Gendered Impacts of Food Insecurity in Conflict

Gendered Impacts of Food Insecurity in Conflict

Katie Dames, Eden Hailu, and Laura Landetta

Introduction

The World Bank noted that in 2017, women made up the backbone of the global rural economy, especially as population trends shift toward urbanization. 37 Given their salience in food cultivation and production, it is no surprise that when conflict disrupts agricultural production, women face immense challenges in providing for themselves, their families, and their communities. Kavita Ramdas, a global gender justice advocate, shared that “We cannot have security, real human security, or peace without food sovereignty. And because women and girls are the key to the production of food and the collection of water in most parts of the Earth and because they are the most critical determinants of child nutrition in every part of the Earth, their voices and their wisdom are key to us being able to help correct our ways. ” 38 Belligerent states and groups use blockades to target both combatants and civilians, leading to disproportionate impacts on women. During a conflict, women are often the primary caregivers and therefore face the burden of trying to provide for their families while being the most vulnerable to gender and sexual based violence. Through the lens of conflicts in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, Yemen, and Ukraine, this report explores the impacts of war on women and food systems.

Tigray

In Tigray, Ethiopia, a deadly war and de facto blockade has left 5.2 million people, 91% of the region’s population, in need of emergency food aid. 39 Since the start of the war, Ethiopian federal troops and allied forces systematically destroyed Tigray’s food system by burning crops, looting, killing livestock and prohibiting farmers from plowing their land, causing people to flee and preventing sources of food and livelihood. The ongoing government blockade and siege ensures that millions across the region remain without access to food, medical care, electricity and cash compounding one of the worst hunger crises in the world.

As government forces and its allies destroy all means of food, Tigrayan women and girls become one of the most vulnerable populations trapped in the region. In addition to famine, they are coping with the aftermath of widespread sexual violenc e that was used as a weapon of war

37“Women in Agriculture: The Agents of Change for the Global Food System,” World Bank (World Bank Group, March 6, 2017), https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/03/07/women-in-agriculture-the-agents-of-change-for-the-food-sy stem#:~:text=Women%20are%20the%20backbone%20of,men%20have%20a migrated%20to%20cities.

38

https://www.csis.org/events/celebrating-women-and-girls-change-agents-food-and-nutrition-security-conflict-setting.

39

https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/over-5-million-people-face-extreme-hunger-tigray-conflict-surges-past-sixmonths

and a means for ethnic cleansing. 40 The UNFPA estimated that more than 22,000 women and girls will require clinical treatment for rape in the region. 41 But the starvation of survivors and healthcare workers alike has impeded a comprehensive response to conflict-related sexual violence. 42 The weaponization of sexual violence and the subsequent blockade of the region has made healing impossible for thousands of women and girls in Tigray. Women who have survived months of sexual slavery and mutilation can not begin their rehabilitation process until their most basic needs are met. The consequences of this nearly year long blockade are devastating as there are increasing reports of suicide amongst survivors.

In July 2021, USAID officials stated the blockade of Tigray was likely the most egregious humanitarian obstruction in the world. 43 Today, the blockade and siege of Tigray continues to decimate the region while disproportionately impacting women and children. The UN recently reported that 120,000 pregnant and lactating women and 454,000 children are estimated to be malnourished this year alone. 44 There are also reports of mothers committing suicide as a result of the blockade. Unable to feed their children, they are forced to witness their children slowly starve and succumb to famine. A young mother in Tigray’s capital city took her own life because she was unable to feed her children and could not bear to watch them die in front of her.

45 Without unfettered humanitarian access, women in Tigray will continue to bear the brunt of this man-made famine.

Yemen

The decade-long conflict and the ongoing blockade in Yemen between the Houthis and the Saudi-backed Hadi government has created an extremely dire hunger crisis across the country. The blockade has led to the collapse of basic services and has made food inaccessible for millions of civilians. Additionally, the hunger crisis has exacerbated violence against women and girls which increased 63% since the start of the war. 46 With widespread disruption of food systems, women and girls are forced to travel long distances to access food, water and basic

