <' = DPV 1O? = %I0#M' P 9EV ) &:KI? 0 )8" K &? 0 =6' < 8" &' 6 <*<0*8"*F"!/M8)205=08"5/0#]=60&1#78)5#'E]K#? 1Gc=-V= A#8/&#<BCDL& 1)7,8=DM*0)F&&#O0-"1Gc=G^@@'EK=`,)*+,5N0%'B #06 (1)7,8=DM@N01Gc=) ]=60&6N0K=P&:<<I'_=F&&#K=`,)b ]=MJ: *+,*[3\+I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$!E0E0#E7=6&0=;`)/'63J:-?81=7,8) M8)F&&#O0-"6'<5')%#]=40=:*+,1%/7,8=DKIDG-0#6\M8)I"A03I"F+ 1K#78=6'= K&786/?0I8+6='EK=`,)%78 !E0E0#E6&:P'< “15;+E&A0!” M8)%I0#1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5')%#]KV1*?06'< “15;+E&A0!” M8)%I0# 1G/+, E =9G/)M8)F&&#O0-" 9=I%" P 9<<]K#? 6 /' < 1KR = I? 0 &:<< I' _ =F&&#6' < &:<<F&&#O0-" ='( = 8EW? % =/:#" -" 6' = D#? 8 0@=N 0 #0 1G&+ E <1*+ E <6' = DPV 9-? 5", ) =+( #" D PV K #0E%I0#I? 0 “I' _ =F&&#” 6' < “F&&#O0-"” D#?5'#!'=F$6'=1/E 1!&0:;V0D#?#+&:<<F&&#O0-"PN0&)8EW? &:<<I'_=F&&#6R16"PM`(=D#?DPV 9-?9#V@:1Gc=1O?=='(= &:<<I'_=F&&#6R#"DPV1Gc=6&:<I=60& *0)F&&#O0-" 9-?1Gc=C/6M8)5'B/'63J$ Z`,)]=C/6M8)5'B/'63J$ =+( A030M8)#=.3E$#+<*<0**+,5N0%'B#06 ]=40=:*+,1Gc=-'I5:5# M? 0I50& a5#a50=M?0 I50& “feedback” M? 0I50& 9/:;? 0E*8P M?0I50& 1Gc=-V= “C%&)5&V0)” M8)5'B/'63J$9<<=+(1Gc=/'63J:&?I# M8)%I0#1Gc=#=.3EO0-" ]=MJ:*+,&:<<I'_=F&&#]=40=:*+,1Gc=
: 148 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
&:<<5' B /' 6 3J$ *+, 1 Gc = 1861*26/' < #+ /' 6 3J:*+, 1 Gc = 186/' 6 3J$ 1e!0:-'I (D#?1K#78=6'=) 1!&0:e:='(= G&:I'-"205-&$M8)5')%# K=`,)b 6R%786&:<I=60&M8)60&6/0E1Gc=186/'63J$1e!0:-'I (*0) I'_=F&&#) M8)5')%#='(==',=18) CPEG^@@'E5N0%'BZ`,)5?)a/5:1*78= -?86&:<I=60&=+(6R%78&:<<I'_=F&&#6?8=K=V0=+(M8)5')%#='(=6'< G^@@'E*0)F&&#O0-"9/:G&:I'-"205-&$ 60&!<6'=&:KI?0)&:<< I' _ =F&&#K=`, ) b 6' < 1)7, 8 =DM (5A0!9IP/V 8 #) *0)F&&#O0-" (AW#"205-&$) ='(=1Gc=5",)<')18"B 9/:%I0#<')18"B=+(18)*+,*N0]KV16"P 186/'63J$1e!0:-'IM8)&:<<I'_=F&&#='(= I"--$CS16/6/?0II?0 “#=.3E$D#?1%EKE.PE'()*+,@:5?)a/5:1*78= -?85A0!F&&#O0-"*+,9IP/V8#-'I1M0 1M01G/+,E=9G/)#'=8EW?-/8P 1I/0 9/:*N0]KV16"P!/')]K#?M`(=#0 1#7,8%I0#!E0E0#M8)1M0=N01M0 DG5W?&:P'<]K#?M8)60&GL"<'-"60& &:P'<]K#?@:<&&/.K&78D#? K&781#7,8 <&&/. 9 /V I #' = @:=N 0 DG5W? *" 2 *0)DK=='( = A#8/&#7#/ M`( = 8EW? 6' < &:1<+E<*0)5;0<'= (institutional order) A#8/&#<BC'56 M`(=8EW?6'< 1GH 0 K#0EM'( = 5. P *V 0 EM8)6" @ 6&&#='( = 8' = 1Gc = C/6*0)60EA0! 1%#+A0! 9/:O+IA0! *+,1M050#0&;@:1MV0;`)DPV (Wittfogel, 1957: 11) 1#7,81Gc=1O?==+( &:<<I'_=F&&#6'<&:<<F&&#O0-"@`)D#?@N01Gc= -V8)58P%/V8)6'=15#8DG 1#7,8]P6R-0#*+,5')%##=.3E$1801G&+E<K&78 1&+E6&V8)@06F&&#O0-"#06@=16"=DG 1#7,8='(=F&&#O0-"6R@: “96V 9%V=” -?85')%##=.3E$PVIE-&&6:M8)#'=8E?0)E06*+,@:K/+61/+,E)DPV ;V0#8)@06#0-&40=M8)-'I&:<<F&&#O0-"18)9/VI &:<<I'_=F&&# #+%I0##',=%)K&78#+15;+E&A0!=V8E6I?0#06 P')='(= G&:I'-"205-&$ M8)#=.3EO0-"@`)1Gc=5",)*+,K?0)D6/1K/7816"=@06 “%I0#1Gc=8EW?” 9-? 1Gc=1!+E)60&/8)a"P/8);W66/'<DG6/'<#0Z(>9/VIZ(>1/?0 9/:6RE') D#?&WV8=0%-M8)I'=!&.?)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 149 :
AW#"G^BB0*+,1&0-V8)60&]=E.%G^@@.<'=@`)#"]O?%I0#%"P]=9=I -'()9<<D#V15+E</W6O"(=*+,@:=N0#=.3E$]KVK/.P!V=@06=&6-&)P",)DGM`(= 5I&&%$ (9<<I'-;.="E#G&:I'-"205-&$) 9-?1Gc=%I0#%"P]=9=I=8= *+, ! E0E0#%V = K05", ) ]K#? b @065. P M8<SH 0 6IV 0 )D6/ 9/V I *N 0 60& -+%I0#8&&;0F"<0E#'=]KV1Gc=&:<< AW#"G^BB09<<=+(@`)-V8)60& %I0#E7 P KE.? = *0)%I0#%" P 9/:%I0#!E0E0#]=60&G&' < -' I 18) ]KV 5 8P%/V 8 )6' < MV 8 1*R @ @&" ) ]K#? b *+, 1 !", ) ;W 6 %V = !<8EW? - /8P1I/0 AW#"G^BB09<<=+(@`)]KV%I0#5=]@6'<60&<&"K0& 60&G&'<G&.)&:<< (*+,#+60&PN0&)8EW?8E?0)K/06K/0EM8)&:<<I'_=F&&#9<<16?0b) #066I?0*+,@:#.?)C%?=/V#&:<<*+,#+%I0#K/06K/0E 9/VI9*=*+,PVIE &:<<I'_=F&&#1!+E)K=`,)1P+EI*+,@:#0%&8<)N0&:<<I'_=F&&#*+, 1K/78*'()K#P CPE#+1GH0K#0EG/0E*0)8EW?*+,60&5&V0)80&EF&&#]K#? *+,P+6I?0 “*.=="E#” 9/: “%8##"I="5-$” -* >@26en8a5 Ae7"!8673? +15+%'D8!='%-0A*12=$F>Q Ulmen (1978: Chapter 15) DPV1G&+E<1*+E<C%&)5&V0)M8) &:<<*[3\+ “Oriental Despotism” M8)I"--$CS16/6'< “Capital” M8)#0&$6Z$DIV8E?0)=?05=]@P')-?8DG=+( “8)%$G&:68<M8)60&I"1%&0:K$]=1O") system *'()GI)@:;W6 6N 0 K=PCPE1GH 0 K#0EM8)#' = 5", ) =+( 1 Gc = @&" ) *'( ) Oriental Despotism M8)I"--$CS16/ 9/: Capital M8)#0&$6Z$ ]= 6&J+M8)#0&$6Z$ 1GH0K#0EM8)1M08EW?*+,60&I"@0&J$5')%# G^@@.<'= 1M0@`)#.?)DG*+,60&8F"<0Ea/M8)#'= CPE1=V=60& 8F"<0EDG*+,6/D69/:C%&)5&V0)M8)I";+60&a/"-9<<*.=="E#
: 150 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#066I? 0 *+, @ :1=V = DG*+, 6 0&8F" < 0E-V = -8M8)5' ) %# (8.-50K6&&#) -:I'=-6 5?I=1GH0K#0EM8)I"--$CS16/='(= 8EW?*+,60&8F"<0E-V=-89/:C%&)5&V0)M8)5')%# (!/')=(>) -:I'=886 1M0@`)1=V=DG*+,60&8F"<0E6/D6*0)5')%#*+,*N0]KV 16"P9/:!E.) “I";+60&a/"-9<<181O+E” P')='(= 60&I"1%&0:K$ M8)#0&$6Z$1Gc=60&%/+,%/0E@06G^@@.<'=DG5W?8P+- CPE*+,60& I"1%&0:K$5')%#6?8=8.-50K6&&#1Gc=1!+E)a/!I)M8)60& I" @ 0&J$ 5' ) %#G^ @ @. <' = 1*? 0 ='( = 5? I =60&I" 1 %&0:K$ M 8) I"--$CS16/6/'<%/+,%/0E@068P+-DG5W?G^@@.<'= CPE*+,60& I" @ 0&J$ 5' ) %#G^ @ @. <' = 1Gc = a/!I)M8)60&I" 1 %&0:K$ 5' ) %# 6?8=8.-50K6&&#M8)1M01*?0='(=” (Ulmen, 1978: 356) <**+, 1 M8) &1-04P+* W0,SGP-,3 I? 0 PV I E “/' 6 3J: 9IP/V8#*0)F&&#O0-"M8)5')%#!/')=(>” (The Natural Setting of Hydraulic Society) !WP;`)1)7,8=DM*0)F&&#O0-"9/:="1I2I"*E0]= 5')%#9<<181O+E (5')%#-:I'=886) CPE1e!0:<*<0*M8)=(>@06 9)?#.#M8)%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)#=.3E$6'<F&&#O0-" “1#7, 8 1G&+ E <1*+ E <6' < 1)7, 8 =DM*0)F&&#O0-" *+, @N 0 1Gc = 87, = b *'()K#P]=60&163-& =(>#+/'63J:!"1236I?0]%& 8.JKAW#" 9/:a" I P" = 1Gc = 5", ) *+, 1 6" = 6I? 0 60&6&:*N 0 8' = #+ M+ P @N 0 6' P M8) #=.3E$@:1MV0DG%I<%.#DPV 9-?=(>#"]O?5",)*+,8EW?5.P187(8#16"= 6I?0@:8EW?]=%I0#%I<%.#M8)#=.3E$ 60&1MV0DG1Gc=fg0E 6&:*N0-?8F&&#O0-"9/:5&V0)!/')]K#?b M`(=#0 (]=6&J+=+(
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 151 :
%7860&%I<%.#=(>) E?8##+a/-?8&:1<+E<*0)5;0<'=M8) 5')%#='(=” (Wittfogel, 1967: 15) <**+, 2 I?0PVIE “12&346"@!/')=(>—12&346"@60&1#78)9<< %I<%. # M=0=9*V ” (Hydraulic Economy—A Managerial and Genuinely Political Economy) !W P ;` ) %I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 ) 12&346"@6'<5')%# CPE1e!0:1&7,8)60&9<?))0= 60&6?85&V0) 9/: 205-&$-?0)b *+,-0##0!&V8#b 6'<60&%I<%.#=(> “;V 0 PW ] =&W G 9<<M8)60&<&" K 0& (operational form) 60&163-&*+,]OV!/')=(>#+%I0#%/V0E%/`)6'<8.-50K6&&# K='61Gc=8E?0)#06 1!&0:6"@6&&#*0)12&346"@M8)*'()58) 9<<1Gc = 60&-&:1-&+ E #1!7, 8 6&:<I=60&a/" - M'( = *V 0 E5. P (the ultimate processes of production) *'()58)9<<DPV -&:1-&+E#%=)0=9/:I'-;.*+,@N01Gc=1!7,86&:<I=60&a/"M'(=*V0E5.P=+( 9/:*'()58)9<<E')1Gc=)0= ‘K='6’ *'()%W?PVIE” (Wittfogel, 1967: 27-28) “8N0=0@M8)&'4!/')=(>*+,#+-?89&))0=6R#+#066I?0M8)<&&3'* 9<<*. = =" E #]Pb...aWV G 6%&8)M8)5' ) %#!/' ) =( > DPV <' ) %' < ]KV ! I6D!&? I' E e6&&@$ *N 0 )0=1!7, 8 !I61M0a? 0 =60&16Jl$ 9&))0=” (Wittfogel, 1967: 47)
: 152 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
<**+, 3 I? 0 PV I E “&' 4 *+, * &)!/' ) 6I? 0 5' ) %#” (A State Stronger than Society) !WP;`)%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)&'46'<5')%# CPE1e!0:8N0=0@]=60&@'P-'() 60&E`P1Gc=6&&#5"*F"YM8)&'4*+,*N0]KV 6&&#5"*F"Y186O=]=5')%#!/')=(>8?8=98 “&' 4 !/' ) =( > 1Gc = &' 4 %I<%. # (managerial state) 8E? 0 ) 9*V@&")...&'4=+(*N060&M'PMI0)6/.?#!/')M8)5')%#*+,D#?]O?!I6 &'4<0/ (non-governmental forces) #"]KV&I#-'I-6a/`6 1Gc=8)%$6&8"5&:*+,#+%I0#1MV#9MR)1!+E)!8*+,@:;?I)P./9/: %I<%.#6/D6*0)60&1#78)DPV” (Wittfogel, 1967: 49) K&786/?0I8+6='EK=`,)%78 “1#78)” ]=5')%#!/')=(> 1Gc==%& *+,1Gc=*+,-'()M8)!&:&0O5N0='6K&78!&:&0OI')#066I?0@:1Gc= “1#78)” ]=%I0#K#0EM8)E.C&G*+,#+60&G6%&8)-=18)CPEO0IG&:O0 K&78 civil society (G&:O05')%#) <**+, 4 I? 0 PV I E “8N 0 =0@1aPR @ 60&9<<1<R P 15&R @ 9/:D&V 1#--0” (Despotic Power—Total and Not Benevolent) *+,6/?0I;`) a/5:1*78=M8)8N0=0@1aPR@60&9<<1<RP15&R@*+,#+-?812&346"@ 5')%# 9/:&'4 9/:/'63J:M8)8N0=0@&'4*+,D#?;W6-&I@58< “8N0=0@M8)1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886D#?#+60&;W6 -&I@58< 9-?#'=6RD#?50#0&;%I<%.#DG*',I*.69K?) O+I"M8)G^@1@6O=5?I=]KB?6R#"DPV;W6%I<%.#8E?0)5"(=1O")CPE &'4...5",)Z`,)6+PMI0)8N0=0@1aPR@60&9<<1<RP15&R@]=60&]OV
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 153 :
8N0=0@1MV0#09*&69Z)]=*.6G&"#Jl/M8)60&PN01="=O+I"M8)G&:O0O=6R %7 8 *? 0 *+ M 8)&' 4 !/' ) =( > -? 8 6\M8)a/ -8<9*=]=60&<&"K0&*+/, P-,>/)1&78, Eb (law of diminishing administrative returns)” (Wittfogel, 1967: 108-109) <**+, 5 I?0PVIE “60&]OV%I0#&.=9&) 60&2"C&&0< 9/:%I0# CPP1P+,EI9<<1<RP15&R@” (Total Terror—Total Submission—Total Loneliness) *+,6/?0I;`)a/M8)8N0=0@1aPR@60&9<<1<RP15&R@*+,#+-?8 #=.3E$]=5')%#9<<181O+E “8:D&@:16"PM`(=6'<%I0#G&0&;=0M8)aWV%=*+,@:1Gc=-'I18) A0E]-V 1 )7, 8 =DM60&G6%&8)M8)8N 0 =0@9<<1<R P 15&R @ ? 1aPR @ 60&1<R P 15&R @ 9<<!/' ) =( > Z`, ) 1Gc = 8N 0 =0@1<R P 15&R @ G&:1A*K=`,) @:D#?E8#]KV#+!/')*0)60&1#78)]Pb 1MV0#0#+ <*<0*=86@06M8)!I61M018) !I61M0G&:5<%I0# 5N01&R@]=1&7,8)=+(]=&:P'<5;0<'= CPE60&GjP6'(=!'_=060& M8)!/')*0)60&1#78)1K/?0=+( 9/:G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@]= &:P'<@"-I"*E0 CPE60&<',=*8=@"-]@9/:%I0#-V8)60&M8) aWV % =]=60&*+, @ :1%/7, 8 =DKI*0)60&1#7 8 )8E? 0 )1Gc = 8" 5 &: 6/?0I8E?0);`)*+,5.P &'4<0/!/')=(>*N060&G6%&8)CPE]OV60& MW?MI'B (intimidation) 1Gc=1%&7,8)#785N0%'B” (Wittfogel, 1967: 137)
: 154 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
<**+, 6 I?0PVIE “96=6/0) M8<=86 9/:&8)M8<=86M8) 5')%#!/')=(>” (The Core, the Margin, and the Submargin of Hydraulic Societies) “5')%#!/')=(>” K&78 “5')%#-:I'=886” #"DPV 1Gc=#C=*'2=$]=1O")="1I2I"*E0 (ecology) *+,;W6="E0#CPE-&)@06 5A0!*0)AW#"205-&$1K#78=8E?0)*+,1MV0]@6'=8E?0)a"Pb (80='=*$ 60B@=!'=F$., 2527; 6"--" -'=D*E, 2527) 9-?1Gc=G&:1A*K=`,)M8) &:<<I' _ =F&&# P' ) ='( = 5' ) %#9<<=+( @` ) #" D PV ;W 6 =" E 0#CPE60&#+ 6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/]=G^@@'E60&a/"-K&78D#? 9-?1Gc=&:<<5')%#*+, %I&@:="E0#]=&:P'<&:1<+E<5;0<'= (institutional order) Z`,)D#?80@ 8F"<0EDPVPVIEG^@@'E*0)AW#"205-&$ 1*%C=C/E+ K&7812&346"@ 8E?0) ]P8E?0)K=`,)1!+E)8E?0)1P+EI 1=7,8)@065')%#!/')=(>1Gc=&:<<I'_=F&&#G&:1A*K=`,) e:='(= -'I#'=18)@`)50#0&;9<?)8861Gc=G&:1A*E?8Eb DPV8+6 6/?0I %78 9<?)8861Gc= (6) 9<< Core (M) 9<< Margin 9/: (%) 9<< Submargin 9<< Core %78P"=9P=*+,&:<<I'_=F&&#*+,&8)&'<PV0= 60&163-&9<<]OV60&O/G&:*0=M=0P]KB?*N060&%&8<)N0CPE-&) 9<< Core =+(E')9E6886DPV1Gc=9<< Compact 6'<9<< Loose 9<< Margin %78P"=9P=*+,#+60&G6%&8)9<<1aPR@60&1<RP15&R@ 9<<-:I'=886 9-?#+60&163-&*+,D#?DPV!`,)&:<<!/')=(> 5?I=9<< Submargin %78P"=9P=*+,M0P60&1O7,8#G^@@'E5N0%'B*+,@N01Gc=5N0K&'< 60&!E.)&'6301aPR@60&1<RP15&R@9<<-:I'=886 9-?6RE')#+9=IC=V# K&78/'63J:!"123M8)&'49<<5')%#!/')=(>]KV1KR= <**+, 7 I?0PVIE “1K/?0&WGM8)6&&#5"*F"Y*+,Z'<ZV8=]=5')%# !/' ) =( > ” (Pattern of Proprietary Complexity in Hydraulic Society) <**+, 8 I?0PVIE “1K/?0O=O'(=]=5')%#!/')=(> (Classes in Hydraulic Society) Z`,)*'()58)<*=+(1Gc=60&I"1%&0:K$1&7,8)6&&#5"*F"Y
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 155 :
9/:O=O'(=]=5')%#!/')=(> 1!7,81G&+E<1*+E<]=1O") category 6'<M8) #0&$6Z$]= %+S-P+* *+,]OV]=60&I"1%&0:K$5')%#-:I'=-6 <**+, 9 I?0PVIE “%I0#1STU8)SW9/:-68'<M8)*[3\+I";+60& a/"-9<<181O+E” (The Rise and Fall of the Theory of the Asiatic Mode of Production) Z`), 1Gc=60&*<*I=1O")I"@0&J$*[3\+#0&$6Z"5-$ ]=1&7,8)=+( <**+, 10 I?0PVIE “5')%#9<<-:I'=886]=O?I)1G/+,E=9G/)” (Oriental Society in Transition) Z`,)6/?0I;`)60&6N0K=P40=:M8) 5')%#9<<-:I'=886]=40=:*+,1Gc=&WG60&J$K=`,)M8)1K/?05')%#*+, PN0&)8EW?]=G&:I'-"205-&$ &I#*'()6/?0I;`)60&%)8EW?9/:60&1G/+,E=&WG M8)5')%#=+( CPECE)1MV06'<5')%# “5')%#="E#” ]=G^@@.<'= “60&-&:K=' 6 ;` ) /' 6 3J:!" 1 23M8)5' ) %#!/' ) =( > 1Gc = G&060&MI0)6'(=*+,5N0%'B-?8I"F+%"P9<<60&!'_=01Gc=15V= -&) 9/:1Gc=5",)*+,5N0%'B#065N0K&'<60&1&",#K'=#0!"@0&J0 &WG60&J$*+,K/06K/0EM8)I"I'_=060&M8)5')%# 9/:1Gc= @. P 1&", # -V = 5N 0 K&' < 60&I" 1 %&0:K$ 1 O" ) 5;0<' = 16+, E I6' < %I0# 1G/+,E=9G/)/?05.P*+,16"PM`(=]=C/6-:I'=886” (Wittfogel, 1967: 413) “5')%#!/')=(>” K&78 “5')%#-:I'=886” M8)I"--$CS16/@`) 1Gc=&:<<5')%#*+,@:-V8)!"@0&J0@06 3 1)7,8=DMK/'6b G&:68<6'= %78 (1) 1)7,8=DM*0)F&&#O0-" *+,1Gc=P"=9P=*+,#+9#?=(>50E]KB? DK/a?0=
: 156 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
(2) 1)7,8=DM*0)12&346"@ *+,1Gc=P"=9P=*+,#+60&!'_=0*0) PV0=O/G&:*0=CPE]OV9&))0=16Jl$&I#K#W? *N0]KV5')%#50#0&;E`P 60&163-&1Gc=6"@6&&#K/'6*0)12&346"@DPV (3) 1)7,8=DM*0)5;0<'= *+,#+&:<<&0O60& (&:<<M.==0)) *+,&I#2W=E$8N0=0@DIV%I<%.#9&))0=D!&? 9-? 6 0&I" @ 0&J$ * [3\+ “5' ) %#!/' ) =( > ” M8)I" - -$ C S16/ *+,a?0=#0 5?I=]KB?1Gc=60&I"@0&J$]=1O")%V0=*0)PV0=MV81*R@@&") 1O")G&:@'63$ K&78@'<G^@@'E1e!0:PV0=]PPV0=K=`,)#0I"@0&J$ *N0]KV D#?80@K'6/V0)I"--$CS16/]=&:P'<6&8<I"F+%"P (paradigm) DPV ;V 0 E` P 6. # 9=I%" P 16+, E I6' < Oriental Despotism M8) I"--$CS16/-0#60&-+%I0#MV0)-V= 9/VIKI=6/'<#08?0=)0=1M+E= 16+,EI6'<5')%#D*E5#'EC<&0J]K#? CPE1e!0:)0=1M+E=M8) Wales (1934) Akin (1969) O'E 1&78)2"/Gn (2523) M@& 5.M!0="O (2505) GjE:e'-& Gj-:I&&J (2526) Shigeharn Ranabe (2519) 9/: 6"--" -'=D*E (2527) 9/VI A0!*+,1&0DPV&'<6R%78 5')%#D*E]=40=:*+,1Gc= G&:1A*K=`,)M8) “5')%#-:I'=886” ]=%I0#K#0EM8)I"--$CS16/ (-0#60&-+%I0#M8)1&0MV0)-V=) =',=18) D#?I?05')%#D*E5#'EC<&0J @:]OV “=(>” 1!7,860&O/G&:*0=K&781!7,860&%#=0%# D#?I?05')%#D*E 5#'EC<&0J@:#+&:<<O/G&:*0=M=0P]KB?K&78M=0P1/R6 D#?I?0 5')%#D*E5#'EC<&0J@:#+6&&#5"*F"Y*+,P"=M8)186O=PN0&)8EW?K&78 6&&#5"*F"Y*+,P"=*'()K#P1Gc=M8)&'49-?1!+E)aWV1P+EI 9-?60&!"5W@=$;`) MV81*R@@&")1K/?0=+(6RD#?80@K'6/V0)60&E7=6&0=;`)60&PN0&)8EW?M8) 5')%#D*E5#'EC<&0J]=40=:*+,1Gc=&:<<I'_=F&&#G&:1A*K=`,) Z`,)&'4K&78 “!&:#K063'-&"E$D*E*&)#+!&:&0O8N0=0@1PRPM0P#06” (Wales, 1934: 15) 9/:#+%I0#9-6-?0)6'<P"=9P=87,=b =86181O+E 80%1=E$@=E06*+,O0IE.C&G]=2-I&&3*+, 20 @:1MV0]@DPV
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 157 :
5N0K&'<-'II"--$CS16/18)9/VI G&:1*2D*E6R1Gc= “5')%# -:I'=886” K&78 “5')%#!/')=(>” G&:1A*K=`,)PVIE8E?0)D#?#+G^BK0 I"--$CS16/6/?0I;`)G&:1*2D*E]= &1-04P+* W0,SGP-,3 %&'()9&6 ]=K=V0*+, 32 (<**+, 2) 1!+E) 5 <&&*'P6I?0b 1*?0='(= 9/VI1M0KI= 6/' < #06/? 0 I;` ) G&:1*2D*E8+ 6 ]=<**+, 10 K=V 0 425 1#7, 8 1M0 !"@0&J0;`)40=:9/:&WG60&J$M8)60&1G/+,E=9G/)M8)5')%#!/')=(> 1#7,81aO"B6'<a/6&:*<@06C/6-:I'=-6-'()9-?6/0)2-I&&3*+, 19 1Gc=-V=#0 I"--$CS16/1KR=I?0 “%I0#5'#!'=F$*+,G&:1*2D*E#+6'<C/6 -:I'=-6='(=1Gc=9<< ‘Aloof independence’ Z`,)]=MJ:='(= (Gd 1957 K&78 !.2. 2500) ‘G&:1*2D*E’ DPV%)%I0#1Gc=8"5&:9/:%I0#1Gc= 5')%#!/')=(>*+,G/+6-'IK?0) (aloof hydraulic society) DIVD#?#06 6R=V8E 9/:G&:1*2D*EDPV#+5"*F"Y15&+*+,@:&'<180 (adopt) K&78D#?=N0!0 (disregard) -?85;0<'=9/:I'_=F&&#M8)-:I'=-6PVIE” (K=V0 425) “9-?*'()b *+,#+60&GL"&WG*0)60&1#78)9/:1*%C=C/E+16"PM`(=K/0E%&'() G&:1*2D*E6R E' ) D#? D PV !' _ =0O=O'( = 6/0)*V 8 );", = (indigenous middle class) DG5'61*?0DK&?1/E 9/:6RE')D#?#+&:<<-'I9*=M8) &'4<0/ (G&:O0F"GD-E) *+,9*V@&")1/E” (K=V0 427) I"--$CS16/ 9/1KR=%I0#1Gc=DGDPVM8)60&!'_=0O=O'(=6/0)*V8);",=@06O.#O= ='6F.&6"@O0I@+=]=1#78)D*E (the Chinese business community) (@06 footnote (f) K=V0 427) 60&G:*:G&:50=*0)I'_=F&&# (acculturation) *+,16"PM`(= ]=&W G M8)I' _ =F&&#-:I' = -6*+, M E0E%I0#1Gc = ]KB? M 8)&:<< I'_=F&&#M8)-=886DG*',IC/6]=&WGM8) World system -/8P &:E:1I/0 300-400 Gd*+,a?0=#0=+( DPVa=I65')%#D*E1MV0DG8EW?A0E]-V &:<<M8)-= 9/:=N 0 #0Z`, ) I" I' _ =060&9/:60&1G/+, E =9G/)M8)
: 158 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
&:<< “5')%#!/')=(>” 9<<D*E (K&785')%#2'6P"=0) 8E?0)K/+61/+,E) D#? D PV 9/:O? I )*+, 1 Gc = &:E:K' I 1/+( E IK' I -? 8 *+, 5. P M8)I" I' _ =060&=+( ]=*' 2 =:M8)aWV 1 M+ E =6R %7 8 “6&:<I=60&*N 0 ]KV 1 Gc = 8. - 50K6&&#” (industrialization) *+,1&",#-V=8E?0)@&")@')]=*2I&&3 1960 (K/') )0=1M+ E =M8)I" - -$ C S16/) CPE<*<0*M8)/W 6 @+ = ]=D*E*+, <' P =+( DPV6/0E1Gc=O=O'(=6/0)*V8);",=8E?0)1-R#-'IDG9/VI 5')%#D*E1&",# K/.P!V=@065A0!M8) “5')%#9<<181O+E” -0#%I0#1&RI9/:%I0# -?81=7,8)M8)60&G:*:G&:50=6'<I'_=F&&#-:I'=-6 &:<<E?8E (sub-system) *+,DKI-'I-?860&1G/+,E=9G/)=+(#06*+,5.P6R%78&:<< 12&346"@ &8)/)#0%78&:<<%&8<%&'I9/:&:<<60&2`630 9-?&:<< E?8E*+,/V0K/')6I?01!7,8=9/:1Gc=-'I%8Ee.P&'()60&!'_=0M8)&:<< E?8E87,=b 6R%78&:<<60&1#78)9/:&:<<%I0#%"P (ethics) M8)%= D*E Z`,)E')-"P8EW?6'<G&:1!J+60&GL"<'-"9<< “5')%#181O+E” 8EW? ;V0 6/?0I@069)?#.#=+( D#?I?0/'*F"8N0=0@="E#M8)!I6*K0&K&78M<I=60& %8##"I="5-$]=G&:1*2D*E /VI=9/VI9-?1Gc=6/.?#!/')*+,1-"<C-9/:;W6 K/?8K/8#PVIE&:<<I'_=F&&#9<<181O+E*'()5"(= 9/:!I61K/?0=+( 9K/:*+,@:1Gc=8.G5&&%-?860&!'_=05')%#D*E]=G^@@.<'=]KV6V0IDG5W? &:<<I'_=F&&#*+,#+%I0#1Gc=506/#0615+EE",)6I?0 “!I6=0E*.=” 15+E8+6 1*?0*+,6/?0I#0*'()K#PMV0)-V= 1Gc=60&*P/8)15=8*[3\+ “8P+ - ” @0660&2` 6 30%I0#%" P M8)CG/' = E+ 6' < I" - -$ C S16/*+, @ :#0 9*=*+, * [3\+ I' - ;. =" E #G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ 1 *? 0 ='( = ]=60&@:1O7, 8 #-? 8 *[3\+ “8P+-” 6'< *[3\+ “G^@@.<'= ” 1MV 0 PV IE6' = @N 01Gc = @:-V 8) 8F"<0E6N01="P9/:I"I'_=060&M8)&:<<I'_=F&&#G&:1A*-?0)b I?0 ]=*+,5.P9/VI=N0#0Z`,)60&6?8-'IM8) “&:<<C/6” 8E?0)1O?=]=G^@@.<'= DPV8E?0)D& Z`,)A0&:K=V0*+,]=60&8F"<0E1O?==+(-68EW?6'< Immanuel Wallerstein (1974, 1980)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 159 :
5''6%)S+'$ +* N%@%F>Q 6" - -" -' = D*E (2527), “%/8)6' < &:<<12&346" @ M8)D*E,” ]= e'-&*"!E$ =0;5.A0 (<&&J0F"60&), A#820(". &'(#)!"#$%/.? I<G?19V6 >8"8 2484, #K0I"*E0/'EF&&#205-&$. %I8&"O 1I/5$ (2527), /&#A/,#567-8/&#:#.D&#J56I<G'+0G F:#&O, #W / =" F" C %&)60&-N 0 &05' ) %#205-&$ 9 /:#=. 3 E205-&$. Z+ 1 6i0&. *0=01<V (2527), “60&O/G&:*0=1!7, 8 60&163-&]= G&:I' -" 2 05-&$ 1 2&346" @ D*E,” ]= e' - &*" ! E$ =0;5. A 0 (<&&J0F"60&), A#820(."&'(#)!"#$%/.?I<G?19V6 >8"8 2484, #K0I"*E0/'EF&&#205-&$. GjE:e'-& Gj-:I&&J (2526), #8::I>#=H1'06,+I<G >8"8 2411= 2453, #K0I"*E0/'EF&&#205-&$. 5.I"='E A&JI/'E (2529), “%I0#%"P*0)12&34205-&$60&1#78)M8) *&8-56+(,” !"#$%"&'(#)*##+"&'(#)F Gd*+, 4, e<'<*+, 1. #.&.I.8%"= &!+!'_=$ (2527), '06,+I<GH1'+0G(L1/#S6#0(1F/'.1<#) #>8"8 2325=24162, #W/="F"C%&)60&-N0&05')%#205-&$9/: #=.3E205-&$. 80='=*$ 60B@=!'=F$. (2527), “9&))0=]=G&:I'-"205-&$/0==0 D*E,” ]= e'-&*"!E$ =0;5.A0 (<&&J0F"60&), A#820(". &'(#) !"#$%/.?I<G?19V6 >8"8 2484, #K0I"*E0/'EF&&#205-&$.
: 160 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#* N%@%412+W@ Cliff, Tony (1974), /P+P0 %+S-P+*-,3 -4 QK,,-+, Pluto Press. Polanyi, Karl (1944), (H0 [10+P (1+4,NG13+P-G47 (H0 OG*-P-.+* +46 $.G4G3-. &1-Z-4, GN &K1 (-30. Polanyi, Karl (1968), “The Economy as Instituted Precess,” in George Dalton (ed.), O1-3-P-J0F 51.H+-. +46 'G6014 $.G4G3-.,7 $,,+U, GN b+1* OG*+4U-, Japanese Version, 1975. Ulmen, G. L. (1978), (H0 /.-04.0 GN /G.-0PU7 (GR+16 +46 )4601,P+46-4Z GN PH0 a-N0 +46 XG1Y GN b+1* 5KZK,P X-PPNGZ0*, New York: Mouton Publishers. Wittfogel, Karl (1950), “Russia and Asia.” XG1*6 OG*-P-.,, Vol. 2, No. 4. Wittfogel, Karl (1967), &1-04P+* W0,SGP-,37 5 %G3S+1+P-J0 /PK6U GN (GP+* OGR01, Yale University Press. Yuasa, Takao (1983), b$Ig5IMI'Q)I[5b)='&=M&/$(/), Tokyo: Shinhyoron.
: 162 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
+%':*D20%=9%!M9%>%2!?'@(+8. & 5>*/%'D.*V%)-=D%$';H!53Y42&H)
5#<W&J$ 2"&"G&:O'E
*+,#0: <*%I0#-+!"#!$]= 5#O'E [O.!'=F.$ (<&&J0F"60&) (2533), ,2&+#ML 10/!"#$%"&'(#)I<G, 5#0%#12&34205-&$9K?)G&:1*2D*E.
