The Sycamore Fall 2011

THE SYCAMORE WELLS COLLEGE’S STUDENT MAGAZINE / FALL 2011

the

FOissOueD THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 1

CONT features 10 36 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO FAST?

Using traditional knowledge and personal experience to understand Ramadan.

BOUNDARIES, CULTURE, AND FOOD A brief history of food at Wells.

15 50 A HISTORY OF SOUL FOOD

What soul food is and where it comes from.

ARE YOU GOING TO EAT THAT? Wells students on body image and eating disorders.

22 56 SUGAR HIGH

A photographic exploration of Wells’s new baking club.

2 COVER PHOTOGRAPH BY ALEX SCHLOOP

EATING IN

An examination of Wells’s on-campus food culture.

TENTS constants 68 88 SHORT STORY CONTEST

Phoebe Chestna’s “Cauliflower Heart Attacks, Laundry Ham, Protein Bread, and Raw Eggs.”

BRAIN FOOD

Eating right for the body’s busiest organ.

72 89 ACADEMIC PAPER CONTEST Theresa Mendez and Gabrielle Cook’s

“‘Put your purse down:’ Masculinity and Performative Drinking.”

FOOD BRAIN

The palate wants what the palate wants.

72 96 SCIENTIFIC PAPER CONTEST

Colin Evan’s “‘The Cost of Food.”

HEALTH

The AB12C’s of dietary supplements.

84 99 HISTORY

The evolution of the American meal.

DEAR MINERVA

Wells’s resident goddess answers your burning questions.

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 3

THE SYCAMORE is Wells College’s student magazine.

This is our seventh biannual issue.

In keeping with our mission, we print on sustainably harvested paper and use nontoxic ink.

staff ALEX SCHLOOP

Editor in Chief Design Editor

RITA FEINSTEIN

Chief Copy Editor Creative Writing Director

JILLIAN FIELDS JUDITH LAVELLE MINERVA PAIGE FRALICK NORA FREWERT REBEKKAH McKALSEN KATIE PRICHARD KRISTEN RYAN

History Editor Health Editor Staff Designer Advice Columnist Staff Writer Staff Writer Staff Writer Staff Writer Staff Writer

JULIE HUANG FRANCES STAITI

Staff Photographer Staff Photographer

MARY CORBETT

Guest Writer

C.B. WILKINSON

Guest Illustrator

CATHERINE BURROUGHS

Advisor

contact E-MAIL

WellsSycamore@gmail.com

WEB

WellsSycamore.tumblr.com

ADDRESS

Wells College 170 Main Street Mailbox Number 458 Aurora, NY 13026

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 5

COPY EDITOR'S NOTE Over seafood chowder, goat cheese quiche, tomato bisque, and heirloom potato chips, The Sycamore’s editors unanimously agreed on this issue’s theme: food. It has been my immense pleasure to work with our colorful bunch of staff writers and watch their articles develop into mouthwatering confections.

Though innovation was last semester’s theme, our writers have continued pioneering through archives, articles, and interviews in order to construct the richest and most compelling pieces they can. I applaud Rebekkah McKalsen’s extensive research into the history of the dining hall, Jillian Fields’ close look at the evolution of the American meal, and Kristen Ryan’s intimate exploration of religious fasting in Muslim culture. This issue provides a wealth of practical advice as well. In her article “Brain Food/Food Brain,” Judy Lavelle performs a witty, engaging exploration of humankind’s psychological and biological relationship to food. Nora Frewert prescribes both medicine for the body and medicine for the soul in her investigation of dietary supplements and her music review, respectively.

I believe The Sycamore’s first undertaking of a concrete theme was a sweeping success. Broad enough for the adventurous palate and specific enough for direction and coherence, this issue is something you can really sink your teeth into. Our writers have approached their articles with the zeal of gourmet chefs, seasoning their sentences with palpable energy and enthusiasm.

I will never forget Bekkah’s astonishment at learning about the Dining Hall’s previous locations (“Main second? What’s up with that? Main second!”) or Kristen’s bravery at treading the thin ice of religion.

I may have a love-hate relationship with food, but I feel only love for this issue of The Sycamore. Walking in the footsteps of the illustrious Ana Giovinazzo has been a great honor and a great responsibility, and I send my thanks to Alex for all his patience and guidance. A special thanks goes out to Ana herself, who ceremoniously presented me with her hand-colored felt My Little Pony poster—a gift from copy editor to copy editor. I also want to thank my three beautiful interviewees—you know who you are!—for your openness and honesty in response to my very personal questions. I couldn’t have written my debut article without you.

Happy reading, everyone, and bon appétit! •

6 EDITORS' NOTES

EDITOR'S NOTE This issue, unlike our previous six, brought the opportunity for us to tackle a very concrete subject: food. Focus came much easier for many of our writers and photographers with this change, but a new problem emerged: how can we keep 104 pages on a very specific topic nuanced, interesting, and engaging? Yes, we have the obligatory baked good close ups and recipes (thanks, Sugar High!), but we also examine how food permeates our culture, conversations, and everyday lives. Bekkah makes a strong case for Wells’s dining hall as a social center for campus. And while some students (featured in Julie’s investigatory photoessay on page 56) devour the seemingly collegiate-obligatory Velveeta and pizza, Kristen and Rita examine other student’s experiences with the absence of food on pages 10 and 50, respectively.