40 Ethiopia: Troops and militia rape, abduct women and girls in tigray conflict – new report. (Amnesty International, November 1, 2021). https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/08/ethiopia-troops-and-militia-rape-abduct-women-and-girls-in-tigrayconflict-new-report/ 41 Alex de Waal, Ethiopia's Tigray Crisis: Tragedy of the man-made famine. BBC News (June 11, 2021) https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57422168 42 "I always remember that day". Human Rights Watch (December 2, 2021) https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/11/09/i-always-remember-day/access-services-survivors-gender-based-violence-et hiopias# 43 Maria Gerth-Niculescu, Ethiopia offers A tigray truce, but will aid trucks start rolling? The New Humanitarian. (March 29, 2022) https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2022/03/29/Security-threats-Tigray-relief-Ethiopia-truce-Afar-Amhara 44 Northern Ethiopia - Humanitarian Update. Situation Reports. UNOCHA (May 7, 2022) https://reports.unocha.org/en/country/ethiopia 45 Cara Anna. 'God have mercy': Tigray residents describe life under siege. AP NEWS. (October 16, 2021) https://apnews.com/article/ethiopia-tigray-crisis-hunger-malnutrition-a772602d2caac96e8024769c012ce8c6 46 4 ways the war in Yemen has impacted women and girls. International Rescue Committee (IRC). (December 20, 2019) https://www.rescue.org/article/4-ways-war-yemen-has-impacted-women-and-girls

services in order to provide for their families. During their travels, they are left vulnerable to sexual and physical assualt and/or harrassment by men who target them with impunity. The blockade has created a dangerous environment where survivors of gender-based violence are left unprotected and even vulnerable to repeat assaults.

In addition to sexual assault, Yemeni civillians, especially pregnant people and mothers, are weakened by blockade-driven nutritional deficits. Pregnant and breastfeeding women in Yemen face a unique challenge as their physical health is intertwined with the health and life expectancy of their newborn children. In 2018, nearly 418,000 pregnant and breastfeeding women were admitted to health facilities in Yemen with acute malnutrition. 47 Pregnant women facing malnutrition are increasingly at risk of dying while giving labor or having a miscarriage. The malnourishment of pregnant women undoubtedly leads to high rates of maternal, infant, and child mortality. In both Yemen and Tigray, countless survivors of sexual violence are reeling from unwanted pregnancies and untreated malnourishment, increasing their risk of death.

Prior to the war, Yemen was already one of the poorest countries in the world. Since 2006, the country has ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Gender Gap Index and, in 2017, as the worst place in the world to be a woman. 48 The degradation of women's rights in the country worsens as the conflict drags on and famine is used as a weapon of war.

Ukraine

The recent and ongoing invasion of Ukraine has exposed how war impacts food security in countries impacted by conflict, as well as their lasting side effects. Mauripol, the port city in Southeastern Ukraine, continues to make headlines due to civilian casualties and an ongoing blockade. In late February, Russian soldiers cut off access to food, water, electricity, radio, and television. Food ran out in the city of 170,000 by March 13th. 49 Sexual violence in Ukraine has been connected to the exploitation of resources. A Human Rights Watch report found that after raping or killing Ukrainian civilians, Russian soldiers fled with food, firewood, gasoline, and other essential goods. 50

While many men and women stayed in their towns to defend on the frontlines, primary caregivers have defended their families by leaving—over half of Ukrainian children have been

47 Maternal malnutrition soars in Yemen. Save the Children UK. (May 3, 2019) https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/news/media-centre/press-releases/Yemen-conflict-pregnant-breastfeeding-wom en-malnutrition-soars 48 “4 Ways the War in Yemen Has Impacted Women and Girls.” International Rescue Committee. ( December 20, 2019) https://www.rescue.org/article/4-ways-war-yemen-has-impacted-women-and-girls . 49 Eddy Wax, “The Starvation of a Nation: Putin Uses Hunger as a Weapon in Ukraine,” POLITICO (POLITICO, April 4, 2022), https://www.politico.eu/article/the-starvation-of-a-nation-how-putin-is-using-hunger-as-a-weapon-in-ukraine/. 50“Ukraine: Apparent War Crimes in Russia-Controlled Areas,” Human Rights Watch (Human Rights Watch, April 18, 2022), https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/03/ukraine-apparent-war-crimes-russia-controlled-areas#.