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 163 :
“Rent-Seeking” 1Gc = 2' ! *$ ] K#? M 8)I)60&12&34205-&$ 205-&0@0&E$ Anne O. Krueger 15=82'!*$=+(1#7,8-V=2-I&&3 1970 9-?50&:5N0%'BM8)9=I%"P=+(;W6=N015=86?8=K=V0=+(CPE205-&0@0&E$ Gordon Tullock %I0#5N 0 %' B M8) Rent-Seeking 6R %7 8 %I0# !E0E0#M8)='612&34205-&$*+,@:*N0%I0#1MV0]@<*<0*M8)&'4*+,#+ -?8&:<<12&346"@ 1=7,8)@061678<*.6G&:1*2#"DPVG/?8E]KV6/D6 12&346" @ *N 0 )0=8E? 0 )15&+ K069-? *N 0 K=V 0 *+, 6N 0 6' < 9/:%I<%. # 12&346"@<0)8E?0)8E?0)1MV#)IP G&06L60&J$*+,1P?=O'P6R%7860&1MV0@'P60&9/:5&V0)A0I: 60&aW6M0PCPE8V0)1K-.a/I?0 #+A0I:%I0#/V#1K/IM8)-/0PPN0&) 8EW? (Market Failure) 9-?CPEMV81*R@@&") 60&9*&69Z)M8)&'4<0/]= A0%12&346" @ -? 0 )b #" D PV 1 6" P M`( = @06%I0#/V # 1K/IM8)-/0P9-? G&:60&1P+ E I 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ *+, 6? 8 -' I 9/:PN 0 &)8EW? ] =&:<< 12&346"@60&1#78)/VI=#+5?I=5N0%'B*+,a/'6]KV&'4<0/5&V0)A0I:60& aW 6 M0P <? 8 E%&'( ) &' 4 <0/#" D PV *N 0 K=V 0 *+, aWV !" *' 6 3$ a /G&:CEO=$ M 8) 50F0&J:15#8DG 9-?6/'<5='<5=.=a/G&:CEO=$*+,5='<5=.=&'4<0/ (Becker, 1983) D#?I?0@:1@-=0K&78D#?6R-0# <?8E%&'()1@V0K=V0*+,M8)
: 164 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
&'4<0/1Gc=aWV5&V0)C8605M8)%?01O?0]KV16"PM`(= (Rent Setters) ]= MJ:*+,G^@1@6O=*+,#.?)KI')60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI1Gc=aWV150:95I)K0%?0 1O?0P')6/?0I (Rent Seekers) 6&:<I=60&9K?)60&5&V0)A0I:60& aW6M0P=+(@`)1Gc=G#1)7,8=*+,6?8]KV16"P6&:<I=60&M8)60&95I)K0 Rent 8E?0)D#?KE.P=",) (Rent-Seeking Activities) aWV*+,150:95I)K0 Rent @:E8#*.#? 1**&'!E06&@&") (Real Resources) 1!78, 9/61G/+E, = 9/:&'630A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI]KVE7==0=-/8PDG 6&:<I=60& P')6/?0I6?8]KV16"P-V=*.=5')%# (Social Costs) 9/:5')%#]P*+,#+ 6&:<I=60& Rent-Seeking 8E? 0 )K=09=? = #' 6 @:#+ 6 0&!' _ =0 12&346"@*+,1O7,8)OV06I?05')%#87,=b (Olson, 1965; 1982) <*%I0#=+(#+8)%$G&:68< 4 -8= 6/?0I%78 (517#/ I?0 PVIEG&:I'-"M8) Rent-Seeking (51<BC'56 8F"<0E%I0#K#0EM8) Rent-Seeking (51<BC'&+ O+(]KV1KR=;`)%I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0) RentSeeking 6'< Profit-Seeking (51'SE<L&G 6/?0I;`)-'I8E?0)M8) 6&:<I=60& Rent-Seeking )* ,'-D1&8#42 Ben8-SeeD6ng Fc86=686e7 8P' # 5#" F <" P 09K? ) I" O 012&34205-&$ 1 O7, 8 I? 0 &:<< 12&346"@#+#78*+,#8)D#?1KR= (Invisible Hands) %8EO?IE1K/78]KV &:<<12&346" @ *N 0 )0=8E? 0 )#+ G &:5" * F" A 0! K06&' 4 G/? 8 E]KV 12&346"@#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0)15&+ 9-?]=<0)G&:1*2&'4<0/#"DPVG/?8E ]KV6/D6&0%0*N0)0=8E?0)1-R#*+, -&)6'=MV0# &'4#'65&V0)A0I:60& aW6M0P&0E1P+EIM`(= A0I:60&aW6M0PP')6/?0I#"DPV16"PM`(=CPEG&02 @06-V = *. = 1!7, 8 ]KV D PV 6 0&aW 6 M0P aWV G &:68<60&E" = P+ 1 5+ E 5/: *&' ! E06&@&" ) (Real Resources) @N 0 =I=K=`, ) 1#7, 8 DPV # 09/V I 6R !E0E0#&'6305;0=:60&aW6M0P]KVE0I=0=*+,5.P
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 165 :
G&:I'-"M8) Rent-Seeking @`)1Gc=<&"<*M8)%I0#M'P9EV) &:KI?0)9=I%"PM8)&:<<12&346"@*+,G/?8E]KV6/D6&0%0*N0)0=6'< &:<<12&346"@*+,#+60&9*&69Z)M8)&'4<0/ ='612&34205-&$6&:95 K/'6='<1=7,8)-'()9-?5#'E%/055"6 @=;`)G^@@.<'=#"DPV1O7,88E?0)5="*]@ I?0 #78*+,#8)D#?1KR=50#0&;*N0)0=DPV8E?0)I"1235.P -&)6'=MV0#6/'< 1KR = I? 0 #7 8 *+, # 8)D#? 1 KR = D#? 5 0#0&;*N 0 )0=DPV P+ P' ) 8. P #%-" 1!&0: G^@1@6O=9/:K=?IE*0)12&346"@87,=b -?0)6R!E0E0#K/<K=+@06 A0I:60&9M?)M'= 9/:5&V0)%I0#DPV1G&+E<96?-=18) 6&:<I=60&P') 6/?0I1&01&+E6&I#b I?0 Rent-seeking Behavior1 (Colander, 1984) G^@1@6O=*'()aWV<&"CA%9/:aWVa/"--?0)6R1Gc=5'-I$12&346"@*+,#.?)95I)K0 a/G&:CEO=$5?I=-'I PVIE1K-.=+( #78*+,#8)D#?1KR=@`);W69*=*+,PVIE “1*V0*+,#8)D#?1KR=” (Invisible Foot) Z`,)1Gc=2'!*$*+, Stephen Magee ]OV8F"<0E![-"6&&#M8)#=.3E$*+,!E0E0#95I)K0a/G&:CEO=$]5?-'I CPE*N0/0E60&9M?)M'= 6/?0I%78 #"]KV#78*+,#8)D#?1KR=*N0)0=-?8DG2 ='612&34205-&$&WV@'66&:<I=60& Rent-Seeking #0=0= 9/VI CPE1e!0:-'()9-?E.%!0J"OE$="E# (Mercantilism) ]=O?I)Gd %.2. 1500-1776 (Bay Singer. et. al., 1981) ]=5#'E%/055"6#+60&6/?0I ;`)1&7,8)=+(DIVO'P1@= G^@1@6O=!E0E0#95I)K0 Economic Rents CPE5&V0)A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI *'()=+(1!7,816R< Quasi-Rents K&78 Monopoly Rents 8E?0)D&6R-0# 1=7,8)@06%=87,=]=5')%#6RG&0&;=0 5?I=9<?)@06 Rents =+( *N0]KV%=87,=b 1MV0&?I#6"@6&&#='(=PVIE a/6R %78 *N0]KV&0%0/P-,>/)@=8EW?]=A0I:60&9M?)M'=5#<W&J$ -0#%I0# %" P M8)=' 6 12&34205-&$ % /055" 6 ;V 0 &' 4 <0/D#? 1 MV 0 9*&69Z) 6&:<I=60&M8)6/D6&0%0 #78*+,#8)D#?1KR=@'6O?IE*N0]KV8N0=0@ aW6M0PM8)G^@1@6O=*+,DPV Quasi-Rents K#PDG ='612&34205-&$]= E.%=+(@`)5='<5=.==CE<0E60&%V015&+ (Laissez-faire policy)
: 166 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1!7,8]KV1MV0]@ Rent-Seeking 8E?0)9@?#O'P @N01Gc=-V8)*N0 %I0#1MV0]@9=I%"P16+,EI6'<-V=*.=5I'5P"60&M8)60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI (Welfare Cost of Monopoly) ='6*[3\+6&:95K/'61O7,8I?060& aW6M0P&0E1P+EI1Gc=A0I:*+,a/a/"-M8)5"=%V0#+=V8E6I?0A0I:9M?) M' = 5#<W & J$ -V = *. = P' ) 6/? 0 I%7 8 -V = *. = *0)5' ) %#M8)A0I60&J$ aW6M0P&0E1P+EI -0#A0!G&:68<*+, 1 N%B,'-+45>IC )& *D1*G8+%'>IC*12=$*;<!*IQF,41)!)3C42.%++%'Z;+#%G
15V=8.G5)%$*+,aWVaW6M0P&0E1P+EI1aO"B%78 15V= D Z`,)#+%I0# O'=1Gc=/< 5?I= MC %78 15V=-V=*.=5?I=1!",#M8)aWVaW6M0P&0E1P+EI K&788+6='EK=`,)%7815V=8.G*0=]=&:E:5'(=M8)aWVaW6M0P&0E1P+EI MR 1Gc = &0E&' < 5? I =1!", # ]=A0I:-/0P9M? ) M' = 5#<W & J$ &0%05" = %V 0 ]= -/0P (P) @:1*?06'<-V=*.=5?I=1!",# (MC) *+,@.P E 5?I=]=A0I:60& aW6M0P&0E1P+EI @.PP./EA0!@:8EW? J @.P A Z`,)&0%08EW?5W)6I?0 MC
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 167 :
5')16-I?0]=A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI a/a/"-M8)5"=%V08EW?*+, Qm 9/:&0%08EW?*+, Pm PVIE1K-.=+( 1#7,81G&+E<1*+E<6'<A0I:60&9M?)M'= 5#<W&J$*+,1Gc=@.P Pareto Efficient A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI6?8]KV 16" P -V = *. = *0)5' ) %#1*? 0 6' < !7( = *+, 5 0#1K/+, E # AEB ]=A0!*+, 1 aWV<&"CA%5WB15+E Consumer Surplus 1*?06'<!7(=*+, PmAEPc !7(=*+, 5+,1K/+,E# PmAFPc 6/0E1Gc=&0EDPV5?I=K=`,)M8)aWVaW6M0P&0E1P+EI !7(=*+,5+,1K/+,E#=+(6R%78 60&C8=&0EDPV@06aWV<&"CA%]KV96?aWVaW6M0P&0E 1P+EI 5?I=!7(=*+, FEB 1Gc=5",)*+,5WB15+EM8) Producer Surplus P')='(= %I0#5WB15+E&I#5.*F"M8)5')%#3 8'=16"P@06A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E 1P+EI6R%78 a/&I#!7(=*+,50#1K/+,E# AFE 6'< FEB 6/?0I8+6='EK=`,) A0I:60&aW 6 M0P&0E1P+ E I1Gc = 5", ) *+, 8 EW? = 861K=7 8 @. P 8. P #A0! (Pareto Efficiency) P' ) ='( = @` ) #+ G &:5" * F" A 0!PV 8 E6I? 0 A0I:60& 9M?)M'=5#<W&J$ Harberger (1954) !E0E0#I'P-V=*.=5')%#8'=16"P@06A0I 60&J$aW6M0P&0E1P+EI a/60&%N0=IJ!<I?0 #+G&:#0J&V8E/: 0.1 M8)&0EDPVG&:O0O0-"]=5K&'481#&"601*?0='(= I"F+60&%N0=IJ=+(;W6 I"!063$I"@0&J$]=1I/0-?8#0 CPE1e!0:%I0#5WB15+E]=9)?5I'5P"60& M8)5' ) %#8' = 16" P @06A0I60&J$ aW 6 M0P&0E1P+ E I 1!&0:1K-. I? 0 5;0=:M8)6N0D&@0660&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI4 (Monopoly Profit) @W)]@ ]KV<.%%/87,=b ]=5')%#E8#*.?#1**&'!E06&@&")1!7,89E?)O")5?I=9<?) @066N0D&=+( Tullock (1967) 9/: Posner (1975) O+(]KV1KR=I?0 %I0# 5WB15+E]=9)?5I'5P"60&M8)5')%#*+,1Gc=*&'!E06&@&")='(=#"DPV#+60& 15=8]=60&%N0=IJM8) Harberger K&788+6='EK=`,)#"DPVG&06L]= !7(=*+,50#1K/+,E# AEB ]=A0!G&:68<*+, 1 -'I8E?0)6R%78 <&"3'* Polaroid 1Gc=aWVaW6M0P@0660&;?0E A0!9<<&IP1&RI 9-?<&"3'* Kodak DPV*.?#1**&'!E06&@N0=I=#06
: 168 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1!7,89M?)M'=]=PV0==+( ]=9)?5')%# 5",)*+,16"PM`(=1Gc=%I0#5WB15+EM8) 5')%# ]=*N0=8)1P+EI6'<60&*+,&'4<0/886]<8=.B0-]KV6"@60&<0) G&:1A*1Gc=6"@60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI K=?IEa/"-87,=b -?0)6R*.?#1* *&'!E06& 80*" @V0)='66\K#0E @?0E%?0 Lobbying 1Gc=-V= 1!7,8]KV DPV&'<]<8=.B0-='(= *&'!E06&1K/?0=+(50#0&;=N0DG]OVa/"-5"=%V09/: <&"60&87,=b ]KV96?5')%#8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0! 9=I%"PP')6/?0I=+( ='< 1Gc=@.P1&",#-V=M8) Rent-Seeking Behavior (Tullock, 1967) 9/: 1Gc = *+, # 0M8)5N 0 =' 6 %I0#%" P Public Choice Z`, ) *+, James C. Buchanan 9/: Gordon Tullock 1Gc=K'IK865N0%'B %I0#%"PM8) Public Choice 50#0&;!"@0&J01Gc=58)5?I= %78 5?I=*+,K=`,) %78 Rent-seeking 16"PM`(=%&'()9&6@066&:<I=60& *0)60&1#78) #"]O?16"P-0#6/D6&0%0 5?I=*+,58) I"F+60&*+,P+*+,5.PM8) 60&6N0@'P Rent-Seeking 6R%78 60&@N06'P<*<0*M8)&'4<0/ 5N0='6 %I0#%" P 9<< Public Choice @` ) #+ 5? I =K=`, ) *+, % /V 0 E%/` ) =' 6 12&34205-&$5N0='6%/055"6*+,D#?1KR=PVIE6'<<*<0*M8)&'4<0/ 9-? Public Choice 1=V=I"1%&0:K$]=6&J+*+,&'4<0/1MV09*&69Z)6"@6&&# ]=&:<<12&346"@@=#+60&1&+E68+6O7,8K=`,)I?0 1Gc=12&34205-&$*+, 2`63016+,EI6'<60&1#78) (Economic of Politics) ='612&34205-&$&:KI?0)G&:1*26R]KV%I0#5=]@1&7,8)60& 95I)K0%?01O?0*0)12&346"@1O?=6'= Anne Krueger (1974) 1Gc=%= 9&6*+,]OV2'!*$=+( 9=I%I0#%"P%/V0E%/`)6'< Tullock (1967) 9-?-?0) 6'=*+,1F8!'_=01Gc=9<<@N0/8)*+,#+%I0#&'P6.##06M`(= CPE15=8-'I 8E?0)60&%N0=IJ-V=*.=5')%#*+,16"P@06C%I-060&=N01MV0]=G&:1*2 8"=1P+E9/:-.&6+ G^@1@6O=]=G&:1*21K/?0=+(!E0E0#O?I)O")5"*F"]= 60&=N01MV01!7,8%&8<%&8) Monopoly Rents K&788+6='EK=`,)6R%78 Quota Premium 6&:<I=60&=+(*N0]KV5')%#5WB15+E5I'5P"60&CPED#?
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 169 :
DPVa/-8<9*=6/'<%7= 5I'5P"60&P')6/?0IG&:#0JI?01*?06'<#W/%?0 M8) Rents *+,5&V0)M`(= (Krueger, 1974) ='612&34205-&$&:KI?0) G&:1*25=]@6&:<I=60&M8) Rent-Seeking 1!",#M`(=K/')*2I&&3 1970 CPE1e!0:A0EK/' ) I" 6 [-" =( > #' = %&'( ) *+, 1 9/:/' * F" 6+ P 6' = *0)60&%V 0 9<<]K#? (New Protectionism) 6/' < #08+ 6 %&'( ) K=`, ) (Corden, 1984) CPE1e!0:60&]OV#0-&60&6+P6'=*0)60&%V09<<*+, D#?]O?2./606& (Non-Tariff Barriers-NTBs) 80*" VER (Voluntary Export Restraint) K&78 OMA (Orderly Marketing Agreement) 1Gc=-V= ='612&34205-&$O'(==N0 Bhagwati (1982; 1983) D#?1KR=PVIE 6'<60&]OV2'!*$I?0 Rent-Seeking CPE1e!0:1#7,8G&:E.6-$6'<60&%V0 &:KI?0)G&:1*2 1!&0:*N0]KV%I0#K#0E9%</) ]=MV81*R@@&")9/:]= *0)*[3\+ 6&:<I=60&M8)60&95I)K0 Rents #"DPV@N06'P1!+E)*+, 16"P@06C%I-0(Quota) 1*?0='(= 9-?E')50#0&;16"P@06A03+2./606& (Tariff) K&7860&95I)K06N0D& (Profit) PVIE P')='(= Bhagwati (1982) @`)15=8I?0 6&:<I=60&95I) Rents ]Pb 6R-0#50#0&;1&+E6&I#b I?01Gc=60&95I)K0 Profit -Seeking CPE-&)*+,D#?6?8]KV16"P%I0# )861)E*0)12&346"@]P (Directly Unproductive Profit-Seeking (DUP) Activities) 60&2`630 Rent-Seeking #"]O?%&8<%/.#1e!0:58)50M0 %78 Public Choice 9/:60&%V0&:KI?0)G&:1*21*?0='(= a/)0=%/05 5"6M8) Olson (1965; 1982) Z`,)2`6306&:<I=60&&I#-'IM8)6/.?# a/G&:CEO=$ CPE]OV6&8<M8)12&34205-&$6&:95K/'6 G^@1@6O=*+, #+ a /G&:CEO=$ &? I #6' = @:!E0E0#a/' 6 P' = 1!7, 8 5&V 0 ) Collective Action Z`,)50#0&;!'_=01Gc= Public Goods ]=9)?*+,MV81&+E6&V8) M8)6/.?#G&:CEO=$*+,5&V0)M`(=='(= *N0]KV&'4<0/E8#&'<-/8PDG ]= *[3\+12&346"@60&1#78)9=I]K#?!"@0&J0I?0 =CE<0EM8)&'4<0/D#?
: 170 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
@N01Gc=-V8)95I)K05I'5P"60&M8)5')%#5W)5.P K069-?1Gc=aWV-8< 5=8)MV81&+E6&V8)M8)6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$]=5')%# (Becker, 1983) %I0#@N01&"B1-"<C-*0)12&346"@M8)<0)G&:1*2*+,#+%I0#1O7,8)OV0 6I? 0 G&:1*287, = b 6R 57 < 1=7, 8 )@066&:<I=60&95I)K0%? 0 1O? 0 *0) 12&346"@8E?0)9!&?K/0E (Olson, 1982) Z`,)6?8]KV16"P-V=*.=5')%# @N0=I=#K020/e.P&'()#"]KV=N0*&'!E06&@&")DG]OV]=A0%12&346"@*+,#+ G&:CEO=$8E?0)9*V@&") +* =D%$0$%Q#42 Ben8-SeeD6ng +*) Ben8 0'34 Gc!n!36c Ben8 =344-F'H Economic Rent %78 5",)*+,1&0@?0EDG5W)6I?0*+,1&0@N01Gc=-V8) @?0E 5N0K&'<G^@@'E60&a/"-*+,1&0=N0DG]OV]=60&a/"- K&788+6='EK=`,) %78@N0=I=*+,1&0@?0E1!7,8G^@@'E60&a/"- Z`,)#066I?0@N0=I=M'(=-,>*+,1&0 -V8)@?0E1!7,8]KVDPVG^@@'E60&a/"-='(=b #0]OVG&:CEO=$CPE1e!0: (Fisher, Dornbusch and Schmalensee, 1988) -'I8E?0)&WGF&&#6R %7 8 =' 6 &V 8 )*+, #+ O7, 8 15+ E )50#0&;*N 0 &0EDPV Gd / :K/0E/V 0 =<0*K&7 8 ='66+h0*+,#+%I0#50#0&;5W)50#0&;9M?)M'=O")&0)I'/@N0=I=#K020/ <.%%/*'()58)1Gc=*&'!E06&*+,K0#0DPVE069/:#+8EW?@N0=I=@N06'P P') ='(= G&:O0O=E"=P+@?0E1)"=1!7,8S^)60&&V8)1!/)K&78O#60&9M?)M'= #066I?0]KV1M0DG*N08E?0)87,=b *'()%W?DPV&'< Economic Rent #+MV85')16- 3 G&:60&16+,EI6'< Economic Rent (Fisher, Dornbusch and Schmalensee, 1988) PV)=+( A#8/&#7#/ ='612&34205-&$1/786]OV%0N I?0 Economic Rent 6R 1 !&0:#+ @. P 6N 0 1=" P @06%? 0 1O? 0 *+, @? 0 E]KV 5N 0 K&' < 60&1O? 0 *+, P" = 1#7, 8 G&"#0J*+,P"=#+@N0=I=@N06'P G&:O0O=E"=P+@?0E%?01O?0-0#5A0!
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 171 :
%I0#8. P #5#<W & J$ M 8)*+, P" = 9-? G^ @ @. <' = Economic Rent #" D PV ]OV8F"<0E1e!0:6&J+*+,P"=1*?0='(= A#8/&#<BC'56 Rent PN0&)8EW?6R-?81#7,8G&"#0JG^@@'E='(=#+ @N 0 =I=@N 0 6' P ;V 0 K0615V = 8. G *0=M8)=' 6 S. - <8/&:P' < P0&0#+ %? 0 %I0#E7PKE.?=1Gc=8='=-$ (Perfectly Elastic Supply) @:D#?#+='6 S. - <8/%=]PDPV &' < %? 0 @V 0 )5W ) 6I? 0 -V = *. = %? 0 15+ E C8605 ]=6&J+ =+( G&"#0J8.G*0=@N06'P50#0&;5&V0) Rent Z`,)1Gc=1&7,8)F&&#O0-" ='6 S.-<8/&:P'<P0&0#"]O?5&V0)M`(=#0)?0Eb *N0=8)1P+EI6'= *+,P"=*+,#+ %I0#8.P#5#<W&J$8E?0)I"1236R#+@N0=I=@N06'P 9-?G&"#0J8.G*0= @N06'P80@1Gc=1&7,8)6N0#:/8 (Artificial Supply Restriction) *+,5&V0) CPE&'4<0/ =',=%78 60&5&V0)A0I:aW6M0P&0E1P+EI (Monopoly) a/6R %78*N0]KV#+6N0D&@0660&aW6M0P (Monopoly Profits) K&78<0)*+1&+E6 I?0 Monopoly Rents 1!7,81=V=;`)<*<0*M8)G&"#0J8.G*0=@N06'P A#8/&#<BC'&+ Rents PN0&)8EW?6R1!&0:8.G5)%$*+,#+-?8G^@@'E 60&a/"-='(=1Gc=8.G5)%$57<1=7,8) #'6#+60&6/?0IK0I?0 ='6S.-<8/ &:P' < P0&0DPV &' < %? 0 @V 0 )*+, 5W ) 1Gc = -' I *N 0 /0E16#60&9M? ) M' = 1!&0: 1@V0M8)*+ #D#?50#0&;@? 0 E%? 0 @V0 )*+, 5W )b DPV 9-? %I0#@&" ) 6R%78=' 6 S.-<8/&:P'<P0&0*+,#+%?0@V0)5W) 1Gc=G^@@'E]KV#+aWVO#S.-<8/#06E",) M`(= PVIE1K-.=+( ='6S.-<8/&:P'<P0&0#"DPV1Gc=-'I*N0/0E60&9M?)M'= +*+ Ben8-SeeD6ng =344-F'H Rent-Seeking 1Gc=2'!*$*+,1!",)]OV]=*2I&&3 2513 2'!*$=+(PW 1K#78=@:1Gc=*+,1MV0]@6'=*',IDG]=G^@@.<'= 9-?@&")b 9/VIE')#+%I0# 5'<5=8EW?1Gc=8'=#06 Rent-seeking #"DPVK#0E;`) 1@V0*+,P"=*+,!:I) 6'<60&16R<%?01O?0*+,P"= K&781@V0M8)<V0=*+,%8E95I)K0%?01O?0<V0= 1&0*&0<I?0 Rent 1Gc=5?I=*+,@?0E]KV96?1@V0M8)G^@@'EK&78*&'!E06&
: 172 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5W)6I?0*+,1@V0M8)G^@@'E@:=N0DG*N08E?0)87,=b =',=%78 Rent *+,DPV&'< E?8#5W)6I?0-V=*.=%?015+EC860515#8 ='612&34205-&$6&:95K/'6#+ 5##-"40=I?0 G^@1@6O=]=&:<<*.=="E#*.6%=#+%I0#1KR=96?-'IM8) -=1Gc=5&J: G^@1@6O=*.6%=#.?)95I)K0#W/%?0G^@@.<'=M8)6&:95 &0EDPV*+,%0PKI')DIV 9-? Rent-seeking 1Gc=%N08F"<0E*+,&:<.I?0 %I0# !E0E0#]Pb M8)G^@1@6O=]=60&95I)K0 Economic Rents K&78 Quasi-Rents /VI=6?8]KV16"P%I0#5WB15+EM8)5')%# (Social Waste) %I<%W?DGPVIE15#8 (Buchanan, 1980; Tullock, 1967) 1&01MV0]@ Rent-seeking DPV9@?#9@V)6R-?81#7,81&01MV0]@9=I%"P!7(=40=M8)60& CE6EV0E&0EDPV ='612&34205-&$6&:95K/'61O7,8I?0 60&CE6EV0E&0E DPV@06%=K=`,)DG]KV8+6%=K=`,)D#?6?8]KV16"P-V=*.=96?5')%# 1!&0: 1K#78=60&KE"<1)"=@066&:1Gr0ZV0EDG]5?6&:1Gr0MI0 N%B,'-+45>IC +& +%'RQ+QH%Q>'1BQ%+'+15&H)>S)*12=$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 173 :
]=A0!G&:68<*+, 2 1&0#+96=-'()1Gc==0E 6. 9/:96==8= 1Gc==0E M. 5##-"I?0*&'!E06&*'()K#P]=5')%#*+,#+%= 2 %==+(%78 1)"= 1,000 <0* 1)"=@N0=I==+(50#0&;9<?)DPVK/0Eb 9<< ]=6&J+ 5.PM'(I =0E 6. 50#0&;#+1)"= 1,000 <0* CPE =0E M. D#?DPV8:D&1/E K&78]=*0)-&)6'=MV0#15V= PP 1Gc=60&1O7,8#@.P*+,50#0&;1/786DPV *.6@.P #+/'63J:1K#78=15V=)<G&:#0J ;V0#+60&1/786*+,@.P A =0E 6. DPV&'< 700 <0* 5?I=*+,1K/78 300 <0*1Gc=M8)=0E M. ]=-N0&0 12&34205-&$5N0='66&:95K/'6@:&:<.I?0 ;V0#+60&CE6EV0E1)"=<0) 5?I=M8)=0E 6. ]KV=0E M. a/6R%78 @:D#?6?8]KV16"P-V=*.=8:D& ]= 6&J+*+,@.P B =0E 6. #+1)"= 150 <0* 5?I==0E M. DPV&'< 850 <0* 5')%##"DPV5WB15+E5",)]P 1!&0:1)"=6RE')%)1*?06'< 1,000 <0* 60&5WB 15+EM8)=0E 6. 1*?06'<60&DPV&'<M8)=0E M. P')='(=@`)D#?6?8]KV16"P %I0#5W B 15+ E -? 8 5' ) %# (Social loss) 9-? 5", ) *+, McKenzie and Tullock (1981) O+(]KV1KR=%78 60&CE6EV0E*&'!E06&@06=0E 6. DG]KV =0E M. #"]O?*N0CPE!&:1@V0CPED#?#+-V=*.= 9-?%I0#@&")60&CE6EV0E &0EDPV K &7 8 *&' ! E06&@06%=K=`, ) DG]KV 8+ 6 %=K=`, ) /V I =#+ -V = *. = 16+,EIMV8)15#8 CPE*',IDGaWV*+,G&0&;=0*&'!E06&='(= 80@E8#*N0)0= K='6#06M`(=K&78E8#/)*.=*&'!E06&1!7,8]KVDPV&'<1)"=C8=@06%=87,= <0)%&'()60&/)*.=*&'!E06&='(=1Gc=60&6&:*N0M8)<.%%/*+,50# ]=*+, =+(80@1Gc==0E %. Z`,)G&0&;=0]KV#+60&C8=&0EDPV@06=0E 6. DG]KV =0E M. 60&C8=&0EDPV]=*+,=+(9-6-?0)@0660&]KVM8)MI'B Z`,)aWV]KV 9/:aWV&'<-?0)#+8&&;G&:CEO=$1!",#M`(= 9-?;V0#+60&/)*.=*&'!E06& 1!7,8]KV#+60&C8=&0EDPV@06=0E 6. DG]KV=0E M. 80*" #+60&@?0E%?0 Lobby ]KV 9 6? =' 6 Lobbyist ]=&' 4 5A0 1Gc = -V = @N 0 =I=1)" = K&7 8 *&'!E06&*+,]OV1!7,860&=+(@:D#?]O?1Gc=60&9<?)&:KI?0)=0E 6. 6'<=0E M. 9/:#"]O?8EW?<=15V= PP 9-?8EW?<=15V= P’P’ 5##-"I?01Gc= 900 <0*
: 174 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1*?0='(= =0E M. @:D#?DPV&'<1)"= 850 <0* 9-?DPV&'<1)"=1!+E) 765 <0**+,@.P B’ <=15V= P’P’ 1K-.a/6R1!&0:16"P-V=*.=M8)60& Lobby K&78-V=*.=M8)60&O'6@W)K&78C=V#=V0I]KV#+60&C8=&0EDPV@06=0E 6. DG]KV=0E M. -0#9=I60&I"1%&0:K$=+( 15V= PP E?8#1K=786I?0 P’P’ 8E?0)D&6R-0# fg0E=0E 6. 6R80@G6GH8)-=18)CPE60&@?0E1)"=1!7,8 Lobby #"]KV#+60&C8=&0EDPV96?=0E M. 1K-.60&J$*N0=8)=+(*N0]KV16"P -V=*.=1!&0:*'()%W?#+5A0!1/I/) %78*+,@.P A’ 9/: B’ 9#VI?06&:*N0]Pb ]=60&*.?#1**&'!E06&1!7,8]KVDPV60&C8=&0EDPV@:G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@ K&78/V#1K/I 5')%#6R16"P%I0#5WB15+E G&:1PR=P')6/?0I=+(1Gc=1&7,8)*+, =' 6 12&34205-&$ 5N 0 =' 6 6&:95K/' 6 #8)MV 0 ##0=0= *'( ) =+( 6R 1 !&0: /:1/E<*<0*9/:![-"6&&#M8)&'4<0/Z`,)1Gc=aWV5&V0)A0I:aW6M0P ]=&:<<12&346"@ 9=I60&I"1%&0:K$ Rent-Seeking ]=5N0='6 Public Choice #" D PV 1 O7, 8 I? 0 60&95I)K0 Economic Rent *N 0 ]KV 5' ) %#DPV &' < a/ G&:CEO=$5W)5.P -&)6'=MV0# Rent-Seeking 16"PM`(=1#7,8a/a/"-;W6 @N06'P 80*" 6&J+M8)60&]KV5"*F"aW6M0P&0E1P+EIM8)&'4<0/ 1Gc=-V= -0#%I0#K#0E=+(a/a/"-D#?50#0&;1!",#M`(=DPV P')='(=&0E@?0E]Pb 6R-0#1!7,8]KVDPV Monopoly Rent K&78 Contrived Rent @`)#"DPVO?IE *N0]KV&:<<12&346"@DPVa/a/"-)861)E &0E@?0E1K/?0=+( %78 5",)*+, ;78I?01Gc=%I0#5WB15+EM8)5')%# (Tullock, 1967) ;V 0 1&0@:1MV 0 ]@&:<<%" P M8) Rent-Seeking 1&0-V 8 ) !E0E0#%"P]=9)?M8)60&]OV*&'!E06&@&")]KVDPV Rent 60&@?0E1)"= 1!7,8]KVDPV1)"= 1 <0* @06=0E 6. 9/:#8<]KV96?=0E M. D#?*N0]KV 8:D&P+M`(= ]=9)?12&346"@5?I=&I#;781Gc=%I0#5WB15+E (Waste) 1!&0:*&'!E06&='(=50#0&;=N0DGa/"-5"=%V087,=b ]=5')%# =',=%78 1Gc=-V=*.=%?015+EC8605M8)5')%# 6&:<I=60&M8) Rent-Seeking
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 175 :
167 8 <*'( ) K#P#" ] O? 1 &7, 8 )F&&#O0-" K069-? <' ) 16" P @06<&" < *60& 9*&69Z)M8)&' 4 <0/]=&:<<12&346" @ (Regulation) D#? I? 0 @: 1Gc = 60&5? ) 15&" # ]KV #+ 6 0&aW 6 M0P&0E1P+ E I]=8. - 50K6&&#]P 8.-50K6&&#K=`,)K&7860&8866\K#0E@N06'PG&"#0J60&a/"- K&78 60&8866\*<I)8=. B 0-]KV K =? I Ea/" - ]Pa/" - K=`, ) CPE1e!0: 50#0&;1MV 0 ;` ) 6" @ 6&&#='( = 9-? 1 !+ E )aWV 1 P+ E I (Stigler, 1971) 6&:<I=60& Rent-Seeking !'_=0M`(=1#7,860&9M?)M'=M8)K=?IE a/"-D#?50#0&;ME0Ea/a/"-]=8.-50K6&&# 1=7,8)@06;W6<')%'<CPE 6\K#0EM8)&'4 P')='(=K=?IEa/"-@`)*.?#1**&'!E06&@&")1!7,8]KVDPV#0 Z`,) Economic Rents *+,1565&&G^o=9-?)CPE&'4<0/ K=?IEa/"-]=A0% 186O=6R50#0&;#+![-"6&&# Rent-Seeking CPE1e!0:60&&I#K'I 6'=]=K#W?aWVa/"-=V8E&0E1!7,86N0K=P&0%0&?I#6'= (Collusion) 6R1Gc= G&06L60&J$M8) Rent-Seeking *+,5N0%'B (Olson, 1965) PV I E1K-. =+( 60&9*&69Z)M8)&' 4 @` ) ;7 8 1Gc = K' I ]@M8)60& 6N01="P Rent-Seeking Society (Buchanan, 1980) CPE1e!0:1#7,8 MV0&0O60&='(=1Gc=fg0E*+,%I<%.#PW9/]KVK=?IE12&346"@]PK=?IEK=`,) 50#0&;DPV&'< Economic Rents 8E?0);W66\K#0E 6&:<I=60& eV 8 &03\&$ <' ) K/I)@` ) #' 6 1Gc = G&06L60&J$ *+, 1 6" P %I<%W? 6' < 60& 9*&69Z)M8)&'4<0/ =',=%78 60&9*&69Z)6?8]KV16"P Economic Rents 9/:@W)]@]KV16"P60&eV8&03\&$<')K/I)15#8 (Krueger, 1974; Mohammad and Whalley, 1984; Blomquist and Mohammad, 1986) 8E?0)D&6R-0# 60&95I)K0 Economic Rents 6R#'6@:*N0]KV #+60&;/.) Economic Rents %I<%W?6'=DGPVIE @=]=*+,5.P%?01O?0*0) 12&346" @ ='( = %? 8 Eb K#PDG 80*" 60&%V = !<=I' - 6&&#M8) 1*%C=C/E+]K#? ]=-8=9&6aWV%"P%V=@:DPV&'< Pure Monopoly Rents
: 176 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
]=O?I)-V=b =',=%78 1M050#0&;DPV&'<a/-8<9*=5W)6I?0*+,1M0DPV@06 5",)87,=b =',=%78 1M0DPV&'< Economic Rents @06%I0#50#0&;]=60& 5&V0)=I'-6&&#*0)1*%C=C/E+]K#? (Technological Innovation) 60&5&V 0 )=I' - 6&&#*0)1*%C=C/E+ 1 !7, 8 95I)K0 Rents 5:*V 8 =;` ) 60&5&V 0 )5&&%$ #W / %? 0 1!", # -? 8 &:<<12&346" @ #066I? 0 6&:@0E#W/%?0*+,#+8EW?9/VI 5",)5N0%'B6R%78 /'63J:M8) Rent Creation *+, 1 6" P @06=I' - 6&&#*0)1*%C=C/E+ 9 -6-? 0 )@06 Rent-Seeking 8E?0)5"(=1O") 1!&0:aWVG&:68<60&87,=b *+,G&0&;=0 Rents 6R@:1/+E= 9<<=I'-6&&#*0)1*%C=C/E+='(=b ;V0D#?#+*N0=<6+PMI0)60&1MV0#0 ]=-/0PZ`,)1Gc=K'I]@M8)-/0P9M?)M'=5#<W&J$ aWVa/"-87,=b 6R@'61MV0 #0-/0P9/:M0E5"=%V0M8)-=*+,%/V0E%/`)K&78]6/V1%+E)6'<5"=%V0M8) aWVa/"-&0E9&6 1#7,85"=%V0*+,a/"-@06=I'-6&&#]K#?1!",#M`(= &0%0E?8# /P/) Rents 8'=1=7,8)#0@0660&aW6M0P*0)PV0=1*%="%1&",#;P;8E 9/:%?8Eb K#PDG Rents *+,aWVa/"-aW6M0PDPV&'<@:%?8Eb K#PDG 9-? 6&:<I=60&95I)K0%?01O?0 D#?1K#78=6'<G&06L60&J$MV0)-V=1!&0: Rent-Seeking !E0E0#*N0/0EA0I:60&9M?)M'=]KVK#PDG 1!7,8]KV -=18)1K=7 8 6I? 0 G^ @ 1@6O=87, = b *. 6 &0E 6/? 0 ICPE5&. G RentSeeking K#0E;`) 60&/)*.=*&'!E06&@&")M8)G^@1@6O=K&786/.?# %=*+, #+ G &:CEO=$ &? I #6' = 1!7, 8 &0EDPV M 8)-=PV I E60&G6GH 8 ) 60& 1G/+,E=9G/)5"*F"-0#6\K#0E K&788+6='EK=`,) !E0E0#95I)K0a/ G&:CEO=$5W)5.P@06=CE<0E*+,#+8EW? CPE#"]KVaWV87,=1MV0&?I#]=6"@6&&# ='(=b ]=6&:<I=60&M8) Rent-Seeking (Buchanan, 1980)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 177 :
,* Ben8-SeeD6ng +15 I2!J68-SeeD6ng &9%2+1)4Q9%2F' ]=&:<<12&346" @ 9<<*. = =" E #*+, 8 02' E 6/D6&0%0 1&0 50#0&;!" @ 0&J0;` ) %I0#9-6-? 0 )&:KI? 0 ) Rent-Seeking 6' < Profit-Seeking -/0P9M?)M'=5#<W&J$*N0]KVG^@1@6O=95I)K06N0D& 5W)5.P1*?0*+,*&'!E06&*+,#+8EW?187(88N0=IECPED#?16"P Rent-Seeking 1=7, 8 )@06A0I:60&9M? ) M' = 5#<W & J$ 1 Gc = G^ @ @' E *+, 6? 8 ]KV 1 6" P 60&;/. ) Rents @=6&:*',)D#?#+aWV]PDPV&'< Economic Rent 8+6-?8DG5 %I0# 9-6-? 0 )M8) Rent-Seeking 6' < Profit-Seeking 6R %7 8 RentSeeking 6?8]KV16"P%I0#5WB15+E-?85')%# ]=MJ: Profit-Seeking #"DPV1Gc=1O?=='(= -'I8E?0)&'4<0/G&:1*2K=`,)G&0&;=0]KV5"*F"]=60& aW6M0Pa/"-5.&096?<&"3'*K=`,)*+,]6/VO"P6'<K'IK=V0%J:&'4<0/ ]= 6&J+=+(&'41Gc=aWV5&V0)5A0I:%I0#M0P9%/=K&78K0#0DPVE068'=@8# G/8#M`(= (Artificial Scarcity) K&781Gc=A0I:*+,1565&&M`(=18)CPE &'4<0/ (Contrived Rents)6 #"]O?F&&#O0-" (Natural Rents) 9/: <&"3'**+,DPV&'<5"*F"]=60&a/"-5.&09-?aWV1P+EI1Gc=aWVDPV&'< Monopoly Rents Z`,)80@1Gc=*+,CG&PG&0=M8)K'IK=V0%J:&'4<0/ CPE*',IDG Rents 1Gc=60&C8=&0EDPV@06aWVP7,#5.&0]KV6'<aWVa/"-5.&0*+,aW6M0P&0E 1P+EI -'I8E?0)=+(O+(I?0 ;V0aWV*+,%"P@:aW6M0P60&a/"-5.&0]=G&:1*2=+( #"DPV]OV*&'!E06&@&")]Pb 1!7,8O?I)O") Monopoly Rents 1&0;781Gc= Profit-Seeking 9-?1#7,8aWV*+,%"P@:aW6M0PDPV*.?#1**&'!E06&@&") 80*" 60&@?0E%?0 Lobby K&78-"P5"=<=1@V0K=V0*+, (Bribery) 1!7,8]KV5"*F" 9K?)60&aW6M0Pa/"-5.&09-?aWV1P+EIA0E]=G&:1*2 =',=;781Gc= RentSeeking 6R1!&0:I?0 &0E@?0E@&")='(=#"DPV6?8]KV16"P%I0#)861)E]Pb -?8&:<<12&346"@CPE5?I=&I# (Buchanan, 1980) K069-?1Gc=60& C8=@06#78M8)aWV87,=]KV96? Lobbyist 9/:MV0&0O60&<0)%=1*?0='(=
: 178 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
PVIE1K-.=+(='612&34205-&$@N0=I=K=`,);78I?0 *&'!E06&*+,5WB15+EDG 1!7, 8 9M? ) M' = O? I )O" ) Rents *+, 1 565&&M`( = 18)CPE&' 4 <0/8E? 0 )@8# G/8#='(=1Gc=![-"6&&#M8) Rent-Seeking CPE-&) (Buchanan, 1980; Tollison, 1982) aWV*+,%"P@:aW6M0P60&a/"-5.&050#0&;@V0)*=0E%I0#1!7,8 Lobby ]KVK'IK=V0%J:&'4<0/E"=E8#E65"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P60& a/"-5.&09-?aWV1P+EI96?-= ]=9)?=+(-V=*.=%?015+EC8605M8)*=0E%I0# 6R%78 -V=*.=*0)5')%#M8)6&:<I=60&M8)60&5&V0)A0I:aW6M0P &0E1P+EI G^BK0%78 1Gc=60&5#%I&K&78D#?*+,5')%#a/"-*=0E%I0# 1!7,8*N0K=V0*+, Lobby K'IK=V0%J:&'4<0/1!7,85"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P 60&a/"-5.&0? 6&:<I=60&5&V0) Rent-Seeking CPE50&:5N0%'B6R%78 60&]OV@?0E*&'!E06&*+,#+%?01!7,89/66'< Economic Rents *+,1565&& G^o=9-?)M`(=CPE&'4<0/ ='EM8)9=I%"P=+(6R%78 16"P%I0#5WB15+E-?8 5')%#CPE5?I=&I# (Buchanan, 1980) @06-'I8E?0)1&7,8)60&]KV5"*F" aW6M0P60&a/"-5.&0 (D#?I?0@:1Gc=1K-.a/]P6R-0#) &'4<0/1GjPC8605 ]KVG^@1@6O=9M?)M'=1!7,8O?I)O")5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P60&a/"-5.&0 a/ 6R%78 ]=6&:<I=60&*.?#1**&'!E06&*+,9*V@&")=+(@:#06K&78=V8EM`(= 8EW?6'<M=0PM8) Monopoly Rents *+,5&V0)M`(=CPE&'4<0/ 8E?0)D&6R-0# ;V0&'4<0/#+1GH0K#0E9/:1K-.a/]KV#+aWVa/"5.&01!+E)&0E1P+EI &'4<0/50#0&;1GjP]KV#6+ 0&G&:#W/ (Auction) 5"*F" 9K? ) 60&aW 6 M0Pa/" - 5. & 0A0E]=G&:1*296? aWV *+, 1 5=8&0%05W ) 5. P 6&:<I=60&P')6/?0I=+#( 6' K/+6D#?!=V @0660&eV8&03\&$<)' K/I)8E?0) #CKh0&]=K#W1? @V0K=V0*+*, 1+, 6+E, IMV8) 1!&0:#'6#+60&@?0E1)"=]-VC-X:1!78, Z78( 50&5=1*2@061@V0K=V0*+&, 4' K&7816"P![-"6&&#M8) “60&i'I( ” 6'=]= K#W*? a+, GWV &:#W/8'=1Gc=60&C8=*&'!E06&@06aW<V &"CA%]KV96?aaWV /"- CPE *&'!E06&*+C, 8==+-( 68EW]? =#78MV0&0O60& (Tollison, 1982; 1987)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 179 :
9&)@W)]@M8) Profit-Seeking 9/: Rent-Seeking D#?9-6 -?0)6'= =',=%78 95I)K0a/G&:CEO=$5W)5.P@06%I0#50#0&;M8)-= K&78C8605*+,#+8EW? @.P*+,-?0)6'=6R%78 <&"<*M8)5;0<'=*0)5')%#*+, 9-6-?0)6'= ![-"6&&#M8) Profit-Seeking 8EW?A0E]=6&8<M8)60& 9M?)M'=%78 G&:5"*F"A0!M8)&:<<-/0P*+,16"P@06#78*+,#8)D#?1KR= (Invisible hand) 9-?a/!I)M8)60&9M?)M'=]=9=I%"PM8) RentSeeking 6?8]KV16"P60&1G/+,E=9G/)5;0<'=*0)5')%# 1!&0:9*=*+, G^@1@6O=@:9E?)O")9M?)M'=1!7,8]KVDPV6N0D& 9-?G^@1@6O=9M?)M'=1!7,8 ]KV#78*+,#8)D#?1KR=KE.P60&*N0)0= 9/:]OV1*V0*+,#8)D#?1KR=9*=*+, =',= %78 Rent-Seeking 6?8]KV16"P%I0#5WB15+E-?85')%##06I?0*+,@:]KV G&:CEO=$-?85')%# (Social Surplus) 6/?0IDPVI?0 ;V0!"@0&J0 J &:P'<G^@1@6O= ![-"6&&#M8) Profit-Seeking 9/: Rent-Seeking ]=&:<<12&346"@D#?9-6-?0)6'= 5",)-?0)8E?0)1P?=O'P%78 ]=MJ:*+, ![-"6&&# Profit-Seeking 6?8]KV16"P5",)*+,1&+E6I?0 “P+” (Good) 9-? Rent-Seeking 6?85A0I:*+, “1/I” (Bad) Z`,)#"]O?I?0@"-5N0=`6M8)60& K08&&;G&:CEO=$ -? 0 )6' = 9-? 1 !&0:5A0!M8)5;0<' = *0)5' ) %# 1G/+,E=DG 187(88N0=IE]KV%=]P%=K=`,)K&786/.?#]P6/.?#K=`,)50#0&; 95P)![-"6&&#M8) Rent-Seeking DPV8E?0)1-R#*+, (Buchanan, 1980) -'I8E?0)6R%78 6&J+*+,&'4<0/&:<.]KVA0%12&346"@]PA0%K=`,)#+ 5"*F"]=60&aW6M0P60&a/"-1!+E)aWV1P+EI 1Gc=-V= -* +'-5D)+%'#42 Ben8-SeeD6ng :"-+%'!+8G Ben8-SeeD6ng -*) +'-5D)+%'#42 Ben8-SeeD6ng Rent-Seeking M8)A0%186O=1Gc=#W/1K-.9K?)-V=*.=5')%# ]=&:<<12&346"@*.=="E# ='6F.&6"@!E0E0#95I)K06N0D&5W)5.PPVIE
: 180 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&*.?#1**&'!E06&1!7,85&V0)5A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI CPEE8# 5/:1)"=<0*5.P*V0E1!7,89/66'<C8605*+,@:DPV&'<5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P 1Gc=60&OP1OE]=&:<<60&9M?)M'=5#<W&J$*+,G&02@0660&9*&69Z) M8)&'4<0/ ='6F.&6"@1KR=1!+E) Profit-Seeking 1*?0='(= &'4<0/]= *[3\+12&34205-&$60&1#78)9<<]K#?#"]O?aWV95I)K05I'5P"60&5')%# 5W)5.P8+6-?8DG (Becker, 1983; Bates, 1983) &'4<0/80@G&0&;=0 %.#6"@6&&#*0)12&346"@DIV]=#789-?1!+E)aWV1P+EIPVIE1K-.a/-?0)b =0=0 9/:6N0K=P]KVaWVa/"-&0E]P&0EK=`,)1MV0@'P60&6"@6&&#='(=b 80*" 5.&0 <.K&+, 5"=%V0=N01MV09/:5?)886<0)O="P 1Gc=-V= 6&:<I=60& 5&V0)A0I:60&9M?)M'=1!7,8]KV16"P60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI=+( *N0]KVG^@1@6 O=!E0E0#*.?#1**&'!E06&@&") 8E?0)=V8E6R1!7,8O?I)O")A0I:60& aW6M0P&0E1P+EIK&78%.V#%&8)A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI-?8DG <0) %=80@G&:5<a/5N01&R@ ]=MJ:*+,<0)%=/V#1K/I%/V0E%/`)6'<%=*+, Z7(8/8-1-8&+, %=@N0=I=#06Z7(81!7,815+,E)CO% 9-?#+%=D#?6+,%=1*?0='(= *+,;W6/8-1-8&+, %I0##+CO%K&78D#? M`(=6'<@N0=I=*&'!E06&*+,*.?#1* 1!7,860&=+( 60&Z7(8/8-1-8&+,-?0)6'< Rent-Seeking 6?8]KV16"Pa/ A0E=86 (Externalities) ]=PV0=/<@06*&'!E06&*+,*.?#1*1!7,8]KVDPV Economic Rents ]=9)?=+(@`)1Gc=-V=*.=%?015+EC8605M8)5')%# 6"@6&&#M8)60&5&V0)A0I60&J$aW6M0P&0E1P+EI]=6&J+]P 6&J+K=`,) #'6PWPZ'<*&'!E06&@N0=I=#K020/ 5##-"I?0#+ Lobbyist @N0=I= 10 %=7 Z`,)1Gc=-'I9*=M8)5#0%#60&%V0 10 9K?)1P"=*0) DG6&.)I8O")-'= 9-?/:5#0%#60&%V0]OV@?0E1)"= 1 /V0=1K&+EB5K&'4Q 1!7,8C=V#=V0I]KV&'45A08866\K#0E]KV5#0%#60&%V0M8)-=DPV5"*F" 9K?)60&aW6M0P9-?aWV1P+EI 1&05##-"I?0#+ Lobbyist 1!+E) 1 %= ]=@N0 =I=*'()K#P*+,G&:5<a/5N01&R@9/:DPVa/G&:CEO=$6/'<%7=@0660& *.? # 1**&' ! E06&8E? 0 )=V 8 E6R O+( I? 0 #+ 6 0&CE6EV 0 E*&' ! E06&@06