Our contests continued with strength this semester, and I was delighted to receive Theresa and Gabrielle’s captivating and relevant essay on masculinity and performative drinking. Phoebe’s charming and sunny short story (see page 68) is creative proof that there can be, in fact, too much of a good thing, and Tank’s photo is a timely look at the harvest that surrounds us.

I couldn’t be more excited to welcome four new staff members this semester: Julie Huang, Kristen Ryan, Nora Frewert, and Paige Fralick. Paige brought energy and enthusiasm to our staff meetings, and I so appreciate Kristen’s thorough research and highly skilled writing. Nora’s purposeful and informative articles are certainly worth a read, and Julie’s photography lends an intimate view into dorm life.

As always, please let us know if you love or hate anything in this issue. Also, be sure to follow us on Tumblr (WellsSycamore.tumblr.com) for Sycamore updates and online issues. Have a restful and productive January break, and be on the lookout for our next issue in the spring! •

PHOTOGRAPH BY ALEX SCHLOOP / THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 7

TIONS A D N E MM

ERT

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REW F A R O YN

CO

RE ARTIST

THE LONELY FOREST

GROUPLOVE

With a sound similar to Band of Horses, Temper Trap, and Young the Giant, The Lonely Forest is an indie rock band from Anacortes, WA. The group, which is comprised of vocalist John Van Deusen, guitarist Tony Ruland, drummer Braydn Krueger, and bassist Eric Sturgeon, attracted Jack Endino (the producer behind Nirvana’s Bleach) and they were signed to his label in 2006. The group has been releasing albums for six years, but only recently gained popularity. Their most recent album, Arrows, is a combination of lively power pop anthems and charming ballads.

To find out more, go to http://thelonelyforest.com.

With a sound similar to Two Door Cinema Club, Broken Bells, and The Kooks, Grouplove’s debut album, Never Trust A Happy Song, showcases a carefree, contagious sound. The Los Angelesbased indie group toured with Florence + The Machine prior to the release of the album, and members Hannah Hooper, Christian Zucconi, Sean Gadd, Ryan Rabin, and Andrew Wessen combine bright melodies with an unusual, staccato sound that instantly makes you want to dance. To find out more, go to http:// www.grouplovemusic.com.

LAURA MARLING For fans of Regina Spektor, Florence + The Machine, or The Weepies, listen to Laura Marling. Marling emerged on the British indie music scene in 2007, when she was sixteen, and has since continued to create quirky folk songs. The England native delivers a broader palette on her newest album, A Creature I Don’t Know, with a harder edge to her usually flighty folk-rock sound, evident in her song “The Muse.” To find out more, go to http:// www.lauramarling.com.

8 MUSIC

MACKLEMORE This Seattle-based hip hop artist, whose real name is Ben Haggerty, appeals to those who are fans of Kid Cudi, Chiddy Bang, or Atmosphere. On his newest album, VS. Redux, Haggerty and collaborator Ryan Lewis blend hip hop and electronic beats with chamber-pop string arrangements that illustrate Haggerty’s growth as a vocalist. To find out more, go to http://myspace.com/ macklemore.

ELLIE GOULDING

TEGAN AND SARA

If you like Adele, Foster the People, or Florence + the Machine, listen to Ellie Goulding. The British vocalist’s 2010 Lights album combines her breathy, folk-inspired vocals with upbeat dance beats to create songs that are moody and evocative. Many of her songs, including “Your Song,” “Starry Eyed,” and “The Writer” are reminiscent of Adele’s sound with a lighter, bubblier twist. To find out more, go to http://www.elliegoulding.com.

This twin sister folk-rock duo has a sound similar to Phoenix, Florence +The Machine, and the Yeah Yeah Yeahs. The Canadian duo has released six studio albums; their most recent album, Sainthood, was released in 2009. On this album, the sisters upgraded their rhythm, placing it on a level of significance equal to that of their lyrics. Their songs are made up of punchy choruses and heavy power chords that create a sound that is simultaneously energetic and despondent, and while Sainthood seems to mirror their 2007 album, The Con, the memorable lyrics and restless energy contained in this album makes Sainthood a good sequel to The Con. To find out more, go to http://www.myspace.com/ teganandsara. •

ZEE AVI With a sound similar to Madeleine Peyroux, Carla Bruni, or Ingrid Michaelson, Malaysian born Zee Avi offers a whimsical, jazzy sound on her 2011 album, Ghostbird. Avi’s floaty, old-soul vocals create songs full of spirit and unique charm, and they blend seamlessly with the acoustics to create a warmth that is easy to listen to. Although Avi’s sound is less mainstream and more coffeehouse troubadour, her captivating style draws you in. To find out more, go to http://www.zeeavi.com.

