Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people, without whose help I would have been at a loss: Miles Glendinning. Sabina Strachan, Seif El-Rashidi, Marianne Boqvist, Vanessa Van Renterghem, Ola Rifai, Elizabeth Martin and Emily Tracy. In particular, I am indebted to Emma Cunliffe at the University of Durham for her guidance and extensive help with the information and to Asfari Foundation for the opportunity they provided to study at the University of Edinburgh. My thanks goes also to my parents, my brother Hasan and my sister Rita for their love and support, and my fellow classmates and friends for their help: Lilian, Chantal, Tariq, Mike, and to all those who have been my guiding light through the year of study. Finally, I would like to thank Helen for her continued support and encouragement. This dissertation is dedicated to the monuments men of today and to those who sacrificed their lives in protecting the patrimony of Syria.
2
List of Figures Cover: Yar Jr, Cengiz. The destroyed ceiling of a mosque in Aleppo. Live Journal, 19 April, 2013. http://shotgallery.livejournal.com/92843.html (accessed August 2, 2014). P. 01. Sly, Liz. Areas of control in the Syrian conflict. Ya Libnan website, December 27, 2013. http://yalibnan.com/2013/12/27/syrian-war-reshaping-themideast-map/ (accessed July 24, 2014). P. 02. Abdelkarim, Maamoun. Primary Damages Assessments: Cultural Heritage Sites. June, 2013. Archaeological Heritage is Syria during the Crises 2011-2013, 35. Fig. 1.1 Capture of Berroia (Aleppo) by the Byzantines under Nikephoros Phokas in 962. Wikimedia Foundation, July 19 2012 ttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayf_alDawla#mediaviewer/File:Capture_of_Berroia_by_the_Byzantines.png (accessed 14 August, 2014). Fig. 1.2 Drummond, Alexander. The city and castle of Aleppo, 1754. 17.7 x 24.2 inches. The Levant Company, London. http://www.vintagemaps.com/en/Antique-Maps/Asia/Middle-East/Drummond-Middle-EastSyria-Aleppo-1754::1142.html (accessed July 12, 2014). Fig. 1.3 Swain, George & Arbor, Ann. General View of Aleppo: The University of Michigan Expedition, 1919. Wikimedia Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aleppo_1919_University_ of_Michigan_Expedition,_George_R._Swain,_Ann_Arbor,_Michigan.jpg (accessed July 12, 2014). Fig. 2.1 Yossif, Nidal. The Urban Development of Aleppo from the Greek Period to the 13th Century, 1930s. http://www.esyria.sy/ealeppo/index.php?p= stories&category=misc&filename=201009251220032 (accessed July 14, 2014), edited by author. Fig. 2.2 Ancient City of Aleppo : Map of the inscribed property. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2011. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21/multiple=1&unique _number=24 (accessed July14, 2014). Fig. 2.3 Belligerents in Aleppo. Produced by author. Fig. 3.1 The military control of Aleppo showing the Ancient City as one of the most contested areas. Based on information collected from Eplume, March, 2013, http://eplume.wordpress.com/2013/03/13/syria-the-story-behind-oneof-the-most-shocking-images-of-the-war/, and American Security Project, February, 2014. http://www.americansecurityproject.org/mapping-theconflict-in-aleppo-syria/ (accessed July14, 2014). Produced by author. Fig. 3.2 The military use of the Great Umayyad Mosque's minaret in Aleppo before its destruction. BBC News, 24 April, 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-22284525 (accessed July 16, 2014).
3
Fig. 3.3 Saleh,Emad. Demarcation lines within the old city of Aleppo seen by the flags, "Initial Workshop: Aleppo Archive in Exile". BTU Cottbus (2014): 7 Fig. 3.4 Identified Damaged Cultural Heritage Sites in the Government Held-zone of the Ancient City of Aleppo. Based on information collected from Department of Archaeology, Durham University, 2013 and Archaeological Heritage is Syria during the Crises 2011-2013, "Initial Damage Assessment: Old City of Aleppo", March, 2013. Produced by author. Fig. 3.5 The explosion of the Carlton hotel in the Ancient City of Aleppo.You Tube, May 8, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWvgYPugRUQ (accessed July14, 2014). Fig. 3.6 Conflict and Division in the Ancient City of Aleppo. Based on information collected from Eplume, March, 2013, http://eplume.wordpress.com/2013 /03/13/syria-the-story-behind-one-of-the-most-shocking-images-of-thewar/, and American Security Project, February, 2014, http://www.american securityproject.org/mapping-the-conflict-in-aleppo-syria/ (accessed July14, 2014). Produced by author. Fig. 3.7 Citadel of Aleppo. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (2008): 8. Fig. 3.8 A Tank for the Syrian Army in front of Aleppo Citadel. Published by Halab Um Aldunya page on Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/HlbAmAldnya (accessed July 20, 2014). Fig. 3.9 Damage around Aleppo Citadel. Heritage for Peace, June 21, 2014. http://www.heritageforpeace.org/syria-culture-and-heritage/damage-tocultural-heritage/previous-damage-newsletters/damage-to-syrias-heritage05-july-2014/ (accessed July 26, 2014). Fig. 3.10 Major types of Damage in Aleppo Citadel. Drawing by author. Fig. 3.11 The Ancient Market of Aleppo. April 07, 2010. http://jacandchalky. travellerspoint.com/23/ (accessed July14, 2014). Fig. 3.12 The Ancient Market of Aleppo before and after the conflict. BBC News, July 10, 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28191181 (accessed July 5, 2014). Fig. 3.13 Damage to the Umayyad Mosque, Souq al-Madina, Halawiye Madrasa and vicinity. American Association for the Advancement of Science, between 9 September 2012 (A) and 12 October 2012 (B). http://www.aaas.org/aleppo (accessed July 26, 2014). Fig 3.14 The roof of the Souq al-Madina sustained further damage (red arrow) and the faรงade of a separate structure sustained damage spilling debris into the street (yellow arrow). American Association for the Advancement of Science , between 11 November 2012 (C) and 15 December 2012 (D), http://www.aaas.org/aleppo (accessed July 26, 2014). 4