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 181 :
Lobbyist *+,1K/78 9 %= ]KV96? Lobbyist *+,G&:5<a/5N01&R@ 60& 6&:@0E*&'!E06&*+,9*V@&")=+(16"PM`(=!&V8#b 6'<%I0#5WB15+EM8) 5')%# 1!&0:*'() Lobbyist 9 %= 5#0%#60&%V08+6 9 9K?) -V8)5WB 15+E1)"=*+,/)*.=1!7,8C=V#=V0I5#0O"6&'45A0/VI=50#0&;DG*N08E?0) 87,=b *+,#+%.J%?0-?812&346"@5?I=&I##066I?0G&:CEO=$*+,16"PM`(= (Tullock, 1987) 1=7,8)@06&:<<12&346"@O'6@W)]KV#+60&<"P1<78=60& ]OV*&'!E06& CPE5&V0)A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EIM`(= 8E?0)D&6R-0# Lobbyist *+,*N0)0=5N01&R@E')-V8)1aO"B6'<A0I:%I0#D#?9=?=8=-?8DG Lobbyist 87,=b *+,D#?G&:5<a/5N01&R@@:!E0E0#*.?#1**&'!E06&]K#? 1!7,8O?I)O")5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI-/8PDG Z`,)1&+E6![-"6&&# =+(I?0 Rent Avoidance8 K&78 Rent-Protection (Tollison, 1987) Z`,) 6" @ 6&&#*+, #+ -V = *. = 16" P M`( = ;V 0 G&02@066&:<I=60&M8) RentSeeking Activity ]=5')%#='(=b G^@1@6O=*+,*.?#1**&'!E06&1!7,895I)K0 Rent 6R@N01Gc=-V8) *.?#1**&'!E06&1!",#M`(= 1#7,8G^@1@6O=87,=b !E0E0#O?I)O") Rent ='(=1O?=6'= P')='(=@`)#'616"P5)%&0#60&9E?)O") Rent &:KI?0)fg0E*+, DPV%&8<%&8)A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI6'<fg0E*+,G&0&;=09E?)O") A0I60&J$P')6/?0I (Tollison, 1987; Tullock, 1987) 1!&0:60& DPV5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI#"]O?1&7,8))?0Eb 9/:E',)E7=="&'=P& -'I8E?0)*+,O+(;`)1&7,8)=+(6R%78 60&16R<A03+5&&!50#"-@068.-50K6&&# *+#, 6+ 0&9M?)M'=5#<W&J$*)'( =+1( !78, O+;( )` 9=IC=V#*+@, :16"P Rent Avoidance K&78 Rent-Protection ]=A0!G&:68<*+, 3 5##-"I?0 &'4<0/16R< A03+5&&!50#"-@068.-50K6&&#K=`,) 15V=8.G*0=@:CE6EV0E@06 15V= S 1Gc= Sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
: 182 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
N%B,'-+45>IC ,& +%',+,P42 Gc!n!36c Ben87
60&I"1%&0:K$]=12&34205-&$@./A0%*',IDG6R%78 @:16"Pa/ 3 PV0= ]=9)?60&I"1%&0:K$9<< Comparative Static =',=%78 PV0=9&6 !7(=*+,50#1K/+,E# ABC %78 Deadweight Loss M8)A03+ PV0=*+,58) !7(=*+, EACF %78 &0EDPVM8)&'4<0/@06A03+ 9/:PV0=*+,50# %78 a/ 6&:*<M8)A03+*+,&'<A0&:CPEaWV<&"CA%1*?06'<!7(=*+, C 9/:aWVa/"1*?06'<!7(=*+, P A0&:A03+*+,9-?/:fg0E@:9<6&'<M`(=6'<%?0%I0#E7P KE.?=M8)8.G5)%$9/:8.G*0=M8)5"=%V0O="P='(= ;V0#+/'63J: RentProtection aWV<&"CA% (c) D#?#+60&&I#-'I1Gc=8)%$6&*+,1MV#9MR)9/: D#?#+1K-.a/*+,@:&I#-'I6'=%'P%V0=60&5WB15+E Consumer Surplus *+, ;W616R<CPE&'4<0/-0#*[3\+9/VI 60&&I#-'IM8)aWV<&"CA%@N0=I= #061!7,81Gc=6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$9*<@:1Gc=DGD#?DPV (Olson, 1965) 1!&0:#+G^BK01&7,8) Free Rider 15#8 8E?0)D&6R-0# aWVa/"-Z`,)#'6#+
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 183 :
@N0=I==V8E50#0&;&I#-'I6'=8E?0)1MV#9MR) 9/:50#0&; Lobby -?8 -V0=A03+K&781G/+,E=9G/)A03+]=*"2*0)*+,187(8G&:CEO=$96?aWVa/"]=*[3\+ Public Choice 1O7,8I?0 aWVa/"-@N0=I==V8E#+1K-.a/1!+E) !8*+,@:]OV Producer Surplus *+,@:5WB15+EDG%78 !7(=*+, PcBCF 1Gc= 1)"=1!7,8]OV-?8-V0=A03+5&&!50#"- &0E@?0E=+(%78 Rent-Seeking K&78 Rent-Protection Cost ]=%I0#K#0EM8) Tullock 9/:%I&&I#6'< -V=*.=*0)5')%# ABC P')='(= -V=*.=&I#M8)A03+5&&!50#"-%78 PcBCF <I6 ABC 60&E6-'I8E?0)A03+5&&!50#"-6R1!&0:C/6%I0# 1Gc=@&")5"=%V0G&:1A*1<+E&$9/:<.K&+,#'6;W616R<A03+5&&!50#"- 9/: 167 8 <*'( ) K#P#' 6 1Gc = 5" = %V 0 aW 6 M0PCPEaWV a /" - &0E1P+ E I 1=7, 8 )@06 &'4<0/1O7,8I?05"=%V01K/?0=+(1Gc=5"=%V0*+,]KVC*3-?8&?0)60E (Demerit Goods) P')='(=@`)-V8)%I<%.#8E?0)1MV#)IP 60&1MV0]@-V=*.=*0) 5')%#M8)60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI=+( 1&0@N01Gc=-V8)1MV0]@;`) 3 5?I= =',= %7 8 Deadweight Costs, Rent-Seeking Costs 9/: RentProtecting Cost (Tullison, 1987) 8E? 0 )D&6R - 0# G^ @ 1@6O=*. 6 %=]=5' ) %##" D PV #+ C 8605 95I)K0 Rent 8E?0)1*?01*+E#6'= 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$K&785#0%#60& %V0-?0)b Z`,)#+60&@'P-'()8)%$60&8E?0)1K=+EI9=?=#'650#0&;5&V0) 50E]E5' # !' = F$ 1 !7, 8 ;? 0 E*8P%I0#-V 8 )60&M8)6/.? # 5#0%#96? aWV 6N0K=P=CE<0E 1!7,8a/'6P'=1Gc==CE<0E50F0&J: (Public Policy) P')6&J+]=5K&'481#&"60 6&.)I8O")-'=#+6"@60&M8)<&"3'* Lobbyist @N 0 =I=#06 1!7, 8 ]KV < &" 6 0&]=PV 0 ==+( ]=G^ @ @. <' = #+ 6 0&<&" 6 0&96? G&:1*287,=b *+,5?)5"=%V01MV0DG@N0K=?0E]=5K&'481#&"60 9-?#+1!+E) <&"3'* Lobbyist <0)9K?)='(= *+,50#0&;C=V#=V0I]KVI._"5#0O"69/: 5A0aWV 9 *=&03\&1KR = O8<6' < 6\K#0E<0)e<' < 6&:<I=60& Lobby =+(*N0]KV16"P-V=*.=5')%#@N0=I=#066I?0-V=*.=M8)8)%$6&
: 184 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
Lobbyist K/0E1*?0 ]=G&:1*2PV8E!'_=06&:<I=60&M8) RentSeeking aW6!'=6'<60&eV8&03\&$<')K/I)*0)60&1#78) (Political Corruption) -'I8E?0)6R%78 ]=5')%#*+,#+60&%I<%.#&:<<8'-&09/6 1G/+, E =1)" = -&0-? 0 )G&:1*2 G^ @ 1@6O=50#0&;Z7( 8 1)" = -&0-? 0 ) G&:1*2DPVCPE-"P5"=<=1@V0K=V0*+,]=5N0='6)0=%I<%.#9/61G/+,E= 1)" = -&0-? 0 )G&:1*2 Z`, ) 1Gc = 5;0=60&J$ *+, ! <DPV ] =6&J+ 8" = 1P+ E (Krueger, 1974) CPE1e!0:]=6&J+8"=1P+E9/:-.&6+ -V=*.=8'=57< 1=7,8)@0660&eV8&03\&$<')K/I)5W);`) 7-15 1G8&$1ZR=-$M8)G&"#0J 60&Z7(8M0E*'()K#P Rent-Seeking 1Gc=![-"6&&#*+,=?05=]@8E?0)E",)]=&:<< 12&346"@ 1&0D#?-?8-V0=60&150:95I)K0 Rents @0660&%"P%V=-'I E01!7,8&'630C&%#:1&R)K&78C&%18P5$ Z`,)-?8#0#+60&@P*:1<+E=5"*F" <'-&E0 (Patent) ='(= 1!&0:E0P')6/?0I#+%.J%?0*0)5')%#]=&:E:E0I ]=*N0=8)1P+EI6'= 1&0#"DPVGL"15F='6&V8)E8P="E#8E?0) D#1%"/ 9@R% 5'= K&78 F)DOE 9#%8"=D-E$ 1!&0:60&95I)K0 Rents =+( 5?I= 5N0%'B#0@0660&*.?#1*!'_=0*.=#=.3E$9/:%I0#50#0&;8'=I"123 M8)-'I18) 9-?1&0GL"15F![-"6&&#M8)aWVa/"-&;E=-$K&78/W6@V0)]= 5KA0!9&))0=*+,95I)K0 Rents CPE60&1&+E6&V8)]KV&'4<0/@N06'P C%I-0=N01MV0&;E=-$@06-?0)G&:1*2 (Freenstra, 1984; 1985a; 1985b) ![-"6&&#1K/?0=+(%78 60&95I)K0 Economic Rents 9*V@&") %78 Rent-Seeking 1!&0:60&95I)K0 Rents ]=-'I#'=18)6?8a/&V0E -?85')%# 9-?='6I"*E0205-&$60&9!*E$!E0E0#%V=K0E0&'630C&% 18P5$6/'<#"DPV*N0]KV5')%#157,8#*&0#/) -&)6'=MV0#6/'<*N0]KV5')%# #=. 3 E$ =? 0 8EW? M`( = 1e61O? = 1P+ E I6' < =' 6 &V 8 )*+, #+ O7, 8 15+ E )*+, 5 &V 0 )5&&%$ %I0#5.=*&+E$96?C5-G&:50*M8)#=.3E$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 185 :
-*+ 594!+8G#42 Ben8-SeeD6ng +*5>5%>#42'1(5%" Rent-Seeking 16" P @06501K-. ] P? 501K-. K /' 6 %7 8 60& @N 0 6' P 60&9M? ) M' = #" ] KV 6 /.? # ]P6/.? # K=`, ) 50#0&;1MV 0 #0]=-/0P='( = 6/?0I8+6='EK=`,)6R%78 60&5&V0)*N0=<6+PMI0) (Barrier to entry) #" ]KV<.%%/87,=1MV0#0]=-/0PDPV ]=G&:I'-"205-&$M8)#=.3EO0-" 5')%# E"=E8#]KVaWVG&:68<60&*+,50#0&;%"P%V=5",)G&:P"34$K&78I'_=F&&# *0)1*%C=C/E+ ] K#? D #? I? 0 @:1Gc = &W G 5" = %V 0 ]K#? 6&&#I" F+ ] K#? K&7 8 a/"-A'Jl$]K#? #+8N0=0@60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI Z`,)1&+E6&I#b 6'=I?0 &:<<5"*F"<'-&9 (Patent) *'()=+(CPE*+,&'4<0/1Gc=aWV&'<G&:6'=5"*F"9K?) 60&aW6M0PP')6/?0I#"]KVaWV87,=/:1#"P5"*F"M8)aWV%V=!< %I0#E"=E8# M8)&'4<0/]=60&G6GH8)5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P6R1!7,85&V0)9&)@W)]@]KV 16" P =I' - 6&&#*0)1*%C=C/E+ 8' = 1Gc = 60&E6&:P' < a/" - A0!M8) &:<<12&346"@ 5"*F"<'-&K&785"*F"80@;781Gc=60&95I)K0 Rent *+,#"DPV6?8]KV16"Pa/9)?/<-?85')%# 9-?;V01&05##-"I?0 #+%=6/.?#K=`,) 50#0&;C=V # =V 0 I]KV &' 4 <0/E" = E8#]KV 5" * F" ] =60&a/" - D!? *', I &0O80J0@'6& %=6/.?#=+(@:DPV&'< Monopoly Rents K&78 Economic Rents 5')16-I?060&16"P Rent-Seeking 6R1!&0:&'4<0/]KV5"*F"96?%= 6/.#? K=`), aW6M0Pa/"-D!? *N0]KV6/.#? 87=, b G&0&;=01MV0&?I#I)D!<W/E$ *'()=+( -?0)6R!E0E0#*.?#1**&'!E06& 80*" %I0##0=: 1I/0 9/: *&'!E06&*+,#+%?087,=b 1!7,8]KV&'4<0/K'=#05='<5=.=6/.?#-= PVIE1K-. =+( #W/1K-.9K?)60&16"P Rent-Seeking @`)1Gc=60&6&:*N0M8)&'4<0/ (Governmental Action) CPE-&) (Strigler, 1971; Posner, 1975) Rent-Seeking -?0)6'< Profit-Seeking 6R-&)*+,5?I=9&6='(= #+ 6 0&1G/+, E =9G/)5;0<' = *0)5' ) %# (North, 1987) ]=*[3\+
: 186 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
12&34205-&$ 6 0&1#7 8 )9<<]K#? ;V 0 &:<<12&346" @ #+ 6 0&*N 0 )0= 8E? 0 )8" 5 &:15&+ 6/D6&0%06R @' 6 1Gc = -' I @' P 5&&*&' ! E06&8E? 0 )#+ G&:5"*F"A0! 9-?&'4<0/]=G&:1*2-?0)b 6/'<9*&69Z)6/D6&0%0 8E?0)1K=+EI9=?= *'()1Gc=aWV5&V0)A0I:60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI]KV16"P 6&:<I=60& Rent-Seeking *',IDG6R%78 1#7,8&'4<0/-'P5"=]@]KV#+60& aW6M0P6"@6&&#*0)12&346"@<0)A0%!7(= a/6R%78 G&"#0J8.G*0= 5"=%V0;W6@N06'P &0%05"=%V0@:ME'<-'I5W)M`(=1#7,81*+E<6'<&0%0-/0P ]=A0I:*+,#+60&9M?)M'= aWV*+,DPV Rents 6R%78aWV*+,DPV5"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P ]=6" @ 6&&#*0)12&346" @ ='( = ]OV 1 %&7, 8 )#7 8 60&@N 0 6' P 6" @ 6&&#*0) 12&346"@]=G&:1*2-?0)b #+/'63J:%/V0E%/`)6'= =',=%78 ]<8=.B0(Licenses) C%I-0 (Quotas) 8=. B 0- (Permits) ]KV 8N 0 =0@ (Authorizations) 9/:8=.#'-" (Approvals) 1Gc=-V= 1%&7,8)#781K/?0=+( 1Gc = 60&1565&&G^o = 9-? ) ]KV 1 6" P %I0#M0P9%/=8E? 0 )6N 0 #:/8 (Artificial Scarcity) CPEE61K-.a/50&!'PO="P1!7,85='<5=.=60&]OV 1%&7,8)#78P')6/?0I D#?I?01K-.a/@:P+K&781/I6R-0#10 A0I:K0#0DPV E06='<I?01Gc=#W/1K-.9K?)60&16"P Economic Rents 9/:*N0]KV#+ Rent-Seeking Activity -"P-0#PVIE15#8 G^@1@6O=@:E"=E8#/)*.= *&' ! E06&*+, K 0E06@&" ) b 1!7, 8 95I)K0 Rents K&7 8 1!7, 8 G6GH 8 ) 5A0I:*+,1K=786I?0G^@1@6O=87,=b *.6I";+*0) PVIE1K-.=+( *&'!E06&*+, #+%?0@N0=I=#061Gc=60&C8=&0EDPV]KV96?aWV*+,5&V0) Rents Z`,)D#?6?8]KV 16"PG&:CEO=$-?85')%#5?I=&I# (Buchanan, 1980) K&788+6='EK=`,) 1Gc=60&C8=%I0##',)%',) (Wealth Transfers) CPEG&02@0660&a/"5"=%V0K&78<&"60&]Pb 60&6&:*N0M8)&'4<0/*+,5='<5=.=]KV16"PA0I:K0#0DPVE06 1Gc=60&M'PMI0)#"]KVaWV87,=9*&6-'I1MV0#0]=6"@6&&#='(= &:P'<M8) Rents-Seeking Activity ]=5' ) %#M`( = 6' < M=0P9/:M8<1M-M8)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 187 :
&'4<0/*+,9*&69Z)]=&:<<12&346"@;V0&'4<0/]KV5"*F"*.6%=50#0&; 1MV0;`)A0I:K0#0DPVE06*+,&'4<0/1565&&M`(=1*?01*+E#6'= Rents *+, 5&V0)M`(=6RD#?#+%I0#K#0E9-?G&:60&]P ]=*[3\+ =' 6 12&34205-&$ 6 0&1#7 8 )]K#? (Neoclassical Political Economy) ;78I?0=CE<0EM8)&'4<0/1Gc=-'I9G&A0E]= &:<<11 (Endogenous Variable) 9/:=CE<0E-?0)b M8)&'4<0/1Gc= A0!5:*V8=60&9E?)O")a/G&:CEO=$A0E]=5')%# (Colander, 1984) PVIE1K-.=+( -&0<]P*+,5;0<'=*0)5')%#E')50#0&;G&:50=G&:CEO=$ DPV 8 E? 0 )P+ &' 4 <0/6R #+ 1 5;+ E &A0! &' 4 <0/]=*[3\+ 1 2&34205-&$ 60&1#78)9<<]K#?1O7,8I?0 aWV<&"CA% aWVa/"- aWV/)%:9== 5#0%#60&%V0 9/:6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$*0)60&1#78) 80*" 5A0aWV9*=&03\&K&78I._" 5A0 -/8P@=MV0&0O60&/VI=6&:*N01!7,8a/G&:CEO=$M8)-=18) (Self-Interest) ]=-/0P60&1#78) (Political Marketplace) CPE 1e!0:='660&1#78)1Gc=15#78= “=0EK=V0” (Brokers) *+,*N0K=V0*+, ;?0E1*%I0##',)%',) (Wealth Transfers) &:KI?0)6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ (McCornmick and Tollison, 1981) 9/:60&*+,&'4<0/8866\16Jl$ -?0)b 1!7,8%I<%.#12&346"@ (Regulation) 6R#+1GH0K#0E1!7,8-8< 5=8)a/G&:CEO=$]KV96?6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ (Stigler, 1971) #*5>5%>#42'-55+%'!$342 Rent-Seeking #+%I0#5'#!'=F$6'<&:<<60&1#78)8E?0)D&? 60&8F" < 0E%I0#5' # !' = F$ =+( %? 8 =MV 0 )E06 8E? 0 )D&6R - 0# 1&080@ !"@0&J01Gc= 2 6&J+6IV0)b 6/?0I%78 6&J+9&6 60&9M?)M'=]= &:<<60&1#78)1!7,85&V0)<')%'<K&786N0K=P]KV#+60&;?0E1* Economic Rents M`(=6'<I?0]%&1Gc=aWV50#0&;%I<%.#&:<<&'45A0 K&788+6='E K=`, ) M`( = 6' < ]%&1Gc = aWV 1 /7 8 6%J:&' 4 <0/<&" K 0&G&:1*2 *'( ) =+( 1 #7, 8
: 188 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
50#0&;6.#8N0=0@&'45N01&R@6R50#0&;5&V0)5A0I:*+,6?8]KV16"P60& 95I)K0 Rents M`(= 6&J+*+,58) %78 60&!E0E0#O?I)O")K&789M?)M'= 1!7,895I) Rents A0E]=&:<<60&1#78)*+,PN0&)8EW? 1!&0:D#?80@a/'6 P'=]KV16"P60&1G/+,E=9G/)8)%$G&:68<]=&:<<60&1#78)]KB? %I0# @&")6R%78 ='6F.&6"@60&1#78) (Political Entrepreneurs) @:!E0E0# 9*&6-'I1MV05W?&:<<60&1#78) CPE60&/)*.=5#'%&&'<1/786-'()1!7,8]KV 1Gc=1)7,8=DMM8)60&1MV0&?I#6"@6&&#M8) Rent-Seeking (Tullison, 1987) 6"@6&&#M8) Rent-Seeking Activity 50#0&;16"PM`(=DPV K/0E&:P'< -'I8E?0))?0Eb %7860&@N06'P%I<%.#@N0=I=&;9*R6Z+,]= 1M-6&.)1*!#K0=%& (D#?I?060&%I<%.#=+(@:8V0)1K-.a/]P6R-0#) *N0 ]KVGH0E*:1<+E=&;9*R6Z+,#+#W/%?0M`(=#0*'=*+ CPE1@V0K=V0*+,M8)&'41Gc= aWV#+8N0=0@]=60&@'P5&& P')='(= 1&0%0P60&J$DPV*'=*+I?0@:16"P RentSeeking K/')@066N0K=P@N0=I=GH0E*:1<+E=&;9=?=8=9/VI 9-? 6&:*&I)%#=0%#50#0&;1GjPG&:#W/M0EGH0E*:1<+E=&;9*R6Z+, 1!7,8M0E5"*F"]KV96?aWV*+,%"PI?0@:PN01="=6"@60&&;9*R6Z+, *'()=+(80@#+1GH0 K#0E1!7, 8 16R < 1)" = 1MV 0 )<G&:#0J9a? = P" = 6&&#I" F+ P' ) 6/? 0 I=+( 1Gc=60&C8=GH0E*:1<+E=]KV1Gc=6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/ Z`,)50#0&;=N0 DGM0E-?8 8E?0)D&6R-0# 1&7,8)&0I=+(80@ME0E886DG8+6 1#7,8='660& 1#7 8 )F. & 6" @ G&0&;=0*+, @ :DPV &' < a/G&:CEO=$ @ 0660&G&:#W / GH 0 E *:1<+E= CPEI",)1-V=1!7,8]KV-=18)1Gc=aWVO=:60&G&:#W/ 6?8]KV16"P %I0#5WB15+E-?85')%# 60&@?0E1)"=]KV*'()='660&1#78)9/:MV0&0O60& @=6&:*',)=0EK=V01K/?0=+(1Gc=a/-0##0 6&:<I=60&1K/?0=+(1Gc= Rent-Seeking G&06L60&J$1K/?0=+(16"PM`(=<?8Eb ]=G&:1*2PV8E !'_=0 (Cheung, 1974) 1#7,8&'4<0/6')I/]@I?060&9M?)M'=8E?0)15&+ 80@1Gc = a/&V 0 E-? 8 &:<<12&346" @ *'( ) b *+, < &" K 0&G&:1*2CPE]OV
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 189 :
&:<<*.=="E# 6R@:PN01="=60&@N06'P8.G*0=M8)6"@6&&#6&:<I=60& 95I)K0 Economic Rents M`(=6'<&:<<60&1#78)1Gc=5N0%'B 80*" &:<<G&:O0F" G D-ECPE-&) (Direct Democracy) &:<<6`, ) G&:O0F" G D-ECPE-&) (Semi-Direct Democracy) &:<< G&:O0F"GD-ECPE60&9M?)M'=M8)&:<<!&&%60&1#78) (Democracy by Party Competition) &:<<G&:O0F" G D-E9<<-' I 9*= (Representative Democracy) &:<<8N0=0@="E# (Authoritarian Politics) 1Gc=-V= &:<<60&1#78)1Gc=G^@@'EO+(M0P;`)&:P'<60&%I<%.# 8N 0 =0@M8)G&:O0O=]=&:<<5' ) %#='( = b ]=&:<<G&:O0F" G D-E 8E?0)9*V@&") ='660&1#78)#+<*<0*%?8=MV0)=V8E 1=7,8)@06G^@1@6O= #+MV8#W/50&5=1*29/:I"@0&JB0J8E?0)P+E",)]=60&/)%:9==15+E) (Vote) 60&-'P5"=]@CPE]OV15+E)5?I=]KB?1Gc=16Jl$ *N0]KVC8605M8) 60&*N0 Rent-Seeking #+=V8E a"P6'<&:<<6`,)G&:O0F"GD-EZ`,)1GjP C8605]KV5;0<'=*K0&9/:MV0&0O60&#+<*<0*8E?0)5W)1P?=]=60& 6N0K=P=CE<0E12&346"@ P')6&J+M8)G&:1*2]=9;</:-"=81#&"60 9/:D*E -'()9-?Gd 2520 @=;`)G^@@.<'= &:<<60&1#78)9<<8N0=0@ ="E#*K0&9/:MV0&0O60&!/1&78=#+<*<0*]=60&6N0K=P=CE<0E 12&346"@8E?0)6IV0)MI0) 60&95I)K0 Rent 16"PM`(=8E?0)9!&?K/0E 1!&0:&'4<0/A0E]-V&:<<60&1#78)9<< Authoritarian Government 1!&0:D#? @N 0 1Gc = -V 8 )%N 0 =` ) ;` ) 15+ E )M8)G&:O0O= (Bloch, 1986) 1=7,8)@06G&:O0O=D#?#+5"*F"/)%:9==1/786-'()&'4<0/ P')='(= ]= &:<<60&1#78)1O?==+( aWV1aPR@60&50#0&;E65"*F"9K?)60&aW6M0P]KV 96?6/.?#%=6/.?#K=`,) CPED#?S^)15+E)*'P*0=%'P%V0= =*+"S9$Z",'-RQM)A 60&&I#-'IK&78/'63J:M8)5#0%#M8)aWVa/"-K&78aWV<&"CA%
: 190 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1Gc=a/M8)60&*N0&?I#6'=1!7,8]KV#+<*<0*K&788N0=0@*+,#+-?8-/0P K&7 8 60&1#7 8 ) 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 80*" 5KA0!9&))0= 5#0%# I"O0O+! 8)%$6&M8)O0ID&?O0I=0 5#0%#60&%V0 ='6 Lobbies 6/.?#aWV aW 6 M0P9<< Cartels K&7 8 6/.? # *+, #+ 6 0&&I#-' I 1!7, 8 1GH 0 K#0E<0) G&:60&*+,D#?1Gc=*0)60& 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$1K/?0=+(#+a/G&:CEO=$&?I# (Common Interest) K&78a/G&:CEO=$!"123 (Special-Interest Group) 8)%$6&*+,&I#-'I1Gc=6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$#+%I0#1MV#9MR)K&78D#? M`( = 6' < I? 0 #+ % I0#50#0&;]=60&5&V 0 )9&)@W ) ]@96? 5 #0O" 6 8E? 0 )D& 8)%$60&-?0)b #+6&:<I=60&%'P1/786aWV*+,@:1MV0&?I#6/.?#1!7,8M@'P G^BK0 Free Rider ;V0G^@1@6O=50#0&;&I#6/.?#6'=8E?0)1K=+EI 9=? = Z`, ) #+ a /G&:CEO=$ &? I #6' = (Common Interest) =N 0 DG5W? 6 0& 6&:*N0&?I#6'= (Collective Active) a/%78 *.6b %=]=6/.?#@:DPV&'< a/G&:CEO=$@0660&&?I#6/.?#CP=8'-C=#'-" (Olson, 1965; 1982) 9-?#"]O?*.66/.?#50#0&;&I#!/')1!7,81Gc=6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ M`(=8EW?6'< A0I:%I0#1Gc=aWV=N0M8)6/.?# %I0#!&'6!&V8#M8)60&6&:*N0&?I#6'= 6/.? # -V 8 )#+ M =0P1/R 6 9/:M`( = 6' < I? 0 6/.? # #+ 6 &:<I=60&]KV 5", ) @W ) ]@*+, 50#0&;1/7865&&96?5#0O"6 (Selective Incentive) =',=%78 %=*+,#"DPV #+5?I=16+,EIMV8)6RD#?50#0&;1Gc= Free Rider (Olson, 1965) a/G&:CEO=$M8)60&6&:*N0&?I#6'=]=6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$1Gc= 5"=%V050F0&J:K&78 Collective Good -?86/.?# /'63J:M8)5"=%V0 50F0&J: ]=9)?=+(%/V0E6'<6\K#0E60&GH8)6'=G&:1*2K&78#/!"3 =', = %7 8 1#7, 8 %=K=`, ) %=]P]=6/.? # DPV G &:CEO=$ %=87, = b 6R D PV &' < G&:CEO=$1O?=6'= (Olson, 1965) 9-?6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$D#?DPV16"PM`(= *',IDG 5')16-I?0D#?#+6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$]=K#W?%=@= aWV<&"CA% K&78aWV 15+EA03+ *'()b *+,#+a/G&:CEO=$&?I#6'= 1K-.a/%78D#?50#0&;6+P6'=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 191 :
(Olson, 1965; Austen-Smith, 1981; Brock and Magee, 1978; Chubb, 1983; Hardin, 1982; Moc, 1980) P' ) ='( = 9#V @ :#+ Collective Action 8E? 0 )K/I#b 6R D #? G &:5<a/5N 0 1&R @ @N 0 =I= 5#0O"6]=6/.?#*+,#+M=0P1/R650#0&;*+,@:#+ Collective Action 9/:a/ G&:CEO=$&?I#50#0&;&:<.DPV8E?0)O'P1@= 5##-"I?0#+aWVa/"-&0E]KB? 2 &0E]=8.-50K6&&#K=`,) 9/:9-?/:fg0E@:DPV&'<60&8.PK=.=K&78 O?8)CKI?M8)A03+@06&'4<0/1*?06'= aWVa/"-9-?/:&0E#+9=IC=V#@:DPV a/G&:CEO=$%=/:%&`,)@0660& Lobby ]=8.-50K6&&#=+( K&78aWVa/"*'() 2 &0E1@&@01!7,86N0K=PG&"#0J60&a/"-1!7,8M0E]=&0%09!) 1#7,8-V=*.=60&1@&@0-?8&8)-,> P')6&J+60&&I#K'I6'=a/"-]=-/0P aW6M0P=V8E&0E ;V0@N0=I=aWVa/"-1!",##06M`(=@=;`) 10 &0E 9&)@W)]@ M8)60&&I#-' I 1!7, 8 Collective Action @:/P/)*' = *+ 6/.? # a/ G&:CEO=$*0)60&9/:8.-50K6&&#@`)#+/'63J:8)%$6&*+,1MV#9MR) 50#0&;&I#-'I6'=1&+E6&V8) K&78 Lobby ]KV&'4<0/E6a/G&:CEO=$]KV 6/.?#%= *'()]=&WG Cartelization K&78 Collusion 1!7,895I)K0 Rent (Barry and Maedin, 1982; Olson, 1965; Taylor, 1976) 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 1 6+, E I6' = 6' < 6&:<I=60&*0)60&1#7 8 ) 8E?0)1K=+EI9=?= D#?I?0&WG60&G6%&8)@:1Gc=G&:O0F"GD-E8E?0) 9*V@&")K&78G&:O0F"GD-E%&`,)]< 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$E')%)#+<*<0* 8EW? *'( ) *0)-&)9/:*0)8V 8 # 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ E" = E8#5=' < 5=. = !&&%60&1#7 8 )PV I E1)" = *8) 1!7, 8 ]KV O =:60&1/7 8 6-'( ) K&7 8 ]KV 1 )" = 1!7, 8 K015+ E ) 1!7, 8 9/61G/+, E =6' < a/G&:CEO=$ < 0)G&:60& 1#7, 8 !&&%60&1#78)1K/?0='(=DPV&'<1/786-'()1Gc=&'4<0/ 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ #'695I)K0 Quota K&7860&G6GH8)<0)G&:60&]=8.-50K6&&#K&78 %I0#O?IE1K/78M8)&'4<0/1Gc=6&J+!"123 (Mueller and Murrell, 1986) 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$*+,#+M=0P1/R650#0&;15=81)"=*8)1!7,8]OV
: 192 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
Ck3J0K&78 “Z7(8” ='660&1#78) CPE%0PKI')I?0@:DPV&'<a/G&:CEO=$ -8<9*=@0660&/)*.= %I0#1Gc=DGDPVM8)%I0#5N01&R@M`(=8EW?6'< G&:5<60&J$M8)6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$M8)6/.?#87,=b (Stigler, 1974) &I#*'()O?8)*0)]=60&-"P-?86'<='660&1#78) 2*#H%'%M+%' MV0&0O60&;781Gc=6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ 9-?#+/'63J:!"123]= 9)? *+, 1 Gc = 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ M 8)&' 4 <0/ (The Interest Group of Government) MV0&0O60&#+5?I=5N0%'B]=60&15=89=:]KV='660& 1#78)8866\K#0E-?0)b 1!7,8%I<%.#A0%12&346"@ CPE1e!0:]= G&:1*2PV 8 E!' _ =05? I =K=`, ) *N 0 K=V 0 *+, 1 Gc = =' 6 I" O 060&MV 0 &0O60& (Technocrats) 9/:8+65?I=K=`,)%8E<&"60&G&:O0O= ]=*[3\+ Public Choice MV0&0O60&#"DPV95I)K05I'5P"60& 5W)5.P]KV96?5')%# 9-?95I)K0%I0#!8]@5W)5.P]KV96?-=18) *'()]=&WG 8N 0 =0@9/:a/G&:CEO=$ * 0)12&346" @ <*<0*M8)MV 0 &0O60& 50#0&;!"@0&J01Gc= 2 *[3\+ %78 G&:60&9&6 *[3\+16+,EI6'<60& 9*&69Z)*0)12&346" @ Z`, ) !E0E0#8F" < 0E60&9*&69Z)M8) &' 4 <0/*+, PN 0 &)8EW? ] =9)? M 8)6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 9/:G&:60&*+, 5 8) *[3\+16+,EI6'<-&06\K#0EZ`,)!E0E0#8F"<0E;`)6N01="PM8)60& 9*&69Z)M8)&'4<0/9/:60&CE6EV0E%I0##',)%',) *'()58)*[3\+#+ %I0#16+,EI1=7,8)6'=@=E06*+,@:!"@0&J08E?0)1861*2 Stigler (1971) 15=8I? 0 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ -? 0 )b /V I =#+ -V = *. = 9/:a/G&:CEO=$ ] =60&]OV &' 4 1Gc = 1%&7, 8 )#7 8 1!7, 8 5&V 0 )%I0# #', ) %', ) ]KV 6' < 6/.? # %= CPE1e!0:6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 6 /.? # ]KB? 80*" O0I=0K&786&&#6&#'6!E0E0#6PP'=&'4]KV%.V#%&8)-=]=MJ:*+,6/.?# aWVa/"-]=A0%8.-50K6&&#9/:<&"60& 1O?= 6/.?#aWVa/"-&;E=-$@:&I#
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 193 :
1Gc=8)%$6&*+,1MV#9MR)-?8-V0=60&9*&69Z)@06&'4 K0660&9*&69Z) P')6/?0I1Gc=a/&V0E-?88.-50K6&&# 6&:<I=60&M8) Rent-Seeking @`)1Gc=60&-8<C-VK&785='<5=.=60&9*&69Z)M8)&'45A0@066/.?# a/G&:CEO=$-?0)b CPE#+MV0&0O60&1Gc=*'() Rent-Seekers 9/: Rent-Setters ]=5' ) %#M8)G&:1*2PV 8 E!' _ =06&:<I=60&16" P RentSeeking #+ % I0#9-6-? 0 )@06G&:1*2!' _ =09/V I C8605M8) MV0&0O60&]=G&:1*2PV8E!'_=0]=60&95I)K0 Rent 16"PM`(=@06 2 501K-. (Jagannathan, 1986) %78 A#8/&#7#/ K=V0*+,M8)&:<< &0O60&9<<P'()1P"#%78 K=V0*+,<&"60&G&:O0O= 9-?CPE*+,#+G&:O0O= /V=K/0# <&"60&*+,]KVD#?!81!+E)#'6#+8.G5)%$5?I=16"= A#8/&#<BC'56 K=V0*+,]=60&5?)15&"#]KV16"P60&!'_=05;0<'=MV0&0O60&80@]KV5"*F" G&:CEO=$96?A0%8.-50K6&&#K=`,)K&78A0%12&346"@K=`,)CPE1e!0: 1O?= 60&5?)15&"#60&/)*.=]KV#+aWVa/"-1!+E) 1 &0E K&7860&5?)15&"# ]KV16"P&:<<60&!'_=0]=O=<*<0)G&:1A*1*?0='(= ]=MJ:*+,E')#+ 8.G5)%$5?I=16"=8EW? a/6R %7 8 *'( ) 58)G&:60&MV 0 )-V = #+ a /]KV MV 0 &0O60&1Gc = aWV %I<%.# Rent 1!&0:1Gc=aWV%I<%.#]KVG&:O0O=1MV0;`)5"=%V0K&78 <&"60&*+,K0#0DPVE061K/?0='(= PVIE1K-.=+(@`)#+ Rent-Seeking K/0E &WG#066I?0*+,15=8CPE Krueger (1974) ]=9)?=+(MV0&0O60&5&V0) C8605 (Opportunities) @06&:<<<&" 6 0&K&7 8 &:<<60&5? ) #8< (Delivery System) CPE1e!0:MV0&0O60&1Gc=aWV6.#50&5=1*25N0%'B ]=&:<<12&346"@ -'I8E?0)1O?= 60&M8-"P-'()C*&2'!*$ ;V0]OVI"F+G6-" F&&#P080@]OV&:E:K/0EGd 9-?I"F+60&DPVC*&2'!*$8E?0)&IP1&RI%78 @?0E1)"=]-VC-X:]KV1@V0!='6)0= 1!7,8*N0]KV#+C*&2'!*$]OV&IP1&RIM`(= 60& 9Z)%"I%=87,=b *N0]KV16"P Rent-Seeking @0660&<&"60& 1=7,8)@06
: 194 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
C*&2' ! *$ #+ @N 0 =I=@N 0 6' P 1Gc = -V = 60&-" P 5" = <==+( 1 6" P M`( = *', I DG]= G&:1*2PV8E!'_=0 (Rashid, 1981; Blomquist and Mohammad, 1986) Z`,);781Gc=60&MWP&+PC8605M8) Rent-Seeking 8'=1Gc=-V=*.= 5')%#8E?0)K=`,) =861K=7860&95I)K0 Rents @0660&]KV<&"60& 9<<P'()1P"#MV0&0O60&E')50#0&;P/<'=P0/a/G&:CEO=$!"123K&78 E68A"5"*F"Y]KV96?186O=6/.?#]P6/.?#K=`,) 80*" 60&DPV<'-&5?)15&"#60& /)*.=@06&'4<0/]=60&a/"-5"=%V08.-50K6&&#<0)O="P 60&*N01O?= =+(1*?06'<1Gc=60&E6 Rents *+,1565&&M`(=CPEMV0&0O60& K&7860& %I<%.#60&1MV0;`)M8)G^@1@6O=]=6"@6&&#='(=6R1Gc=8+6&WG9<<K=`,) 80*" C%I-060&=N01MV09/:5?)886 1Gc=-V= 60&95I)K0 Rents ]= 5')%#G&:1*2PV8E!'_=050#0&;*N0DPV8E?0)=V8E58)*0)P')*+,6/?0I #09/VI *'()58)*0)16+,EIMV8)6'<6&:<I=60&eV8&03\&$<')K/I)*+,#+ %I0#Z'<ZV8=M`(=6I?0]=8P+- 1!&0:MV0&0O60&P`)*&'!E06&@&")@06aWV *+,#+95I)K0 Rents CPE#"DPV6&:*<-?8)<G&:#0J9a?=P"=]=G^@@.<'= 9-?G&:O0O=1Gc=aWV@?0E Economic Rents =+(8E?0)9*V@&")]=8=0%80*" C%&)60&5&V0)C%&)5&V0)!7(=40=M=0PE'63$*+,802'E1)"=6WV@06-?0) G&:1*2 1Gc=-V=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 195 :
!M824''V <0)*+1&+E68E?0)87,=b 80*" Cartelization, Monopolization K&78 DUPs (Directly Unproductive Profit-Seeking or Activities) Z`,) 1Gc = 2' ! *$ *+, =' 6 12&34205-&$ & :KI? 0 )G&:1*2=" E #]OV (Bhagwali, 1982; 1987) 1
8V0)@06 Colander (1984)
2
5')16-I?0 -V=*.=5')%#M8)60&aW6M0P&0E1P+EI6R%78 -V=*.=%?015+E C8605 (Opportunity Cost) 6/?0I%78 1Gc=a/G&:CEO=$*+,5')%#15+E 5/:DG 1=7,8)@06G/?8E]KV#+60&@N06'PG&"#0Ja/a/"-]KV-,>/) 9/: 1!",#&0%0]KV5W)6I?0]=5A0!60&9M?)M'= (Fisher, Dornbusch and Schmalensee, 1988) 3
6N0D&]=*+,=+(1Gc=6N0D&*0)12&346"@*+,DPV%N0=`);`)-V=*.=%?015+EC8605 #"]O?6N0D&*0)<'BO+*+,%N0=`)9-?-V=*.=O'P9@V) -0#%I0#%"PM8)='6 12&34205-&$ -V=*.=*+,5N0%'B#"]O?9-?-V=*.=O'P9@V) K06E')#+-V=*.= 98<9f)8EW?PVIE 4
]=*[3\+ 6 0&9M? ) M' = 5#<W & J$ aWV a /" - ]=-/0P=+( @ :DPV &' < Normal Profit ]=&:E:E0I1*?0='(= =',=%78 P= LMC= LAC
5
2'!*$=+(aWV1M+E=@)]@9G/I?0 1Gc=5",)*+,1565&&M`(=18)CPE&'4<0/
6
]=5')%#D*E 6&:<I=60&M8) Lobbyist E')#+=V8E1#7,81*+E<6'< G&:1*2*+,1@&"B9/VI 1O?= 5K&'481#&"60 <&"3'* Lobbyist #+<*<0* 5W)]=60&GH8=M?0I50&MV8#W/96?='660&1#78)1!7,8G&:CEO=$M8)F.&6"@*+, 16+,EIMV8) I'_=F&&#M8)60&]OV Rent-Seeking ]=5')%#D*E#'61Gc= 1&7,8)M8)!?8%V06'<='660&1#78)D*E 7
: 196 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
2'!*$*'()58)=+(]KV%I0#K#0E1P+EI6'=]=9)?*+,I?0 aWV*+,!E0E0#*.?#1* *&'!E06&1!7,89E?)O") Rents 1#7,8DPV&'< Rents 6R@N01Gc=-V8)G6GH8) ]KV%)8EW?-/8PDG ]=MJ:*+,G^@1@6O=87,=b 6R@V8)@:O?I)O") Rents =+( DPV-/8P1I/01#7,8#+C8605 8
&:<<5"*F"<'-& (Patent) 1Gc=1)7,8=DM*+,#=.3EO0-"E"=E8#]KVaWV%"P%V= DPV&'< Monopoly Rents ]=O?I)&:E:1I/0K=`,)*+,9=?=8= *'()=+(1!7,8 1Gc=a/-8<9*=-?8=I'-6&&#]K#?b 80*" <&"3'* Xerox Corporation 1Gc=-V= 9
G&:602=CE<0E1!7, 8 ]KV #+ 6 0&aW 6 M0P6" @ 6&&#*0)12&346" @ ='( = &' 4 <0/#' 6 8V 0 )I? 0 1!7, 8 5&V 0 )5I' 5 P" 6 0&-? 8 5' ) %# 80*" ]=6&J+ &'4I"50K6"@*+,1Gc=50F0&JWGCA% 1Gc=-V=
10
]=*[3\+=+C8%/055"6P'()1P"##'65##-"]KV&'4<0/1Gc=G^@@'EA0E=86 &:<<*+,D#?80@%I<%.#DPV (Exogenous Variable) 9=I%"P=+(#"]O?M8) ]K#?9-?8E?0)]P ='612&34205-&$-'()9-? Adam Smith @=;`) Karl Marx -?0)6RE`P;78I?0 &'41Gc=5?I=K=`,)M8)&:<<12&346"@5')%# 60& I"1%&0:K$*0)12&346"@]Pb K/+6D#?!V=*+,-V8)16+,EIMV8)6'<<*<0* M8)&'4 11
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 197 :
5''6%)S+'$ Alchain, Armen A. (1987), “Rent”, in John Eastwell, Murray Millgate and Peter Newman (eds.), (H0 '0R O+*Z1+J07 5 W-.P-G4+1U GN $.G4G3-.,, London: Macmillan. Appelbaum, Elic and Eliakim Katz (1987), “Seeking Rents by Setting Rents: The Political Economy of Rent Seeking”, $.G4G3-. MGK14+*, 97 (September), pp. 685699. Austen-Smith, D. (1981), “Voluntary Pressure Groups,” $.G4G3-.,, 48(May), pp. 143-153. Barry, B. and R. Hardin (eds.) (1982), Q+P-G4+* V+4 +46 I11+P-G4+* /G.-0PU, Beverly Hills: Sage. Bates, Robert. H. (1983), $,,+U, G4 PH0 OG*-P-.+* $.G4G3U GN QK1+* 5N1-.+, Cambridge University Press. Baysinger, Barry, Robert Ekelund B. Jr. and Robert D. Tollison (1980), “Mercantillism as a Rent-Seeking Society”, in James M. Buchanan, Robert Tollison and Gordon Tullock (eds.), (GR+16 + (H0G1U GN PH0 Q04P=/00Y-4Z /G.-0PU, Colledge Station: Taxas A & M University Press. Baysinger, B and R. Tollish (1980), “Evaluating the Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation”, 5P*+4P-. $.G4G3-. MGK14+*, 8 (December), pp. 22-26. Becker, Gary S. (1983), “A Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence”, TK+1P01*U MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-.,. (August), pp. 371-400.