displaced. 51 Food supply chain disruptions heighten food insecurity among women, a problem that was already on the rise due to COVID. 52 Given our globalized supply chains, conflict can impact civilians even outside of the states at war. Joyce Msuya, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, noted that “The global impacts of this war (in Ukraine) are becoming clearer as each day of this conflict continues. ” Russia and Ukraine are considered one of the main “Breadbaskets of the World, ” producing a combined nearly ⅓ of the world’s wheat and barley exports. 53 Both of our previous case studies face major nutritional deficits due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, even as they face their own conflicts— 67% of Ethiopia’s grain exports come from the two nations, 54 with Yemen importing 42% from Russia and Ukraine. 55

As for the displaced Ukrainian population, the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) estimates that more than one million people have already fled the country, mostly women and children who are at high risk of exploitation, including sexual violence and human trafficking, which is why a relief operation has been launched through the World Food Program (WFP) to deliver food aid to those displaced by the conflict. 56 While the humanitarian consequences of the ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine remain elusive, it is women and girls who continue to pay the highest price during the conflict.

Conclusions

Armed conflict and blockades are the main driver of food insecurity and malnutrition in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, Yemen and Ukraine, where women and girls have been subjected to continuous violation of their rights. As a weapon, blockades can immediately harm thousands and eventually millions of people, making them more effective than many armaments. International organizations and allies should uplift marginalized voices in conflict

51“Conflict, Humanitarian Crisis in Ukraine Threatening Future Global Food Security as Prices Rise, Production Capacity Shrinks, Speakers Warn Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases,” United Nations (United Nations, March 29, 2022), https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/sc14846.doc.htm. 52“Response to the Ukraine Crisis: Social Protection for Food Security and Nutrition - Ukraine,” ReliefWeb (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, April 7, 2022), https://reliefweb.int/report/ukraine/response-ukraine-crisis-social-protection-food-security-and-nutrition. 53Joseph Wilson et al., “Russian War in World's 'Breadbasket' Threatens Food Supply,” ABC News (ABC News Network, March 6, 2022), https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/russian-war-worlds-breadbasket-threatens-food-supply-83279787. 54 Save the Children International, Twitter Post, 23 April 2022, 10:01 AM, https://twitter.com/save_children/status/1517866130588766208?s=20&t=rwNFX6SZd-t9xfk5MAAVog 55Sikandra Kurdi et al., “The Russian Invasion of Ukraine Threatens to Further Exacerbate the Food Insecurity Emergency in Yemen,” International Food Policy Research Institute (International Food Policy Research Institute, March 23, 2022), https://www.ifpri.org/blog/russian-invasion-ukraine-threatens-further-exacerbate-food-insecurity-emergency-yemen#: ~:text=Currently%2C%20the%20 cereal%20import%20 dependence,wheat%20product%20imports%20(42%25). 56“World Food Programme Set to Assist People Affected by Conflict in Ukraine: World Food Programme.” UN World Food Programme. (February 28, 2022) https://www.wfp.org/stories/world-food-programme-set-assist-people-affected-conflict-ukraine.

and focus on protecting humanitarian corridors to ensure that essential needs and services are received by civilians.

International organizations should also reflect on the discrepancies in their response to the suffering in Ukraine in comparison to the suffering in Tigray and Yemen. The suspension of Russia from the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) was swift, signaling strong opposition to Russian officials and solidarity with the victims of war in Ukraine. Unfortunately, Eritrea’s invasion of Tigray and its countless war crimes continue to be overlooked as they remain on the UNHRC. The United Arab Emirates has also been accused of egregious crimes in Yemen but there has been no attempt to suspend their membership in the UNHRC. The global solidarity with Ukrainian victims and the dedication to uplift their voices is remarkable and should be replicated for women and girls trapped in Tigray, Yemen and dangerous conflict zones across the globe.

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Gendering Terrorism: A Psychosocial Analysis on Why Women Engage in Terrorism and How Educating Women in Counterterrorist Initiatives can help offset Cyber Recruitment

By Lauran Howard, Maywadee Viriyapah, Haripriya Guduru

Overview

The study of terrorism has been largely male centric and has resulted in counterterrorism measures being predicated towards male psychology. This, however, casts a blind spot in our security measures as more studies show that female extremists and their recruitment efforts are steadily on the rise. Therefore, it is important to consider the circumstances that result in women joining violent extremist efforts, especially in the wake of cyberwarfare and the widespread use of social media. Creating equitable access for women, especially women of color, in counterterrorism measures within STEM should be recognized as a way to address these gaps in security policy. In order to delve into women’s role in violent terrorist acts, this report will first establish what terrorism is.