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 9

10 FEATURES

i

i

n truth, it is dangerous to write any type of article about religion (or its inconsistently abusive yet alternatively supportive sister, politics). These statements are rooted in the necessary respect I have for religions. It is extremely difficult to truly understand the faith of a believer in any tradition, but, at the same time, just attempting to know “the gist” about any religion undervalues the complexities within it. While an “outsider” can spend years accumulating objective knowledge about a belief system, the individual experiences of a believer can provide the most insight into the religion itself. Perhaps then, it is the combination of historical knowledge and emic research that generates the best understanding in an outsider. In Islam, this dichotomous understanding of doctrine and personal experience in regards to ritual fasting during Ramadan helps create that intimate, in-depth appreciation that defines how outsiders view Islam. Through this approach, an outsider to Islam (like myself ) begins to focus less on why fasting occurs and more on what it actually means to fast. In the following article, I will reference Huda Rehman (sophomore), a Muslim student who traces both her genealogical and spiritual roots back to Pakistan. Rehman, who graciously sat through interviews and checked (and re-checked) my statements for precision and clarity, was without doubt the biggest help I could have received in writing about such a vast and complex religion such as Islam. Although it will be discussed in the interview, Rehman approaches the month of Ramadan from her Pakistani tradition.

While there are several aspects of Ramadan that are applicable to all Muslims, different traditions celebrate the fast-breaking in different ways.

What Does it Mean to Fast? usi n g tr ad i ti on al k n o w l e d g e an d p er s on al ex p er i en c e to un d er s tan d r am ad an

by k r i s te n r yan

What exactly is Ramadan? That is a difficult question to answer, not because it has multiple definitions, but because there is a lot of complexity inherent to its meaning. In terms of time, Ramadan, like most Islamic holidays, is based on the lunar schedule and lasts about 29 to 30 days. According to Rehman, the start date for this year was August 1st and the end date was August 29th.

The following day, called “Eid-ul-Fitr,” is a celebration in its own right and will be discussed later.

To some extent, Ramadan can be defined through the understanding of fasting. This fasting, while extensive, serves several different purposes to the Muslim person both spiritually and personally. According to Rehman, Ramadan is structured to include specific hours of fasting: “We start eating after the sun sets (a time is given by an Islamic authority) and stop eating ten minutes before the 1st prayer of the day (called “fajr”), which is prayed before sunrise. This also relates the heavy significance placed on intention in Islam. If a Muslim person sets their alarm with the intention of getting up for morning prayer, and they sleep through their alarm clock, this is seen as God’s will. It is not God’s will, however, if you intentionally choose not to set an alarm. This idea of intention also connects to fasting. If a person accidently puts food in their mouth (which can happen just out of habit) without intending to break the fast, this is seen as God’s will.”

Although in this excerpt Rehman initially began to explain the time restrictions of Ramadan, she also went into an in-depth discussion about how these time restrictions relate to a Muslim person’s relationship with God. According to Rehman, God unTHE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 11

"Heightened awareness of one’s own actions is applicable to all actions during Ramadan."

derstands the intention behind a person’s actions. God also plays an active role in the lives of Muslims in that, if a fast is accidently broken, He is understood as responsible, taking the weight off of the individual. However, God does not interfere with one’s own personal responsibility in regards to fasting. While the consequences to breaking the Ramadan fast are severe, they also depend on why the fast was broken.

But before we get into the consequences of skipping fast, we have to understand just what the term “fast” encompasses. One obvious fast is that of food, which cannot be consumed after just ten minutes before the “fajr” prayer before sunrise. But this prohibition also applies to all liquids, including water, and even to small candies, like mints and gum. In fact, the fast on food even includes items that we don’t normally consider “food,” like toothpaste. During the fasting of Ramadan, the swallowing of toothpaste is prohibited. To avoid doing so, a person must brush their teeth slowly and carefully every day. In addition to these items which are given up during the day, there is an even greater focus on moral action during the fasting hours of Ramadan. According to Rehman: [There is] no swearing, stealing or lying (essentially like the 10 Commandments). Breaking these laws during the month of Ramadan is considered even a graver sin. No sex, crude jokes or bad intentions either. The key here is that the Muslim person must be especially conscious of all actions. In Islam, sex is part of human nature; sex can only be performed with a married spouse and [it] deserves respect. During Ramadan, sex is okay at night, but not after dinner because after dinner you must do your nightly prayer (called “Isha”) and then you may have sex.

In this sense, Ramadan is far more than just giving up food.

While it is definitely a total renunciation of one’s dietary habits, it is also a time during which a person checks their desires at the 12 FEATURES

door. In fact, Ramadan is very much about controlling desires and teaching patience, which is “something all humanity lacks” (Rehman). Returning to the example of brushing one’s teeth during Ramadan, a Muslim person does so with very deliberate, very slow movements. They are conscious of their actions. This heightened awareness of one’s own actions is applicable to all actions during Ramadan.

But, during Ramadan, the individual is not who is primarily served by the experience. The entire reason for the holiday is God. Ramadan is a time that God has set apart as different from the normal, day-to-day routine of humans. This is what God asks for in return. In our interview, Rehman explains that “it [the month of Ramadan] is a special time to turn away from worldly/material concerns and dedicate life to God.” So, to some extent, the increased conscious awareness created by the traditions within Ramadan itself prepares the Muslim person to think on God more often. What’s more, Ramadan also circles around the giving of the Quran (the Islamic holy book) to the prophet Muhammad

by God. In fact, “Laylat al-Qadar” (“the night of power/decree”) is the most important night of Ramadan because it is believed by Muslims to be the night God revealed the holy verse to Muhammad.