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: 204 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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1!7, 8 ]KV D PV - /0P60&1#7 8 )]=&W G /' 6 3J$ ='( = &' 4 F&&#=W B *+, 6? 8 ]KV 1 6" P -/0P60&1#78)]=8.-#A0I:E?8#1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB]=8.-#A0I: -/0P60&1#78)*+,#+C%&)5&V0) (Market Structure) -?0)6'= E?8#6?8]KV 16"P![-"6&&#*0)60&1#78) (Market Conduct) 9-6-?0)6'= %I0# 9-6-?0)PV0=C%&)5&V0)9/:G&:![-"6&&#E?8#E')a/]KVa/GL"<'-"60& (Market Performance) 9/:G&:5" * F" A 0!M8)-/0P (Market Efficiency) 9-6-?0)6'=PVIE 6&:<I=60&GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )9/:60&&? 0 )K&7 8 96V D M &'4F&&#=WB]=G&:1*2D*E='<-'()9-?Gd 2475 1Gc=-V=#0 #"DPV#+MV8 !"@0&J0*+,O'P1@=16+,EI6'<C%&)5&V0)-/0P60&1#78) a/*+,-0##06R%78 9=I*0)60&GL"&WG*+,E7PGL"<'-"9/:&'4F&&#=WB*+,&?0)K&7896VDM6?8]KV 16"Pa/6&:*<-?8-/0P60&1#78)*+,M'P6'= K&78#"DPV58P%/V8)-V8)6'= ]=9=I*0)1P+EI6'= 1=7,8)@0660&GL"&WG60&1#78)#+a/6&:*<-?8-/0P60&1#78) CPE-&)CPE*+,60&1G/+,E=9G/)]=-/0P60&1#78)6&:*<-?8-'I9G& 87,=b CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)a/GL"<'-"60&9/:G&:5"*F"A0!M8)-/0P P')='(= 60&1G/+,E=9G/)C%&)5&V0)-/0P60&1#78)@`)%I&E`P1Gc=1GH0 K#0EG4#40= (Primary Objective) M8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78) 5?I= 1GH0K#0EM'(=5.P*V0E (Ultimate Objectives) %I&8EW?*+,a/GL"<'-"60& 9/:G&:5"*F"A0!M8)-/0P60&1#78) (PW9a=A0!*+, 1) aWV 1 M+ E =15=8I? 0 60&*N 0 ]KV - /0P60&1#7 8 )#+ 6 0&9M? ) M' = *+, 5#<W&J$ (Perfect Competition) %I&E`P1Gc=1GH0K#0EG4#40=M8) 60&GL"&WG60&1#78) K06-/0P60&1#78)#+60&1G/+,E=9G/)C%&)5&V0) ]=9=I*0)=+( !/')60&9M?)M'=]=-/0P@:6?8a/P+-?8a/GL"<'-"60&9/: G&:5" * F" A 0!M8)-/0P -/0P60&1#7 8 )@:1Gc = -/0PG&" I &&50F0&J:*+,167(86W/-?860&1@&"B1-"<C-*0)12&346"@ 60&96VG^BK0
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(5) &:<<60&1/786-'() (Electoral System) (6) 6\60&/)%:9==15+E) (Voting Rules) ,*) N%B&"%G+%'!$3 4 2K)4S G $=&8 'KLea5 I!5686ca5 Ma2De8( -/0P60&1#78)]=8.P#%-"#+%.J/'63J:8E?0)=V8E 2 PV0= PV0=K=`,)1Gc=-/0PG&"I&&-50F0&J:*+,#+60&Z7(8M0E=CE<0E 6/?0I %78 1Gc=-/0P*+,=N0=CE<0E9/66'<%:9==15+E) #"]O?-/0P*+,=N01)"= 9/66'<%:9==15+E) ]=8+6PV0=K=`,)1Gc=-/0P*+,#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0) 5#<W&J$ (Perfect Competition) -/0P*+,#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0)5#<W&J$-V8)1Gc=-/0P*+,#+aWVZ7(8 9/:aWVM0E@N0=I=#06&0E @=D#?#+aWVK=`,)aWV]P#+8"*F"!/1K=78-/0P D#? I? 0 @:1Gc = G&:60&]Pb 6R - 0# -/0P60&1#7 8 )@:#+ 6 0&9M? ) M' = *+, 5#<W&J$DPV6R-?81#7,8D#?#+*N0=<K&788.G5&&%]=60&1MV09/:886@06 -/0P (Barriers to Entry and Exit) *'()G&:O0O=aWV#+5"*F"1/786-'() =' 6 60&1#7 8 ) 9/:!&&%60&1#7 8 ) 50#0&;1%/7, 8 =EV 0 E]=-/0P 60&1#78)DPVCPE15&+ K=?IE60&1#78)*.6K=?IE@:-V8)50#0&;9M?)M'= <=!7(=40=9K?)%I0#15#8A0%9/:1*?01*+E#6'= D#?#+K=?IE60&1#78) ]PDPV&'<60&167(8K=.=@06-/0P1Gc=!"123 K&78;W6-/0P/)C*3CPE 1e!0:1@0:@) *V0E*+,5.P 50&5=1*2]=-/0P60&1#78)@'6-V8)1Gc=50& 5=1*2*+,5#<W&J$ (Perfect Information) 9/:-V8)#+6&:<I=60&]= 60&*N0]KV16"P%I0#5#<W&J$M8)50&5=1*2PVIE K061GH0K#0EG4#40=M8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78)8EW?*+,60&*N0 ]KV-/0P60&1#78)#+60&9M?)M'=*+,5#<W&J$ 60&GL"&WG60&1#78)6R-V8) #.?)M@'PK&78*N0/0E*N0=<K&788.G5&&%]=60&1MV09/:886@06-/0P 1!7,8]KV60&1%/7,8=EV0EA0E]=-/0P1Gc=DGCPE15&+ CPE*+,-/0P#+50& 5=1*2*+,5#<W&J$PVIE
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,*+ R='2*'H%2*8C2.;2K. 'S82;c8;2e !J Kncen86=e7( &' 4 F&&#=W B 1Gc = 8A" # K05;0<' = *+, 6N 0 K=P6\16Jl$ K &7 8 5;0<'=*+,6N06'<60&*N0)0=M8)-/0P60&1#78) 6\6-"601K/?0=+(9f) 1&V=PVIEC%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@*0)12&346"@ CPE*+,C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@<0) G&:1A*#+ a /P+ -? 8 60&!' _ =060&1#7 8 ) <0)G&:1A*5&V 0 )%I0# 157,8#*&0#96?-/0P60&1#78) 9-?<0)G&:1A*6?8a/6&:*<]=*"2*0) *+,D#?9=?O'P 1#7,860&GL"&WG60&1#78)#+1MR##.?)*+,@:1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P 60&1#78)]KV#+60&9M?)M'=*+,5#<W&J$ 6R-V8)#+60&G&'<1G/+,E=C%&)5&V0) 5",)@W)]@*+,9f)1&V=]=&'4F&&#=WBDG]=*0)*+,5?)15&"#60&9M?)M'=]= -/0P K06&'4F&&#=WB#"DPV#+C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@*+,5?)15&"#60&9M?)M'= ]=-/0P60&1#78) C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@P')6/?0I=+(@:1Gc=8.G5&&%]=60& GL"&WG60&1#78)8E?0)5N0%'B ,*, +%'+'-.%QN%'-&H)>S),[851&8+%':"-&H)>S)43C) 'A67826<;86!n !J N2an7ac86!n O!78 anL @8he2 O!787 Q;2Len7( 60&1G/+,E=9G/)8)%$6& 5;0<'= 9/:6-"60*0)60&1#78)#+ -V=*.=GL"<'-"60& (Transaction Cost) 9/:-V=*.=87,=*+,-V8)15+E 60& GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )@' 6 -V 8 )%N 0 =` ) ;` ) G&:CEO=$ *+, 5' ) %#DPV &' < I? 0 %.V # 6' < -V=*.=*+,5WB15+EDGK&78D#? 60&GL"&WG60&1#78)*+,#+G&:5"*F"A0!%78 60&GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )*+, 1 5+ E -V = *. = -, > *+, 5. P 60&1G/+, E =9G/)8)%$ 6 & 5;0<'= K&786-"60*0)60&1#78)]P K06DPVG&:CEO=$D#?%.V#6'<-V=*.= *+,-V8)15+E @:-V8)E'<E'()60&a/'6P'=]KV16"P60&1G/+,E=9G/)='(= 60& a/'6P'=60&1G/+,E=9G/)%I&6&:*N0]=1&7,8)*+,]KVG&:CEO=$5.*F"96? 5')%# (Social Net Benefit) CPE9=?O'P1*?0='(= =861K=78@0660&!"@0&J0G&:CEO=$5.*F"*+,-696?5')%#9/VI 60&6&:@0EA0&:-V=*.=GL"<'-"60& (Distribution of TransactionCost Burdens) 9/:-V=*.=87,=6R1Gc=G&:1PR=5N0%'B]=6&:<I=60&
: 210 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
GL"&WG60&1#78) 1!&0:#+a/]=60&6N0K=PI?0]%&1Gc=aWV&'<A0&:-V=*.= 60&GL"&WG60&1#78) 9/:#+%I0#5N0%'B-?8%I0#5N01&R@9/:%I0#/V# 1K/I]=60&GL" &W G MV 8 !" @ 0&J0*+, I? 0 ]%&%I&1Gc = aWV &' < A0&:-V = *. = GL"<'-"60&9/:-V=*.=87,=@`)1Gc=MV8!"@0&J05N0%'BE",) CPE*+,D#?1!+E) 9-?-V8)#+60&6N0K=P-'I<.%%/K&786/.?#<.%%/aWV&'<A0&:8E?0)1K#0: 5#1*?0='(= K06E')-V8)#+60&6&:@0EA0&:-V=*.=*0)60&1#78)8E?0) 1K#0:5#PVIE *'()=+(1!&0:1K-.I?0 A0&:-V=*.=GL"<'-"60&9/:-V=*.= 87,=-6K&78D#?-696?aWV]P E?8##+a/-?860&-'P5"=]@6&:*N060&K&78D#? 6&:*N060&*0)60&1#78)M8)aWV='(= <*<'BB'-"I?0PVIE5"*F"9/:15&+A0!@:D#?#+G&:5"*F"a/K&78#+ G&:5"*F"a/=V8E/) K06&'4F&&#=WB6N0K=PCPE='EI?0aWV-V8)60&]OV 5"*F"K&78aWV-V8)60&15&+A0!-0#<*<'BB'-"M8)&'4F&&#=WB-V8)1Gc= aWV&'<A0&:-V=*.=GL"<'-"60&9/:-V=*.=87,=18)*'()K#P PVIE1K-.P')*+,6/?0IMV0)-V==+( 60&6N0K=PA0&:9/:aWV&'<A0&: -V=*.=GL"<'-"60&*0)60&1#78)9/:-V=*.=87,=@`)1Gc=1&7,8)*+,#+a/-?8 %I0#5N01&R@9/:%I0#/V#1K/IM8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78)2 ,*- +%'=D5=S$:"-+/%+15&"%G+%'!$342K)'-G154S&$ N%B '@"863a5 Beg;5a86!n !J I!5686ca5 Ma2De8( 60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'<-/0P*0)60&1#78)#+-V=*.=*+,-V8)15+E P')='(=@`)-V8)1G&+E<1*+E<&:KI?0)G&:CEO=$*+,5')%#DPV&'< (Social Benefits) 6'<-V=*.=*+,5')%#-V8)5WB15+EDG (Social Cost) @0660& %I<%.#9/:6N06'<-/0P60&1#78) 60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'<#0616"=DG (Overregulation) *N0]KV5')%#-V8)&'<A0&:-V=*.=D#?%.V#6'<G&:CEO=$ *+, D PV &' < 8+ 6 *'( ) 80@#+ a /M' < P' = !/1#7 8 )P+ 8 86@06-/0P60&1#7 8 ) (Crowding-out Effect) K&786/0E1Gc=*N0=<6+PMI0)60&1MV05W?-/0P
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 211 :
60&1#78)M8)!/1#78)P+ (Frey, 1997) 60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'<=V8E16"= DG (Underregulation) 80@1GjPO?8)]KV#+60&]OV8N0=0@]=*0)eV8e/ ]=MJ:*+,60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'<&:P'<8'=1K#0:5#80@PWPP`)!/1#78) P+1MV05W?-/0P60&1#78) (Crowding-in Effect) 60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'< @:8EW?]=&:P'<8.-#A0! (Optimal Regulation) 6R-?81#7,8-V=*.=5?I= 1!",#*+,-696?5')%# (Marginal Social Cost of Regulation) 1*?06'< G&:CEO=$ 5? I =1!", # *+, 5' ) %#DPV &' < (Marginal Social Benefit of Regulation) @0660&%I<%.#9/:6N06'<P')6/?0I &'4F&&#=WB1Gc=8A"#K05;0<'=*+,#+<*<0*]=60&%I<%.# 9/:6N06'<-/0P60&1#78) 60&GL"&WG60&1#78)@:-V8)1G/+,E=9G/)60& %I<%.#9/:6N06'<-/0P60&1#78)]KV8EW?]=&:P'<8.-#A0! #"]KV#+#06 16"=DG K&78=V8E16"=DG (Faria, 1999) ,*. '-55+%'!"34+&1Y2 'G5ec8!2a5 SR78e3( 60&8869<<&:<<60&1/7 8 6-'( ) #+ a /-? 8 60&1G/+, E =9G/) C%&)5&V 0 )G&:![-" 6 &&#9/:a/GL" <' -" 6 0&*0)60&1#7 8 ) *'( ) =+( 1=7,8)@06&:<<60&1/786-'()9f)1&V=PVIEC%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@ &:<<60& 1/7 8 6-'( ) ]=5' ) %#G&:O0F" G D-E%I&@:5:*V 8 =%I0#!` ) !8]@ 1@-=0&#J$ 9/:*0)1/786M8)&03\&aWV#+5"*F"1/786-'() K061GH 0 K#0EG4#40=M8)60&GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )8EW? *+, 6 0& 1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P60&1#78 )]KV #+6 0&9M? ) M' = *+, 5#<W &J$ &:<<60& 1/7 8 6-'( ) -V 8 )D#? “8.V # ” !&&%60&1#7 8 )M=0P]KB? 9/: “1KE+ E <” !&&%60&1#78)M=0P1/R6 K069-?-V8)167(86W/!&&%60&1#78)M=0P1/R6 15#8PV I E!&&%60&1#7 8 )M=0P]KB? 8+ 6 *'( ) D#? #+ 8 %-" ] =60&O' 6 =N 0 &:<<60&1#7 8 )DG5W? & :<<*I" ! &&% (Bi-Party System) 9/:K? 0 ) 1K@06&:<<!K.!&&% (Multi-Party System) CPE@)]@ !'_=060&
: 212 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
M8)&:<<60&1#78)%I&1Gc=DG-0#%I0#!`)!8]@ 1@-=0&#J$ 9/: *0)1/7 8 6M8)G&:O0O= @N 0 =I=aWV 9 *=&03\&]=&' 4 5A0 *'( ) 5A0 aWV9*=&03\&9/:I._"5A0%%I&1Gc=DG-0#5'P5?I=%:9==15+E)M8) G&:O0O= (Proportional Representation) 6/?0ICPE5&.G6R%78 &:<< 60&1/786-'()-V8)8869<<]KV58P%/V8)6'<60&1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P 60&1#78)]KV#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0)5#<W&J$ ,*/ +X+%'"2=-:))!*IQ2 'S!86ng B;5e7( 6\60&/)%:9==15+E)1Gc=6-"60*+,#+<*<0*5N0%'B]=60& 6N0K=P#-"M8)5')%# (Social Choice) 60&6&:*N0K&78D#?6&:*N060&]Pb M8)5')%#@:6?8]KV16"P 5I'5P"60&5W)5.P96?5')%# (Social Welfare Maximization) 6R-?81#7,8 60&6&:*N0K&78D#?6&:*N060&='(=b DPV&'<e'=*0=.#'-"@065')%# 6\ %:9==15+E)186e'=*$ (Unanimity Rule) 1Gc=6\60&/)%:9==15+E) 1P+EI*+5, 8P%/V8)6'<16Jl$8-. #A0!M8)!01&C- (Pareto Optimality) 9-?60&E`P6\%:9==15+E)186e'=*$]=60&6N0K=P*0)1/786M8)5')%# #+9=IC=V#*+,@:&'6305;0=A0!1P"# (status quo) D#?6?8]KV16"P60& 1G/+,E=9G/) =86@06=+( 60&DPV#0Z`,)#-"186e'=*$-V8)5WB15+E-V=*.= ]=60&-'P5"=]@ (Decision-Making Cost) 5W)E",) 6\%:9==15+E)MV0)#06F&&#P0 (Simple Majority Rule) =86@06D#?58P%/V8)6'<16Jl$8.-#A0!M8)!01&C-9/VI E')80@*N0 ]KVDPV#0Z`,)#-"*+,D#?58P%/V8)6'</N0P'<9K?)1K-.a/ K&78*+,1&+E6I?0 Voting Paradox 8'=1Gc=*+,#0M8) The Impossibility Theorem M8) 1%=1=RF 98&$C&I$ (Kenneth Arrow) (Arrow, 1963) K061GH0K#0EM8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78)8EW?*+,60&1G/+,E=9G/) -/0P60&1#78)]KV#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0)5#<W&J$ 6\60&/)%:9==15+E)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 213 :
@:-V8)#+a/]=60&5?)15&"#60&9M?)M'=]=-/0P60&1#78) #"]O?#.?)1!",# 60&6N06'< -&I@58< 9/:%I<%.#-/0P60&1#78) @=16"=6I?060&6N0 6'<&:P'<8.-#A0! (Optimal Regulation) -* #H4!*)4K)+%',[8';,+%'!$342 60&96V D M&' 4 F&&#=W B 1!7, 8 GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )%I&E` P ;7 8 9=I %I0#%"PI?0PVIE&'4F&&#=WB]=8.-#A0I: (Optimal Constitution) Z`,) 8EW?&:KI?0)M'(I58)M'(I M'(IK=`,)1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB*+,1=V=60&%I<%.#9/: 60&6N06'<-/0P60&1#78)8E?0)1MV#)IP Z`,)1&+E6I?0 Interventionist Constitution 8+6M'(IK=`,)1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB*+,G/?8E]KV-/0P60&1#78) *N0)0=8E?0)15&+ Z`,)1&+E6I?0 Liberal Constitution &'4F&&#=WB]= 8.-#A0I:1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB*+,%I<%.#9/:6N06'<-/0P60&1#78)8E?0) 1K#0:5# D#?#0616"=DG9/:D#?=V8E16"=DG 6/?0I8+6='EK=`,)6R%78 &'4 F&&#=WB]=8.-#A0I:-V8)1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB*+,#+60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'< -/0P60&1#78)]=&:P'<8.-#A0! (Optimal Regulation) PVIE <*%I0#=+(15=8I?0 60&1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P60&1#78)]KV#+60& 9M?)M'=8E?0)5#<W&J$1Gc=1GH0K#0EG4#40=M8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78) CPE*+, a /GL" <' -" 6 0&9/:G&:5" * F" A 0!M8)-/0P60&1#7 8 )1Gc = 1GH 0 K#0EM'(=5.P*V0E MV815=8]=60&GL"&WG60&1#78)1Gc=DG-0#16Jl$*+, =N015=8]=K'IMV8 3 -*) &"%G+%'!$342K)4SG$=&8 -/0P*+, #+ 6 0&9M? ) M' = 8E? 0 )5#<W & J$ 1 Gc = -/0P60&1#7 8 )]= 8.P#%-"-0#MV815=8M8)<*%I0#=+( 60&1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P60&1#78) ]KV #+ 6 0&9M? ) M' = 8E? 0 )5#<W & J$ @` ) 1Gc = 1GH 0 K#0EM8)60&GL" &W G
: 214 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&1#78) 60&GL"&WG60&1#78)1!7,860&=+(-V8)PN01="=PVIE#&&%I"F+8E?0) =V8E 8 9=I*0)%I<%W?6'=DG (1) 60&*N0/0E*N0=<6+PMI0)60&1MV05W?-/0P60&1#78)M8) ='660&1#78) (2) 60&*N0/0E*N0=<6+PMI0)60&@'P-'()9/:60&PN0&)8EW?M8) !&&%60&1#78) (3) 60&5?)15&"#60&9M?)M'=]=-/0P='660&1#78) (4) 60&E8#&'<15&+A0!]=60&]OV5"*F"1/786-'()M8)&03\& (5) 60&5?)15&"#60&*N0K=V0*+,PV0=="-"<'BB'-"M8)5#0O"65A0 aWV9*=&03\& (6) 60&5?)15&"#60&*N0K=V0*+,]=60&a/"-=CE<0EM8)&'4<0/ (7) 60&8N 0 =IE60&]KV 5 0&5=1*2*0)60&1#7 8 )1Gc = 50& 5=1*2*+,5#<W&J$ (8) 60&5&V 0 )6/D6%I0#&' < a" P O8<M8)&' 4 <0/*+, #+ -? 8 G&:O0O= -*)*) +%'>/ % "%Q>/ % )5+I G #D%2+%'!#H % *;9 & "%G +%'!$342#42)1++%'!$342 &'4F&&#=WB9K?)&0O80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2540 5&V0)*N0=< 6+PMI0)60&1MV05W?-/0P60&1#78) CPE#+*N0=<5N0%'B8E?0)=V8E 2 *N0 =< *N0=<9&6 DPV96? 60&<')%'<]KVaWV5#'%&&'<1/786-'()1Gc=5#0O"6 5A0aWV 9 *=&03\&-V 8 )5' ) 6' P !&&% *N 0 =<*+, 5 8)DPV 9 6? &:<8< ‘<'Jl"-E0F"GD-E’ 60&<' ) %' < ]KV aWV 5 #' % &&' < 1/7 8 6-'( ) 1Gc = 5#0O" 6 5A0aWV 9 *= &03\&-V8)5')6'P!&&%='<1Gc=8.G5&&%5N0%'B]=60&1MV05W?-/0P1#78) 1#7,8#+<*<'BB'-"]KV5')6'P!&&% aWV*+,-V8)60&1MV05W?-/0P60&1#78)#"
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 215 :
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: 216 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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PVIE%:9==15+E) (&V8E/: 25 + 1 15+E)) M8)@N0=I= 5.5. *+,#+8EW? 6\K#0E6R50#0&;a?0=5A0aWV9*=&03\&DPV %I0#MV8=+(1Gc=@&")]= 6&J+I._"5A0PVIE 60&]OV6\%:9==15+E)MV0)=V8E]=60&a?0=&?0)6\K#0EE') a/]KV5')%#D*E#+6\K#0E#0616"=DG 8E?0)=V8E*+,5.P#0616"=6I?0*+, @:<' ) %' < ]OV 8 E? 0 )#+ G &:5" * F" a /DPV P' ) @:1KR = DPV I? 0 #+ 6 \K#0E @N 0 =I=#069#V @ :#+ a /<' ) %' < ]OV 9 /V I 1@V 0 K=V 0 *+, aWV &' < a" P O8<#" 8 0@ <')%'<]OV6\K#0E1K/?0='(=DPV 60&#+6\K#0E/V=16"=1GjPO?8)]KV#+60& 1/786GL"<'-" aWV#+8N0=0@K=V0*+,50#0&;95I)K05?I=16"=*0)12&346"@ @0660&1/786GL"<'-"]=60&<')%'<]OV6\K#0EDPV (&')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$., 2543@) 6\%:9==15+E)MV0)=V8EM'P6'<1GH0K#0E60&5?)15&"#60& 9M?)M'=]=-/0P60&1#78) (8'=1Gc=1GH0K#0EM8)60&GL"&WG60&1#78)) 1!&0:6\%:9==15+E)MV0)=V8E1GjPO?8)]KV#+60&-&06\K#0E1!7,8 6N06'< -&I@58< 9/:%I<%.#-/0P60&1#78)DPVCPE)?0E @=60&6N0 6'< -&I@58< 9/:%I<%.#='(= 80@16"=6I?0&:P'<8'=1K#0:5# MV8 15=8]=60&GL"&WG60&1#78)]=6&J+=+(6R%78 6\K#0E*+,#+a//"P&8= 5"*F"9/:15&+A0!M8)O=O0ID*E]KV-,>6I?0*+,1Gc=8EW?6RP+ 6\K#0E*+,#+ a/]=60&/P*8=%I0#5#<W&J$9/:1!",#!W=%I0#D&V5##0-&M8)50& 5=1*26RP+ 6\K#0E1K/?0=+(%I&@:DPV&'<%I0#1KR=O8<@06&'45A0 PVIE6\%:9==15+E)MV0)#06 =',=%78 DPV%:9==15+E)#066I?0&V8E/: 50 M8)@N0=I=5#0O"6&'45A0*+,#+8EW? 60&]OV 6 \%:9==15+ E )MV 0 )=V 8 E]=60&/)#-" 9 /:a? 0 = 6\K#0E]=&'45A0 E')*N0]KV#-"9/:6\K#0E1K/?0='(=#"80@6/?0I8V0) DPVI?01Gc=DG-0#1@-=0&#J$M8)G&:O0O= 6\K#0E<0)G&:1A*#+ a/6&:*<-? 8 G&:O0O=]=PV 0 =40=:12&346" @ 9/:%I0#1Gc = 8EW?
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 247 :
6\K#0E1K/?0=+(5#%I&E`P6\%:9==15+E)MV0)#06 (DPV%:9==15+E) #066I?0&V8E/: 50 M8)@N0=I=5#0O"6&'45A0*+,#+8EW?) ]=60&I"="@e'E 9/:/)#-" 6\K#0E1K/?0=+(G&:68<PVIE (1) 6\K#0E&0E@?0E&'4<0/ (2) 6\K#0EA03+806& (3) 6\K#0EK=+(50F0&J: (4) 6\K#0E60&<&"K0&60&%/') (5) 6\K#0E1)"=-&0 (6) 6\K#0E*+,#+a/6&:*<-?85",)9IP/V8#9/:*&'!E06&F&&#O0-" (7) 6\K#0E*+,#+a/6&:*<-?860&6&:@0E&0EDPV (8) 6\K#0E*+,E')a/]KVG&:O0O=-V8)EV0E;",= (9) 6\K#0E*+, -V 8 )886-0#1)7, 8 =DM60&PN 0 1=" = =CE<0E (Policy Conditionalities) M8)8)%$6&C/6<0/ .* 5>*'S, <*%I0#=+( =N 0 15=8MV 8 15=8]=60&GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 ) CPE 6N 0 K=PI? 0 1GH 0 K#0EG4#40=M8)60&GL" &W G 60&1#7 8 )8EW? *+, 6 0& 1G/+,E=9G/)-/0P60&1#78)]KV#+60&9M?)M'=8E?0)5#<W&J$ *'()=+( CPE 1O7, 8 I? 0 60&1G/+, E =9G/)C%&)5&V 0 )-/0P60&1#7 8 ) (Market Structure) ]=9=I*0)P')6/?0I@:6?8a/6&:*<*+,P+]=PV0=a/GL"<'-" 60& (Market Performance) 9/:G&:5"*F"A0! (Market Efficiency) M8)-/0P60&1#7 8 ) 1#7, 8 #+ 6 0&6N 0 K=P1MR # #.? ) 1O? = =+( 6R -V 8 )#+ 6 0& 8869<<&'4F&&#=WB (Constitutional Design) DG]=*0)*+,@:M@'P 8.G5&&%60&1MV05W?-/0P60&1#78) (Barriers to Entry) 5?)15&"#60&
: 248 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
9M? ) M' = ]=-/0P60&1#7 8 ) 5? ) 15&" # ]KV 5 0&5=1*2*0)60&1#7 8 ) #+%I0#5#<W&J$9/:/P%I0#D&V5##0-& G&'<C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@]= &'4F&&#=WB 6N0K=PA0&:9/:60&6&:@0EA0&:-V=*.=*0)60&1#78) ]KV 1 K#0:5# /P*8=60&%I<%. # 6N 0 6' < 9/:-&I@58<-/0P 60&1#78)]KV8EW?]=&:P'<8.-#A0! 1G/+,E=9G/)&:<<60&1/786-'()9/: 6\60&/)%:9==15+E) 1!7,8]KV-/0P60&1#78)#+60&9M?)M'=5#<W&J$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 249 :
!M824''V &'4F&&#=WB]=8.-#A0I:1Gc=&'4F&&#=WB*+,#+60&%I<%.#9/:6N06'< -/0P60&1#78)]=&:P'<8.-#A0! (Optimal Regulation) Hume (1741/1951) Mill (1861/1977) 9/: Brennan and Buchanan (1983) 8EW?]=5N0='6%I0#%"P*+,5='<5=.=60&8869<<&'4F&&#=WB1!7,8 %I<%. # 9/:6N 0 6' < -/0P60&1#7 8 )8E? 0 )1MV # )IP (Interventionist Constitution) Frey (1997) 1=V=60&8869<<&'4F&&#=WB]=9=I*0) 15&+ =" E # (Liberal Constitution) Faria (1999) !E0E0# G&:=+G&:=8#5N0='6%I0#%"P*'()58)
1
205-&0@0&E$C8/"1I8&$ I"/1/+E#5'= (Oliver E. Williamson) 1Gc=aWV =N015=89/:!'_=09=I%"PI?0PVIE-V=*.=GL"<'-"60& (Transaction Cost Economics) <*5N 0 &I@5;0=:9K? ) %I0#&WV ] =1&7, 8 )=+( PW Williamson (1989) 205-&0@0&E$ C @=0F0= #0Z+ E$ (Jonathan Macey) ='66\K#0E 9/:205-&0@0&E$P'6/05 =8&$F (Douglass C. North) &='612&34205-&$5;0<'=9/:='6G&:I'-"205-&$12&346"@1Gc= aWV <. 6 1<" 6 60&2` 6 3060&1#7 8 )PV I E60&I" 1 %&0:K$ -V = *. = GL" <' -" 6 0& (Transaction-Cost Politics) PW Macey (1988) 9/: North (1989; 1990) 205-&0@0&E$8I"=02 P"63"- (Avinash Dixit) 1Gc=aWV#+<*<0* 5N0%'B]=60&<.61<"6!&#9P=M8) Transaction-Cost Politics PW Dixit (1996; 1998; 1999)
2
60&]OV5"*F"1/786-'()5#%I&1Gc=K=V0*+,!/1#78)K&78D#? PWI"I0*:1&7,8)=+( ]= Lomasky and Brennan (2000)
3
G^BK0%I0#D#?5#<W&J$M8)50&5=1*260&1#78) PW &')5&&%$ F=:!& !'=F$. (2542/2543)
4
: 250 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
<*I"1%&0:K$-/0P60&1#78)9/:5'BB0]=-/0P60&1#78) PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2542/2543)
5
<*I"1%&0:K$6\66-"609/:C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@]=&'4F&&#=WB9K?)&0O 80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2540 PW<**+, 5 M8) &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2547), !"#$%"&'(#)#0%*##+1MN7 :<2.!,#&8D)#0%*##+1MN7D=6 #&35&O&?0/#I<G >8"8 2540, 6&.)1*!Q: #-"O= 6
1K-.]P&'4F&&#=WBD*E@`)#+8%-"]=60&167(8K=.=!&&%60&1#78)M=0P ]KB? 9/:/)C*3!&&%60&1#78)M=0P1/R6 PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2542/2543) !'_=060&M8)8%-"P')6/?0I=+(]=&'4F&&#=WBD*E PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544)) 7
&:<<*I"!&&%P+6I?0&:<<!K.!&&%@&")K&78D#? PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2542/2543) 9/: Mueller (1997a: 134-137)
8
!&&%D*E&' 6 D*E1Gc = 8A" # K0!&&%PV I E60&1-" < C-@06A0E=86 *'()=+(PVIE60&%I<9/:%&8<#.V)9/:!&&%60&1#78)-?0)b (M&A) 60& M0P186A0!9/:5#0=e'=*$1Gc=/'63J:1P?=M8)!&&%60&1#78)*+, 1-"<C-PVIEI"F+=+( K0660&@'P5&&a/G&:CEO=$A0E]=!&&%D#?/)-'I 60&9-6!&&%E?8#16"PM`(=DPV ]=5A0!60&J$1O?==+( 60&#+8A"#K0 !&&%Z`,)G&:68<PVIE6/.?#60&1#78)8'=K/06K/0E*+,#+a/G&:CEO=$ M'P9EV)6'= #"DPV9-6-?0)@0660&#+!&&%60&1#78)K/0E!&&% 9/: &:<<*I"!&&%#"DPV9-6-?0)@06&:<<!K.!&&% PW &')5&&%$ F=:!& !'=F$. (25446) 9
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 251 :
]=60&G&:O.#;8P;8=5#0O"65A0*V8);",=9/:aWV<&"K0&*V8);",= -V8)#+aWV#+5"*F"1/786-'()#0/)%:9==D#?=V8E6I?0&V8E/: 50 M8)@N0=I= aWV#+5"*F"1/786-'()*'()K#P 9/:#-";8P;8=-V8)D#?=V8E6I?0&V8E/: 75 M8)@N0=I=aWV#+5"*F"1/786-'()*+,#0/)%:9==15+E) 10
%I0#6V0IK=V0M8) Transaction-Cost Politics PW Macey (1988) North (1989; 1990) 9/: Dixit (1996; 1998; 1999) 11
K0660&1/786-'()&:<<<'BO+&0EO7,8]=Gd 2544 E`PK/'6@N0=I=aWV9*= -0#5'P5?I= (Proportional Representation) !&&%60&1#78)*+,@:#+ aWV9*=&:<<<'BO+&0EO7,8/P/) DPV96? !&&%D*E&'6D*E (7 %=) !&&% G&:O0F"G^-E$ (4 %=) !&&%%I0#KI')]K#? (1 %=) 9/:!&&%O0-" !'_=0 (1 %=) 5?I=!&&%60&1#78)*+,@:#+aWV9*=&:<<'BO+&0EO7,81!",# M`(= (@061P"#*+,D#?#+) DPV96? !&&%15&+F&&# (3 %=) !&&%;",=D*E (2 %=) !&&%G&:O06&D*E (1 %=) 9/:!&&%&03\& (1 %=) PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544))
12
G^ B K06\60&/)%:9==15+ E )6' < 60&1/7 8 6-'( ) 5#0O" 6 I. _" 5 A0 PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543M)
13
MV815=816+,EI6'<60&1G/+,E=9G/)&:<<60&1/786-'()5#0O"6I._"5A0 PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543M) 14
<*I"1%&0:K$-V=*.=60&1/786-'() PW &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543))
15
: 252 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5''6%)S+'$ +*N%@%F>Q %J:6&&#60&!'_=0G&:O0F"GD-E (2538), JL5!'15/#5:,2&+,.E H1/&#AU.#MA/&#!+456I<G, 6&.)1*!Q: 5N0='6)0=68)*.= 5='<5=.=60&I"@'E. 1O0I=: D-&#02 (2542), JL 5 +M - >4T 1 %&1 66 A^ A #83&*. A I(G, 6&.)1*!Q: 5;0<'==CE<0E2`630. =%& !@=I&!)3$ 9/:8. 6 [3 !@=I&!)3$ (2543), JL 5 +M A#820(". &'(#)/&#!+456I<G, e<'<!"#!$%&')( *+5, 8), 6&.)1*!Q: 5N0='6!"#!$D*EI'_=0!0="O. &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2541), “MV8#W/!7(=40=16+,EI6'<&'4F&&#=WB 9K?)&0O80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2475-2540”, !5/'&#JL5+MD+&G!-J 101, C%&)60&1#F+I"@'E80I.C51&7,8) “12&34205-&$ &'4F&&#=WB”, 5N0='6)0=68)*.=5='<5=.=60&I"@E' , 6&6\0%#. &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2542/2543), “60&1#78)E.%&'4F&&#=WB9K?) &0O80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2540”, <*%I0#15=8-?8*+,G&:O.# 60&5'##=01&78, ) “60&1#78) 60&<&"K0& 9/:60&1G/+E, =9G/) ]=5' ) %#D*E]=-V = 2-I&&3K=V 0 ”, @' P CPE5;0<' = !&: G616/V0&:KI?0)I'=*+, 10-12 F'=I0%# 2542 J C&)9&# &8E'/%/+S<+O!'*E0 @')KI'PO/<.&+, -?8#0-+!"#!$]= @&'B Ck3J0='=*$ (<&&J0F"60&), 2.9B'06,+I<7 '##1.>1*)<&6 2.3&/&#!14C56H12&#8D1VC6"(2##$A#BEB >1+G6,), 5N0='6 !"#!$#W/="F"1PR6, K=V0 425-468. &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (25436), “60&1/786-'()5#0O"65A0I._"5A0%&'() 9&6”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 9 #+=0%# 2543
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 253 :
&')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543M), “60&1/786-'()5#0O"6I._"5A0*+,!`) G&0&;=0”, aWV@'P60&&0E1P78=, e<'<1P78=1#30E= 2543 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543%), “6\60&/)%:9==15+E)6'<60&1/786 -'()”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 4 ![3A0%# 2543 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543)), “-V=*.=60&1/786-'()”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 11 ![3A0%# 2543 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2543@), “6\60&/)%:9==15+E)6'<6\K#0E 5?I=16"=”, aW@V P' 60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 21 6'=E0E= 2543 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (25446), “D*E&'6D*E]=40=:8A"#K0!&&%”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 8 6.#A0!'=F$ 2544 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544M), “8%-"I?0PVIEM=0PM8)!&&%60&1#78)”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 15 6.#A0!'=F$ 2544 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544%), “!&&%G&:O0F"G^-E$6'<60&1/786-'() &:<<<'BO+&0EO7,8”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'=![K'5<P+*+, 8 #+=0%# 2544 &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544)), “Party list”, aWV@'P60&&0EI'=, e<'<I'= ![K'5<P+*+, 19 1#30E= 2544 &' ) 5&&%$ F=:!&!' = F$. (2544@), “6&:<I=60&6N 0 K=P=CE<0E 12&346"@A0E]-V&'4F&&#=WB9K?)&0O80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2540”, <*%I0#15=8-?8*+,G&:O.#60&5'##=0*0)I"O060& 1&7, 8 ) “D*EA0E]-V & :1<+ E <12&346" @ ]K#? ” , @' P CPE%J: 12&34205-&$ #K0I" * E0/' E F&&#205-&$ I' = *+, 4 ![3A0%# 2544 J C&)9&#&8E' / &" 1 I8&$ ;==&0OI" ;+ 6&.)1*!Q.