According to the UNODC Report,

“there is currently no comprehensive United Nations treaty on terrorism, nor is there an official definition of the term terrorism. ”57 In this report, we will define violent extremism, as it is defined by the UN Women’s Training Manual for Women in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, as committing violence in the name of “ a strict adherence to a set of narratives or belief systems (whether political or religious) that constitute assaults on the mainstream values, orientations, and principles of the dominant society. ”58 The term radicalization will be defined as, “A process by which individuals or groups deviate from moderate mainstream beliefs and adopt extreme views. While radicalization sometimes leads to violence, it cannot be equated with terrorism, and many radicals are not violent or dangerous and simply want to address what they view as societal ills. ”59

Although experts are still debating what constitutes as terrorism, for use in this report, we will define terrorism as the “frequent violence aimed either directly or indirectly, at governments to influence policy or topple an existing regime. ”60 The general goal of terrorism is to destroy the public’s sense of security. Major targets include buildings or other locations that are important economic or political symbols, such as embassies or military installations. Many terrorists hope that the sense of fear these acts engender will induce the population to pressure political leaders toward a specific political end. 61

57 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012. https://www.unodc.org/. 58 Speckhard, PhD, A., 2021. Women in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism. [online] UN Women Europe and Central Asia Regional Office. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/pve_trainingmanual-min.pdf, Accessed 13 May 2022. 59 Ibid. 60 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012. https://www.unodc.org/. 61 Ibid.

A Historical Context of Women in Terrorism & Counterterrorism

This report will briefly discuss the historical context surrounding terrorist acts and counterterrorist measures throughout the years. Unfortunately, there has been a widespread assumption that terrorists are only male due to limited visibility of female terrorists in the media and gendered stereotypes that lead women to be predominately written off as passive actors instead of perpetrators.

In order to understand the historical background of terrorism, we must first identify specific overlapping “ waves” of terrorist acts. These “ waves” are characterized by David Rapoport, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at UCLA, and reiterated by Cyndi Banks, Associate Vice President for Student Success, Capilano University, that categorized these waves of terrorism into four sections: “Anarchist Wave” (from the 1880s to the 1920s); “Anti-Colonial Wave” (from the 1920s to the 1960s); “New Left Wave'' (from the 1960s to 1979); and “Religious Wave” (from 1979 to 2019). 62

Scholars theorize that we are currently in the fifth wave, encompassing 2019 to the present date. However, there is much debate surrounding the nature of this new fifth wave. The three main fifth waves that are debated are: Terrorist Semi - States/Tribalism Malign Aspirational Tribalism (MAT): as we have seen through ISIS and the newly established Taliban government in Afghanistan; The Right-Wing Terrorist & Anti-Globalization Emergence: these encompass the white nationalist and white supremacy ideologies of terror. Examples of this violence include shooters in New Zealand and the recent insurgency on the U.S. Capitol on January 6th, which only name a few of the violent acts in the name of white supremacy within the 2019 and 2020 span;63 Cyberterrorism: The Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes: according to the UNODC, there is reported evidence that extremists, such as ISIS, use Internet Cafes for recruitments and other illegal transactions, bypassing government regulations. 64

There are few detailed accounts of how women engage in acts of terrorism despite being hailed as martyrs by their male counterparts and extremist communities for their contributions to the cause. In the past, the academics, research, and pedagogy involving terrorism and counterterrorism studies have been authored by primarily white men. Therefore, such accounts often ignore the gender and racial theory involved in analyzing and understanding female terrorists. With this said, women in terrorism are becoming an increasingly growing trend. One that draws the attention of observers to recognize the gendered elements of this international threat.