So, in this sense, fasting is a tribute to God. This understanding makes logical sense in that to Muslims, “life is a test” (Rehman).

During this worldly life, God is actively challenging His people’s faith through fasting. This concept works back into the Muslim belief that intention is critical in the fasting process. God knows when a person has righteously done their fast (even if they had unintentional missteps or were forced to make up missed fast days in the next month), or if they have blatantly not completed their fast. In Islam, the tests given by God only occur in this world and they are used to determine how much suffering a Muslim person will endure in the afterlife, in hell. According to Rehman, the “real life” for Muslims is not the material world here but the heavenly one that exists in the afterlife. While the month of Ramadan is not the only example of Islamic religious devotion, it is one way through which Muslims can demonstrate their faithfulness to God.

According to Rehman, there are various periods through which it is suggested or necessary for a person to skip the fast. It is suggested that a person shouldn’t fast if they are “pregnant or too old or sick;” women also cannot fast while on their periods (Rehman). Because in Islam there is no concept of “original sin” (the idea that humans are born with sin already marked on their souls), pregnant woman are treated as especially holy because they are carrying within their bodies a completely innocent life.

Therefore, and as a result of the fact that they need nutrition for their baby, they are excluded from the fast.

Although many of these exceptions to breaking fast are accepted within Islam, there are certain consequences that apply to them. For many of these exceptions, the days that a person does not fast during Ramadan are days that must be “made up” after the conclusion of the holiday, during the following month.

For example, if a woman missed three days of fasting during Ramadan because she was on her period, she is required to fast for three days after the completion of Ramadan. She only has until the completion of the next month to fulfill her fasting requirements. There is also a sense of extended punishment for those who break other codified rules during Ramadan. For example, if a person commits a sexual act during Ramadan (one that is not after nightly prayer), they are required to continue fasting for an additional thirty days or feed sixty people (Rehman). The one exception to these consequences is for the pregnant woman, who does not have to “make up” fasts that she missed while pregnant.

The month of Ramadan is strung with complex religious code and heavy spiritual significance. But thus far, we have only understood Ramadan through the established codes set forth by the religion. How does this experience of Ramadan affect the Muslim person as an individual? What is the effect of the holiday in terms of a person’s relationship to God? While we have already explored the doctrinal answers to these questions, it is critical to understand the month of Ramadan through the eyes of a practicer in order to understand it at its deepest level.

For Huda Rehman, the experience of Ramadan is very much personal. Many of the answers she gave during the interview were filled with personal anecdotes surrounding Ramadan; many of

these stories have everything to do with her family and Ramadan.

For example, Rehman’s father is a chef who, during Ramadan, could potentially be surrounded by food for his entire (and very long) shift. Huda explained that her father used his vacation during Ramadan so that he could “relax and focus more of his time on prayer” (Rehman). In fact, many people complete extra prayers (called “Salatul Tarawih” prayers) beyond the normal five daily prayers during the Ramadan holiday. In this sense, the Rehman family fixes their life around the obligations and traditions of Ramadan, not the other way around.

Another example of Rehman’s personal experience of Ramadan is through the very family based activities around the celebration day “EId-ul-Fitr” (the festival of celebration, fastbreaking). As its name denotes, this day occurs after the last day of fasting and is marked both by religious ceremony and community feasts. Rehman remembers the tradition in terms of both standard Muslim practice and her own family tradition: It [Eid-ul-Fitr] is a period of three days, spent with family and friends through which gifts are given within families.

Most mosques host feasts to honor the end of fast; both men and women go to mosque. At 7 am, you dress in new clothes, (everything must be brand new). There are very specific Eid prayers; you cannot eat breakfast before the Eid prayers.

From here on out, the traditions vary with the culture of the group celebrating. As stated earlier, different Islamic countries have different traditions regarding the holidays of Islam and Ramadan proves to be no exception. Children under the age of 12 do not fast during Ramadan (although children from the ages 7-12 can fast for half of each day) although, according to Rehman’s accounts, “We are taught at a very young age about the importance of fasting.” Rehman’s family also contributes to the feasts in terms of food preparation. For Pakistani girls, the wearing of henna art on the body is a sign of celebration that is custom for women of their culture.

Given the heavy role of family and culture in the fasting and celebration of Ramadan, how has the process of leaving home THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 13

and entering a secular school environment been for Rehman? Although she went to a secular high school, she was still raised in an environment in which her family actively participated in fasting together. While she isn’t necessarily fasting alone at Wells, the differences are noticeable: "It is easier at home because my family is doing it with me,” Rehman admitted. “There is a lot more freedom in college so that can make it harder.”

Without the reminders of her family members, especially her mother (who has played a very active role in her religious upbringing), Huda has taken personal responsibility for keeping up with her faith. Around her room, Huda hangs pictures and prayers on her walls that act as reminders to pray. Being a college student as well as a practicing Muslim is not without difficulties, though: I have never missed a fast, but sometimes the timing of my prayers crosses over with my class times. In my free time, I try to make up my prayers as soon as possible.