: 254 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
&')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2544e), “6\6-"60]=&'4F&&#=WB9K?)&0O 80J0@' 6 &D*E !.2. 2540”, !5/'&#6&12. ?0 G F,#6/&# @!"#$%"&'(#)#0%*##+1MNA, 5N0='6)0=68)*.=5='<5=.=60& I"@'E, -./0%#. &')5&&%$ F=:!&!'=F$. (2545), “&'4F&&#=WB9K?)&0O80J0@'6&D*E !.2. 2540 6'< C%&)5&V0)5",)@W)]@*0)60&1#78)”, !5/'&# 6&12.?0GF,#6/&# @!"#$%"&'(#)#0%*##+1MNA, 5N0='6)0= 68)*.=5='<5=.=60&I"@'E, 6.#A0!'=F$. #*N%@%412+W@ Arrow, Kenneth J. (1963), /G.-+* %HG-.0 +46 I46-J-6K+* L+*K0,, New York : John Wiley and Sons. Brennan, Geoffrey, and James M. Buchanan (1983), “Predictive Power and the Choice Among Regimes,” (H0 $.G4G3-. MGK14+*, Vol. 93, No. 359 (March), pp. 89-105. Brennan, Geoffrey, and Alan Hamlin (1998), “Constitutional Economics”, in Peter Newman (ed.), (H0 40R O+*Z1+J0 W-.P-G4+1U GN $.G4G3-., +46 a+R, Macmillan, pp. 401-410. Breton, Albert, et. al. (eds.) (1997), )4601,P+46-4Z W03G.1+.U 7 $.G4G3-. +46 OG*-P-.+* O01,S0.P-J0,, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Buchanan, James M. (1987), “Constitutional Economics”, in John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman (eds.), (H0 40R O+*Z1+J0 W-.P-G4+1U GN $.G4G3-., +46 a+R, Macmillan, pp. 585-588.
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 255 :
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: 260 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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: 268 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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Coase, Ronald H. (1984), “The New Institutional Economics,” MGK14+* GN I4,P-PKP-G4+* +46 (H0G10P-.+* $.G4G3-.,, 140, pp. 229-232. Klein, P. G.(2000), “New Institutional Economics,” in B. Bouckaert and G. de Geest (eds.), $4.U.*GS06-+ GN a+R +46 $.G4G3-.,, Aldershot, U.K.: Edward Elgar, pp.456-89. Maki, U., Bo Gustafsson and C. Knudsen (eds.) (1997), $JG*KP-G4+1U $.G4G3-., +46 $.G4G3-. V0PHG6G*GZU, New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. North, Douglas C. (1990), I4,P-PKP-G4,F I4,P-PKP-G4+* %H+4Z0 +46 $.G4G3-. O01NG13+4.0, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schotter, A. (1981), (H0 $.G4G3-. (H0G1U GN I4,P-PKP-G4,, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williamson, Oliver E. (2000), “The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead,” MGK14+* GN $.G4G3-. a-P01+PK10, 38, pp. 595-613.
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 303 :
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: 304 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&2` 6 30=+( 1 KR = I? 0 *+, # 05N 0 %' B M8)%I0#D#? 1 *? 0 1*+ E #1O" ) 8>=0@ &:KI?0)&'4 -/0P O.#O= ]=60&<&"K0&*&'!E06& %7860& 1MV0;`) 5" * F" ] = 6 0 & 8 8 6 9 < < & : < < 6 & & # 5" * F"Y 1 K =7 8 * &' ! E 0 6 & F&&#O0-"9/:5",)9IP/V8#]=&:P'<G&:1*2 8E?0)D&6RP+ 6/D6*+,O.#O= @:;?I)P./8N0=0@M8)&'49/:-/0PDPV %78 60&#+1%&78M?0E*0)5')%# 9/:%I0#&WVK&78AW#"G^BB0*V8);",=*+,#+%I0#1MV0]@/`6Z`()]=AW#"="1I2 1M-&V8=*+,Z'<ZV8= +*) R='2*'H%24/%)%.K)>%2*12=$D8>Q%:"-'1(?%*&'A 5')%#I"*E09/:&'4205-&$#+9=I%"P1&7,8)C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@ 50#9=I%"P5N0%'B%78 5N0='6O=O'(==N0="E# (Elitism) 5N0='6!K.="E# (Pluralism) 9/:5N0='6#0&$6Z"5#$ (Marxism) 9-?5N0='6%"P*+,#+<*<0* ]=60&2` 6 30C%&)5&V 0 )8N 0 =0@%7 8 Elitism 9/: Pluralism (=0-0O0 I2"=P"/6, 2540: 7) %I0#9-6-?0)8E?0)5N0%'BM8)58) 9=I%"P=+(8EW?*+,60&="E0#%I0#K#0EM8) “8N0=0@” Z`,)*N0]KV9=I*0) 60&2`6309-6-?0)6'=-0#DGPVIE G&+O0 1GdUE#!)2$50=-$ (2532) 6/? 0 II? 0 9=I%" P *'( ) 58)1Gc = *[3\+ 6 0&1#7 8 )*+, I" 1 %&0:K$ G^ B K0 “8N0=0@]=5')%#9<<*.=="E#” (G&+O0, 2532: 11) 5N0='6O=O'(==N0="E# (Elitism) #+)0=2`630<.61<"6*+,5N0%'B %78 Floyd Hunter (1953) 9/: C. Wright Mills (1956) 5>='6=+(#8) I? 0 8N 0 =0@]=60&-' P 5" = ]@aW 6 M0P8EW? 6' < O=O'( = =N 0 6/.? # 1P+ E I PV I E 50#0&;%I<%.#9/:1Gc=1@V0M8)5",)*+,#+%.J%?0]=5')%# (="%# 5.I&&J &.? ) 1&7 8 ), 2531: 37, 52) Z`, ) ]=9)? =+( 6R %7 8 9K/? ) *+, # 0M8)8N 0 =0@ S/8EP$ i'=1-8&$ 1Gc=aWV!'_=0I"F+60&2`630C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@CPE !"@0&J0@06O7,815+E) 9/: Z+. D&-$ #"/5$ 1Gc=aWV%"PI"F+60&2`630PVIE 60&!"@0&J0@06-N09K=?) MJ:*+,5N0='6!K.="E# (Pluralism) =N0CPE
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 305 :
Robert A. Dahl (1966) 6/'<1KR=I?0 8N0=0@]=60&-'P5"=]@D#?DPV 6&:@.6-'I8EW? ]=6/.?#O=O'(==N06/.?#1P+EI K069-?6&:@0E886DG-0# 6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$ PVIE1K-.=+( 6/.?#<0)6/.?#@`)#+5?I=5N0%'B]=60& -'P5"=]@<0)G&:1PR= Z`,)M`(=8EW?6'<-'I9G&K/0EPV0= 1O?= *'63: !"123 ]=G&:1PR=='(= <*<0*60&#+5?I=&?I# 6&:<I=60&/R8<<+ 9-?80@6/?0ICPE&I#DPVI?0 C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@@:16+,EI!'=8E?0)5N0%'B 6'<%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)8N0=0@ (power relation) 9/:60&@'P/N0P'<O?I) O'(= (hierarchy) &%'%2>IC ) & !,'IQ5!>IQ5"1+@6-&9%2^ #42R='2*'H%24/%)%.&%$:)D=8G#42*/%)1+ G568673 :"-*/%)1+ I5;2a5673
*+,#0: J. Allan Whitt, Urban Elite and Mass Transportation (1982: 10) 8V0)]= ="%#5.I&&J&.?)1&78) (2531: 48)
: 306 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
60&2`630C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@#+*'()60&2`630]=K=?IE&:P'< G&:1*2 9/:60&2`630]=&:P'<O.#O=K&78*V8);",= (C. Wright Mills, 1956 8V0)]= &:P# I)3$=V8#, 2526) C. Wright Mills (1956) ]KV %I0#K#0EC%&)5&V0)8N0=0@*'()58)&:P'<I?0 C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@1Gc= &:<<60&G&:50=6'=M8)%I0#5'#!'=F$9/:<*<0*1O")8N0=0@*+,1&+E= &WV9/:16"PZ(>M8)&'49/:186O= *'()*+,1Gc=*0)60&9/: D#?1Gc=*0)60& 1!7,8FN0&)60&5',)60&*0)5')%#*+,9-6-?0) C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@&:P'< O.#O=6R1Gc=C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@9<<K=`,)*+,1O7,8#CE)6'<&:<<8N0=0@*+, 1K=786I?0 60&2`630C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@]=&:P'<O0-"='(=*N0DPVE06 1!&0: 1Gc=60&2`630]=&:P'<*+,6IV0)#06 ='6I"O060&@`)K'=#02`630C%&) 5&V0)8N0=0@]=&:P'<O.#O= 1!&0: “50#0&;*N0DPV” (manageable and feasible) PVIEI"F+60&2`6309<<G&:@'63="E# CPE9=I%"P O=O'(==N0@:]KV%I0#5N0%'B6'<60&2`630O=O'(==N0]=O.#O= 1!&0:%= 6/.?#=+(%I<%.#*&'!E06&9/:60&-'P5"=]@M8)O.#O= I"F+60&&:<.-'I O=O'(==N080@!"@0&J0@06-N09K=?) (Z`,)1Gc=DPV*'()8)%$6&*0)60& 1#7 8 ) 5' ) %# 12&346" @ 205=0 &0O60&) K&7 8 !" @ 0&J0@0660& E8#&'<M8)5#0O"6]=O.#O= 8E?0)D&6R-0# 60&2`630]=&:P'<O.#O= #+@.P8?8=%78 K062`6301!+E)O.#O=1P+EI K&781G&+E<1*+E<58)K&78 50#O.#O= 6RD#?50#0&;!'_=0%I0#&WV@=6/0E1Gc=60&5&V0)*[3\+ DPV (&:P# I)3$=V8#, 2526) +*+ R='2*'H%24/%)%.K)>%2!?'@(?%*&'A +*+*) 4/%)%.K)>W@XI!?'@(?%*&'A G&+O0 1GdUE#!)2$50=-$ (2532) I"!063$12&34205-&$6&:95
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 307 :
K/'69/:&:<<12&346"@*.=="E# !&V8#*'()15=8]KVI"O012&34205-&$ ]5?]@1&7,8)8N0=0@ Z`,)1Gc=5",)*+,PN0&)8EW?9/:1Gc=@&")]=&:<<12&346"@ 8+6*'()1Gc=5",)*+,*N0]KV16"PC%&)5&V0)8N0=0@*+,D#?1*?01*+E# G&+O08V0);`) 1%. P'<1<"/EW. &8*5$DO/P$ (K. W. Rothschild) ]=K=')578 OGR01 -4 $.G4G3-., (1971) I?0 60&I"1%&0:K$9<< 12&34205-&$*+,a?0=#0#'6#.?)5=]@60&*N0)0=M8)6/D6-/0P 9-? 6/'</:1/EG^BK087,=*+,5'#!'=F$6'= P')1O?=1&7,8)8N0=0@ *'()*+,1Gc=1&7,8) ]6/VO"P6'<6"@6&&#*0)12&346"@ 1O?=1P+EI6'< Galbraith (1973) Z`,) 1KR=I?0 60&2`63012&34205-&$=+C8%/055"69/:1%=5$]K#? (new Keynesian) 1Gc = 60&6N 0 @' P 1&7, 8 )8N 0 =0@886DG@069=I%" P *0) 12&34205-&$ E",)*N0]KV12&34205-&$M0P%I0#5'#!'=F$6'<C/6*+,1Gc= @&") “60&9M?)M'=5#<W&J$” 6/0E#01Gc=9<<@N0/8)*+,1Gc= “A0! <&"5.*F"Y” 1!7,82`63060&*N0)0=M8)60&9M?)M'=*0)12&346"@]=1O") 8. P #60&J$ *+, D #? #+ 6 0&9*&69Z)@066/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 9 /:D&V Z`, ) 8N0=0@&'4 ='612&34205-&$80@-V8)60&1KR=&:<<12&346"@*+,G&02@068N0=0@ 9-?I"O012&34205-&$%I&]KV%I0#5N0%'B6'<60&!'_=0 *[3\+*+,16+,EI6'<8N0=0@ 9/:]KV%I0#5=]@A0%GL"<'-" CPE1e!0: ]=5?I=*+,16+,EI6'<8N0=0@&'49/:8N0=0@F.&6"@M=0P]KB? *+,DPV9a?ME0E %&8<)N0*'()-/0P O.#O= &'4 9/:%I0#=`6%"PM8)aWV%= (Galbraith (1973) 8V0);`)]= G&+O0, 2532: 7-8) 5N0='612&34205-&$5;0<'=#8)I?0 8N0=0@1Gc=1&7,8)*+,16+,EI 6'<60&@'P60&9/:60&%I<%.#&:<<12&346"@ 1=7,8)@0612&346"@ %78&:<<8N0=0@ C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@@`)#+8"*F"!/]=60&6N0K=P&0EDPV 60&@V0))0= 60&-'()&0%0 &I#*'()60&9<?)G^=&0EDPV9/:60&@'P5&& *&'!E06& -0#9=I%"P=+( “8N0=0@” K#0E;`)60&#+5?I=&?I#]=60& -'P5"=]@16+,EI6'<12&346"@ %&8<%/.#;`)60&#+ “40=8N0=0@” 1O?=
: 308 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
6&&#5" * F"Y &0EDPV 40=: 8" * F" ! / 9/:5" * F" * 0)12&346" @ K/0E G&:1A* P')='(= 8N0=0@]=*+,=+(@`)K#0E;`)60&#+5?I=&?I#9<<#+8"*F"!/ %&8<)N01K=786/.?#O=87,=b K&78#+C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@*+,D#?1*?01*+E#6'= -0#%I0#K#0E=+( ![-" 6 &&#*0)12&346" @ *. 6 8E? 0 )1Gc = 1&7, 8 )*+, 16+,EIMV8)6'<6&:<I=60&9/:C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@ (Samuels, W. J., (1979) 8V0)]= G&+O0, 2532: 10) *[3\+ * 0)5' ) %##8)8N 0 =0@@069)? #. # 3 PV 0 =%7 8 60& %I<%.# (control) 60&!`,)!0 (dependence) %I0#D#?1*?01*+E#6'= (inequality) *'( ) 50#PV 0 ==+( /V I =9/V I 9-? 1 Gc = %I0#5' # !' = F$ * 0) 12&346"@5')%#*+,#+/'63J:1K/7,8#/(> 9/:@:5&V0)%I0#-`)1%&+EP*+, =N0DG5W?%I0#D#?!8]@ 16"P60&1%/7,8=DKI*0)5')%#1!7,81G/+,E=9G/) K&78GL"&WG&:<< (G&+O0, 2532: 11) +*+*+ 4/%)%.>%2!?'@(+8.K)'-55!?'@(+8.>S))8Q$ 8N 0 =0@*0)12&346" @ ]=&:<<*. = =" E #1Gc = %I0#5' # !' = F$ &:KI?0)aWV#+6'<aWVD#?#+ (*&'!E$5#<'-" G^@@'E60&a/"- *&'!E06&M8) 5')%#) 1Gc=60&5&V0)%I0#5'#!'=F$9<<&:<<aW6M0P (monopoly) 8N0=0@*0)12&346"@M8)K=?IE12&346"@186O=@`)K#0E;`)%I0# 50#0&;*+,@:180&0EDPV 5"=%V0 K&78*&'!E06&#0%&8<%&8)1Gc=M8) -= *N0]KV#+C8605*+,@:<&&/.1@-=0&#J$*+,-'()DIV<=!7(=40=M8)6/D6 -/0P*+,PN0&)8EW? ]=9)?=+( 8N0=0@@`)#+%I0#K#0EDG]=*0)%&8<)N0 K&7 8 60&#+ 8" * F" ! /1K=7 8 6I? 0 8+ 6 fg 0 EK=`, ) Z`, ) 50#0&;*N 0 ]KV & 0EDPV 1!",#M`(= K&78GH8)6'=D#?]KV&0EDPV-6-,> (G&+O0, 2532: 19-20) +*+*, >IC$%#424/%)%.K)'-55!?'@(+8.>S))8Q$ &:<<*.=="E#K&78&:<<F.&6"@15&+-0#*[3\+12&34205-&$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 309 :
=+C8%/055"6 1Gc=60&5&V0)5;0<'=K/'6M`(=#0 2 5;0<'=%78 -/0P 9/:&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y &:<<6&&#5"*F"Y1Gc=!7(=40=5N0%'BM8)60& *N0)0=M8)6/D6-/0P aWV%=-'P5"=]@Z7(8M0E9/61G/+,E=CPE5#'%&]@ DPV8E?0)1-R#*+,1#7,81M0#+%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8) *'()58)1)7,8=DM=+(@:5&V0) %I0##',)%',)5W)5.P]KV5')%# A0E]-V1)7,8=DM*&'!E06&#+M+P@N06'P9/: 60&1/7868E?0)15&+M8)G&:O0O= 6/?0IDPVI?01Gc=9<<@N0/8)Z`,) *N0)0=DPV8E?0)&0<&7,=D#?M'P6'= (harmonious economic system) (G&+O0, 2532: 13) )( 4/%)%.&"%G '3a2De8 "!Xe2( 8N 0 =0@-/0P#+ *+, # 0@0660&&? I ##7 8 6' = ]=60&*N 0 F. & 6" @ 8N 0 =0@M8)F. & 6" @ M=0P]KB? 8N 0 =0@8' = 16" P @06MV 8 #W / I)]= 9/: 8N0=0@M8)60&%I<%.#8)%$6& (G&+O0, 2532: 25-33) aWV1/?=5N0%'B ]=C%&)5&V 0 )-/0PG&:68<PV I E&' 4 F. & 6" @ 186O= 9/:6/.? # a/ G&:CEO=$ 60&]OV 8N 0 =0@&' 4 1MV 0 %I<%. # 6&:<I=60&*0)12&346" @ G&06L8EW?]=*[3\+M8) @8K$= 1#E$=0&$P 1%=5$ (John Maynard Keynes) *+,15=8]KVA0%&'41MV0#09*&69Z)12&346"@ G&+O0#8)I?0 1%=5$ E' ) /:1/E60&#8)8N 0 =0@M8)6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ (power of vested interests) Z`,)5?)a/-?8&:<<%"PM8)1%=5$*+,#8)I?0&'4<0/ #+%I0#50#0&;]=60&16/+(E6/?8#6/.?#a/G&:CEO=$1!7,8]KV16"Pa/ G&:CEO=$96?5?I=&I# 9-?G&+O01-78=I?0 F.&6"@186O=#+a/G&:CEO=$ #K020/16"=6I?0*+,@:E8#5/:DPV 9/:&'480@;W6%&8<)N0@06F.&6"@ 186O= *N0]KV&'46/0E1Gc=-'I9*=M8)a/G&:CEO=$M8)F.&6"@ (G&+O0, 2532: 18)
: 310 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
MJ:*+, 8N 0 =0@M8)F. & 6" @ 186O=9/:6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ ='( = F.&6"@186O=@:1MV0DG#+8N0=0@*0)60&1#78)*'()CPE-&)9/:CPE8V8# 1!7,81MV0DG#+8"*F"!/]=5?I=*+,16+,EI6'<=CE<0E12&346"@ 5?I=6/.?#a/ G&:CEO=$@:6PP'=9/:G&:*VI)1!7,81&+E6&V8)MV815=896?&'4 80@1&+E6 I?01Gc=6/.?#1%/7,8=DKI*0)5')%# %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)&'4 F.&6"@186O= 9/:6/.?#1%/7,8=DKI *0)5')%# 1Gc= “8N0=0@-?8&8)” (bargaining power) Z`,)@:#+8"*F"!/ -? 8 60&9<? ) &0EDPV 9 /:60&6&:@0E&0EDPV (G&+ O 0, 2532: 33) ;V012&346"@1Gc=1&7,8)M8)60&1#78) 6R-V8)#8)I?012&346"@1Gc=1&7,8) M8)60&%I<%.#8N0=0@ 6/.?#]P#+8N0=0@ 6/.?#='(=6R50#0&;-'P5"=]@ DPVI?0@:*N08:D& *+,DK= 1#7,8D& ]=&:<<12&346"@ (Hodgson, G. M. (1988), 8V0)]= G&+O0, 2532: 18) +( '-55+''$*8>78_0'34*8>78K)>'1BQA*8) 6&&#5"*F"Y]=*&'!E$5"= (Property Right) K#0E;`) 5"*F"*+,DPV &'<60&&'<&8) (80@CPE6\K#0EK&785;0<'=*0)5')%#) 9/:&:<.I?0 aWV1Gc=1@V0M8)#+5"*F"@0660&1Gc=1@V0M8) #+5"*F"]=60&DPV&'<G&:CEO=$ 9/:#+MV8@N06'P]=60&]OV*&'!E06&K&78*&'!E$5"=='(=8E?0)D& Daniel W. Bromley (1991) #8)I?0 *&'!E$5"= (Property) %786&:95M8)a/ G&:CEO=$ (a stream of benefit) 9/:="E0#6&&#5"*F"Y]=*&'!E$5"= I?01Gc= “%I0#50#0&;*+,@:6+P6'=D#?]KV%=87,=DPV&'<a/G&:CEO=$K&78 *&'!E$5"=='(=” PVIE1K-.=+( 5"*F"K&786&&#5"*F"YD#?]O?%I0#5'#!'=F$ &:KI? 0 )aWV 1 Gc = 1@V 0 M8)6' < *&' ! E$ 5" = 9-? 1 Gc = %I0#5' # !' = F$ & :KI? 0 ) aWV 1 Gc = 1@V 0 M8)6' < <. % %/87, = b ]=PV 0 =*+, 1 6+, E IMV 8 )6' < *&' ! E$ 5" = ='( = P')='(= &:<<6&&#5"*F"Y@`)1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)5')%#*+,#+50#15V0 (triadic social relation) G&:68<PVIE *&'!E$5"= K#0E;`)6&:95 a/G&:CEO=$ D#?]O?-'II'-;.5",)M8) 1@V0M8) K#0E;`)aWV#+5"*F";78%&8)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 311 :
9/:<.%%/87,= K#0E;`)aWV#+K=V0*+,-V8)GL"<'-"-0#9/:1%0&!5"*F"M8) aWV1Gc=1@V0M8) +*)( >+''$*8>78_K)>'1BQA*8)? FGH$%.%+F0) @8K$ = /R 8 6 (John Locke) 1O7, 8 I? 0 %=1&0#+ 5" * F" C PE F&&#O0-" (Natural rights) *+,@:#+O+I"-8EW? 9/:#+5"*F"*+,@:16R<16+,EI a/G&:CEO=$@0660&]OV9&))0=M8)-=18) 9-?&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y*+,1&0 6/?0I;`)=+(1Gc=5'BB0G&:O0%# (Social contract) *+,6/.?#K&78K#W? %J:1Gc = aWV 6N 0 K=PM`( = 1O? = 5' ) %#]=8P+ - #+ 6 0&6N 0 K=P9/:1Gc = *+, E8#&'<]=5')%#I?0 *+,P"=1Gc=M8)&'4K&78!&:#K063'-&"E$ O0I=0#+ 5"*F"1!+E)]OVG&:CEO=$@06*+,P"=]=60&*N0=0 9-?D#?#+5"*F"]=60&1Gc= 1@V 0 M8) P' ) ='( = &:<<6&&#5" * F"Y @` ) 1Gc = 1%&7, 8 )#7 8 *0)5' ) %#*+, ;W 6 6N0K=PM`(=1!7,8I'-;.G&:5)%$<0)8E?0) D#?DO?&:<<*+,DPV-0#F&&#O0-" 1#7,85')%#1Gc=aWV6N0K=P&:<<6&&#5"*F"YM`(= &:<<='(=6RE?8# ;W65')%#G&'<G&.) 1G/+,E=9G/) K&78E61/"6DGDPV1O?=6'= K06&:<< ='(=D#?6?8]KV16"PG&:CEO=$8+6-?8DG K&78G&:CEO=$@06&:<<='(=/P =V8E/)@=D#?%.V#6'<-V=*.=*+,-V8)]OV&'630&:<<DIV 60&]KV5"*F"%I0# 1Gc = 1@V 0 M8)#+ % I0#Z' < ZV 8 =9-6-? 0 )6' = DG]=9-? / :5' ) %# 1O? = G&:1*2D*E]KV5"*F"1@V0M8)*+,P"=1e!0:a"IP"=*+,%I0#/`6&:P'<K=`,) K06M. P !<=( > #' = K&7 8 9K/? ) 9&? ] =&:P' < *+, /` 6 /)DG6I? 0 ='( = 5" * F" ] = 9K/?)9&?]-Va"IP"=='(=1Gc=M8)&'4 9-?<0)G&:1*280@]KV*'()5"*F"]-V !7(=P"= 5"*F"<=!7(=P"= 9/:5"*F"1K=78!7(=P"= 1O?= K06!<=(>#'=]-V !7( = P" = M8)-=D#? I? 0 *+, & :P' < ]P -=6R @ :1Gc = 1@V 0 M8)<? 8 =( > #' = ='( = 1Gc=-V= 5" * F" ] =*&' ! E$ 5" = @:E' ) %)8EW? D PV 6R -? 8 1#7, 8 5' ) %#5&V 0 )6/D6 *+,50#0&;G6GH8)5"*F"M8)aWV1Gc=1@V0M8) 9/:50#0&;<')%'<<.%%/87,= ]KVGL"<'-"-0#K=V0*+,DPV 6/D6P')6/?0I80@1Gc=6\K#0EK&786/D6
: 312 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
*0)5')%# K065')%#D#?50#0&;<')%'<<.%%/aWV#+K=V0*+,]KVGL"<'-"-0# K=V0*+,DPV 60&#+6&&#5"*F"Y6RD#?-?0)8:D&@0660&D#?#+6&&#5"*F"Y +*+( ,'-!N>#42+''$*8>78_ 5')%#80@#8<5"*F"]=*&'!E$5"=]KV96?<.%%/ &'4 K&78O.#O= 1Gc=1@V0M8)6RDPV 1&050#0&;9<?)G&:1A*M8)6&&#5"*F"Y-0#%I0# 1Gc=1@V0M8)DPVP')=+( 1. #8::/##+'.<*.`'=21:S,,- (private-property regimes) ]OV6'<*&'!E$5"=5?I=<.%%/ CPE1Gc=&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y*+,186O= <.%%/ K&78="-"<.%%/1Gc=1@V0M8) 1O?= *+,P"= Gg01O")!0J"OE$ AW1M0<0)/W6 O0EK0P<0)9K?) 2. #8::/##+'. < *.` <BC #0 % !AK 1 !?L & J56 (state-property regimes) ]OV6'<*&'!E$5"=M8)&'4 Z`,)&'41Gc=1@V0M8)9/:%I<%.#60&]OV *&'!E$5"=='(= CPE&'480@]KVK=?IE)0=M8)&'4PW9/ K&78]KV186O=1O?0 *N 0 G&:CEO=$ ] =&:E:1I/0*+, 6N 0 K=P 1O? = I=8. * E0= Gg 0 8=. &' 6 3$ 1K#78)9&? 1Gc=-V= 3. #8::/##+'. < *.` #= 2 + (common-property regimes) ]OV6'<*&'!E$5"=&?I#K&78*&'!E$5"=M8)O.#O= CPEO.#O=K&786/.?#%= 1Gc=1@V0M8)*&'!E06&&?I#6'= 9/:@'P60&60&]OV*&'!E$5"=&?I#6'= 1O? = Gg 0 O. # O= 1K#7 8 )f0E K=8)<` ) 9/:*.? ) KBV 0 1/+( E )5' - I$ M 8) K#W?<V0= *+,O.#O=1Gc=1@V0M8)&?I#6'= 9/:#+6\16Jl$&?I#6'=*+,O'P1@= ]=60&@'P60&GL"<'-" Z`,)80@D#?]O?6\16Jl$*+,1Gc=*0)60& 1O?= @0&+G&:1!J+GL"<'-" K&7880@1Gc=6\16Jl$*+,1Gc=*0)60& %78#+6\K#0E &8)&' < ]=G^ @ @. <' = #+ * &' ! E$ 5" = &? I #M8)G&:O0%#C/6 (global commons) 1O?= *:1/ #K05#.*& O'(=<&&E0602 *+,G&:1*2-?0)b ]=C/6#0-6/)&?I#6'=]=60&@'P60& K&78<?86X0Z1@P+18]=8?0ID*E
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 313 :
1Gc=*&'!E$5"=&?I#&:KI?0)D*E-#01/1Z+E @06MV8-6/)60&9<?)1M200 D#/$*:1/ 1Gc=-V= 4. #8::/##+'.<*.`7::!AaE/2L&6 (open access K&78 res nullius regimes) ]OV 6' < *&' ! E$ 5" = *+, D #? #+ 1 @V 0 M8) CPE1Gc = &:<< 6&&#5"*F"Y*+,D#?#+]%&1Gc=1@V0M8)K&78%I<%.#PW9/ #'6@:#+/'63J: 5N0%'B%78 D#?50#0&;9<?)9E660&]OVDPV8E?0)O'P1@= *N0]KVE06*+,@: 6+P6'=D#?]KV%=87,=b #0]OV D#?#+%I0#@N01!0:M8)%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8) ]%&b 6R50#0&;]OVG&:CEO=$DPV 1O?= <&&E0602 =(>]=9#?=(>/N0%/8) G/0]=#K05#. * & %I0#K/06K/0E*0)O+ I A0!]=Gg 0 G&:1PR = *+, 5N 0 %' B %7 8 *&' ! E06&O=" P K=`, ) 80@8EW? A 0E]-V &W G 9<<6&&#5" * F"Y &WG9<<-?0)b 6'= 1O?= Gg0D#V 80@#+*'()Gg0*+,1Gc=6&&#5"*F"Y5?I=<.%%/ Gg0O.#O= Gg0M8)&'4 K&789#V9-?Gg0*+,D#?#+]%&1Gc=1@V0M8) *'()=+(M`(=8EW? 6'<I'-;.G&:5)%$M8)60&]OV*&'!E06& G^BK0M8)9-?/:!7(=*+, 9/: 6/D6]=60&<')%'<]OV5"*F" ]=8P+- O'(=<&&E06029/:#K05#.*&80@ 1Gc=*&'!E$5"=*+,D#?#+1@V0M8) 9-?1#7,816"PG^BK0*&'!E06&157,8#C*&# *N0]KVG&:O0%#C/6K'=#0-6/)&?I##786'=]=60&96VG^BK0 *&'!E$5"= *+,D#?#+1@V0M8)@`)6/0E1Gc=*&'!E$5"=&?I# K&78Gg0M8)&'4]=<0)!7(=*+, Z`,)&'4D#?50#0&;PW9/DPV8E?0)*',I;`) 6R80@#+5A0!15#78=K=`,)*&'!E$ 5"=*+,D#?#+1@V0M8) 1Gc=-V= &:<<5"*F"]=*&'!E$5"=*+,-?0)6'=@:6?8]KV16"P9&)@W)]@]=60& ]OV*&'!E06&*+,-?0)6'= 60&1G/+,E=&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y@06*&'!E$5"=5?I= <.%%/1Gc=*&'!E$5"=1GjP6IV0) (open access) @:]KVa/*+,9-6-?0)6'= 9#VI?0&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y9<<*+, 1-3 @:1Gc=&:<<*+,#+1@V0M8) 9-?6R80@#+ a//'!F$]=60&]OV*&'!E06&*+,9-6-?0)6'=DPV *'()=+(G&:5"*F"A0!M8) 60&]OV*&'!E06&M`(=8EW?6'<%I0#5#<W&J$O'P1@=M8)&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y P')*+,@:6/?0I;`)]=-8=-?8DG
: 314 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
+*,( "1+@6-#42'-55+''$*8>78_>IC$I,'-*8>78N%B &:<<6&&#5"*F"Y*+,O'P1@=*+,@:*N0]KV-/0P*N0K=V0*+,]=60& @'P5&&*&'!E06&DPV8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0! -V8)#+/'63J: 3 G&:60& %78 (1) $_.*K,-J-PU (%I0#@N 0 1!0:5N 0 K&' < aWV 1 Gc = 1@V 0 M8)) K#0E;` ) a/G&:CEO=$ 9 /:-V = *. = *'( ) K#P*+, 1 6" P M`( = @0660&1Gc = 1@V0M8)9/:60&]OV*&'!E06&@:-V8)-61Gc=M8)aWV1Gc=1@V0M8)1*?0='(= D#?I?0@:CPE*0)-&) (@0660&]OV) K&78CPE*0)8V8# (PVIE60&M0E 5"*F"]KV96?aWV87,=) (2) (1+4,N01+\-*-PU #%I0#50#0&;*+,@:C8=DPV) 6&&#5"*F"Y *'()K#P@:-V8)50#0&;C8=@061@V0M8)%=K=`,)DG5W?8+6%=K=`,)DPV ]=60&9/61G/+,E=CPE5#'%&]@ (voluntary exchange) (3) $4NG1.0+\-*-PU (%I0#50#0&;*+,@:<')%'<DPV) 6&&#5"*F"Y @:-V8)G/8PA'E@0660&;W6<.%%/87,=e6eIEK&78<.6&.6CPE1@V0M8) D#?5#'%&]@ @06/'63J: 3 G&:60&MV0)-V= K06<6!&?8)MV8]PMV8K=`,) DG 80@=N0DG5W?%I0#D&VG&:5"*F"A0!]=60&@'P5&&*&'!E06& 60& <')%'<D#?]KV6&&#5"*F"Y;W6/:1#"P (/'63J:*+, 3) 1Gc=G^BK05N0%'B G&:60&K=`, ) &:<<6&&#5" * F"Y @ :<6!&? 8 )K06-V = *. = 60&<' ) %' < (enforcement cost) 5W)16"=DG @=1@V0M8)D#?50#0&;PW9/DPV 1O?= ]=6&J+M8)Gg08=.&'63$Z`,)#+!7(=*+,6IV0) 60&%I<%.#PW9/8E?0)*',I;`) CPE&'4*N0DPVE06 (-V=*.=60&<')%'<5W)) *N0]KV!7(=*+,Gg0;W6<.6&.6D#?-?0) @06*&'!E$5"=*+,D#?#+1@V0M8) K&78]=6&J+*+,1@V0M8)/V8#&'(I&8<5I= 5V#C8M8)-= 9-?E')%)#+MC#E1MV0#0/'6a/a/"-DG8EW?1=78)b CPE*+, D#?50#0&;%I<%.#K&78@'<MC#EDPV a/M8)60&*+,D#?50#0&;<')%'<DPV *N0]KV]=*+,5.P 1@V0M8)6RM0P9&)@W)]@]=60&PW9/&'630*&'!E06&K&78 *&'!E$5"=='(=
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 315 :
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 317 :
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]=5#'EC<&0J @0&+-*0)60&G6%&8)P'()1P"#M8)D*ED#?#+ 15V=9<?)O'P1@=&:KI?0)&'46'<5')%# &'46'<5')%#1Gc=5",)1P+EI6'= D#?#+ 15V=9<?)&:KI?0)5?I=-'I6'<5?I=&I# 1Gc=%I0#5'#!'=F$*+,CE)]E8EW?6'< 5')%#163-&6&&# 9/:G6%&8)PW9/&03\&-0#K/'6!?8G6%&8)/W6 %I0#5' # !' = F$ ] =60&G6%&8)1Gc = 9<<6&:@0E8N 0 =0@&:KI? 0 )aWV #+ 8N0=0@ 9-?D#?DPV6&:@0EDG;`)G&:O0O= Z`,)K/0Eb K'I1#78)]=&0O 80J0@' 6 &50#0&;<&" K 0&G6%&8)DPV 8 E? 0 )8" 5 &:A0E]-V & :<< <&&J060& (tribute) CPE5?I=6/0)D#?1MV0DG9*&69Z) Z`,)1Gc=6/D6 *+,*N0]KV-?0)E8#&'<2'6P"Y2&+40=:-?86'= @"-5N0=`69/:%I0#&WV5`65')6'P *0)60&1#78)#+/'63J:%?8=MV0)9%< 9/:1Gc=%I0#A'6P+-?8K#W?%J: 9/:aWV=N0*+,1Gc=-'I<.%%/#066I?0*+,@:#8)6IV0)886DG*'()&:<< 9-6 -?0)@069=I%"PM8)&:<8<60&G6%&8)5#'E]K#?9<<-:I'=-6*+,1=V= &:<< D#?]O?-'I<.%%/ %I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)<.%%/K&786/.?#<.%%/ 1Gc=I'_=F&&#8.G;'#A$%(>@.= (patron and client relationship) *+, 1=V=!'=F6&J+ (obligation) &:KI?0)aWV#+40=:-?0)6'=#066I?01=V=60& ]OV 1 5&+ A 0!M8)G^ @ 1@6<. % %/ =86@06='( = E' ) 1=V = %I0#5' # !' = F$ &:KI?0)<.%%/]=9=IP",)9/:a/G&:CEO=$&?I#M8)6/.?#<.%%/#066I?0 E`P;78%I0#1KR=!V8)-V8)6'=*0)K/'660& aWV=N0#+%I0#5'#!'=F$]6/V O"P6'<O.#O= (intimate leader) K&78K#W?%J:*+,5')6'P aWV8EW?]-V60& 8.G;'#A$%0PKI')DPVI?0@:DPV&'<60&PW9/@06aWV=N0 (1565&&%$, 2548: 12-13) “&:<<D!&?” 1Gc=&:<<*+,#+60&@'P/N0P'<O'(= (hierarchy) 9<< 1@V0=0E-/W6=V8) aWV]KB?-aWV=V8E -?0)fg0E-?0)#+!'=F:-?86'= #+6/D6 2+/F&&# %.JF&&#*0)205=0 9/:@0&+-G&:1!J+1Gc=-'I6N06'< Z`,) *.65",)*.68E?0)/VI=M`(=6'<P./!"="@M8)=0E ]=Gd 2435 ]=5#' E &' O 60/*+, 5 #+ 6 0&1G/+, E =9G/)60& G6%&8)9/:&WG9<<%I0#5'#!'=F$PVIE60&&I<&I#8N0=0@*+,6&:@0E
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: 322 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1MV 0 ;` ) aWV 6. # 8N 0 =0@]=&:<<&0O60&DPV 5 &V 0 )50E5' # !' = F$ 1 Gc = 6/.? # a/G&:CEO=$*+,5?)a/-?860&-'P5"=]@9/:60&PN01="==CE<0EM8)&'4 DPV#066I?0%=5?I=]KB? %I0#5'#!'=F$9<<]K#?5?)a/6&:*<-?860& @'P5&&*&'!E06&9/:a/G&:CEO=$ -/8P@=#W/%?0-?0)b ]=5')%# 60&1G/+,E=9G/)60&G6%&8)1Gc=G&:O0F"GD-E]=Gd 2475 D#?DPV1Gc=60&1G/+,E=9G/)C%&)5&V0)60&G6%&8) 9-?1Gc=60&&'<O?I) C%&)5&V 0 )8N 0 =0@&I#2W = E$ # 09a? M E0E6", ) 6V 0 =50M0 *N 0 ]KV 5' ) %# %I<%.#&'4DPVE06#06M`(= A0&6"@M8)&'4<0/1Gc=1&7,8)60&<&"60&@06 &'4#066I?060&5;0G=0%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)8N0=0@*+,15#8A0%M`(=#0 &:<<<&"K0&&0O60&9a?=P"=6/'<6/0E1Gc=!7(=*+,9E?)O")8N0=0@9/: a/G&:CEO=$M8)1%&78M?0E8.G;'#A$-?0)b 6/D6&'4&0O60&A0E]-V &:<8<G&:O0F"GD-E1G/+,E=9G/)=V8E#06 CPE1e!0:%I0#5'#!'=F$ *0)8N0=0@&:KI?0)2W=E$8N0=0@*+,1#78)K/I)6'<K'I1#78)-?0)@')KI'P 9/:%I0#5'#!'=F$e'=!&&%!I6*+,E')PN0&)8EW? *'()]=K#W?MV0&0O60&PVIE 6'= &:KI?0)MV0&0O60&6'<A0%186O= 9/:&:KI?0)='660&1#78)6'< MV0&0O60&G&:@N0 #+ “60&1#78)9<<1)"=-&0” (money politics) Z`,) K#0E;`)&:<<*+,]OV1)"=Z7(88N0=0@6'<]OV8N0=0@DGK01)"= (1565&&%$, 2548: 26-29) 1%&78M?0E8.G;'#A$@:5='<5=.=]KVK'IK=V01%&78M?0E 6V0I5W?8N0=0@ 9/:1#7,8DPV6.#8N0=0@9/VI6R@:9<?)a/G&:CEO=$&?I#6'= CPED#? %? 8 EDPV !" @ 0&J0;` ) 5" * F" a /G&:CEO=$ M 8)aWV % =*+, 8 EW? = 86 1%&78M?0E8.G;'#A$