Fig. 3.15 The minaret of the Umayyad Mosque was destroyed and a large hole was created in the wall (green arrow). Furthermore, the Roof of the Souq alMadina suffered additional damage (yellow arrows). American Association for the Advancement of Science, between 1 March 2013 (G) and 26 May 2013 (H). http://www.aaas.org/aleppo (accessed July 26, 2014). Fig. 3.16 The Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo. The Syrian website, http://thesyrian.com/archives/97816 (accessed July14, 2014). Fig. 3.17 The Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo before and after the conflict. Archaeo Life, October 14, 2012. http://archaeolife .blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/firein-great-umayyad-mosque-of-aleppo.html (accessed July 20, 2014). Fig. 3.18 The Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo vaulted arches before and after the conflict. Dreamstime. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-imagesgreat-mosque-aleppo-syria-image26602449 (accessed July 20, 2014) Fig. 3.19 Pictures show the once famous landmark reduced to a pile of rubble. BBC News, April 24, 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22283746 (accessed July 19, 2014). Fig. 3.20 General Types of Damage in the Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo. Drawing by author. Fig. 4.1 Minaret of Aleppo's Umayyad Mosque described as "martyr of liberty”. Facebook Post on | ﺗﺼﺎﻣﯿﻢ اﻟﺤﺮﯾﺔFreedom Designer page, May 18, 2013 https://www.facebook.com/freedom.designs/photos/pb.259063420800595.2207520000.1406585111./573724409334493/?type=3&theater (accessed July 27, 2014). Fig. 5.1 Dagher, Sam. The sandbagged and protected entry to the Aleppo National Museum. The Wall Street Journal, April 25, 2014 http://online.wsj.com /news/articles /SB10001424052702304626304579507231417505084 (accessed July 29, 2014). Fig. 5.2 Dismantling the wooden Minbar of the Great Mosque. Facebook Post on The Syrian Association for Preservation page, May 14, 2014. https://www.facebook.com/psahrteam/photos/pb.578825238817209.2207520000.1407818408./ 578875415478858/?type=1&theater (accessed July 25, 2014) Fig. 5.3 Protecting the Halawiyeh wooden niche. Facebook Post on The Syrian Association for Preservation page, May 14, 2014. https://www.facebook .com /psahrteam/photos/pb.578825238817209.-2207520000.140781 8408./59074 1634292236/?type=1&theater (accessed July 25, 2014) 5
Fig. 5.4 8th Century BC Assyrian statue destroyed by ISIS in Northern Syria. Facebook Post on Egypt News page, June 20, 2014. https://www.facebook .com/nnegypt/posts/712937388765435 (accessed July 25, 2014). Fig. 5.5 ISIS controlled neighbourhoods in Aleppo. Based on information collected from The American Security Project, February, 2014. http://www.american securityproject.org/mapping-the-conflict-in-aleppo-syria/ Fig. 5.6 Damaged multi-storey building in Ancient Aleppo. Facebook post on Aleppo Archaeology page, June 26, 2014. https://www.facebook.com/45966817742504 2/photos/pb.459668177425042.-2207520000.1407959387./716090135116177/?type =3&theater (accessed July 26, 2014). Edited by author.
6
Contents Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02 List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .07 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2. History of Aleppo and its relation to the Current Conflict . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . 14 2.1 The Significance of Aleppo’s Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 14 2.2 Historical Background of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3 The Ancient City of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4 Conflict and Division in Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3. The Impact of the Conflict on the Cultural Heritage of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 3.1 Citadel of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.1.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.1.2 Damage in the Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2 Ancient Market of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 3.2.2 Damage in the Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 3.3 The Great Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 35 3.2.1 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 3.2.2 Damage in the Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 3.4 The Impact of the Conflict on Aleppo’s Intangible Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4. Cultural Heritage Concept in Local Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .40 4.1 Cultural Heritage Concept before the Uprising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4.2 Cultural Heritage Concept after the Uprising . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.3 The Reaction of the Local Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5. Efforts, Challenges and Opportunities to Safeguard the Cultural Heritage . . . . . . .. . . . .47 5.1 Protection of Cultural Heritage (National and International Efforts) . . . . . . . . . . . .47 5.2 The Threats of the Ongoing Conflict on the Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.3 Opportunities in Post-Conflict Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 55 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
7