"Sometimes the timing of my prayers crosses over with my class times."

This conflict between the real and spiritual worlds is reminiscent of practices within Ramadan that we have already discussed. For one, Rehman still has the intention to pray. This is especially important to note considering that she does make up her missed prayers as soon as she can. These actions reflect the very principles of conscious thought and devotional action that constitute at least part of the overall meaning of Ramadan itself. So, the Ramadan ideals continue to shape her life It is important to note, however, that despite the complex and often difficult nature of celebrating Ramadan in a secular environment, Rehman still views the holiday as overall extremely positive. When asked what she personally got out of the experience of Ramadan, Rehman explained: [I get] the feeling that I have God’s special attention. I notice a significant change. I feel healthier. I am more patient with my friends and family members. I miss the experience afterwards (when I go back to the normal eating schedule).

Rehman even goes so far as to explain that “fasting isn’t a malnourishment. Experts have said that fasting helped the immune 14 FEATURES

system immensely and builds a good metabolism.” For Rehman, the initial difficult transition that accompanies the first days of fasting is well worth the overall value of the experience. In terms of scientific studies on the value or potential detriment to fasting, some studies have admitted that even healthy individuals may experience a rise in headaches, more visits to the hospital (if they choose to alter or stop taking prescribed medicines as part of their fast) and increased irritability (Leiper 2003).

There may also be some decrease in cognitive functioning as a result of fasting because the individuals are weaker and more tired (Ali 1989). Still, there were usually no overall detrimental effects on the human body as a result of fasting, as long as healthy people are the ones taking part in it (Leiper 2003). In fact, not even all healthy individuals demonstrated the most stereotypical sign of fasting: weight loss (Leiper 2003).

From an outsider’s perspective, the month of Ramadan (including its traditions, rules, cultural norms, and even biological ramifications) can be an incredible load to try to understand. Perhaps that is because it is necessary to see the holiday from the inside as well as the out. While I don’t assert that Huda Rehman’s personal experiences with Ramadan are in any way universally applicable to all Muslims, I do suggest that her intimate practice of the fasting within Ramadan, coupled with a knowledge of the rules and beliefs that surround both the holiday and religion, provide the most thorough answer to the question: what does it mean to fast?• SOURCES Interview with Huda Rehman Leiper J B, Molla A M and Molla A M (2003): Effects on health of fluid restriction during fasting in Ramadan. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 57:S30-S38 Ali M R and, Amir T. (1989) Effects of Fasting On Visual Flicker Fusion. Perceptual and Motor Skills: Volume 69, pp. 627-631.

A

history of soul food # by

Mary Corbett

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 15

T

“Even our very own hamburger, the quintessential ‘American food,’ was created in Germany.”

here is irony in the phrase “American food.” The vast majority of food we consume in the United States is not native to the United States. Many of the foods people in the U.S. enjoy and usually refer to as “American” were eaten in other countries years before they became popular in the U.S. Pizza was first eaten in Italy and Greece,1 hotdogs have origins in Austria and Germany (the word “wiener” comes from the Austrian city Vienna while the word frankfurter comes from the German city Frankfurt), and even our very own hamburger, the quintessential “American food,” was created in Germany, its name being derived from the German city Hamburg.2 The varieties of food that did originate in the U.S. are mostly hybrids created by various immigrant groups. Aside from Native Americans, the United States is a country of immigrants, some more recent then others, and each new group that has come to the United States has brought a little of its own culture with it.

Immigrants, in an attempt to recreate some of things they ate in their homeland, created other foods that, after becoming popular in later years, were dubbed American foods (for example chop suey and spaghetti3 with meatballs). All immigrant groups, as well as those who—like slaves—were forcibly brought to the U.S., have added to what we now view as “American food.” The African slaves developed their own cuisine that blended their native culture with other cultures that later, in the late 1960’s, was dubbed “soul food.”4 Soul food has roots in various cultures but was originally developed by African slaves working with whatever food they could get from their masters or could grow or hunt in the wild. Soul food was originally designed to provide slaves with the energy and nutrients to withstand a day of hard labor, so high-calorie ingredients like lard are common in soul food. After the slaves were emancipated in 1865, soul food remained the cuisine of many African American households and became a major part of African American culture, but continued to be shaped and changed up until present day. Soul food was influenced by African, Native American, and Caribbean5 culture and shaped by the African American slaves’ ingenuity in using anything and everything they could get.

When African slaves were brought to the U.S., they brought their culture with them through familiar food. Rice plantations in the southern states (particularly South Carolina) represented a large part of the southern economy and required thousands of slaves for free labor. Rice had been an important part of the African diet, both as a species native to Africa and as an introduced species originating in Asia that was introduced to West Africa by the Europeans.6 Because of this, many African slaves brought to the U.S continued to have rice as a staple in their diet.