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 323 :
-* R='2*'H % 24/ % )%.K)+%'.1 G *''>'1 B Q%+'7''$M%&8 : "*8C2:DG"H4$ -*) *V%51)K)+%'.1G*''>'1BQ%+'& '1( &"%G MS$M) ]=K=' ) 57 8 $.G4G3-., e<' < !" # !$ % &'( ) *+, 10 M8) !8/ 18. 9Z#I/5'= (Paul A. Samuelson) (6?8=*+,1M0@:1M+E=&?I#6'< I" / 1/+ E # P+ . =8&$ P 1i05$ (William D. Nordhaus)) 9Z#I/5' = ='612&34205-&$&0)I'/C=1</ DPV1M+E=DIV 2 <&&*'P5'(=b ]=<*=N0 *+,aWV8?0=K/0E%=80@@:8?0=MV0#DGI?0 9*V@&")9/VI ]=6&:<I=60& @' P 5&&*&' ! E06&='( = #" D PV #+ 9 -? 6 /D6-/0PK&7 8 &' 4 9-? E' ) #+ @ 0&+ G&:1!J+ 9/:205=0 1Gc=6-"609/:6/D6]=60&@'P5&&*&'!E06&8+6 PVIE 12&34205-&$5;0<'= (Institutional Economics) 1GjPC8605]KV #+60&a=I6180 “O.#O=” 1MV0#02`630]=*[3\+12&34205-&$ ]= 40=:*+,1Gc=8+65;0<'=K=`,)*+,*N0K=V0*+,]=60&@'P5&&*&'!E06& CPE O.#O=#+@0&+- G&:1!J+ 9/:9=IGL"<'-"&?I#6'= 1Gc=6-"60]=60& @'P5&&*&'!E06& ]=MJ:*+,&'4]OV60&5',)60&9/:%I<%.# 5?I=-/0P ]OV&:<<9&)@W)]@9/:60&-'P5"=]@Z7(8M0E9/61G/+,E=CPE5#'%&]@ -0#5'BB0J&0%0 (Hayami and Godo, 2005) CPEK/'660&M8)12&34205-&$=+C8%/055"6 &'4#+<*<0* 5N0%'B]=6&J+M8)60&@'P5&&*&'!E06&F&&#O0-"9/:5",)9IP/V8#PVIE 1K-.a/5N0%'B58)G&:60& A#8/&#7#/ %I0#/V#1K/IM8)6/D6-/0P CPE*',IDG 6/D6 -/0P@:*N0)0=DPV8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0!6R-?81#7,8#+&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y K&785"*F"]=*&'!E$5"=*+,O'P1@= (well-defined property right) CPE60& a/" - K&7 8 60&<&" C A%D#? 6? 8 ]KV 1 6" P a/6&:*<A0E=86 5" = %V 0 K&7 8 <&"60&D#?1Gc=5"=%V050F0&J: 9-?]=6&J+*&'!E06&F&&#O0-"9/:
: 324 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
5",)9IP/V8# 1O?= =(> 80602 Z`,)E06*+,@:8869<<&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y K&78&:<.%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8)*&'!E06&F&&#O0-" 9/:#+/'63J:1Gc= *&'!E$5"=&?I# (communal property) K&78*&'!E$5"=*+,1GjP]KV*.6%= 1MV 0 ;` ) DPV (open access) 60&a/" - 9/:<&" C A%#' 6 #+ a /6&:*< A0E=86 1O?= 60&G/?8EM8)15+E5W?9#?=(>/N0%/8) 60&-'PD#V*>/0E Gg 0 *+, #+ a /-? 8 &:<<=" 1 I29/:9K/? ) =( > 1Gc = -V = =86@06=+( 60& 8=.&'63$*&'!E06&F&&#O0-"9/:5",)9IP/V8# 1O?= 60&8=.&'63$Gg0 6R#+ /'63J:1Gc=5"=%V050F0&J: 1O?= 60&PW9/Gg0-V==(>M8)%=6/.?#K=`,) @:O?IE&'6305#P./M8)&:<<="1I29/:#+a/P+-?8%=]=!7(=*+,87,=CPE D#?50#0&;6+P6'=60&&'<G&:CEO=$M8)%=]=!7(=*+,87,=DPV PV I E1K-. =+( @` ) 1Gc = 60&E06]=60&-'( ) &0%0M8)60&]OV G&:CEO=$9/:60&@'P5&&*&'!E06& *N0]KV#+60&]OV*&'!E06&15#78= K=`,)1Gc=M8)S&+ K&78K06#+&0%06R#'6@:1Gc=&0%0*+,-,>6I?0-V=*.=9/: G&:CEO=$9*V@&")M8)5')%# 5?)a/]KV#+60&]OV*&'!E06&16"=&:P'<*+, 1K#0:5# 6/D6-/0PD#?50#0&;*N0)0=DPV8E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0!3 CPE K/'6G&:5"*F"A0!M8)60&@'P5&&*&'!E06& &'4%I&1MV0#0#+<*<0* ]=60&PW9/@'P60&*&'!E06& 96VDMG^BK0%I0#/V#1K/IM8)-/0P CPE&' 4 #+ 1 %&7, 8 )#7 8 *+, 5N 0 %' B %7 8 6\K#0E Z`, ) ]KV 8N 0 =0@96? &' 4 ]=60& %I<%.#9/:5',)60& 1O?= 60&6N0K=P5"*F"]=60&]OV*&'!E06&1!7,8 D#? ] KV #+ 6 0&]OV 1 6" = M=0P 60&PW 9 /60&a/" - *+, 8 0@5? ) a/6&:*< A0E=86 1O?= 5&V0)G^BK0#/!"3*+,1Gc=-V=*.=-?85')%# 1Gc=-V= A#8/&#<BC'56 1GH0K#0EM8)5')%#6'<60&@'P5&&*&'!E06& 1Gc=*+,E8#&'<6'=I?060&@'P5&&*&'!E06&#+1GH0K#0E1!7,8]KV5')%##+ 5I'5P"60&5W)5.P (Maximise social welfare) K/'616Jl$60&@'P5&& *&' ! E06&1!7, 8 ]KV < &&/. 5 I' 5 P" 6 0&5' ) %#5W ) 5. P %7 8 G&:5" * F" A 0! (efficiency) 9/:%I0#15#8A0% (equity) *[3\+12&34205-&$9/:
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 325 :
&' 4 205-&$ @ :]KV % I0#5N 0 %' B 6' < &' 4 ]=60&6N 0 6' < PW 9 /1&7, 8 )%I0# 15#8A0%]=5')%# @:1KR = DPV I? 0 D#? I? 0 6&J+ M 8)G&:5" * F" A 0!K&7 8 %I0# 15#8A0% ]=6&J+ M 8)*&' ! E06&F&&#O0-" *[3\+ - :I' = -69/: 6\K#0E9<<P'()1P"#8869<<]KV&'41MV0#0#+<*<0*5N0%'B ]=*0) GL"<'-" &'480@@:]KV5'#G*0=96?186O=K&786N0K=P#0-&60&K&78 PN01="==CE<0E]=*0)*+,*N0]KV&:<<-/0P1MV0#0#+5?I=]=60&]OV9/: @'P5&&*&'!E06&<0)O="PDPV 8E?0)D&6R-0# *[3\+12&34205-&$O+(]KV1KR=PVIEI?0 6/D6 M8)&'46R80@/V#1K/I %I0#/V#1K/IM8)&'4 (government failure) ='(=16"P@0660&*+,&'4#+5"*F"K&788N0=0@K=V0*+,<0)8E?0)*+,%=*',IDGD#?#+ 1@V0K=V0*+,M8)&'4@`)80@95I)K0G&:CEO=$5?I=-= 95I)K0%?01O?0*0) 12&346"@ (rent-seeking) 9/:D#?DPV-8<5=8)-?8%I0#-V8)60&M8) G&:O0O= (principal-agent problem) *[3\+ 1 2&34205-&$ 6 &:95K/' 6 9*<D#? 1 Gj P !7( = *+, ] KV 6' < <*<0*]=60&@'P5&&*&'!E06&M8)O.#O= #+1!+E))0=D#?6+,O"(=*+,!8 @:1GjPO?8)*0)K&78]KV%N08F"<0E16+,EI6'<6/D660&*N0)0=M8)O.#O= %78 Coase Theorem *+,1KR=I?0 K06&:<<6&&#5"*F"Y#+%I0#O'P1@= 60&96VG^BK08E?0)#+G&:5"*F"A0! (-V=*.=5')%#-,>) E?8#50#0&; 6&:*N0DPVCPE60&1@&@0&:KI?0)%W?6&J+ CPED#?@N01Gc=-V8)#+&'41MV0#0 16+,EIMV8) K&78)0=M8)12&34205-&$5;0<'= 1O?= Bromley (1991) 9/: Hayami and Gohdo (2005) *+,1KR=I?0 O.#O=#+*.=*0)5')%# &WV@'66'= MV8#W/M?0I50&;`)6'= #+9=IGL"<'-"&?I#6'= @:O?IE/P-V=*.= F.&6&&#]=60&<&"K0&@'P60&9/:-&I@58<60&*N06"@6&&#-?0)b ]= O.#O= )0=2`63016+,EI6'<60&!'_=0*+,E',)E7=1KR=I?0 AW#"G^BB0*V8) ;",=*+,f^)8EW?]=-'IM8)<.%%/]=O.#O= ;781Gc= “*.=#=.3E$” *+,5N0%'B-?8 6&:<I=60&!'_=08E?0)E',)E7= 1Gc=-V=
: 326 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
-*+ 5>5%>#42'1(:"-MS$M) 6?8=Gd 2540 &'4#+8N0=0@9/:<*<0*]=60&@'P5&& %I<%.# @'P60&*&'!E06&F&&#O0-"a?0=6\K#0E*+,16+,EIMV8)6'<&:<<5"*F"]= *&'!E$5"= 9/:6\K#0E16+,EI6'<*&'!E06&F&&#O0-"9/:5",)9IP/V8# 87,=b *+,]KV<*<0*96?&'48E?0)1-R#*+, 8E?0)D&6R-0# &'4D*E/V#1K/I ]=60&@'P60&*&'!E06& 8'=1Gc=a/]KVG&:1*25WB15+E*&'!E06&DG 8E?0)&IP1&RI D#?I?0@:1Gc=!7(=*+,Gg0 &:<<="1I2 *&'!E06&G&:#) P')*+,6/?0I#09/VI]=<*=N0 Ammar Siamwalla (1993) 6/?0I;`) <*<0*M8)&'4*+,/V#1K/I CPE#8)I?0 ]=&:E:*+,*&'!E06&F&&#O0-" #+8EW?#06 &'4D#?DPV1K/+EI9/1&7,8)60&]OVG&:CEO=$@06*&'!E06& 1Gc= the sin of omission 9-?-?8#01#7,8*&'!E06&157,8#C*&# &'46/'< 1MV0#0PW9/@'P60&8E?0)1MV#)IP9/:#+a/G&:CEO=$*'<ZV8= 16"P1Gc= the sin of commission =86@06G^ B K0*+, 8 0@16" P @0660&95I)K0%? 0 1O? 0 *0) 12&346"@M8)<.%/06&*+,16+,EIMV8)P')G&06L8EW?1Gc=&:E:9/VI E')#+ G^ B K0@06=CE<0E*+, #+ a /6&:*<-? 8 *&' ! E06&F&&#O0-" C PE-&) (1O?= 60&-'P;== 60&5&V0)1M7,8=) =CE<0E*+,#+a/6&:*<-?860&]OV *&' ! E06&CPE8V 8 # (1O? = 60&8. P K=. = 8. - 50K6&&#80K0&5' - I$ Z`, ) *N 0 ]KV #+ % I0#-V 8 )60&G/0Gg = @=16" P 60&@' < G/09<< “6I0P” *.6M=0P K&7860&8.PK=.=60&]OVG.rE9/:50&1%#+*0)60&163-&) (Siamwalla, 1993) %I0#8? 8 =98M8)&:<<<&" K 0&@' P 60&*+, #+ K=?IE)0=&'41MV0#016+,EIMV8)K/0EK=?IE)0=16"=DG (5;0<'=I"@'E 1!7, 8 60&!' _ =0G&:1*2D*E, 2545) K=? I E)0=M8)&' 4 1K/? 0 =+( *>K=V0*+,Z(>ZV8=6'= 9/:G&:50=60&*N0)0=6'=D#?DPV*'()]=&:P'< 9=I&0< (&:KI? 0 )6&:*&I) 6&#-? 0 )b) 9/:]=&:P' < 9=IP", ) (&:KI?0)5?I=6/0) 5?I=AW#"A0% 5?I=*V8);",=)
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: 346 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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80='=*$ 60B@=!'=F$. (2544)F +.(.3S+31 2.*B,.E<L569.C12=&EL2G'.<*. 5;&1&? 7-8/&#?0E/&#<#0>G&/#. #* N%@%412+W@ Bromley, Daniel W. (1991)F $4J-1G4304P +46 $.G4G3U7 O1GS01PU Q-ZHP, +46 OK\*-. OG*-.UF Massachusetts: Basil Blackwell. Dahl, Robert A. (1966)F XHG [GJ014,i7 W03G.1+.U +46 OGR01 -4 5301-.+ %-PUF New Haven: Yale University Press. Hayami, Yujiro, and Gogo Yoshihisa (2005), $.G4G3-. W0J0*GS304P, 2nd edn., Oxford University Press. Hunter, Floyd (1953)F %G33K4-PU OGR01 /P1K.PK10F Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Mills, C. Wright (1956)F (H0 OGR01 $*-P0F London: Oxford University. Siamwalla et.al. (1993)F “Ch 2: Agriculture”Peter Warr, in Peter Warr (ed.), (H0 (H+- $.G4G3U -4 (1+4,-P-G4, Cambridge University Press. Suehiro Akira (2004)F V-,K4601,PGG6 -4 (H+-*+467 OG*-P-.,F cK,-40,, a0+601,F +46 PH0 %H-40,0 %G33K4-PUF Middle class in East AsiaF Kyoto: The SocietyF pp. 175-208. United Nations Development Programme. (2003), (H+-*+46 `K3+4 W0J0*GS304P Q0SG1P 20037 %G33K4-PU $3SGR01304P, Bangkok: UNDP. http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 377 :
(market-led) K&78]KV&'4=N0 (state-led) %I0#9-6-?0)M8)9=I*0)*'() 58)=+( 1801MV0@&")9/VI 1Gc=%I0#9-6-?0)]=9)?&:P'< (degree) #06 6I?01Gc=60&9-6-?0)]=9)?G&:1A* (kind) -'I8E?0)1O?= #0-&60& M8)#01/1Z+E9/:160K/+]-V80@@'PDPVI?01Gc=9=I*0)8")&'4 ]=MJ:*+, 9=I*0)96VG^BK0I"6[-M8)D*E@'P1Gc=9=I*0)8")-/0P ]=6&J+ M8)160K/+]-V &'4<0/1MV0DG@'P60&6'<*'()G^BK0K=+(*+,D#?6?8]KV16"P&0E DPV (NPLs) 9/:%I0#!81!+E)M8)*.=]=5;0<'=60&1)"=8E?0)M=0= ]KB? CPE@' P -'( ) <&&3' * <&" K 0&5" = *&' ! E$ 9 K? ) O0-" (Korea Asset Management Corporation: KAMCO) M`(= 1!7,8Z7(8 NPLs 886@06 5;0<'=60&1)"= 9/:@'P-'()<&"3'*G&:6'=1)"=f069K?)O0-" (Korea Deposit Insurance Corporation: KDIC) M`(= 1!7,81Gc=9K/?)1!",#1)"= 68)*.=]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"=CPE-&) -'()9-?1#7,8I"6[-16"PM`(=]K#?b 5?I=6&J+M8)D*E='(= 6I?0*+,&'4<0/OI=@:@'P-'()68)*.=M`(=1!7,8O?IE 1!",#*.=96?5;0<'=60&1)"=6R1Gc=1I/06I?0K=`,)GdA0EK/')I"6[- 1#7,8 &'4<0/9=?]@9/VII?0 #+%I0#1Gc=DGDPV=V8E#06*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=@: 50#0&;1!",#*.=DPVPVIE-=18) E",)DG6I?0='(= 6I?0*+,&'4<0/@:@'P-'() <&&3'*<&"K0&5"=*&'!E$D*EM`(= (Thailand Asset Management Corporation: TAMC) I"6[-12&346"@6Ra?0=DG9/VI6I?05+,Gd 9/: 5.P*V0E9/VI NPLs *+, TAMC Z7(8#0='(= 5?I=]KB?6R1Gc= NPLs @06 5;0<'=60&1)"=M8)&'4 9*=*+,@:1Gc=M8)186O=P')*+,-'()]@DIV9-?9&6 P')='(= %I0#9-6-?0)&:KI?0)D*E9/:160K/+@`)1Gc=1!+E)%I0#9-6 -?0)]=1O")&:P'<#066I?01O")G&:1A* ]=9)?*+,&'41MV09*&69Z)CPE-&) 1!7,81&?)%I0#1&RIM8)6&:<I=60&G&'<-'IM8))<P./ )0=O"(==+(@:!E0E0#;61;+E)I?0 K06&'4D*E]OV9=I*0)8")&'4 -'( ) 9-? -V = ]=60&96V I" 6 [-12&346" @ 9/V I 6R #+ % I0#1Gc = DGDPV I? 0 12&346"@D*E@:STo=-'I@06I"6[-1&RI6I?0*+,16"PM`(=@&") 60&8A"G&0E
: 378 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
-?8@06=+(@`)1Gc=%I0#!E0E0#*+,@:O+(]KV1KR=;`)<*<0*M8)&'4D*E-?8 60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)M8)A0%5;0<'=60&1)"=]=58)G&:1PR=%78 D1VC6 G^BK0%I0#!81!+E)M8)1)"=68)*.=M8)5;0<'=60&1)"= (solvency and capital adequacy) Z`,)D#?DPV1Gc=G^BK01e!0:M8)5;0<'=60& 1)"=]P5;0<'=60&1)"=K=`,)1*?0='(= 9-?1Gc=G^BK0M8)*'()A0%60&1)"= (system-wide problem) '56 G^BK0 NPLs 9/:5"=*&'!E$PV8E%?0 (distressed asset) G^BK0*'()58)MV0)-V=E`PCE)6'=8E?0)9=<9=?= @=;78DPVI?01Gc=58)PV0=M8)1K&+EB1P+EI6'= 6/?0I%78 1#7,850#0&; *N 0 60&1!", # *. = ]KV 5 ;0<' = 60&1)" = @=#+ 1 )" = 68)*. = !81!+ E )9/V I 5;0<'=60&1)"=6R@:#+%I0#50#0&;#06M`(=]=60&&8)&'<60&M0P*.= @0660&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(1!7,896VG^BK0 NPLs P')='(= 60&1!",#*.=@`) 1Gc=60&O?IE1!",#%I0#&IP1&RIM8)60&96VG^BK0 NPLs DPVDG]=-'I ]=MJ:*+,A0&:60&6'=1)"=*.=5N0&8)6R@:/P/) *N0]KV5;0<'=60&1)"=#+ %I0#@N01Gc=]=60&1!",#*.=1!7,8%)1)"=68)*.=-0#&:P'<*+,6\K#0E 6N0K=P=V8E/)-0#DGPVIE )*)*) ,L<0%=D%$B4!BIQ2#42!28)+42>S)K)*V%51) +%'!28) 'S!5=encR anL Oa"68a5 FLeZ;acR(1 &:P'<%I0#&.=9&)9/:%I0#@N01Gc=*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=@:-V8) *N 0 60&1!", # *. = 1!7, 8 ]KV 1 Gc = DG-0#MV 8 6N 0 K=PM8)6\K#0E-0# #0-&40=M8) BIS ='(= 80@@:!"@0&J0DPV@06-'I1/MP')-?8DG=+( ]=O? I )Gd 2540-2542 A0%F=0%0&#+ A 0&:M0P*. = *'( ) 5"( = 688,452 /V0=<0* 9-? J 5"(=Gd 2539 F=0%0&*'()K#P#+1)"=*.=1!+E) 356,954 /V0=<0*1*?0='(= P')='(= A0%F=0%0&@`)@N01Gc=*+,@:-V8)*N0 60&1!",#*.=]=@N0=I=#K020/
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 379 :
#0-&60&9&6*+&, 4' <0/D*E]OV96VGB ^ K06R%87 60&96V6\K#0E 8=.B0-]KV-?0)G&:1*250#0&;1Gc=aWV;78K.V=15+E)MV0)#06M8)5;0<'= 60&1)"=D*E-'()9-?1P78=![2@"60E= 2540 1Gc=1I/0 10 Gd CPEKI') I?0 F=0%0&D*E@:50#0&;15=8M0EK.V=96?-?0)O0-"1!7,8*N060&1!",# *.=DPVPVIE-'I18) 9-?G&06LI?0 #+1!+E)F=0%0&6&.)1*!9/:F=0%0& 65"6&D*E1*?0='(=*+,1!",#*.=DPV 1Gc=@N0=I=&I#1!+E) 43,000 /V0=<0* 1*?0='(= ]=O?I)-V=Gd 2542 1#7,85;0=60&J$I"6[-12&346"@/.6/0# 9/:&.=9&)#06M`(=1&7,8Eb *N0]KV%I0#1O7,8#',=M8)='6/)*.=-?0)O0-" -?812&346"@M8)G&:1*216"P]K#?9E?/)1&7,8Eb @=6&:*',)&'4<0/OI= 1O7,8I?0 C8605*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=@:1!",#*.=@=!81!+E)PVIE-'I18)='(= 9*<@:1Gc=D#?DPV1/E &'4<0/@`);W65;0=60&J$<')%'<]KV1MV0O?IE1K/78 5;0<'=60&1)"=CPE-&) Z`,)1Gc=*+,&WV@'66'=]==0# “9a= 14 5")K0%# 2542” 5?I=K=`,)M8)9a= 14 5")K0%# %78 60&]OV1)"=50F0&J:1MV0 1!",#*.= *'()]=68)*.=M'(=*+,K=`,) (Tier-1) 9/:68)*.=M'(=*+,58) (Tier2) ]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"=A0E]-V1)7,8=DM<')%'<@N0=I=K=`,) 9-?5;0<'= 60&1)"=E')#+5"*F"Y1/786I?0 @:1MV0&?I#C%&)60&1!",#*.=M8)&'4K&78D#? 6RDPV &0E/:18+EP%&?0Ib %78 K065;0<'=60&1)"=-V8)60&1!",#*.= ]=68)*.=M'(=*+,K=`,)9/VI &'4<0/6R@:886!'=F<'-&*+,1G/+,E=#78D#?DPV 80E. 10 Gd]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"= CPE9/66'<K.V=<.&"#5"*F"YM8)5;0<'= 60&1)" = ='( = b (preferred shares) 9/:5)I=5" * F"Y *+, @ :1G/+, E =-' I aWV<&"K0&M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=PVIE &I#*'()5;0<'=60&1)"=@:-V8)6'= 1)"=*.=5N0&8)1-R#@N0=I=*'=*+ ]=MJ:*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=*+,D#?1MV0&?I# C%&)60&='(= FG*. 8=.B0-]KV%?8Eb 6'=1)"=*.=5N0&8)@=6&:*',)1-R# @N0=I=]=Gd 2543 I'-;.G&:5)%$K/'6M8)60&O?IE1K/781)"=68)*.=
: 380 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
M'(=*+,K=`,)6R1!7,8@:*N0]KV5;0<'=60&1)"=#+68)*.=!81!+E)]=60&PWP Z'<A0I:M0P*.=M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=CPE-&) 5?I=I'-;.G&:5)%$K/'6 M8)%I0#O?IE1K/781)"=68)*.=M'(=*+,58)='(= &'4<0/KI')I?0 @:O?IE]KV 5;0<'=60&1)"=50#0&;*+,@:6/'<#0G/?8E5"=1O7,8DPV8+6%&'()K=`,) 9/: @:O? I E60&96V G^ B K0 NPLs 8+ 6 C5-K=`, ) PV I E 5;0<' = 60&1)" = @: 50#0&;M8&'<%I0#O?IE1K/781)"=68)*.=M'(=*+,58)DPV;`)&V8E/: 20 M8)@N 0 =I=5" = 1O7, 8 ]K#? *+, - =G/? 8 E]KV /W 6 %V 0 CPE&' 4 <0/@:886 !'=F<'-&*+,1G/+,E=#78D#?DPV80E. 10 Gd 9/66'<K.V=6WVPV8E5"*F"YM8) 5;0<'=60&1)"= (subordinated debt) 6/?0IDPVI?0 C%&)60&1!",#*.=CPE5#'%&]@M8)&'4<0/OI= G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@=V8E#06 ]=MJ:*+&, 4' <0/1-&+E#1)"=1!"#, *.=5N0K&'< 68)*.=*'()58)M'(=DIV;`) 300,000 /V0=<0* 9-?G&06LI?0 #+5;0<'= 60&1)"= 10 9K?)1*?0='(=*+,1MV0&?I#C%&)60& 9/:]OV1)"=*'()5"(=1!+E) 70,628 /V0=<0* CPE9<?)1Gc=68)*.=M'(=*+,K=`,)@N0=I= 61,304 /V0= <0* 9/:68)*. = M'( = *+, 5 8)@N 0 =I= 9,324 /V 0 =<0* ]=G&:1A* 68)*.=M'(=*+,K=`,)#+5;0<'=60&1)"=1!+E) 4 9K?)*+,1MV0&?I#C%&)60& G&:68<PVIEF=0%0&M=0P]KB?9/:M=0P6/0)8E?0)/: 1 5;0<'= Z`,)&'4<0/6R1Gc=aWV;78K.V=&0E]KB?]=*'()58)9K?)8EW?6?8=60&1MV0&?I# C%&)60&8EW? 9 /V I 5? I =8+ 6 2 9K? ) ='( = 6R 1 Gc = 1!+ E )9%? < &" 3' * 1)" = *. = 1*?0='(= 501K-.K/'6*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=5?I=#061/786*+,@:D#?1MV0&?I# 9a= 14 5")K0%# 1Gc=1!&0:1)7,8=DM*+,aW6-"P6'<1)"=O?IE1K/78 CPE 1e!0:8E?0)E",) 1)7,8=DM*+,&'4<0/5)I=5"*F"Y]=60&1G/+,E=9G/)*+# aWV<&"K0&M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=9/:60&6'=1)"=*.=5N0&8)1-R#@N0=I=]= *'=*+ =86@06=+( C8605*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=@:50#0&;=N01)"=1!",#*.=*+, DPV&'<DG]OV1!7,860&*N06N0D&a?0=60&G/?8E5"=1O7,8]K#?6R9*<@:1Gc=DG
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 381 :
D#?DPV1/E 1=7,8)@06A0EK/')I"6[- &:<<12&346"@#+6N0/')60&a/"/V=16"=]=50M0-?0)b 1Gc=@N0=I=#06 8)%$6&F.&6"@@`)D#?#+%I0# @N01Gc=-V8)6WV1)"=1!7,860&/)*.=]K#? P')='(= 1)"=1!",#*.=@06&'4@`)#+ G&:CEO=$=V8E-?85;0<'=60&1)"= =86@06@:180DGOP1OE-'I1/M M0P*.=]=)<P./M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=1*?0='(= (8'##0&9/:J'4='=*$, 2546: 201-202) P')='(= *0)1/786*+,P+6I?0M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=%7860& K'=DG886-&050&G&:1A*]K#?b 1!7,8*N0]KV1)"=68)*.=8EW?]=&:P'<*+, 6\K#0E6N0K=P 9-?]=MJ:1P+EI6'=6R50#0&;*+,@:5)I=5"*F"Y]=60& <&"K0&@'P60&DIV]=#78M8)-=1O?=1P"# 1=7,8)@06%I0#G^U=GgI=M8)-/0P*.=&:KI?0)G&:1*2]=O?I) ='(= C8605*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=@:@N0K=?0EK.V=*.=9*Vb (straight equity) 1!7,81!",#*.=='(=9*<@:1Gc=DGD#?DPV1/E P')='(= 5;0<'=60&1)"=@`)K'= #0886-&050&60&1)"=G&:1A*]K#?*+,CPE1=7(89*V9/VI%78 60&1G/+,E= 1)"=f06M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=#01Gc=-&050&6`,)*.= (hybrid capital) Z`,)6R%78-&050&*+,#+%.J5#<'-"a5#6'=&:KI?0)-&050&K=+(9/:-&050& *.= (preferred shares and perpetual subordinated debts)2 9-? 50#0&;='<1Gc=5?I=K=`,)M8)68)*.=M'(=*+,K=`,)-0#6\K#0EDPV8E?0) 5#<W & J$ @=6&:*', ) 5"( = Gd 2542 G&06LI? 0 F=0%0&186O=886 -&050&6`,)*.=1Gc=@N0=I=*'()5"(=;`) 82,410 /V0=<0* Z`,)1Gc=G^@@'E 5N0%'B*+,O?IE]KV5;0<'=60&1)"=50#0&;PN0&)1)"=68)*.=]KV1Gc=DG -0#*+,6\K#0E6N0K=PDPV 9-?6R#"DPV1Gc=60&1!",#1#RP1)"=*.=*+,9*V@&") ]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"=1*?0]P='6 @06*+, 8 A" G &0E#0MV 0 )-V = 1KR = DPV I? 0 I' - ;. G &:5)%$ K /' 6 G&:60&K=`,)M8)9a= 14 5")K0%# %78-V8)60&O?IE]KV5;0<'=60& 1)"=50#0&;1!",#*.=DPV8E?0)&IP1&RI 1!7,8]KV5;0<'=60&1)"==N01#RP1)"= ]K#?b =+(DG]OV1!7,860&6'=1)"=*.=5N0&8) 9/:1!7,860&PN0&)1)"=68)*.=
: 382 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
]KV!81!+E) CPEKI')I?0 1#7,85;0<'=60&1)"=#+1)"=68)*.=!81!+E)9/VI 5;0<'=60&1)"=6R@:50#0&;G/?8E5"=1O7,8&8<]K#?DPV 9/:12&346"@6R @:STo=-'I-0##0 9-?1=7,8)@06C%&)60&1!",#*.==+(1Gc=DG9<<5#'%&]@ P')='(= 5;0<'=60&1)"=5?I=]KB?@`)K/+61/+,E)*+,@:1MV0&?I#C%&)60& 1!7,8&'630%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8)DIV]=#78-=-?8DG 9/:K'=#096VG^BK0 %I0#D#?1!+E)!8M8)1)"=68)*.=CPE60&886-&050&G&:1A*]K#?b 9/:60&1&+ E 6%7 = 1)" = 6WV @ 06/W 6 %V 0 M8)-= Z`, ) E", ) *N 0 ]KV A 0I:60& M0P9%/=5"=1O7,8M8)A0%F.&6"@ (credit crunch) &.=9&)E",)M`(= 9/: *N0]KV12&346"@#KA0%-6-,>#06E",)M`(=DG8+6 K061&0/8)@"=-=060&I?0&'4D*E1Gc=&'4*+,1MV#9MR) (strong state) 9/:#+2'6EA0! (capability) #066I?0*+,1Gc=8EW?@&")9/VI 6R#+ %I0#1Gc=DGDPVI?0 &'4D*E@:<')%'<1!",#*.=]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"= 9/: ]OV5;0<'=60&1)"=*+,#+1)"=68)*.=!81!+E)9/VI1Gc=K'IK86]=60&96V G^ B K0 NPLs a? 0 =60&G&' < C%&)5&V 0 )K=+( 1O? = 1P+ E I6' < *+, &' 4 <0/ 160K/+]-V1/786]OV P')='(= 12&346"@#KA0%6R@:STo=-'I]=8'-&0*+,1&RI 6I?0*+,16"PM`(=@&") 9-?8E?0)D&6R-0# 9=I*0)8")&'41O?==+(1Gc=DGDPVE06 5N0K&'<&'4*+,8?8=98 (weak) 1O?=&'4D*E CPE1e!0:1#7,8!"@0&J0 G&:68<6'<MV81*R@@&")P')-?8DG=+(%78 6?8=K=V0*+,9a= 14 5")K0%#@: 16"PM`(=='(= &'4DPV9G&5A0!F=0%0&@N0=I= 6 9K?) 9/:<&"3'*1)"=*.= 8+6 13 9K?)1Gc=M8)&'4DG9/VI @N0=I=5"=1O7,8M8)5;0<'=*'() 19 9K?) =+(%"P1Gc=&V8E/: 22.5 M8)1)"=6WV*'()K#P*+,G/?8ECPEA0%F=0%0&8EW? 9/VI ]=I'=1P+EI6'<*+,&'4<0/G&:602]OV9a= 14 5")K0%# &'4<0/6R 1MV09*&69Z)F=0%0&M=0P1/R68+6 2 9K?) <&"3'*1)"=*.=8+6 5 9K?) 1!",#1-"# 60&9G&&WG5;0<'=60&1)"=@N0=I=#06MV0)-V= *N0]KV&'4 G&:5<6' < %I0#E06/N 0 <06]=60&<&" K 0&@' P 60&5;0<' = 60&1)" = *+,;W6E`P#01K/?0=+(8EW?9/VI (Veerathai, 2003: Table 3.1, 19, 21-23)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 383 :
P')='(= K06&'4<0/<')%'<1!",#*.=]KV96?5;0<'=60&1)"=CPE-&)6R@: 1Gc=60&1!",#%I0#E.?)E069/:Z'<ZV8=]KV96?60&<&"K0&@'P60&E",)M`(= DG8+6 9-?5",)*+,=?0M<%"P#066I?0%78 9#VI?0@:D#?%N0=`);`)%I0#E.?)E06 ]=9)?60&<&"K0&@'P60&9/VI6R-0# E')%)#+%I0#1Gc=DGDPV*0)60& 1#78)=V8E#06*+,&'4<0/8'=8?8=98 (politically weak government) 1O?=&'4<0/OI= @:50#0&;<')%'<1!",#*.=K&781MV09*&69Z)F=0%0& M=0P]KB?*+,1K/788EW?DPV )*)*+ +%':+H ,L < 0%0)IY >IC F $9 +9 4 K0H ! +8 G '%QFGH '[!nIe2J!236ng Y!an7 Be7!5;86!n( G^BK0&0640=*+,5.P]=60&96VA0I:I"6[-M8)A0%5;0<'= 60&1)" = ='( = 9MI=8EW? 6' < 60&96V G^ B K0K=+( *+, D #? 6? 8 ]KV 1 6" P &0EDPV (NPLs) 9/:5"=*&'!E$PV8E%?0 1801MV0@&")9/VIG^BK01)"=68)*.=D#? !81!+E)*+,8A"G&0EDG]=K'IMV8*+,a?0=#0='(= 1Gc=9-?1!+E)8060&M8) G^BK0 NPLs -&0<]P*+,A0%5;0<'=60&1)"=E')D#?50#0&;96VG^BK0 =+(DPV -&0<='(=5;0<'=60&1)"=6R@:G&:5<6'<A0I:M0P*.= Z`,)@:DG /</V0)1)"=68)*.=M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=-?8DG P')='(= 60&1!",#*.=8E?0) 1P+EICPED#?50#0&;96VG^BK0 NPLs DPV@:D#?*N0]KV5;0<'=60&1)"= K/.P886@06A0I:I"6[1O?=1P+EI6'<60&96VG^BK01)"=68)*.=D#?!81!+E) &'4<0/ OI=]OVI"F+8")-/0P]=60&96VG^BK0 NPLs CPE]KV5;0<'=60&1)"=1Gc= K'IK86]=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(M8)A0%F.&6"@*+,9*V@&") ]=MJ:*+, &'4<0/I0)<*<0*M8)-=DIV1!+E)9%?60&5?)15&"# 5='<5=.= 9/: G&:50=)0=]KV 9 6? A 0%186O= 1!7, 8 60&=+( &' 4 <0/@` ) *N 0 60&96V D M C%&)5&V0)!7(=40=*0)6\K#0E A0&:A03+ 9/:87,=b *+,1Gc=8.G5&&% M'PMI0)9&)@W)]@M8)A0%186O=]=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+( &'4<0/DPV
: 384 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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%N0;0#K/'6 J @.P=+(%78 1K-.]P60&96VG^BK0 NPLs M8) D*E@`)/?0OV0#06 CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=O?I)&'4<0/OI= %N0-8<%78 D1VC 6 &' 4 <0//V # 1K/I]=60&96V D M6\K#0EO. P /V # /:/0E9/: 6&:<I=60&<')%'<K=+(1!7,81!",#8N0=0@-?8&8)]KV96?1@V0K=+(8E?0)!8 1!+E) Z`,)1Gc=1)7,8=DM*+,@N01Gc=#06]=60&1P"=-0#9=I*0)8")-/0P 9/:%I0#/V#1K/I=+(16"P@0660&%'P%V0=CPE6/.?#/W6K=+( P')*+,8A"G&0E DG]=K'IMV8*+,9/VI '56 I"F+60&G&:68<F.&6"@M8)D*E='(= #'6D#?#+60&9<?)9E6 8E?0)O'P1@=&:KI?0)K=V0*+,60&<&"K0&6'<%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8) 9-?]= 6&:<I=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+( #'6@:-V8)#+60&/P5'P5?I=*.=M8) 6/.?#aWV;78K.V=1P"# 1!7,8-'P60&M0P*.=5:5#886DG15+E6?8= 9-?1#7,8 5?I=*.=M8)aWV;78K.V=1P"#;W6K'6 (write-off) @=K#P9/VI E?8#K#0E;`) 60&1G/+,E=%I0#1Gc=1@V0M8)9/:O.PaWV<&"K0&1P"# 9-?1=7,8)@06#W/%?0 5?I=K=`,)M8)<&"3'*M`(=8EW?6'<60&%)8EW?M8)aWV<&"K0&1P"#PVIE ]=9)?=+( 9/VI 8N0=0@-?8&8)M8)1@V0K=+(D*E-?8/W6K=+(-aWV<&"K0&1P"# @`)=V8E 6I?0]=6&J+M8)G&:1*2-:I'=-6*+,#+60&9<?)9E6&:KI?0)%I0#1Gc= 1@V0M8)9/:*+#aWV<&"K0&8E?0)O'P1@= (Ammar, 2005: 76) '&+ G^BK0I"F+60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=#+ %.JA0!-,> &0E)0=M8)F=0%0&C/6e<'<K=`,) (Jan.2006: 16-17)