62 Banks, Cyndi. "Introduction: Women, gender, and terrorism: Gendering terrorism." Women & Criminal Justice 29, no. 4-5 (2019): 181-187; Rapoport, David C., Audrey Kurth Cronin, and James Ludes. "The four waves of modern terrorism." Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press 2004) p 54 (2004): 3-11. 63 Auger, Vincent A. "Right-wing terror. " Perspectives on Terrorism 14, no. 3 (2020): 87-97. 64 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012. https://www.unodc.org/.

Historical Timeline of Counterterrorism

During the conception of the League of Nations, the focal point of terrorism was centered around the ideals between modern terrorism and self-determination amongst the development of communist/socialist theory. 65

Article 1(2) of the Terrorism Convention defines “ acts of terrorism” as “ criminal acts directed against a state” (1937). Such acts must be “intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons, or a group of persons or the general public. ” There was a differentiation between “terrorist” and “ political” offences, and what warranted a granting of asylum. 66

Unfortunately, when the League finally came to a consensus to bring these actions into motion, WWII erupted. After the League of Nations’ collapse and the continual rise of white supremacy through Nazism and WWII, the remnants of the League were restructured into the United Nations.

Issues “ of terror-violence by so-called “liberation fighters “ pursuing their right to the selfdetermination of peoples, resulting in the United Nations Charter (Treaty Series, vol. 1, no. XVI), articles 1(2) and 55 (see also 1941 Atlantic Charter). ”67 The establishment of counterterrorism efforts after the events of the September 11th, 2001, attacks resulted in counterterrorism measures that have been expanded across sectors. Violent religious extremists have evolved to systematic operations, such as ISIS/ISIL, who reach followers from around the world through the internet and social media. Counterterrorism strategies struggle to balance protecting free speech and perceptions of terrorists being “freedom fighters” despite committing acts of violence.

Psychosocial Analysis of Women’s Radicalization, Terrorism & Violent Extremism

The psychosocial perspective explains that women engage in radicalization, terrorism, and violent extremism due to a desire to fulfill a duty or a mission within the communities they serve. Potential female martyrs may include calls for gender equity in martyrdom for a cause, offers of salvation for women who have violated gender norms and been shunned by the community, revenge for the death of a relative, and religious benefits. A display of women's loyalty in some extremist cultures perpetuates a sense of belonging within the group. Studies suggest that women who have become involved in radicalization exhibit a dark personality trait. In other words, they tend to display one or more of the following “dark-triad” or “dark-tetrad” personality traits such as: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy and in this case, Sadism; rather than being disturbed, or fostering “ schizotypal, borderline, and depressive features, ” as originally speculated in this research. 68 Although

65 Ibid. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Morgades-Bamba, Clara Isabel, Patrick Raynal, and Henri Chabrol.

"Exploring the radicalization process in young women. " Terrorism and political violence 32, no. 7 (2020): 1439-1457.

being associated with radicalization, having disturbed features does not contribute to this model. The study also suggests that “both the dark traits and socio-cultural factors are revealed as predictors of radicalization, while dogmatism is clearly shown as a mediator. Orientations in terms of prevention among young women are proposed. ”69 Furthermore, women who engage in violent extremism often play the role of the “faithful wife” to their extremist husband or to gain favor towards a potential husband. The cultural differences and realities should also be considered when we look at the gendering and “feminization of terrorism. ”70 Cultural norms that distinguish women and men’s roles are often overlooked in terms of their motivations to pursue their extremist agendas, especially among Islamic countries. According to other recent studies, women are more determined to pursue goals than men; they have more resistance to physical and psychological suffering than their male counterparts. Therefore, their “ sacrifice” comes from a belief that it is an honor to lay down their lives for what they believe is right. 71