1 John Dickie, Delizia!: The Epic History of the Italians and Their Food (Simon and Schuster, 2008), 185 2 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Yale University Press, 2009), 8 3 Anne Bower, Reel Food: Essays on Food and Film (Psychology Press, 2004), 45 4 Fredrick Douglass Opie Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008) introduction 5 Fredrick Douglass Opie Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008) introduction 6 Judith A. Carney, African Rice in the Columbian Exchange (Cambridge University Press 2001), 382

16 FEATURES

Okra, a pod-like vegetable, was another food that had traditionally been a part of the African diet but was also available to African slaves in the U.S. Okra was also fairly common in Native American culture, so the use of okra in soul food was influenced by both African and Native American culture. The African word for okra (gumbo) became associated with what we know today as a thick seafood or meat stew, because slaves often used okra as a thickening agent in these stews. Aside from being used as a thickening agent, okra’s high antioxidant level also benefited slaves by giving them valuable nutrients they couldn’t obtain elsewhere.7 Corn and peanuts were originally native to Latin America and South America, but by the time African slaves had been brought to the U.S., these crops had been well established by European colonists throughout West Africa and had become a major part of African diet. Because of its many uses, ground dried corn or cornmeal would particularly influence the diet of African slaves.

Not only did it have many uses, but it was also a cheaper substitute for wheat flour and could be used in much the same way.

Slaves might have also received buckwheat as a cheaper substitute for wheat flour.

Cornmeal was an important staple of the Northern and Southern Native American diet long before the Europeans colonized the Americas and African slaves were brought to the U.S. Native Americans like the Cherokee and Choctaw used cornmeal to make a variety of foods like cornbread, grits (a cornmeal porridge), and hush puppies (round pieces of fried cornmeal dough), and the African slaves quickly adopted these foods into their own culture.8 Another technique adopted from the Cherokee (although it originated in Latin America) was the process of treating corn with lye, which allowed the corn to retain essential amino acids and vitamins that slaves would not receive otherwise.

The product of this lye treatment was called hominy and could be ground up and used like cornmeal to make grits.9 Sweet potatoes (native to the Americas but similar to yams) which were native to Africa,10 were similar to corn and peanuts because they were well established in Africa by the time African slaves were first shipped to the Americas. Sweet potatoes were already a common food eaten by Native Islanders, so unsurprisingly African slaves in the Caribbean adopted sweet potatoes into their diet as well. Loaded with beta-carotene and vitamin C, sweet potatoes became an important part of the diet of African slaves. Sweet potatoes would later gain more popularity among African Americans in the southern U.S. when George Washington Carver encouraged southern farmers to grow sweet potatoes as a superior alternative to cotton.11 Generally, slaves lacked the time or resources to raise large livestock but would sometimes raise chickens. Chickens were easy to raise and familiar to many African slaves because they were close relatives of the Guinea fowl, which was commonly raised in West

Africa. Slaves who farmed chickens did not only raise them for their protein-rich meat, but also so they could sell their eggs.12 Pigs and cows were generally raised by plantation owners, not slaves, but they too were a part of slave diet. Pigs were very commonly raised on southern plantations and allowed to run wild and forage on their own, so they didn’t require much food.

In some parts of the southern U.S., slaves received some meat rations from their white slave owners; however, the meat rations were mostly parts of pigs seen as unfit for consumption by wealthy white planters. These parts included feet, ears, intestines (also known as chitterlings), jowls, skin, and salt pork (also known as pork belly or fat back).13 The fatty salt pork was especially important, because after being cooked, the fat (lard) could be saved and used in a variety of other dishes for added calories and flavor.

Little bits of cooked pigskin, called cracklings, could be added to things like cornbread for the same reasons.

Slaves who received meat rations might also occasionally receive fresh beef when a cow was slaughtered, but again they would probably only receive the unwanted parts of the cow like the tail, tongue, and tough cuts of beef such as chuck roast, which required hours of cooking to tenderize. Slaves living in the Caribbean or close to the Atlantic, in states like Louisiana and South Carolina, were often given rations of fish in place of meat rations.

This was because of the abundance of fish and other types of seafood (shrimp, shellfish, etc) in those areas.

On the small area of the plantation, slaves often kept their own gardens, growing vegetables like black-eyed peas, turnips, okra, kale, and collard greens. Black-eyed peas (a.k.a. cow peas) were yet another crop African slaves adopted from the Native Americans. Collards and kale were especially important to the slave diet because they were packed with vitamin C and other nutrients.14 Collards or “bush greens” were also familiar to slaves, having been part of their diet in African culture.15 Slaves also grew fruits like cantaloupe (a.k.a. musk melons) and watermelons that had been part of the African diet and were therefore familiar to them. Cantaloupes and watermelons were not only important because they contained vitamins and nutrients, but also because they contained enough liquid to help slaves stay hydrated through a day of hard labor. It was very common for slaves to gather blackberries, strawberries, mulberries, dandelion greens, and a variety of other edible plants that grew wild on their plantation. Pickling food and making fruit preserves allowed African slaves, and later freedmen, to ensure a good supply of food year round. Slaves pickled everything from watermelon to peaches to pig’s feet, and also made fruit preserves out of berries they gathered. White southerners used this technique as well, and things like pickled peaches and pickled watermelon have remained common southern foods long after emancipation. Instead of white sugar, most slaves in the southern U.S. received rations of molasses, which was a by-product of cane sugar refinement. To