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G&:1#"=I?0 6I?0 3 ]= 4 M8)60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(A0E]-V6&8<M8) %J:6&&#60&1!7,85?)15&"#60&G&'<G&.)C%&)5&V0)K=+( (CDRAC)17 ='(=D#?#+60&/P#W/K=+( (hair cut) /)1/E 9-?]OVI"F+60&1/7,8=6N0K=P60& @?0EK=+(9/:&:E:G/8PK=+( &I#*'()/P8'-&0P861<+(E-0#5'BB01)"=6WV /)]KV <V 0 )1*? 0 ='( = 501K-. K /' 6 *+, 5 ;0<' = 60&1)" = 1/7 8 6I" F+ 6 0&G&' < C%&)5&V0)K=+(9<<=+( 1!&0:5;0<'=60&1)"=-V8)60&G6GH8)40=:1)"= 68)*.=*+,1G&0:<0)9/:GH8)6'=60&5WB15+E8N0=0@60&<&"K0&M8)-= Z`,)1Gc=a/57<1=7,8)@0660&*+,5;0<'=60&1)"=1/786*+,@:D#?&'<1)"=1!",# *.=@06C%&)60& 14 5")K0%# 8+65?I=K=`,)='(= 1Gc=1!&0:F=0%0& D*E#+%I0#&WV16+,EI6'<C8605*0)F.&6"@M8)/W6%V0-=D#?#06='6 P')='(= F=0%0&@`)D#?6/V0/PK=+(]KV 501K-.*'()50#G&:60&MV0)-V= CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=G&:60& *+,50# *N0]KV16"PG^BK0 NPLs EV8=6/'<18 ]=8'-&0*+,5W) Z`,)*N0]KV -'I1/M NPLs CPE&I#/P/)8E?0)1O7,8)OV0 -'I8E?0)1O?= 1#7,85"(=1P78= #+=0%# 2546 -'I1/M NPLs EV8=6/'< (57,568 /V0=<0*) ='(= #+ #W/%?01678<@:1*?06'<#W/%?0 NPLs *+,a?0=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0) (59,002 /V0=<0*) 1/E*+1P+EI (8'##0&9/:J'4='=*$, 2546: 123) 5?I= IMF (2004: 40-42) 6RG&:#0J60&I?0#+ NPLs EV8=6/'<5W)6I?0&V8E/: 40 M8)K=+(*+,a?0=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(]=O?I)1P78=-./0%# 2542 ;`) -./0%# 2545 ]=MJ:*+,#W/%?0M8)5"=*&'!E$PV8E%?0M8)&:<<60&1)"= *'()K#P5W);`)&V8E/: 40 M8) GDP ]=Gd 2545 ]=9)?=+(9/VI 60&96V G^BK0 NPLs M8)D*E='(=/?0OV0#061#7,81*+E<6'<G&:1*21!7,8=<V0= 1O?= 160K/+]-V]=Gd 2545 #+E8P5"=*&'!E$PV8E%?01!+E)&V8E/: 7 M8) K=+(*'()&:<< 9-?-'I1/M=+(M8)D*E6/'<5W);`)&V8E/: 3719 MV81*R@@&") -?0)b MV0)-V=*N0]KV IMF K#P%I0#8P*=6'<I"F+60&8")-/0PM8) D*E *'()b*+, IMF DPV5='<5=.=9=I*0)=+(#0CPE-/8P IMF 1&",#1&+E6
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 403 :
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8N0=0@60&-'P5"=]@]=60&PN01="=)0=M8)FG*.1678<*'()K#P&I#2W=E$ 8EW?]=#78M8)aWVI?060&1*?0='(= ]=PV0=%I0#5'#!'=F$*0)8>=0@A0E]= FG*. ='(= A0EK/') Gd 2540 FG*. DPV-'()%J:6&&#60&5;0<'=60&1)"=M`(=#0]K#? 1!7,8 %0=8N0=0@-'P5"=]@M8)aWVI?060& CPEKI')I?0 6/D6]K#?=+(@:O?IE5?) 15&"#]KV=CE<0EM8) FG*. #+%I0#=?01O7,8;78#06M`(= 9-?PVIE8N0=0@ *0)60&6\K#0EA0E]-V !.&.<.FG*. e<'<1P"#=+( aWVI?060&E')%)#+ 8N0=0@*+,@:E61/"6#-"M8)%J:6&&#60&*'()58)O.PDPV*.61#7,8 ]=8+6PV0=K=`,) %I0#5'#!'=F$*0)8N0=0@&:KI?0)aWVI?060&6'< &'4<0/E')%)1Gc=DG]=/'63J:*+,&'4<0/50#0&;G/PaWVI?060&886@06 -N09K=?)DPV*.6MJ:-0#*+,&'4<0/1KR=5#%I& C%&)5&V0)8N0=0@=+(*+,]KV 8N0=0@]=60&PN01="=)0=M8) FG*. 96?aWVI?060&5W)#06 9-?6/'<D#?#+ K/'6G&:6'=]Pb 1/E5N0K&'<aWVI?060&]=1&7,8)%I0##',=%)M8)-N09K=?) E?8#5&V0)9&)@W)]@]KVaWVI?060&6N0K=P/PN01="==CE<0EM8) FG*. 1!7,8 180]@&'4<0/ CPEKI')I?0-=@:D#?;W6G/P886@0616V08+(aWVI?060& K&78 6/?0ICPE5&.G9/VI 9#V6I?0 10 GdA0EK/')I"6[- 2540 &'4D*E6RE')D#? G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@]=60&M@'P501K-.K=`,)M8)I"6[-60&J$5;0<'= 60&1)"= A#8/&#<BC'56 C%&)5&V0)9&)@W)]@*+,<"P1<+(EIMV0)-V=#+='EE: I? 0 &:P' < %I0#1Gc = 8" 5 &:*+, 9 *V @ &" ) M8) FG*. ='( = M`( = 8EW? 6' < <. % /" 6 %.J5#<'-"5?I=-'IM8)aWVI?060&9-?/:%= %I0#1MV#9MR)*0)60&1#78) 9/:/K&78%I0#=?01O7,8;78M8)&'4<0/ 6&J+60&&I#<'BO+M8) FG*. 1Gc=-'I8E?0)M8)G&:1PR==+( 60&5WB15+E%I0#=?01O7,8;789/:%I0# 8?8=98*0)60&1#78)M8)&'4<0/OI=*N0]KV&'4<0/D#?50#0&;a/'6P'= 60&&I#<'BO+5N01&R@1#7,81aO"B6'<60&-?8-V0=M8) FG*. ]=*0)-&) MV0# 1#7,8&'4<0/1MV#9MR) 1O?= E.%&'4<0/*'63"J FG*. 6RD#?6/V0*+,@:
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E7,=&?0) !.&.<. e<'<]K#?-?86&:*&I)60&%/') 1=7,8)@0616&)I?0 @: 5WB15+E8N0=0@*+,#+8EW?]=60&6N06'<PW9/5;0<'=60&1)"=DG 9*=*+,@:DPV #0Z`,)%I0#1Gc=8"5&:-0#6\K#0E*+,#06M`(= 8E?0)D&6R-0# 5",)*+,%I& 5')16-%78 60&*+, FG*. DPVM'PM7==CE<0E*+,<'BO0CPE&'4<0/*'()58) 5N01&R@95P)]KV1KR=I?0 FG*. ='(=1Gc=8)%$6&*+,1MV#9MR)6I?08)%$6&*+, PW9/12&346"@#KA0%87,=b 1O?= 5A0!'_=$ K&785N0='6)0=12&346"@ 60&%/') (FPO) 8N0=0@9/:8"*F"!/]=60&6N0K=P=CE<0EM8)*'() 58)8)%$6&='(=/P/)#06]=O?I)&'4<0/*'()58) CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)E.% &'4<0/*'63"J -'I8E?0)1O?= 5A0!'_=$ ;W6*N0]KV6/0E1Gc=1!+E)6/D6 @'P*N0&0E/:18+EPM8)=CE<0E39 K/')@06*+,&'4<0/6N0K=P1=7(8K0 K/'6b M8)=CE<0E15&R@5"(=9/VI 9#VI?0 FG*. @:#+%I0#1MV#9MR)6I?0 8)%$6&87,=b M8)&:<<&0O60& 9-?=+(#"DPVK#0E%I0#I?0 FG*. #+ %I0#1MV#9MR)P')1O?=]=O?I)*2I&&3*+, 2503 (1960s) 9/: 2513 (1970s) A#8/&#<BC ' &+ %I0#M' P 9EV ) *0)60&1#7 8 )Z`, ) M' P MI0) 6&:<I=60&96V D M6\K#0E5;0<' = 60&1)" = ='( = 1Gc = %I0#M' P 9EV ) &:KI?0)aWV1/?=M8)A0%&'4 (&:KI?0)1*%C=9%&-9/:='660&1#78) K&78 &:KI?0) FG*. 9/:6&:*&I)60&%/')) #066I?0*+,@:1Gc=%I0#M'P9EV) &:KI?0)aWV1/?=M8)A0%&'49/:=0EF=0%0&186O=1O?=]=8P+-40 60&*+, &?0)96VDM !.&.<.5;0<'=60&1)"=a?0=1MV05W?6&:<I=60&="-"<'BB'-" M8)&'45A0]=O?I)&'4<0/OI=='(=O+(I?0DPV#+60&-6/)1KR=O8< K&78 8E? 0 )=V 8 E6R G &:=+ G &:=8#6' = DPV 9 /V I &:KI? 0 )&' 4 9/:=0EF=0%0& 186O= 1!&0:=0EF=0%0&#+5?I=&?I#]=6&:<I=60&&?0) !.&.<. 5;0<'=60&1)"= 60&*+,&?0) !.&.<. DPV#8<8N0=0@96? FG*. #06M`(=]= 60&6N06'<PW9/5;0<'=60&1)"=95P)]KV1KR=;`)8N0=0@60&-?8&8)M8) =0EF=0%0&*+,/P/)K/')I"6[-12&346"@ 60&*+,&?0) !.&.<. =+(D#?a?0=
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&'45A0]=E.%&'4<0/*'63"J='(=16"P@06%I0#M'P9EV)6'=18)A0E]= A0%&'4 D#?]O?1!&0:60&I",)1-V=M8)=0EF=0%0&186O= A#8/&#<BC'BC %I0#/V#1K/I]=60&96VDM !.&.<.5;0<'=60& 1)" = 9/: !.&.<.%.V # %&8)1)" = f06 K#0E%I0#I? 0 6\16Jl$ PV 0 = 60&1)"=1P"#*+,1Gc=501K-.K=`,)M8)I"6[-A0%5;0<'=60&1)"=1#7,8 10 Gd *+,9/VIE')%)D#?DPV&'<60&96VDM 1O?= 60&*+,D#?#+6/D6<')%'<]KV FG*. 1MV0@'P60&6'<5;0<'=60&1)"=*+,#+G^BK08E?0)*'=1K-.60&J$ (Prompt Corrective Action) *N0]KV FG*. 80@D#?PN01="=#0-&60&*+,1K#0:5# 6'<5;0<'=60&1)"=*+,8?8=986RDPV 1=7,8)@06aWVI?060&%N0=`);`)%I0#8EW? &8PM8)-=]=-N 0 9K=? ) -? 8 DG K&7 8 60&9*&69Z)#0-&60&M8) FG*.CPE='660&1#78)P')1O?=]=8P+A#8/&#<BCDL& %I0#/V#1K/IM8)60&GL"&WG6\K#0E60&1)"= e<'<-?0)b MV0)-V=*N0]KVA0%5;0<'=60&1)"=M0P ‘C%&)5&V0)!7(=40=’ ]=60&!'_=0-'I18) 1O?= 60&D#?#+ !.&.<.%.V#%&8)1)"=f06#+='EE: 8E? 0 )=V 8 E 2 PV 0 = %7 8 6) A0%5;0<' = 60&1)" = E' ) %)M0P6/D6*+, 1K#0:5#]=60& ‘*N 0 2!’ 5;0<' = 60&1)" = *+, /V # /) 1=7, 8 )@06CPE F&&#O0-"M8)F.&6"@=+(='(= 1#7,85;0<'=60&1)"=9K?)K=`,)/V#/) @:#+a/ 6&:*<-?8aWV16+,EIMV8)@N0=I=#06*'()aWVf061)"=9/:1@V0K=+(M8)5;0<'= 60&1)"= *N0]KV6&:<I=60&/V#/:/0E9<<G6-"*+,]OV8)%$6&F.&6"@87,=b #+ % I0#D#? 1 K#0:5#*+, @ :]OV 6' < 5;0<' = 60&1)" = @061K-. a /=+( 1 8) !.&.<.%.V#%&8)1)"=f06@`)#+MV8<'BB'-"*+,]OV@'P60&6'<6&:<I=60& /V # /:/0EM8)5;0<' = 60&1)" = 1Gc = 60&1e!0: P' ) ='( = -&0<]P*+, !.&.<. e<'<=+(E')D#?#+a/<')%'<]OV -&0<='(= FG*. @:M0P9&)@W)]@*+, @:@' P 60&M'( = 1PR P M0P6' < 5;0<' = 60&1)" = *+, 8? 8 =98 1!&0:6/' I a/ 6&:*<*+,@:16"P6'<aWVf061)"=@N0=I=#06 E",)DG6I?0='(= FG*. 6R@: M0P9&)@W)]@*+,@:886#0-&60&-?0)b 1!7,81!",#&:P'<60&9M?)M'=]KV5W)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 425 :
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: 426 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
1!&0:1Gc=60&)?0E*+,@:5',)]KVF=0%0&6/0)PN01="==CE<0E60&1)"= 9<<a?8=%/0E ]KV1)"=6WV8'-&0P861<+(E-,> (soft loan) 9/:]KV5"=1O7,8 !" 1 231e!0:PV 0 = (selective credits) ]=9)? a /G&:CEO=$ * 0) 12&346"@9/VI =0EF=0%0&6/0)*+,1Gc=8"5&:*0)60&1#78) 9/:#+ 9=I%"P8=.&'63$="E#='(=E?8##+![-"6&&#*+,1Gc=G&:CEO=$-?81@V0K=+( (creditor friendly) #066I?0/W6K=+( Z`,)E?8#M'P6'<a/G&:CEO=$M8) ='660&1#78)*+,#+*+,#0@06A0%12&346"@@&") (]=40=:/W6K=+() P')='(= @`)D#?=?09G/6]@*+,&'4<0/*'63"J#+9&)@W)]@]=60&/P%I0#1Gc=8"5&: 9/:M8<1M-8N0=0@M8)F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*E P')1O?=MV815=8 1&7,8) FSA ]=9)?=+( 1&0@`)6/?0I8V0)DPVI?0 &'4<0/*'63"J1Gc=&'4<0/*+, -?8-V0=9=I*0)60&GL"&WG-0#9=I%"PM8)!I615&+="E#]K#? ,* *V%51)+%'!$342+94)'1(7''$);< B*?* +.-V :"-=D%$F'H ,'-*8>78Z"#42'1(5%" 1Gc=*+,E8#&'<6'=CPE*',IDGI?0&'4D*E='(=#"]O?&'41MV#9MR) K&78 “&' 4 9K? ) 60&!' _ =0” (strong or developmental state) K06]OV #C=*'2=$-'I9<<M8)&'4*+,15=8CPE Evans (1995) 1Gc=16Jl$I'P9/VI 80@@:@'PDPVI?0&'4D*E1Gc= “&'4M'(=6/0)” (intermediate state) Z`,)#+ %I0#1MV#9MR)]=M'(=6/0)&:KI?0)&'49K?)60&!'_=09/: “&'4='6/?0” (predatory state) 6/? 0 I8+ 6 9<<K=`, ) 6R %7 8 &' 4 D*E='( = 1Gc = &' 4 *+, D&VG&:5"*F"a/ (ineffective) 9/:8?8=98 (weak) 6I?0 1#7,8*0<I'P6'< &'4]=181O+E-:I'=8861e+E)1K=78 1O?= 160K/+]-VK&78D-VKI'= 9-?6R1MV# 9MR)9/:#+G&:5"*F"a/#066I?0&'4Sj/"GGj=5$ CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)&'4 Sj/"GGj=5$]=E.%G&:F0=0F"<P+ Marcos 9#VI?0CPE&I#9/VI80@@:@'P DPVI?0 &'4D*E1Gc=&'4*+,8?8=98 9-?]=O?I)*2I&&3*+, 2500 ='(= 6R1MV#
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9MR)1!+E)!8*+,@: ‘@.PO=I=’ (jump start) %I0#1@&"B1-"<C-]KV96? &:<<12&346"@ CPE50#0&;5&V0)5",)9IP/V8#*0)12&346"@#KA0%*+, 187( 8 8N 0 =IE]KV A 0%186O=1Gc = -' I =N 0 ]=60&5:5#*. = a? 0 =&:<< “*.=="E#=0EF=0%0&” DPV 6/?0I8E?0)&I<&'P*+,5.P &:<<*.=="E#9<< D*Eb =+(1-"<C-M`(=A0E]-V%I0#5'#!'=F$50#15V0&:KI?0)='660&1#78) (=0E*K0&) 1*%C=9%&-aWVPW9/12&346"@#KA0% 6'<=0EF=0%0& 186O= A0E]-V6&8<]KB?M8)&:<8<60&1#78)9<<1aPR@60&*K0&– &0O0O0-"="E# 1#7,8I"6[-12&346"@%&'()&V0E9&)*+,5.P]=G&:I'-"205-&$M8) G&:1*2D*E16" P M`( = ]=Gd 2540 9/:ME0E-' I @=6/0E1Gc = I" 6 [12&346"@M8)181O+EDG]=*+,5.P #+)0=I"O060&@N0=I=#06*+,2`630I?0 8:D&%781K-.G^@@'EM8)I"6[-%&'()=+( )0=9-?/:O"(= DPVE(>1=V=G^@@'E*+, 9-6-? 0 )6' = 886DG <V 0 )6R 1 =V = DG*+, % I0#D&V 1 5;+ E &A0!M8)*. = 1%/7,8=EV0E&:KI?0)G&:1*2 <V0)6R]KV%I0#5N0%'B96?G^@@'EA0E]= G&:1*2 1O?= &:<<*.=="E#!I6!V8) (crony capitalism) *+,*N0]KV16"P 60&/)*.=/V=16"= 9/:=>DG5W?6N0D&*+,/P/)@=6&:*',)D#?50#0&;@?0E %7 = 1)" = 6WV @N 0 =I=#K020/@06-? 0 )G&:1*2DPV ]=MJ:*+, Apichat (2002) 15=8I?0 501K-.5N0%'BG&:60&K=`,)%7860&8?8=-'I/)M8)A0% 5?I=*+,1MV#9MR)*+,5.PM8)&'4D*E Z`,)6R%781K/?01*%C=9%&-#KA0% CPE 1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=O?I)Gd 2523 ;`) 2533 60&8?8=-'I/)M8)1*%C=9% &-=+( 1 8)*+, =N 0 DG5W? 6 0&6N 0 K=P9/:60&PN 0 1=" = =CE<0E12&346" @ #KA0%*+,a"P!/0P @=6?8]KV16"PI"6[-M`(=]=*V0E*+,5.P 9-?A0!MV0)-V=M8) Apichat D#?DPV8A"G&0E60&1G/+,E=9G/) M8)&:<8<60&1#78)@061aPR@60&5W?G&:O0F"GD-E CPE1e!0:8E?0) E",)-'()9-?K/') 2521 1Gc=-V=#08E?0)Z'<ZV8=!81!+E) <*=+(@`)15=8I?0 6&:<I=60&5&V0)&:<8<G&:O0F"GD-E (democratization process)
: 428 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
-'( ) 9-? K /' ) &' 4 <0/(K8E) F0=" = *&$ 6&' E I" 1 O+ E & @=6&:*', ) 6? 8 =*+, &'4F&&#=WB 2540 @:#+a/<')%'<]OV='(= 1Gc=5?I=5N0%'B*+,*N0]KV&'4D*E 1Gc = &' 4 *+, 8? 8 =98E", ) M`( = DG8+ 6 42 9/:6/0E1Gc = G^ @ @' E K=`, ) *+, =N 0 DG 5W? I" 6 [-12&346" @ *+, E7 P 1E7( 8 E0I=0= =86@06=+( 9 /V I )0=O"( = =+( @ : ;61;+E)-?8DGI?0 %I0#8?8=989/:%I0#D&VG&:5"*F"a/M8)&'4D*E=+( 1Gc=a/CPE-&)M8)6-"6060&1#78)*+,;W66N0K=PM`(= D#?I?0@:CPE-'()]@ K&78D#?6R-0# ]=6&:<I=60&*N0]KV1Gc=G&:O0F"GD-EO?I)Gd 2521 2540 6/?0IDPVI?0 %I0#8?8=98M8)&'4<0/OI=*+,1Gc=501K-.]KVD#? 50#0&;96VI"6[-12&346"@ 2540 DPV8E?0)&IP1&RI#"DPV1Gc=%.J5#<'-" 1e!0:-'IM8)&'4<0/OI=1*?0='(= 9-?1Gc=G^BK0]=1O")&:<8<9/: 5;0<'=60&1#78)D*E 8'=6?8]KV16"P&'4<0/*+,8?8=989/:D&VG&:5"*F"a/ ]=60&5&V0)9/:a/'6P'==CE<0E 1!7,896VG^BK0&:P'<O0-"*+,PN0&)8EW? 9/VI K&781!7,8PN01="=60&GL"&WG*+,@N01Gc=]=60&5&V0)%I0#6V0IK=V0]KV 96?5')%#12&346"@D*E 5", ) *+, 1 &0-V 8 )!" @ 0&J0-? 8 DG6R %7 8 5;0<' = 60&1#7 8 )9<< ]P*+, *N 0 ]KV &' 4 <0/O. P -? 0 )b 6? 8 =K=V 0 &' 4 <0/*' 6 3" J (2544) 1Gc = &'4<0/*+,D&VG&:5"*F"a/ )0=5?I==+(@:15=8I?0%I0#8?8=98M8)&:<< !&&%60&1#78) (party system) M8)D*E1Gc=G^BK0&0640=*+,5.P G^BK0K/'6*+,*N0]KV16"P&'4<0/*+,D&VG&:5"*F"a/6R%78 &:<< !&&%60&1#78)*+,G&:68<PVIE!&&%K&786/.?#60&1#78)M=0P6/0) 9/:1/R 6 @N 0 =I=#06 9-? 8? 8 =98 D&V 1 5;+ E &A0! 9/:D&V 1 86A0! (fragmented) 6/?0I8+69<<%78 &:<<!&&%60&1#78)D*ED#?]O?&:<< !&&%#I/O= (mass political party) &:P'<O0-" Z`,)#+8)%$6&@'P-'() 1MV # 9MR ) 9/:1O7, 8 #CE)6' < 6/.? # !/' ) 87, = b M8)G&:O05' ) %# 1O? = M<I=60&5KA0!9&))0= K&78M<I=60&O0I=0/O0IO=<* K&78E`P
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: 430 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
]=9)?=+(9/VI 80@6/?0IDPVI?0 K=?IE*+,1Gc=&0640=*+,5.PM8) 60&1#78)D*E6R%78 6/.?#K&78#.V)60&1#78) 6/?0ICPE1G&+E<1*+E<9/VI %J:&' 4 #=-&+ 6R %7 8 *+, & I#M8)K' I K=V 0 #.V ) @06!&&%60&1#7 8 )-? 0 )b (aWVPN0&)-N09K=?)&'4#=-&+) Z`,)#+K=V0*+,5N0%'B]=60&-?8&8)6'<&'4#=-&+ *?0=87,=b 1!7,8*N060&@'P5&&a/G&:CEO=$ K&78*&'!E06&*0)60& 1#78)]=&WG9<<-?0)b *'()*+,;W66\K#0EK&78D#?6R-0# 5?)a?0=DGE') 5#0O"6M8)#.V) (5.5.) ]=MJ:*+,5#0O"6M8)#.V)6R-V8)5?)#8<<0)5?I= M8)*&'!E06&1K/?0='(=-?8DG]KV6'<1%&78M?0E%:9==15+E) (K'I%:9== ]=&:P'<-?0)b) 9/:40=15+E) (aWV#+5"*F"Y1/786-'()) ]=1M-60&1/786-'() M8)-=1Gc = *8P5. P *V 0 E P' ) ='( = #.V ) @` ) *N 0 K=V 0 *+, 1 Gc = -' I 1O7, 8 #-? 8 &:KI?0)aW#V 5+ *" F"1Y /786-')( 6'<60&1#78)]=&:P'<O0-" (]=9)?K=`), 60&1#78) 6R%786/D660&@'P5&&*&'!E06&) K&786R%786/D6&I<&I#9/:-?8&8) a/G&:CEO=$ (aggregation of interests) &:KI?0)5?I=-?0)b M8) 5')%#8'=1Gc=K=V0*+,K/'6M8)!&&%60&1#78)]=&:<8<G&:O0F"GD-E *',Ib DG='(=18) K069-?-'I#.V)6/'<6/0E1Gc=K=?IE*+,#+15;+E&A0!9/: #+186A0!5W)6I?0-'I!&&%60&1#78)43 5?I=]=60&1/786-'()='(= E.*FI"F+K015+E)K/'61!7,8O=:1/786-'() *+,aWV5#'%& 5.5. ]OV %7860&5&V0)1%&78M?0Ea?0=&:<<K'I%:9==1!7,81Gc= O?8)*0)]=60&9@6@?0Ea/G&:CEO=$]KV96?aWV#+5"*F"88615+E)]=1M1/7 8 6-'( ) M8)-' I CPE1=V = a/G&:CEO=$ *+, #+ /' 6 3J:1KR = DPV O' P 1@= 1O?= C%&)60&5&V0);==&:P'<K#W?<V0= -N0</ 8N01A8 (5",)50F0&J: G&:CEO=$]=&:P'<*V8);",=—local public goods) K&78a/G&:CEO=$ 1e!0:-'IM8)aWV88615+E) 1O?= 60&1MV0&?I#)0=<.B )0=G&:1!J+ -?0)b &I#*'()60&Z7(815+E)]=[PW1/786-'() 6/E.*F$MV0)-V=='(=%78%I0# !E0E0#M8) 5.5. ]=60&5&V0)O7,815+E) 9/:%.J5#<'-"5?I=-'I]KV1Gc= *+,E8#&'<]=K#W?aWV88615+E)1!7,8O=:60&1/786-'() ]=MJ:*+,O7,8!&&%
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K&789=I=CE<0EM8)!&&%#+a/=V8E#06-?8a/60&1/786-'() 6/?0I CPE5&.G%78 %.J5#<'-"5?I=-'I9/:#.V)*+,5')6'P1Gc=50&:5N0%'BM8)60& O=:60&1/786-'() ]=MJ:*+,!&&%9/:9=I=CE<0E1678<@:D&V%I0# K#0E 44 a/PV 0 =K=`, ) M8)E. * F205-&$ 6 0&1/7 8 6-'( ) MV 0 )-V = *+, 1 =V = %.J5#<'-"5?I=-'IM8)aWV5#'%& (candidate center) #066I?0=CE<0E 9/:8.P#60&J$M8)!&&% (party center) 6R%78 *N0]KV!&&%60&1#78) D#?#+%I0#@N01Gc= D&V%I0#50#0&; 9/:M0P9&)@W)]@]=60&5&V0) =CE<0E CPE1e!0:]=&:P'<O0-" 1!7,8]OV1Gc=40=5N0K&'<O=:60& 1/786-'() 5.5. 6R@:5=]@1e!0:9-?G^BK0]=&:P'<*V8);",= 9/:D#?#+9&) @W)]@*+,@:*N0%I0#1MV0]@ 1&+E=&WV K&78#+G&:5<60&J$]=60&@'P60&6'< G^BK0&:P'<O0-" 9-?6/'<-V8)#+<*<0*]=60&*N0K=V0*+,="-"<'BB'-" &:P'<O0-" ]=8+ 6 PV 0 =K=`, ) ='( = &' 4 F&&#=W B 9/:6\K#0E1/7 8 6-'( ) e<'<-?0)b 6?8=Gd 2540 6N0K=P]KV&:<<60&1/786-'()1Gc=9<<1M1P+EIK/0E*+,=',) (multiple-seats constituency) Z`,)5&V0)9&)@W)]@]KV aWV5#'%& 5.5. ]OVE.*FI"F+K015+E)9<<5?I=<.%%/ (candidate center) D#?5=]@O7,815+E)M8)!&&% 9/:80@@:;`)M'(=*+,*N0]KVaWV5#'%& 5.5.@06 !&&%1P+EI6'=@:-V8)9M?)M'=6'=18) 1O?= 60&E")/W6CPP 1=7,8)@06 &:<<=+(8=.B0-]KVaWV88615+E)#+5"*F"Y1/786 5.5. 1Gc=&0E<.%%/9*=*+, @:-V 8 )1/7 8 6aWV 5 #' % &@06!&&%1P+ E I6' = *'( ) *+ # ]=1M-1/7 8 6-'( ) *+, #+ aWV 9 *=DPV 5 0#%=='( = aWV 8 8615+ E )80@1/7 8 6 5.5. 50#%=@0650# !&&%60&1#78)6RDPV 6/?0ICPE5&.G a//'!F$5N0%'BM8)&:<<MV0)-V=9/:6/E.*F$ 60&K015+E)9<<1=V=-'I<.%%/6R%78 60&8EW?&8PM8)!&&%60&1#78) M=0P6/0)9/:M=0P1/R6@N0=I=#06 (CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)K061&0 @:='<I?0#.V)60&1#78)9-?/:#.V)6R%78!&&%60&1#78)K=`,)b) @=6&:*',)
: 432 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
D#? 1 %EG&06L1/EI? 0 #+ ! &&%60&1#7 8 )!&&%]P!&&%K=`, ) O=:60& 1/7 8 6-'( ) @=DPV % &8)15+ E )16" = 6`, ) K=`, ) M8)5A0aWV 9 *=&03\&6? 8 =Gd 254445 P')='(= &'4<0/*+,@'P-'()M`(=A0EK/')60&1/786-'()@`)1Gc=&'4<0/ a5#M8)!&&%M=0P6/0)9/:M=0P1/R6K/0E!&&%#0CPE-/8P46 K&786/?0I8+69<<K=`,)DPVI?0 *'()b *+,1Gc=!&&%M=0P6/0)9/:M=0P 1/R6 C8605*+,!&&%1K/?0=+(@:1MV0&?I#1Gc=5?I=K=`,)M8)&'4<0/a5# 6/'<#+#06 K&786R%7860&*+,!&&%M=0PD#?]KB?1K/?0=+(6/'<#+8N0=0@ -?8&8)5W)=',=18) (Siripan, 2006: 60-61; Hicken, 2006) G^@@'E*+,8A"G&0E#0*'()K#PMV0)-V=6?8]KV16"Pa/!I)P')-?8DG =+( D1VC6 &'4<0/M0P15;+E&A0! 1=7,8)@06&'4<0/a5#@N0=I=K/0E !&&%#+9=IC=V#/V#)?0E 1!&0:%I0#M'P9EV)*'()&:KI?0)!&&%&?I# &'4<0/9/:&:KI?0)#.V)60&1#78)A0E]=!&&% 9#V9-?#.V)&?I#&'4<0/6R#+ 9&)@W)]@5W)*+,@:/V#&'4<0/ K06%0PI?05#0O"6#.V)M8)-=#+C8605*+,@: 1Gc=&'4#=-&+]=&'4<0/]K#?*+,@:@'P-'()M`(= *N0]KV&'4<0/D&V15;+E&A0! 80E.5'(= &I#*'()D&V%I0#O8<F&&# 1!&0:1&7,8)87(8e0I-?0)b &I#*'() G^BK060&*.@&"-9/:60&eV8e/8N0=0@ Z`,)5?I=K=`,)1Gc=%I0#@N01Gc= ]=60&K0*&'!E06&1!7,860&]OV@?0E*0)60&1#78) '56 &'4<0/6N0K=P=CE<0E]K#?K&78E61/"6=CE<0E16?0 DPVE06 6/?0I%78 &'4<0/a5#K/0E!&&%#'6D#?50#0&;1G/+,E=9G/) =CE<0EDPV *' = 9/:58P%/V 8 )6' < 5A0!9IP/V 8 #*+, 1 G/+, E =DG 1=7,8)@06]=-'I&'4<0/18)G&:68<PVIEaWV1/?=O+(M0P (Veto Player)47 @N0=I=#06 P')='(=@`)1Gc=60&E06K&78]OV1I/0=0=6I?0*+,@:-6/)6'= @=886=CE<0E]K#?K&78E61/"6=CE<0E16?0DPV (statue-quo biased) '&+48 *'()60&6N0K=P=CE<0E9/:60&=N0=CE<0E#0GL"<'-" M8)&' 4 <0/a5#@:D&V *" 2 *0)9/:M0P186A0! (fragmented) 1=7,8)@06I"F+60&@'P-'()&'4<0/*+,#+#.V)60&1#78)1Gc=K=?IE!7(=40=M8)
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*+, E, > 9E? & :KI? 0 )6&:*&I)-? 0 )b K&7 8 9#V 6 &:*', ) &:KI? 0 )6&#]= 6&:*&I)1P+EI6'= 9-?8EW?A0E]-V6N06'<M8)&'4#=-&+-?0)!&&%6'= 'BC &' 4 <0/9/:!&&%60&1#7 8 )M0P%I0#1Gc = 8" 5 &:*0) =CE<0E@066/.? # a/G&:CEO=$ 1 e!0:*0) (narrow or vested interests) 9/:MV0&0O60&&:P'<5W) 1=7,8)@06!&&%60&1#78)D#?#+%I0# @N01Gc=K&789&)@W)]@*+,@:a/"-=CE<0EM8)-=18)1!7,8O=:60&1/786-'() ]=MJ:1P+EI6'=6RM0P6/D6&:P#*.=@0650F0&JO=I)6IV0) (1O?= @06%?05#0O"6!&&%) *&'!E06&5?I=]KB?K&781678<*'()K#P@`)#0@06 =0E*.=M8)!&&%K&78M8)K'IK=V0#.V) ]=MJ:*+,!&&%K&78#.V)6R#+%?0 ]OV@?0E]=60&PN01="=6"@6&&#*0)60&1#78)*'()]=O?I)6?8=9/:&:KI?0) [PW60&1/786-'()5W) Z`,)5?I=K=`,)16"P@0660&*+,!&&%D#?]O?!&&%9<< #I/O=*+,PN0&)8EW?DPVPVIE60&5='<5=.=M8)5#0O"6!&&%aWV2&'*F0]= =CE<0EK&788.P#60&J$M8)!&&% 9/:!&V8#*+,@:K=.=O?IE!&&%*'() 9&)60E9/:6N0/')1)"= P')='(=@`)6/?0IDPVI?0 =0E*.=M8)!&&% M8)#.V) K&78M8)&'4<0/ 6R%78aWV#+5?I=5>%'B]=60&6N0K=P1=7(8K0 9/:1Gc=aWV a/'6P'==CE<0EM8)&'4<0/ 6/?0ICPE5&.G 60&*+,&'4<0/D*E6?8=Gd 2540 1Gc=&'4<0/*+, D&VG&:5"*F"a/*'()]=9)?M8)60&6N0K=P=CE<0E9/:60&9G&=CE<0E DG5W? 6 0&GL" <' -" ='( = 9E6D#? 8 86@06%I0#8? 8 =98M8)&:<<!&&% 60&1#7 8 )D*E Z`, ) #+ /' 6 3J:5N 0 %' B %7 8 1Gc = &:<<*+, G &:68<PV I E !&&%60&1#78)K&78#.V)60&1#78)M=0P6/0)9/:M=0P1/R6@N0=I=#06 *+,D&V186A0! (fragmented) 9/:D&V15;+E&A0! Hicken (2001, 2006) 15=8I?0 #+G^@@'E5N0%'B58)G&:60& *+,*N0]KV='660&1#78)M0P9&)@W)]@*+,@:5&V0)!&&%M=0P]KB?]=&:P'< O0-"*+,1MV#9MR) (*N0]KV16"P&:<<*+,#+!&&%@N0=I=#0616"=6I?0*+,1Gc=a/ 57<1=7,8)@06&:<<1/786-'()9<<1M-1P+EIK/0E*+,=',)1!+E)G^@@'E1P+EI)
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 437 :
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'&+ =CE<0E5N0%'Bb 1O?= C%&)60&G&:O0="E#*'()K/0E #'616"P@0660&G&:O.#8E?0)D#?1Gc=*0)60& =N0CPE&'4#=-&+%/')9/: *+#*+,G&`630 CPE#+aWV=N0K=?IE)0=#KA0%*'()5+,1MV0&?I#G&:O.#PVIE 9-? #' 6 #+ /' 6 3J:1Gc = 60&&' < *&0<1!7, 8 =N 0 DGGL" <' -" # 066I? 0 1Gc = aWV 6N0K=P=CE<0E 1#7,8#+60&G&'<%J:&'4#=-&+]=1P78=#+=0%# 2545 5N 0 =' 6 =0E6&' 4 #=-&+ 6R 6 /0E1Gc = 2W = E$ 6 /0)-" P -0#9/:6N 0 K=P =CE<0E 9*=*+,6&:*&I)60&%/')9/:5A0!'_=$ -' I 8E? 0 )*+, 5 0#0&;O+( ] KV 1 KR = I? 0 <*<0**0)=CE<0EM8) 6&:*&I)60&%/')9/:5A0!'_=$/P/)6R%78 9a=12&346"@&?I#M8) K=? I E)0=*'( ) 58)]=1P7 8 =6&6\0%# 2544 ='( = 6/0E1Gc = *+, < &&@. C%&)60&-? 0 )b M8)!&&%D*E&' 6 D*E-0#*+, 1 %EK015+ E )DIV 1 67 8 < *'()K#P E",)DG6I?0='(= <?8E%&'()*+,5A0!'_=$;W6=0E6Q 5',)1Gc=60& 1e!0:1@0:@)]KV&?0)9a=)0=9/:=CE<0E-0#*+,&'4<0/5',)K&78#8< K#0EDIV8E?0)1%&?)%&'P (Suehiro, 2007: 12, 14) @=6/?0IDPVI?0 &:<<60&-' P 5" = ]@M8)&' 4 <0/*' 6 3" J #+ /' 6 3J:@061<7( 8 )<=/)5W? 1<7(8)/?0) (top-down) @06=0E6&'4#=-&+a?0=*+#*+,G&`63012&346"@ 9/:5N0='6=0E6&'4#=-&+8E?0)O'P1@= K&786/?0IDPVI?0 5.P*V0E9/VI 6&:<I=60&6N 0 K=P=CE<0E6R 1 Gc = DG-0#1@-=0&#J$ M 8)=0E6 &'4#=-&+ *+,6/?0I96?MV0&0O60&]=K/0E%&'()I?0 “-?8DG=+( )0==CE<0E A0%60&1#78)1Gc=%=*N0 A0%MV0&0O60&#+K=V0*+,GL"<'-"”56 &'4<0/PN01="=60&1G/+,E=I"F+60&@'P5&&)<G&:#0J#01Gc= &:<<)<G&:#0J9<<#.?)1=V=a/)0=-0#E.*F205-&$ (Strategic Performance Based Budgeting System) %I<%W?DG6'<60&&I#2W=E$ 8N0=0@60&-'P5"=]@1MV05W?-'I=0E6Q ]=Gd)<G&:#0J 2546 G^@@.<'= E')D#?#+60&2`630*+,@:O+(]KV1KR=DPV8E?0)O'P1@=;`)a//'!F$M8)&:<< ]K#? =+( 8E? 0 )D&6R - 0# Suehiro (2007) ]KV A 0!M8)60&@' P 5&&
: 446 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 447 :
-*)*, '1(5%">1+@86+15+%'.1G+%'!?'@(+8. 6/?0IDPVI?0 /'63J:1P?=M8)&'4<0/*'63"J*+,9-6-?0)8E?0) #06@06&' 4 <0/O. P 6? 8 =K=V 0 =+( %7 8 *" 2 *0)=CE<0E9/:9=I60& <&"K0&12&346"@ (approach of economic management and policy orientation) 8'=#+@.P1P?=*+,60&]OV6/D6&'49/:8N0=0@&'41MV0 9*&69Z)9/:@'P60&12&346"@]=&:P'<5W) Z`,)1&080@1&+E6K/I#b DPVI?01Gc=9=I*0)8")&'4 (state-led approach)57 #066I?09=I*0)8") -/0P (market-led approach) )0=]=5? I ==+( -V 8 )60&15=8I? 0 9=I*0) 8")&'4=+(1Gc=DGDPV6R1!&0:6\6-"60M8)&'4F&&#=WB 2540 9/:60&&I#2W=E$8N0=0@50#PV0=MV0)-V= K&786/?0I8+6='EK=`,)6R%78 &'4D*E]=E.%&'4<0/*'63"J;W615&"#]KV1MV#9MR)M`(=*'()]=PV0=60&1#78) 9/:PV0=60&<&"K0& 9/:1Gc=1%&7,8)#78*+,&'4<0/O.P=+(=N0DG]OV@'P60& 6'<&:<<12&346"@a?0=9=I*0)8")&'4 9=I*0)8")&'4=+(#8)1KR=DPV@06*"2*0)=CE<0E]=50#PV0= EL&1<BCD1VC6 %78 60&6&:-.V=12&346"@CPEE6&:P'<8.G5)%$#I/&I#58 a?0=C%&)60& ‘G&:O0="E#’ *'()K/0E 1O?= 68)*.=K#W?<V0= !'6ON0&: K=+( 1 63-&6& Q/Q C%&)60&1K/? 0 =+( 5? I =K=`, ) ]OV * &' ! E06&@06 5;0<'=60&1)"=1e!0:6"@M8)&'4 1O?= F=0%0&1!7,860&163-&9/: 5K6&J$ 6 0&163-& (F.6.5.) K&7 8 *+, 1 &+ E 6I? 0 =CE<0E6`, ) 60&%/' ) (quasi-fiscal policy) 501K-.*+,*N01O?==+(='(= 5?I=K=`,)6R1!7,8K/+61/+,E) MV8@N06'PPV0=K=+(50F0&J:*+,5W);`)&V8E/: 57.6 M8)&0EDPVG&:O0O0-" ]=Gd 2544 M=0PM8)=CE<0E6`,)60&%/')#+%?0;`)G&:#0J&V8E/: 2-3 M8)&0EDPV G &:O0O0-" K&7 8 %" P 1Gc = &V 8 E/: 10-17 M8))< G&:#0JG&:@N 0 Gd ] =Gd 2546 a/M8)60&6&:-.V = 12&346" @ PV I E =CE<0E60&%/')1O?==+(*N0]KV60&<&"CA%6/0E1Gc=-'I=N0M8)60&STo= -'I*0)12&346"@]=O?I)Gd 2541-2545 (consumption-led recovery)
: 448 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 449 :
6) E.*F205-&$5?)15&"#%I0#50#0&;]=60&9M?)M'=M8)A0% 8.-50K6&&# &'4<0/DPV@'P-'()%J:6&&#60&1!",#%I0#50#0&;PV0= 60&9M?)M'=&:P'<O0-" (National Competitiveness Committee) ]=Gd 2545 9/:@'P5&&)<G&:#0J@N0=I= 17,600 /V0=<0*1!",#1-"#M`(= @06)<G&:#0JG&:@N 0 Gd 1!7, 8 ]OV M' < 1%/7, 8 =E. * F205-&$ =+( %J: 6&&#60&=+( 1 /7 8 68. - 50K6&&#E. * F205-&$ 5 50M0%7 8 80K0& (processed food) E0=E=-$ (vehicle and parts) 9SO', = (garments, leather, and jewellery) *?8)1*+,EI (tourism) 9/: Z8S-$9I&$ (multimedia and animation) 1Gc=50M01GH0K#0E 1!7,8 ]KV60&5?)15&"#9/:E6&:P'< (industrial upgrading) &I#*'()@'P-'() 8)%$6&87,=b 1O?= <&"3'* Thailand Elite Card Z`,)#+*.=@P*:1<+E= 1,000 /V 0 =<0* 9/:5;0<' = 5", ) *8M`( = 1Gc = 1%&7, 8 )#7 8 K=`, ) ]=60& M'<1%/7,8=9-?/:50M0 M) 60&E6&:P' < %I0#50#0&;PV 0 =1*%C=C/E+ M 8)A0% 8.-50K6&&#61 1!7,860&=+( #0-&60&@N0=I=K=`,)@`);W66N0K=PM`(= 1O?= #+60&GL"&WG%J:6&&#60&5?)15&"#60&/)*.= (BOI) ]=58)PV0= 6/?0I%78 EV0E%J:6&&#60&=+(@06*+,1%E5')6'P5N0='6=0E6Q DG&I# 6'<6&:*&I)8.-50K6&&# (1!7,8]KV=CE<0E8.-50K6&&##+186A0! #06M`(=) 9/:]KV BOI 8869<<#0-&60&5?)15&"#60&/)*.=]K#? @06 1P"#*+,1%E1=V=5?)15&"#60&/)*.=PV0=60EA0! #01Gc=60&5?)15&"#60& /)*.=PV0=*'63: 1*%C=C/E+ 9/:=I'-6&&# (Skill, Technology and Innovation Package) 1O?= aWV*+,/)*.=]=6"@6&&# R&D K&7860& 8869<< @:DPV&'<60&E61IV=A03+1)"=DPV1Gc=1I/0K=`,)K&7858)Gd 1Gc=-V= &I#*'()#+%I0#!E0E0#*+,@:*N0]KV16"P%I0#1O7,8#CE)&:KI?0) 8)%$ 6 &*+, *N 0 K=V 0 *+, I" @' E 9/:!' _ =01*%C=C/E+ M 8)&' 4 6' < A0% 8.-50K6&&##06M`(=