Women’s Role in Extremist Groups

From suicide bombers for the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka to enforcers of the Al-Khansaa Brigade within the Islamic State, women have held roles in terrorist organizations equal to their male counterparts despite many of these groups’ ideology appointing them as second-class citizens. Until recently, political discourse around terrorism has often discounted female members as agents of terrorism. However, new scholarship has focused on the gender dynamics of extremism as more groups put women at the forefront of their organizations. Attention to this dimension grew after extremist organizations began to utilize women as bombers. Between 2014-2018, Boko Haram, one of the largest Islamist militant groups in Africa, used 468 women and girls deployed or arrested in 240 suicide bomb attacks. 72 Terrorist groups began to use women as the faces of their organizations instead of the hidden shadows that passively support the ideology for several reasons. First, women as active participants of violence led to more media coverage, with more audiences captivated by the harsh contrast between the traditional idea of women as innocent victims of violence with the roles as perpetrators. Secondly, extremist groups take advantage of patriarchal views that lead to women being perceived as innocent and even superficially “ attractive” actors. Therefore, women successfully recruit others by using their image to “ sanitize” the terrorist organization’s ideology as rational and mainstream to unsuspecting vulnerable individuals, especially other women. The popularity of social media has made the digital landscape a perfect platform for female members to reach broad audiences and spread extremist propaganda. 73 The following case studies will demonstrate how women participate in online recruitment in the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and far-right white supremacist groups.

69 Ibid. 70 Bodziany, Marek, and Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz. "Feminization of terror: Psychological analysis of the role of women in terrorist structures." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 44, no. 3 (2021): 266-283. 71 Ibid. 72 https://www.cfr.org/blog/women-boko-haram-and-suicide-bombings. 73 https://www.science.org/content/article/women-critical-online-terrorist-networks.

Islamic Extremism

Women play an essential role in ISIS’s goal: building a caliphate [or religious state based on their interpretation of Sharia law]. Women in these roles not only provide supportive labor but add to the organization’s legitimacy and claim to the land in building a functioning society with necessary matriarchal figures. Female members have proven to be efficient recruiters and subjects for propaganda materials catered toward other women.

“I want to become a martyr. ” These were one of the last words nineteen-year-old Aqsa Mahmood would say to her parents in a phone call after Mahmood left her family’s home in Glasgow, Scotland, to join the Islamic State in Syria. Mahmood would leave her life as a Scottish teenager in November 2013 to become a prolific ISIS recruiter targeting young women. The image of the smiling teenager that radiated youthful innocence became unrecognizable in her new identity. Aqsa is reported to have been influenced by sermons published online and connecting with other radicals through social media. 74 For Mahmood, the Syrian conflict enforced this idea that the international Muslim community was being violently persecuted. 75 Aqsa used a Tumblr blog to spread propaganda material under a new identity- Umm Layth [mother of lions]. 76 Her calls for violence on Twitter and Tumblr made media headlines, raising Umm Layth’s notoriety as a key voice for ISIS. Umm Layth’s identity as a young woman proved to be an invaluable asset as an ISIS propagandist. One of her most notable posts included a checklist of items a young woman should bring to Syria such as good undergarments, beauty products, prenatal vitamins, and painkillers suitable for pregnant women. 77 With her posts including practical and specific advice relatable for young women, a once far away conflict is within arm’s length. Aqsa’s posts allegedly led to three London schoolgirls joining ISIS after it was found that one of the girls, Shamima Begum, messaged Aqsa on Twitter. 78 Mahmood’s story demonstrates the cycle of women being “ victims” of online radicalization and becoming effective perpetrators of propaganda.

Far-Right White Supremacist Groups

Unlike other extremist organizations, condemnation of far-right white supremacist groups as terrorist organizations has not been widespread. These groups’ ideology is dominated by fear mongering rhetoric grounded in racial politics, asserting that the white population is facing the loss of majority status, which is then framed as a “ genocide” that must be stopped. This is also known as the “Great Replacement” theory. The events of January 6th, 2021, rise in AAPI violence, and the tragic shooting in Buffalo, New York show how violent these ideologies can be. A study by George Washington University showed that women account for 13% of the total 766 federal cases pending for those

74 Lisa Blaker, “The Islamic State’s Use of Online Social Media.” Military Cyber Affairs 1, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5038/2378-0789.1.1.1004. 75 Erin Saltman and Melanie Smith, “Till Martyrdom Do Us Part: Gender and the ISIS Phenomenon,” Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 2015. 76 Farhana Qazi, Invisible Martyrs: Inside the Secret World of Female Islamic Radicals (Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2018). 77 https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bring-good-quality-bras-scots-6175193. 78 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/11/14/world/middleeast/isis-expansion.html.