7 William J. Middleton, Southern Soul Food: Mom’s Favorite Family Recipes (Hillcrest Publishing Group), 212 8 Fredrick Douglass Opie, Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008), introduction 9 Judith A. Carney, African Rice in the Columbian Exchange (Cambridge University Press 2001), 382 10 Judith A. Carney, African Rice in the Columbian Exchange (Cambridge University Press 2001), 382 11 Barry Mackintosh George Washington Carver: The Making of a Myth (Southern Historical Association 1976), 510

12 Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Diet and Drink of Slaves http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html 13 Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Diet and Drink of Slaves http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html 14 William J. Middleton, Southern Soul Food: Mom’s Favorite Family Recipes (Hillcrest Publishing Group), 209 15 Frederick Douglass Opie, Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Af rica to America (Columbia University Press, 2008), 6 THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 17

make a sweet, syrupy substance similar to molasses, slaves could also use sorghum, a plant with high sugar content originally native to Africa.16 Another substitute for molasses that slaves could sometimes get from the land was honey.17 Many slaves were able to hunt and fish on their plantations, which helped them withstand food depravation, a common tactic of slave owners used to punish disobedient slaves. African slaves that lived near swampy areas could fish for catfish and other fresh water fish and had access to turtles, frogs, and crawfish. Aside from fishing, slaves also hunted a wide range of game including deer, opossums, squirrels, squabs, raccoons, wild turkeys, and rabbits.18 Much of this wild game had to be trapped because slaves did not have guns. This wild game hunting and fishing was also practiced by lower-class whites in the south and continued to be practiced after the emancipation for both poor whites and freedmen.

Under slavery, the little dairy most slaves received was mainly buttermilk, which was the liquid left over after churning butter.19 It would have otherwise been thrown away. Dairy, however, wasn’t of great importance to the slave community, whose nonEuropean heritage made them prone to lactose intolerance.20 For hundreds of years, cattle had been raised in Western Europe and because of this, most people with European roots were adapted to 16 The Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Slave Diet and Drink http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html 17 The Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Slave Diet and Drink http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html 18 Elizabeth M. Scott American Anthropologist: Food and Social Relations at Nina Plantation (Blackwell Publishing 2001), 678 19 The Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Slave Diet and Drink http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html 20 Nicholas Scott Cardell and Mark Myron Hopkins The Effect of Milk Intolerance on the Consumption of Milk by Slaves in 1860 (The MIT Press 1978), 511 18 FEATURES

properly digest dairy products. People whose ancestors were native to other areas of the world had a much higher rate of lactose intolerance.

After emancipation, freedmen generally stayed in the south on the land where they had lived their entire lives, because it was all they really knew. There were some changes in the way freedmen farmed; for example, freedmen were now able to raise certain animals, like cows, that they could not raise before because they didn’t have the resources to do so. Like their homes, their diet and the similar diet of poor southern whites generally stayed the same, with the same crops being grown and harvested.21 One major change that occurred in the way freedmen grew crops in the southern U.S. was the introduction of sweet potatoes and peanuts in the 1920’s and 30’s.

This introduction was mainly thanks to George Washington Carver, an African American scientist and botanist who convinced many black southern farmers to change their crop from cotton to sweet potatoes or peanuts. The reason Carver wanted this change was because when cotton is grown it takes all the nutrients out of the soil, leaving it depleted and making the land hard to cultivate. Sweet potatoes and peanuts, on the other hand, did not leech all of the nutrients from the soil and because of this they made for a more sustainable crop.22 Because of this transition in crops, sweet potatoes became a familiar aspect of soul food.

In 1910, thousands of African Americans migrated from the south to the north in search of better paying jobs and in search of an environment that was less hostile and farther from the racism of the Jim Crow policies.23 This migration was also motivated by 21 Sheila Ferguson, Soul Food: Classic Cuisine From the Deep South (Grove Press, 1993), introduction 22 Barry Mackintosh George Washington Carver: The Making of a Myth (Southern Historical Association 1976), 510 23 Fredrick Douglass Opie, Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008), 56

the havoc the boll weevil was wreaking on many black farmers’ cotton harvest in southern plantations, leading to financial devastation for many farmers. In 1900, 10% of African Americans lived outside the south, but by 1945, 40% lived outside the U.S., and most of this 40% lived in the north. Many African Americans, however, went west (particularly to California) in search of better farming opportunities. African Americans established their own neighborhoods in the urban north, like Harlem, and within those neighborhoods they established restaurants serving the foods they had eaten and enjoyed in the south—in other words: soul food.

Before emancipation, women often cooked for the rest of their family and therefore a slave community’s diet depended heavily on the mothers and wives of the plantation. Slave women were also expected to cook for their master and care for their master’s children. This association with black women and cooking and childcare brought about the stereotypical “mammy.” The “mammy” was used to portray older African slave women as matronly, rotund, sassy, and often the target of ridicule or the butt of jokes. The “mammy” was often shown as an ignorant yet kindly old nanny who looked after white children and who lived to cook and take care of the white family she served.24 The “mammy,” along with other black stereotypes like the “Uncle Tom,” served to romanticize the United States’ history of slavery and to further portray black people as wanting nothing more then to be subservient to white people.