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%) E.*F205-&$60&5&V0)6N0/')%=PV0=1*%C=C/E+8-. 50K6&&# 6/?0ICPEE?8 E.*F205-&$=+(=N0DG5W?60&GL"&WG*+,]KV=(>K='6#06M`(=96? 60&!'_=09/:60&1!",#@>=I=='62`630]=&:P'<80O+I2`630 &I#*'() 60&5&V0)C%&)60&]K#?b &?I#6'<A0%186O= K&785?)15&"#]KVA0% 186O=!'_=0*'63:%=)0= 1O?= @'P-'()68)*.=!'_=0fd#789&))0= -0# !.&.<.5?)15&"#9/:!'_=0fd#789&))0= !.2. 2545 60&8A"G&0EMV0)-V=15=8I?0 /'63J:1P?=M8)&'4D*EA0E]-V 60&=N0M8)&'4<0/*'63"J%7860&]OV8N0=0@&'49/:6/D6&'41MV0@'P60& 9/:9*&69Z)]=&:P' < 5W ) /' 6 3J:1P? = 1O? = =+( *N 0 ]KV Pasuk and Baker (2004: 100) 1KR = I? 0 &' 4 <0/*' 6 3" J DPV 1 G/+, E =9=I*0) 12&346" @ M8)&' 4 <0/OI= @0615&+ =" E #]K#? 5W? *" 2 *0) “&' 4 9K? ) 60&!'_=0” (developmental state) -0#9<<&'4181O+E-:I'=886 1e+E)1K=78 1O?= 160K/+]-VK&78B+,G.g=]=8P+9-? @ 06a/60&2` 6 30M8)=' 6 I" O 060&K/0E*? 0 =6/' < O+( I? 0 9=I*0)8" ) &' 4 CPE1e!0:8E? 0 )E", ) 60&E6&:P' < 8. - 50K6&&# D#?G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@ a/60&2`63058)O"(=*+,=?0@:1!+E)!8]=60& O+(G&:1PR=MV0)-V=%78 60&2`6308.-50K6&&#=(>-0/M8) Doner and Ramsay (2003: 42) Z`,)O+(I?0 9#V9-?]=8.-50K6&&#P'()1P"#*+,#+%I0# Z' < ZV 8 ==V 8 E9/:G&:5<%I0#5N 0 1&R @ #0=0= &' 4 <0/*' 6 3" J 6R D #? G&:5<%I0#5N01&R@]=60&E6&:P'<a/"-A0! (productivity) M8) 8. - 50K6&&# 60&*N 0 )0=M8)K=? I E)0=-? 0 )b M8)&' 4 E' ) %) 6&:@' P 6&:@0E9/:D#? G &:50=)0=6' = -' I 8E? 0 )1O? = A0&6" @ 60&I" @' E M8)&' 4 *+, 1 6+, E IMV 8 )6' < 8. - 50K6&&#8V 8 E9/:=( > -0/ E' ) 6&:@' P 6&:@0E8EW? ] =50#6&:*&I) %7 8 6&:*&I)163-&9/: 5K6&J$ 6&:*&I)!0J"OE$ 9/:6&:*&I)8.-50K6&&# )0=O"(==+( G&:1#"=I?0 %I0#!E0E0#M8)&'4<0/*'63"J]=60&5&V0)6&8<*0)
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 451 :
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: 452 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 453 :
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: 454 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
8N0=0@]=&'4<0/ 9/:aWV]6/VO"P8N0=0@ @=*N0]KV&'4<0/5WB15+E%I0# O8<F&&#-?860&G6%&8)O=O'(=6/0)]=1#78) -'I8E?0)&WGF&&#]= G&:1PR==+(#+#06#0E9/:1Gc=*+,*&0<6'=P+@=D#?@N01Gc=*+,@:-V8)/)&0E /:18+EP]=*+,=+(62 ]=MJ:*+,60& ‘6"=&I<’ 9/: ‘/)C*3’ 6/.?#*+,D#?]O? !&&%!I6M8)&'4<0/6R*N0]KV=0E*.=9/:O=O'(=5W)<0)5?I=6/0E1Gc= fg0E-?8-V0=&'4<0/ (Kasian, 2007: 12) 1O?=1P+EI6'<60&9*&69Z) 68)*' ! CPE60&CE6EV 0 E9-? ) -'( ) B0-" 9 /:1!7, 8 =&? I #&.? = ]=C&)1&+ E = 1-&+E#*K0&1MV0%.#-N09K=?)5N0%'Bb ]=68)*'! 60&/P)<G&:#0J M8)6&:*&I)6/0CK# 60&GL" &W G &:<<&0O60&9/:60&9-? ) -'( ) CE6EV 0 EMV 0 &0O60&!/1&7 8 =&:P' < 5W ) *N 0 ]KV 6 /D6&' 4 *'( ) *K0&9/: !/1&78=D#?!8]@ 9/:6/0E1Gc=aWV=N0]=60&/V#&'4<0/]=*+,5.P .* '1(F>QQS=0"12'1(,'-0%' A0EK/')&'4G&:K0& 19 6'=E0E= 2549 ='6I"O060&@N0=I= K=`,)I"1%&0:K$501K-.M8)&'4G&:K0&CPEE(>1=V=1K-.G^@@'E-?0)b 6'=DG 1O?= Pasuk and Baker (2007: 2) 1=V=;`)%I0#5N0%'BM8)O=O'(= 6/0)]=60&5=' < 5=. = 60&1G/+, E =9G/)aWV G 6%&8)PV I E&;;' ) DIV I? 0 “&' 4 G&:K0&]=Gd 2549 @:D#? #+ * 0)5N 0 1&R @ ...K06O=O'( = 6/0) @N0=I=#06D#?&?I#6'<!I6="E#1@V09/:!&:&0OI')]=60&]KV%I0# 5='<5=.=&'4G&:K0&” ]=MJ:*+, Suehiro (2007: 2) 1=V==(>K='6DG*+, 60&GL"&WG&'4M8)&'4<0/*'63"JI?0 “501K-.*+,9*V@&")M8)&'4G&:K0& 6R %78 %I0#M'P9EV)&:KI?0)*'63"J aWVM'<P'= <+<<')%'<]KV#+60&GL"&WG&'4 6'<6/.?#*K0&aWV="E#1@V0 Z`,)1O7,8I?060&GL"&WG=+(@:1Gc=a/&V0E8E?0)E",) 6'<&:<<5;0<'=!&:#K063'-&"E”$ 5?I= Kasian (2007: 21-22) 1KR= I? 0 &' 4 G&:K0&='( = “CPE1=7( 8 9*V 9 /V I 1Gc = &' 4 G&:K0&M8)!I6=" E #
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1
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5
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7
9-?D#?DPV#+%I0#K#0EI?0&'4<0/*'63"J*N0-0#8N01A8]@8E?0)D&6'< =0EF=0%0&6RDPV P')@:1KR=DPV@066&J+*+,=0EF=0%0&186O=D#?E8# *N0-0#=CE<0EM8)&'4<0/*+,1&+E6&V8)]KVG/?8E5"=1O7,8]K#?b 1!",#1-"# 9/:&'4<0/6RE8#*+,@:96V !.&.6. TAMC ]KV]OV&0%0G&:1#"=*+,P"=-0# &0%0-/0P 9*=*+,@:]OV&0%0G&:1#"=M8)6&#*+,P"=]=60&G&:1#"= #W/%?0M8)K/'6*&'!E$%(>G&:6'= (Pasuk and Baker, 2004: Chapter 4 footnote 3, 279) 8
9#V9-?A0EK/')60&96VDM6\K#0EO.P=+(9/VI6RE')G&06LI?06&:<I=60&<' ) %' < K=+( E' ) %)#+ G^ B K0%I0#/? 0 OV 0 8EW? # 06 20/9!? ) *N 0 60& G&:1#" = 1#7, 8 G&:#0J%&`, ) 9&6M8)Gd 2544 I? 0 #+ % P+ 1 6+, E I6' < 60& <')%'<K=+(8+6 55,000 %P+*+,E')D#?#+60&-'P5"= 9/:PVIE%I0#1&RIM8) 60&PN01="=%P+*+,1Gc=8EW?]=MJ:='(= @:-V8)]OV1I/0G&:#0J 6-7 Gd ]=60&!"@0&J0%P+ 9/:8+6 2 Gd]=60&M0E*8P-/0P*&'!E$5"=1#7,8 %P+5"(=5.P/) (World Bank, 2001: 24) *'()*+,6\K#0E*'() 3 e<'< O?IE/P1I/0]=60&!"@0&J0%P+/)@06 18 1P78= 1K/78 9 1P78= (@06 36 1P78= 1K/78 18 1P78= ]=6&J+*+,#+60&8.*F&J$) 9/:O?IE/P1I/0 *+,@:GjP%P+DPV@06 42 1P78= 1K/78 32 1P78= (@06 60 1P78= 1K/78 42 1P78= ]=6&J+*+,#+60&8.*F&J$) 9/VI6R-0# E')#+%P+*+,%',)%V0) Z`,) -V8)]OV1I/08+6 10 Gd]=60&@'P60&5"=*&'!E$M8)%P+*+,DPV&'<60&-'P5"= 9/VI Z`,)#+F=0%0&!0J"OE$1Gc=C@*6$ %"P1Gc=#W/%?0 152,000 /V0= <0* J 5"(=Gd 2545 (World Bank, 2003: 25-26)
9
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1Gc=*+,=?05)5'EI?0 ;V0#0-&0 35 =+(6N0K=P&:E:1I/0DIV1!+E) 1 Gd -0#&?0)M8)I._"5A09/VI 60&&I<&I#5"=*&'!E$M8)1@V0K=V0*+,!"*'63$ *&'!E$1!7,8ON0&:K=+(96?1@V0K=+(='(=@:6&:*N0DPV1Gc=5'P5?I=1*?0]P-?8 @N0=I=K=+(*'()K#P P')='(=@`)D#?1Gc=*+,=?09G/6]@1#7,8=0E5")K$ -')*'-5I'5P"Y aWV@'P60&-/0PK/'6*&'!E$9K?)G&:1*2D*E ]KV5'#A03J$96? K=')578!"#!$ 1 I'=6?8=*+,&?0) !.&.<. =+(@:a?0=I._"5A0I?0 60&6N0K=P 14
: 470 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
]KVG/P/V#/:/0ECPE8'-C=#'-"]=1I/01!+E) 1 Gd='(=1*?06'<1Gc=60& ‘O'6P0<’ M8)/W6K=+(CPE-&) (712D1L&, 12 #+=0%# 2542) K/'6GL"<'-"M8)5;0<'=60&1)"=D*E]=60&G/?8E6WV='(=9-6-?0)@06 G&:1*28.-50K6&&#*+,]OV16Jl$-'P5"=]@@0660&I"1%&0:K$6&:95 1)"=5PM8)/W6%V01Gc=K/'6 9-?1=7,8)@06&:<<<'BO+M8)<&"3'*D*E='(= 5?I=]KB?G&02@06%I0#CG&?)]5 9/:1Gc=60&E06*+,@:9E6*&'!E$5"= M8)<&"3'*886@06*&'!E$5"=5?I=-'IM8)aWV1Gc=1@V0M8) @`)*N0]KV60& I"1%&0:K$6&:951)"=5P1678<@:D#?#+G&:CEO=$-?85;0<'=60&1)"=1/E =86@06=+( <&"3'*5?I=]KB?6R#'6#+*.=@P*:1<+E=-,> P')='(= 60&<')%'< ]KV1@V0M8)6"@60&%(>G&:6'=1Gc=60&5?I=-'I]KV6'<<&"3'*@`)1*?06'< 1Gc=60&1!",##W/%?0M8)<&"3'*DG]=-'I PVIE501K-.*'()58)G&:60&=+(@`) *N0]KV5;0<'=60&1)"=M8)D*E<')%'<]KV1@V0M8)6"@60&1Gc=aWV%(>G&:6'= ]KV96?<&"3'*
15
PW&0E/:18+EPM8)1K-.60&J$*0)60&1#78)]=O?I)=+(DPV]= 8A"O0(2548: 32-40) 16
%J:6&&#60&=+(@'P-'()M`(=]=Gd 2541 1!7,81Gc=6&8<]=60&G&'< C%&)5&V0) NPLs 9<<5#'%&]@ a?0=6&:<I=60&G&:=8#K=+(=86 20//V#/:/0E 9/:50#0&;G&'<C%&)5&V0)K=+(DPV 1,198 &0E ]=#W/%?0 17,087 /V0=<0* @06@N0=I=*'()5"(= 2,606 &0E ]=#W/%?0&I# 40,220 /V0=<0* %"P1Gc=&V8E/: 42 ]=&WG#W/%?0 K&78&V8E/: 46 M8)@N0=I= 6&J+*'()K#P J 5"(=Gd 2548 (World Bank, June 2006:28) K06 1G&+E<1*+E<-'I1/M&V8E/: 46 M8)D*E6'<6&:<I=60&1P+EI6'=M8) G&:1*2160K/+]-V #01/1Z+E 9/:8"=CP=+1Z+E Z`,)50#0&;96VG^BK0 NPLs 5N01&R@]=8'-&0&V8E/: 95 &V8E/: 77 9/:&V8E/: 56 -0#/N0P'< ]=6/0)Gd 2546 9/VI (World Bank, Jan. 2006: Table 3.3, 18) @:1KR=DPVI?0 D*E96VG^BK0 NPLs DPVOV06I?0G&:1*2]=AW#"A0%=+(#06 17
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 471 :
NPLs *+,a?0=60&G&'<C%&)5&V0)DG9/VI 9-?EV8=6/'<#01Gc= NPLs 8+6%&'()K=`,) 18
9-?G^BK0 NPLs M8)160K/+]-V#+=V8E6I?0D*E J @.P1&",#-V=M8) I"6[-12&346"@
19
%)1Gc=60&E06*+, !.&.<.F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*Ee<'<=+(@:a?0= &'45A0 -&0<]P*+,=0E6&'4#=-&+#+O7,8I?0 *'63"J O"=I'-& 1=7,8)@06 *'63"JD#?1%E1O7,8]=%I0#1Gc=8"5&:M8)F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*E 9#V6&:*',) 1 I'=6?8=6/'<5W?G&:1*2D*EA0EK/')60& ‘/+(A'E’ *0)60& 1#78) 8P+-=0E6&'4#=-&+*?0==+(DPV]KV5'#A03J$57,81!7,895P)I"5'E*'2=$ *0)12&346"@A0E]-VA0I: Stagflation I?0 &'4<0/%I&]KV%I0#5N0%'B 6'<8'-&060&1-"<C-#066I?08'-&01)"=1SH8 P')='(= CPE='EE:M8)I"F+%"P 1O?==+( <I66'<![-"6&&#]=8P+- E?8#O+(I?0*?0=8P+-=0E6&'4#=-&+ E')%)D#?1KR=PVIE6'<60&#8<%I0#1Gc=8"5&:]=60&PN01="==CE<0E]KV 96?F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*E
20
21
8P+-G/'P6&:*&I)60&%/')
9a=660&F=0%0&#+K=V0*+,1Gc=K=?IEGL"<'-"60&M8)F=0%0&9K?) G&:1*2D*E]=-/0P1)"= a/60&M0P*.=='(=#0@065'BB0 swap option 1#7,8%?01)"=<0*8?8=/)8E?0)K='6K/')@06I'=*+, 2 6&6\0%# 2540 5?I=fg0E886<'-&='(=#+K=V0*+,]=60&886F=<'-& Z`,)#+1)"=-&0 9/:5" = *&' ! E$ -? 0 )O0-" K =. = K/' ) 1#7, 8 1)" = <0*8? 8 =%? 0 #W / %? 0 M8) 1)" = -&09/:5" = *&' ! E$ -? 0 )O0-" (]=&W G 1)" = <0*) ]=<' B O+ M 8)fg 0 E 886<'-&@`)1!",#M`(=8E?0)#06 22
%J:&'4#=-&+8=.#'-"&?0)96VDMe<'<=+(1#7,8I'=*+, 14 #+=0%# 2543 9/:5',)]KV&'4#=-&+I?060&6&:*&I)60&%/')6'<aWVI?060&F=0%0&9K?) G&:1*2D*EDG-6/)6'=]=G&:1PR=*+,E')1KR=-?0)6'=8EW? ]=I'=&.?)M`(= 23
: 472 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
DPV#+60&G&:O.#&:KI?0)*'()58)fg0E1!7,8K0MV85&.G]= 7 G&:1PR=9K?) %I0#M'P9EV) MV8;61;+E) 3 G&:60&-?8@06=+(D#?50#0&;-6/)6'=DPV 9-?6&:*&I)60&%/')6R-'P5"=]@1P"=K=V0-?8DG &0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#@06<*5'#A03J$M8)1/M0F"60&5N0='6)0= %J:6&&#60&6[3\+60 (A#83&3&(.*S#/.?F 20 #+=0%# 2543, 1, 16)
24
1Gc=68)*.=]=6N06'<PW9/M8)F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*E -'()M`(=1!7,8 !E.)40=:M8)5;0<'=60&1)"= 1!7,8&'63015;+E&A0!CPE&I#M8)A0% 60&1)"=
25
#0-&60&*+,68)*.=STo=SW]OV1!7,896VG^BK0%I0#-7,=-&:K=6M8) aWVf061)"=9/:1@V0K=+(5;0<'=60&1)"=%78 %.V#%&8)*'()aWVf061)"=9/: 1@V0K=+(M8)5;0<'=60&1)"= a/*+,-0##06R%78 &'4<0/-V8)OP1OEa/ M0P*.=M8)68)*.=STo=SWPVIE
26
PW&0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#]= A#83&3&(.*S#/.? (10 1#30E= 2543, 14)
27
K/')&'4G&:K0& 19 6'=E0E= 2549 #.&.I.G&+P"E0F& 1*I6./ Z`,) PN 0 &)-N 0 9K=? ) aWV I? 0 60&F=0%0&9K? ) G&:1*2D*E&:KI? 0 )I' = *+, 31 ![3A0%# 2544 - 7 -./0%# 2549 DPV/0886@06-N09K=?) 9/:DG &'<-N09K=?)&'4#=-&+I?060&6&:*&I)60&%/') Z`,)]=1P78=6.#A0!'=F$ 2550 *?0=6RDPV/0886@06%J:&'4#=-&+CPE]KV1K-.a/I?0 =0E6&'4#=-&+DPV9-?)-'()8P+-&'4#=-&+I?060&6&:*&I)60&%/')M8)&'4<0/ *'63"J#01Gc=G&:F0=]=60&*N0K=V0*+,5&V0)%I0#1O7,8#',=]KV='6/)*.= 28
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 473 :
-?0)O0-" 1!&0:12&346"@;W6*N0]KV15+EK0E@06%I0#D#?#+15;+E&A0! *0)60&1#78)-'()9-?Gd 2548 *?0=DPV8V0)I?0 60&6&:*N0P')6/?0I15#78= 6'<=0E6&'4#=-&+D#?DIV]@]=60&*N0K=V0*+,M8)*?0= @`)/0886]=*+,5.P &0E/:18+ E P1!", # 1-" # ]= %&1!"#$%/. ? (29 -. / 0%# - 1 ![2@"60E= 2549) 29
8N0=0@1K/?0=+(1Gc=a/@0660&I",)1-V=*0)60&1#78)M8) TBA CPE 1e!0:8E?0)E",)]=O?I)60&&?0) !.&.<.F=0%0&!0J"OE$ !.2. 2505 1=7,8)@06 TBA -V8)60&]OV6&:*&I)60&%/')]=60&%0=8N0=0@60& %I<%.#-?0)b M8)F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2D*E 30
#+K/0E6&J+*+,60&9*&69Z)CPE60&1#78)]=/'63J:=+(DPV16"PM`(= (&0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#]= Apichat, 2002: Ch. 7) 31
&8)aWV I? 0 60&F=0%0&9K? ) G&:1*2D*E@' P ]KV #+ 6 0&8A" G &0E 1Gc = 60&A0E]=6' < %J0@0&E$ % J:12&34205-&$ #K0I" * E0/' E F&&#205-&$ 1#7,8I'=*+, 7 6.#A0!'=F$ 2548 9/:DPV#+60&=N015=8 &0E)0=-?8-V0=9=I%"P]=60&@'P-'() FSA Z`,)95P)]KV1KR=I?0F=0%0& 9K?)G&:1*2D*E6N0/')*>5)%&0#G&:O05'#!'=F$-?8-V0=9=I%"P FSA M8)6&:*&I)60&%/') 32
<*5'#A03J$ I"&D* 5'=-"G&:A!, aWVO?IEaWV@'P60&]KB?F=0%0&D*E !0J"OE$, /#S6!<>*S#/.?, 10 1#30E= 2550 33
60&M0P60&G&:50=)0=6' = &:KI? 0 )K=? I E)0=&' 4 ='( = D#? D PV 1 Gc = G^ BK01e!0:6'<A0%60&1)"=1*?0 ='( = 9-? E' ) 1Gc = G^BK05N 0%'B M8) 8.-50K6&&#87,=b 8+6PVIE (PW60&8A"G&0E1!",#1-"#;'PDG) 34
: 474 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
<*5'#A03J$ P&.CO-"O'E 5.I&&J0A&J$, aWV8N0=IE60&5?I==CE<0E &:<<60&1)"=, 5N0='6=CE<0E&:<<60&1)"=, 5N0='6)0=12&346"@60& %/'), 6&:*&I)60&%/'), /#S6!<>*S#/.?, 9 1#30E= 2550 35
36
&0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#;'PDG
<*5'#A03J$ F'BB/'63J$ I'O&:O'E5.&!/, aWV@'P60&fg0EI"@'E60& 1)"=60&F=0%0& 2W=E$I"@'E65"6&D*E, /#S6!<>*S#/.?, 9 1#30E= 2550
37
1K-.a/1P+EI6'==+(50#0&;8F"<0E6&J+&?0) !.&.<.%.V#%&8)1)"=f06 PVIE1O?=6'= 6/?0I%78 &?0) !.&.<. *'() 3 e<'<='(=@:-V8)58P%/V8)6'= CPE1e!0:8E?0)E",)C%&)5&V0)%I0#5'#!'=F$&:KI?0)8)%$6&1K/?0='(= P')='(= %I0#M'P9EV)]=G&:1PR=1K/?0=+(]= !.&.<.F=0%0&9K?)G&:1*2 D*E 9/: !.&.<.5;0<'=60&1)"=6RMP' MI0)60&a?0=60&!"@0&J0M8) &?0) !.&.<.%.#V %&8)1)"=f06PVIE 38
39
&0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#;'PDG
&?0)96VDM6\K#0E5;0<'=60&1)"=5?I=]KB?/V#1K/I 1=7,8)@0660& %'P%V0=M8)=0EF=0%0&186O= (Apichat, 2002: Ch. 7) 40
*'63"J1Gc=='6F.&6"@*+,&,>&IE#0@06F.&6"@C*&%#=0%# 9/:5#0O"6 ]=%J:&' 4 #=-&+ 5? I =]KB? 6R #+ 6" @ 60&8EW? ] =A0%F. & 6" @ @&" ) 1O? = 8. - 50K6&&#E0=E=-$ 9 /:<' = 1*" ) PW 6 0&8A" G &0EG&:1A*=+( D PV ] = Wingfield (2002: 286), Kasian Tejapira (2002: 339) 9/: Hewison (2003: 5-9) 41
M8E( > I? 0 aWV 1 M+ E =#" D PV K #0E%I0#I? 0 6&:<I=60&6/0E1Gc = G&:O0F"GD-E (democratisation) ]=*.61I/09/:*.65')%#@:-V8)@<
42
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 475 :
/)PVIE%I0#D&VG&:5"*F"a/9/:60&8?8=-'I/)M8)&'415#8DG -'I8E?0) 1O?= 6&:<I=60&6/0E1Gc=G&:O0F"GD-EM8)160K/+]-V*+,16"PM`(=]= O?I)1I/0]6/V1%+E)6'<D*E6R#"DPV*N0]KV&'4160K/+6/0E1Gc=&'4*+,8?8=98 K&78D&VG&:5"*F"a/ 8E?0)=V8E6R]=&:P'<1P+EI6'<&'4D*E aWV1M+E=1!+E) 9-?-V8)60&15=8I?0 A0E]-V60/:9/:1*2:1e!0:*+,16"PM`(=]=5')%# D*E 6&:<I=60&=+( 6? 8 ]KV 1 6" P 60&8? 8 =-' I /)M8)&' 4 6/? 0 I]=&0E /:18+EP1!",#1-"#%78 60&8?8=-'I/)M8)&'4D*E='(= 5?I=K=`,)1Gc=a/ M8)A0I:12&346"@S8)5<W?]=O?I)6?8=Gd 2540 PVIE A0I:S8)5<W? K#0E%I0#I?0 O?8)I?0)&:KI?0)1)"=DPVM8)MV0&0O60&6'<186O=;+<-'I 5W)M`(=#06 P')='(= A0%&'4@`)5WB15+E6N0/')%=*+,#+%.JA0!@N0=I=K=`,) ]KV96?186O= (G^BK0 ‘5#8)DK/’) ]=MJ:*+,aWV*+,E')%)8EW?6'<&:<< &0O60&-? 8 DG6R 5W B 15+ E 6N 0 /' ) ]@]=60&*N 0 )0= (demoralisation) G^BK0=+(E?8#*N0]KV%.JA0!M8)&:<<&0O60&9E?/) 9/:*N0]KV&'4<0/ D&VG&:5"*F"a/#06M`(= 6/? 0 I8+ 6 9<<6R %7 8 &:<<!&&%60&1#7 8 )D*EG&:68<DGPV I E !&&%60&1#78)*+,D#?1Gc=*0)60&@N0=I=#06#0E K061&0='<I?09-?/: #.V)60&1#78)6R%78K=`,)!&&%60&1#78) 43
CG&PPW & 0E/:18+ E P]= Walker (2008) *+, 1 5=860&-+ % I0# ![-" 6 &&#60&88615+ E )1/7 8 6-'( ) M8)K#W? <V 0 =9K? ) K=`, ) ]=@' ) KI' P 1O+E)]K#? Z`,)1KR=DPVO'P1@=I?0 O7,815+E)M8)!&&%60&1#78)D#?#+%I0# 5N0%'B]=60&-'P5"=]@M8)O0I<V0=1/E 44
-'()9-?60&1/786-'()1#7,81P78=#6&0%# 2518 @=;`)1P78=![2@"60E= 2539 1Gc=@N0=I=*'()5"(= 10 %&'() G&06LI?0!&&%@N0=I= 3 !&&% DPV 5.5. 1!+E)9%?G&:#0J&V8E/: 50 M8)5A0Q 1*?0='(= (Siripan, 2006: Table 2.6, 63) 45
: 476 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
#' 6 @:1Gc = &' 4 <0/a5#@N 0 =I= 6 !&&% K&7 8 #066I? 0 ='( = (MacIntrye, 2003: 43)
46
MacIntrye (2003) 1Gc=aWV15=89=I%"P1&7,8)=+( CPE#+50&:5N0%'BI?0 ]=&:<<60&1#78)]P*+,#+aWV1/?=O+(M0P@N0=I=#06 60&6N0K=P=CE<0E M8)&:<<60&1#7 8 )='( = 6R #' 6 @:#+ /' 6 3J:D#? E7 P KE.? = 9-? #+ MV 8 P+ %7 8 #+%I0#9=?=8=M8)=CE<0E5W) 1=7,8)@06=CE<0E;W61G/+,E=9G/)DPV E06 ]=*0)-&)6'=MV0# &:<<60&1#78)]P*+,#+aWV1/?=O+(M0P=V8E&0E &:<<60&1#78)='(=6R#'6@:#+%I0#E7PKE.?=5W) 9-?MV815+E6R%78 %I0# 9=?=8=M8)=CE<0E@:#+=V8E 5?I=]=1O")G&:@'63$ 1&0@:='<I?0]%& K&788)%$6&]P<V0)1Gc=aWV1/?=O+(M0P 6RE?8#M`(=8EW?6'<<&"<*1e!0:M8) 5')%#60&1#78)K=`,)b P')='(= ]=5')%#D*E 1&080@@:;78DPVI?0 8E?0) =V 8 E !&&%&? I #&' 4 <0/9-? / :!&&%6R 1 Gc = aWV 1 /? = O+( M 0P&0EK=`, ) ]= K/0Eb 5;0=60&J$ 1&080@@:;78DPVI?0 #.V)60&1#78)K=`,)6R%78aWV1/?= O+(M0P&0EK=`,)6RDPV 1Gc=-V= 47
48
PW&0E/:18+EP1!",#1-"#]= Siripan (2006: 155-164)
-' I 8E? 0 )1O? = 60&@' P -'( ) &' 4 <0/!&&%!/' ) G&:O0O=M8)=0E6&'4#=-&+5#'%& 5.=*&1IO A0EK/')60&1/786-'()1#7,8I'=*+, 23 #6&0%# 2550 *+,G&:68<PVIE 6 !&&%60&1#78) 9/:#+ 5.5. *'()5"(= 315 %= @06@N0=I= 5.5. ]=5A0*'()K#P 480 %= ]=MJ:*+,-N09K=?)&'4#=-&+ #+*'()K#P 35 16V08+( P')='(= ‘5W-&’ !7(=40=]=60&-?8&8)5?I=9<?)16V08+( @`)1Gc= 9 -?8 1 49
=0E6Q 5#'%&-V8)6/?0IE8#&'<I?0 %J:&'4#=-&+M8)-=='(=M+(1K&? Z`,)5?I=K=`,)1Gc=1!&0:1M0D#?8EW?]=40=:*+,@:1Gc=aWV6N0K=PK&781/786 -'I<.%%/M8)!&&%&?I#&'4<0/aWV@:#0PN0&)-N09K=?)&'4#=-&+DPV1/E ]=8+6PV0=K=`,)6R1Gc=*+,1O7,86'=8E?0)6IV0)MI0)I?0 =0E5#'%&1Gc=1!+E) 50
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56
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61
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CPED#?='<I?0]=9-?/:!&&%6RG&:68<PVIE#.V)E?8Eb 8+6PVIE CPE 1e!0:]=!&&%!/')G&:O0O=18)*+,#+K/0E#.V) 1O?= 6/.?#A0%8+50= *+,=N0CPE=0E1=I"= O"PO8< 6/.?#6&.)1*!Q M8)%.JKB")5.P0&'-=$ 16E. & 0!' = F$. K&7 8 6/.? # A0%1K=7 8 1Gc = -V = 60&@' P -' I &' 4 #=-&+ M 8) &' 4 <0/5#' % &*+, a? 0 =#06R 1 Gc = -' I 8E? 0 )O' P 1@=M8)8N 0 =0@-? 8 &8) 1G&+E<1*+E<M8)9-?/:#.V)
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5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 481 :
5''6%)S+'$ +* N%@%F>Q =%&" = *&$ 1#kD-&&' - =$ (2550), “60&GL" &W G &:<<&0O60&]=E. % &'4<0/*'63"J 2544 – 2549.” I"2"3\$ I"2"3\$5&8&&;. (2539), “60&STo=SW6"@60&]=%P+/V#/:/0E (Reorganization),” ES->&DF Gd*+, 43, K=V0 49-53. I"2"3\$ I"2"3\$5&8&&; (2543), /RD+&Gdef1dM/.?/&#, 6&.)1*!Q: 68)*.=5I'5P"60&, 68)I"O060&, 5N0='6)0=-N0&I@9K?)O0-". 5.F+&$ 2.A="-E$ (2545), D-0//RD+&G-L+-8-&G7-8/&#def1dM/.?/&# (&+>#8#&3:0NN0(.-L+-8-&G #\:0:<BC 42 >8"8 2541 #\:0: <BC 52 >8"8 2542 7-8 #\:0:<BC 62 >8"8 2543, 6&.)1*!Q: I"BuWO=. 8'##0& 5E0#I0/0 9/:J'4='=*$ I"@"-&8'63& (2546), /&#7A-6D1BT !5/31HDL!AK1D1BT'&*&#O8, 6&.)1*!Q: 5;0<'=I"@'E1!7,860& !'_=0G&:1*2D*E. #* N%@%412+W@ Ammar Siamwalla (2005), “Anatomy of the Crisis,” in P. Warr (ed.), (H+-*+46 c0UG46 PH0 %1-,-,, New York: Routledge Curzon, pp. 66-104. Apichat Satitniramai (2002), “The Rise and Fall of the Technocrates: The Unholy Trinity of Technocrates, Ruling Elites and Private Bankers and the Genesis of the 1997 Economic Crisis,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wales, Swansea.
: 482 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
Doner R. F. and A. Ramsay (2003), “Growth into Trouble: Institutions and Politics in the Thai Sugar Industry,” a slightly revised version of this paper appeared in the MGK14+* GN $+,P 5,-+4 /PK6-0,F 4 (2004), pp. 97-138. Evans, P. (1995), $3\06606 5KPG4G3U7 /P+P0 +46 I46K,P1-+* (1+4,NG13+P-G4, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Gamble, W. (1999), “Restructuring in Asia- A Brief Survey of Asia Bankruptcy Law,” www.darden.virginia.edu. Hewison, H. (2003), “The Politics of Neo-Liberalism: Class and Capitalism in Contemporary Thailand,” XG1Y-4Z O+S01, /01-0, 'G8 45, City University of Hong Kong. Hicken, A. D. (2001), “From Phitsanulok to Parliament: Multiple Parties in Pre-1997 Thailand,” in M. H. Nelson (ed.), (H+-*+46!, '0R OG*-P-.,7 b-4Z O1+j+6H-SGY!, I4,P-PKP0 d0+1\GGY 2001, Bangkok: King Prajadhipok’s Institute and While Lotus Press, pp. 145-175. Hicken, A. D. (2006), “Party Fabrication: Constitutional Reform and the Rise of Thai Rak Thai,” MGK14+* GN $+,P 5,-+4 /PK6-0,, 6, pp. 381-407. International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2004), “Thailand: Selected Issues,” IV^ %GK4P1U Q0SG1P 'G8 04h1F January 2004. Kasian Tejapira (2002), “Post-Crisis Economic Impasse and Political Recovery in Thailand: The Resurgence of Economic Nationalism,” %1-P-.+* 5,-+4 /PK6-0,, 34 (3), pp. 323-356.
5>='6*?0!&:@'=*&$ : 483 :
Kasian Tejapira (2007)F “Democratization and the Thai Military Coup d’Etat,” PH0 L-G*0P XK1N0* 5/$5' a0.PK10=/01-0,, Lecture No.1, co-sponsored by The University of the Philippines Office of the President, Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs, Third World Studies Center and the Department of Political Science, at Faculty Center, Bulwagang Rizal, University of the Philippines, Manila, 13 March 2007. Lauridsen, L. S. (2008), “The Policies and Politics of Industrial Upgrading in Thailand during the Thaksin Era,” paper presented at the 10th International Conference on Thai Studies, The Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University, January 9-11 2008. MacIntyre, A. (2003), (H0 OGR01 GN I4,P-PKP-G4,7 OG*-P-.+* 51.H-P0.PK10 +46 [GJ014304P, London: Cornell University Press. Pasuk Phongpaichit and C. Baker (2004), (H+Y,-47 (H0 cK,-40,, GN OG*-P-., -4 (H+-*+46, Chiangmai: Silkworm Books. Piti Disyatat and Don Nakornthap (2003), “The Changing Nature of Financial Structure in Thailand and Implications for Policy,” c+4Y GN (H+-*+46!, W-,.K,,-G4 O+S01 #WOh06h20032. Roong Posayananda Mallikamas, Don Nakornthab and Pajongjit Jittamai (2005), “Changing Macroeconomic Environment and Financial Landscape: Challenges for
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the Banking Sector,” c+4Y GN (H+-*+46!, W-,.K,,-G4 O+S01 #WOh10h2005 (H+- L01,-G428 Siripan Nogsuan Sawasdee (2006), (H+- OG*-P-.+* O+1P-0, -4 PH0 5Z0 GN Q0NG13, Bangkok: Institute of Public Policy Studies. Skinner, G. W. (1958), a0+601,H-S +46 OGR01 -4 PH0 %H-40,0 %G33K4-PU GN (H+-*+46, Ithaca New York: Cornell University Press. Suehiro, A. (forthcoming), “Technocracy and Thaksinocracy in Thailand: Reforms of the Public Sector and the Budget System Under the Thaksin Administration.” Veerathai Santiprabhob (2003), a0,,G4, a0+1406 N1G3 (H+-*+46!, $_S01-04.0 R-PH ^-4+4.-+*=/0.PG1 Q0,P1K.PK1-4Z, Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute. Walker, A. (2008), “The Rural Constitution and the Everyday Politics of Electiona in Northern Thailand,” MGK14+* GN %G4P03SG1+1U 5,-+, 38 (February), pp. 84-105. Wingfield, T. (2002), “Democratization and Economic Crisis in Thailand: Political Business and the Changing Dynamics of Thai State,” in E. T. Gomez (ed.), OG*-P-.+* cK,-40,, -4 $+,P 5,-+, London: Routledge, pp. 250-296. World Bank (WB) (2001), “Thailand Economic Monitor,” Bangkok: World Bank, May 2001.
World Bank (WB) (2003), “Thailand Economic Monitor,” Bangkok, World Bank, February 2003. World Bank (WB) (2006),“Project Performance Assessment Report,” Q0SG1P 'G8 35051, January 2006. World Bank (WB) (2006), “Country Development Partnership: Financial and Corporate Sector Competitiveness Program Assessment and Completion,” Q0SG1P 'G8 37281, June 2006.
: 486 : 12&34205-&$60&1#78)9/:5;0<'=
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