involved in the January 6th insurrection. The study furthers that 82% of the cases brought against women included information connected to social media. 79 Women in the far-right movement have used social media to become “influencers” that slip their extremist beliefs within an aesthetic branding of beauty, fashion, and motherhood. In doing so, they radicalize their audiences who previously may have had limited knowledge on the organization and are unable to recognize the rhetoric being poised to them. These recruiters utilize language surrounding motherhood to “depoliticize their actions by positioning themselves as acting on behalf of their children and families. ”80 This strategy has been used so frequently in organizations like QAnon that the phenomenon has been dubbed “Pastel QAnon. ”81 Although social media companies like Facebook and Twitter have made promises to crackdown on hate speech and misinformation by extremist far right groups, studies show that there is a hidden bias in their policing. A comparison of Facebook’s policy by the Brennan Center showed that white supremacist content had a smaller set of restrictions than terrorist organizations that typically were made up of people of color, leading to far-right white nationalist propaganda circulating online longer before being reported.

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Women in Counterterrorism Initiatives

We have seen in earlier sections how women play a crucial role in various terrorist and violent extremist organizations. Now we move on to study the role women in countering terrorism and why it is vital for policy to promote the inclusion of women in counterterrorist initiatives in various roles such as: threat analysts, peacekeepers, cyber analysts, intelligence officers, etc. There is also an immediate need for an engagement of women of color, who are marginalized and underrepresented, into the counterterrorism discourse. Women of color from various parts of the world, often hailing from conflict societies prone to extremist violence and terrorism, bring their ‘lived experience’ narrative that serves as a unique tool to analyze activities and operations of various terrorist organizations and especially facilitate in comprehending of why women engage in terrorism.

Women currently occupy significant positions in various counterterrorism agencies and initiatives at national and international levels. On the international sphere, the United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime (UNODC), UN Women83 , Interpol, NATO etc. are examples of organizations that seek to be gender inclusive in various counterterrorism initiatives. The UNODC acknowledges the significance of gender perspective in designing and drafting projects and initiatives in preventing terrorism. Through mainstreaming a gender perspective, UNODC aims to address ‘ some of the main issues related to

79 Hilary Matfess and Devorah Margolin, “The Women of January 6th: A Gendered Analysis of the 21st Century American Far-Right” (Washington, DC: Program on Extremism at George Washington University , 2022).

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https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/msnbc-opinion/how-far-right-uses-motherhood-manipulate-recruit-women-n129492

2.

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https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/qanon-pastel-antivax-natural-parenting-community-freebirth-109 8518/. 82 Ángel Díaz and Laura Hecht-Felella, “Double Standards in Social Media in Content Moderation” (New York , NY: Brennan Center for Justice, 2021).

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https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2021/BriefPreventing-violent-extremism-focus-areas-en.pdf

gender and terrorism that help in the situational analysis and provide practical tips in formulating project objectives, outcomes, outputs, indicators, and activities’ (UNODC 2020). 84 Similarly, UN Women aim to change certain structural frameworks within counterterrorism (CT) and preventive violent extremism (PVE) that exacerbate gender inequality. While these organizations are actively working to promote gender mainstreaming in various CT & PVE programs, support capacity building and engagement of civil society organizations, it is also a known reality that women (esp. Women of Color) are still not an integral part of CT & PVE initiatives of many national and regional level agencies and organizations.

In a paper addressing the need for inclusion of women in Indonesia’s national CT efforts, Wulan (2015)85 argues that women are valuable agents in CT initiatives in both soft (sociological, psychological and legal approaches in preventing terrorism) and hard approaches (combat roles). She argues that women provide significant analysis on social, economic discourses that facilitate recruitment of women into various terrorist groups and offer nuanced approaches and solutions to tackle the issues of recruitments, financing and operations of these groups through a gender sensitive lens. In the context of tackling cyber recruitment of both men and women as well as young boys and girls, it is imperative that counterterrorist mechanisms include initiatives that tackle cyber threats. While cyber analysts observe the ‘ online’ presence of individuals and organizations looking for recruitment and financing from various sources across the world, it is also crucial to focus on decentralized approaches in combating cyber terrorism. In a decentralized approach, it is essential that vulnerable groups, such as women and young girls, particularly of the Global South, receive access to various tools and resources in STEM to understand the cyber methods used by terrorist and extremist groups to promote their recruitment and funding, especially through social media. These initiatives are especially necessary for regions inflicted with violence and terrorism where women of color are often vulnerable targets of such groups and so there is an immediate need for policy to include a STEM education for women of color as they become crucial actors in the decentralized CT efforts.

Conclusion

As seen in both case studies, gender and race intersex in terrorist organizations, with Islamic extremism distorting the Muslim practice and white supremacy grounded in the supposed inferiority of people of color and other marginalized communities. Terrorist groups thrive in environments that promote an “ othering” process that slowly alienates an individual through the adoption of radical beliefs. Race and ethnicity are a social construct that is primarily based on visible characteristics, thus making it a prominent division in many societies, and thus an effective pillar underlying radical rhetoric. Both case studies demonstrate how women play prominent roles in spreading extremist beliefs on social media that later lead to violence. However, if gender and race can play a role in why terrorist organizations are becoming more effective, they should also play a role in counterterrorism policy. Women of Color with diverse backgrounds hold a key perspective in identifying holes in

84 https://www.unodc.org/documents/Gender/Thematic_Gender_Briefs_English/Terrorism_brief_23_03_2020.pdf 85 https://apcss.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/AP-Women-Indonesia-CT-final.pdf

strategies that fail to acknowledge the nuances of a culture or lack the ability to moderate online hate speech from all terrorist groups.

Policy Recommendations

Resiliency as a Deterrence: Having women of color that understand this commitment to having resilience in the face of adversity should be at the forefront of countermeasures in the newly developing field of Psychosocial Counterterrorism. To counteract these ideals among women extremists, women that are engaged in counterterrorism efforts can recognize and empathize with the resilience that these women must stand for their beliefs, ideals, husbands, and community. However, resilience can be used to then be a defining factor to convince radicalized women to shed their violent ideals and move towards a positive end. According to studies, resilience is about transformation. “Transformation and flexibility are characteristics that permit a system to persist under challenging conditions with the same components and much the same (or better) function… ” Resilience or “ resilience thinking, ” involves decision processes that involve anticipation, adaptation, being flexible, and focusing on the inclusivity of diverse decision-makers. ”86

Specialized Recruitment and Programming for People of Color and Marginalized Communities: The ideology of violent extremism often pairs itself with the extreme distortion of culture, religion, or race and preys on existing divisions based on these categories. As a result, it is imperative that our security policies reflect a cultural sensitivity that often only comes from those who have firsthand experience. People of Color and those from marginalized communities face obstacles that are often more difficult to overcome than their white and Western counterparts entering the PVE space, such as the lack of resources dedicated to economic and social mobility. Therefore, to fill the CT and PVE industry with perspectives that are nuanced and diverse enough to address a terrorist organization’s ideology, CT/PVE programs must specifically reach out to people of color and marginalized communities. Initiatives like investment in CV and PVE programs in predominantly minority-serving institutions or the creation of a CV/PVE pipeline in countries with high extremist activity are examples of policies that could be adopted. Need for Women, especially Women of Color, in Counterterrorism Initiatives: It is necessary that countries pay attention to the need for presence of women in various roles to prevent terrorism as well as to promote peace and development. Women trained in STEM could be cyber analysts, threat analysts, intelligence analysts, researchers, etc. across numerous departments and agencies of the governments focusing on preventing terrorism. The presence of women in peacekeeping forces as military personnel, medical practitioners, judicial officers, and other peacebuilding officers could also help promote trust among victims of terrorist activities and essentially help in preventing future recruitment to terrorist groups in fragile, post-conflict societies.

Mainstreaming Gender Perspective in CT and PVE: In adherence to the policy guidelines of the UNODC, it is imperative that counterterrorism efforts of individual nation-states, as well as the group

86 Prior, Tim. "Resilience: The ‘Fifth Wave’ in the Evolution of Deterrence." In Strategic Trends 2018, pp. 63-80. Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zürich, 2018.

efforts of nations of a region, follow an inclusive approach of mainstreaming gender perspective in their initiatives. While such an approach has been integrated into the efforts of international organizations such as the UNODC, Council of Europe, NATO, etc, individual nations (where most counterterrorism initiatives are integrated into policy and law enforcement) are yet to mainstream gender perspectives into their peacebuilding operations and counterterrorism efforts.