The image and concept of the “mammy” was used in various blackface and minstrel routines pre and post-emancipation.

These routines were especially popular in the 20’s and 30’s, one of the most notable being popular comedian Al Joelson’s blackface routine in the first talking picture The Jazz Singer. Black actresses like Hattie McDaniel in the 1939 movie Gone With the Wind have 24 Jo-Ann Morgan Mammy the Huckster: Selling the Old South for the New Century (The University of Chicago Press 1995), 97

also portrayed “mammies.” Ironically, McDaniel’s performance in Gone With the Wind earned her an Academy Award, the first Academy Award ever received by a black actor or actress. The image of the “mammy” has been used to market everything from Pear’s Soap to Raggedy Ann Dolls, and maybe most famously Aunt Jemima25 pancake mix and syrup.

The term “soul food” itself was not coined until the late 1960’s, when many African Americans re-embraced their African roots.26 During this time, many African Americans wore traditional African dress, stopped conking (treating hair with lye to straighten it), began celebrating Kwanza, and just celebrated African culture in general.27 One way to celebrate their roots was by eating this African, Native American, and Islander cuisine that they dubbed “soul food.” The term “soul food” was partially taken from the term “soul music,”28 which described a traditionally African American music genre we now know as “the blues.” To this day, many African American families in the north and the south express their culture by preserving soul food recipes passed down to them by their ancestors.

Despite the resurgence in African culture, the renewed popularity of soul food brought about problems in the African American community. The Nation of Islam, a strictly African American civil rights organization whose members followed the teaching of the Koran, found fault with traditional soul food and its heavy reliance on pork, which was strictly forbidden to devout Muslims.

The Nation of Islam stressed that all African American Mus25 Dorris Whit Black Hunger: Soul Food and America (U of Minnesota Press, 2004), 27 26 Frederick Douglass Opie, Hog & Hominy: soul food from Africa to America (Columbia University Press, 2008) introduction 27 Howard Sitkoff, The Struggle For Black Equality (Hill and Wang 2008), 202 28 Andrew F. Smith The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink (Oxford University Press US, 2007), 9 THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 19

“Soul food has become a sort of comfort food.”

lims must avoid cigarettes, marijuana, liquor, white women, and pork.29 In the African American Islam community, pigs were seen as dirty animals that Muslims must never eat or even spend time around.

Other problems in the African American community have also been linked to soul food. Today, the prevalence of health problems like hypertension, heart disease, obesity, and diabetes30 in the African American community can be partially blamed on generations and generations of African American families that ate soul food on a regular basis because it was so ingrained in their culture. Soul food is a high fat and high calorie cuisine originally designed to feed slaves who needed all the fat and calories to get through a day of hard labor. For someone who lives a fairly sedentary life and has a job that doesn’t require much physical labor, a steady diet of soul food can have disastrous results on the body.

In the 80’s and 90’s, the authors of soul food cookbooks made an effort to make many soul food dishes healthier and less meatoriented by removing ingredients like lard. Along with this, there has also been an effort made to make soul food dishes for people with dietary restrictions like vegetarians, vegans, and Muslims.

However, soul food is not the main reason for the prevalence of heart disease and other ailments in the African American community. Other more serious factors like poverty and lack of education contribute to these health problems and the poor diet of many African American families.31 In the past, soul food was usually only eaten by African Americans and poor southern whites, but since post-emancipation, soul food has become an important part of southern cuisine. Today, soul food is not just popular in the south but in many areas throughout the U.S., particularly urban areas on the east and west coasts. Not only has soul food gained popularity throughout different areas of the U.S., but it has also gained status in American society. Once considered slave food only fit for those on the lowest rung of the economic ladder, soul food has become a sort of comfort food to many African American and southern families.32 In the northern and eastern states, soul food is looked at as a foreign cuisine much like Chinese food, Greek food, or Mexican food. In the north, especially, some varieties of soul food have been adopted into white households. On holidays, in particular 29 Dorris Whit, Black Hunger: Soul Food and America (U of Minnesota Press, 2004), 103 30 American Heart Association: Heart Disease, Stroke and African Americans http://www.americanheart.org/downloaddable/heart/1157061665970SYH_HDStrk_Reps.pdf 31 American Heart Association: Heart Disease, Stroke and African Americans http://www.americanheart.org/downloaddable/heart/1157061665970SYH_HDStrk_Reps.pdf 32 Sheila Ferguson, Soul Food: Classic Cuisine From the Deep South (Grove Press, 1993) introduction

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JSTOR Christmas and Thanksgiving, it is not uncommon to see soulfood-inspired dishes like candied yams and sweet potato pie among the dishes served. However, not all soul food has been accepted into the northern and western states. Things like okra, chitterlings, pickled pig’s feet, catfish, and grits are not commonly eaten or even familiar to many white families in the northern and western states.

Soul food was created and shaped by the African American slaves’ ingenuity. The food was originally designed to help slaves survive, but throughout time soul food has evolved as a cuisine drawing from various other cultures and has become an important part of African American identity and culture. In the process, it has been molded to become a popular American cuisine enjoyed throughout the country by blacks and white alike. • BOOKS Howard Sitkoff, The Struggle For Black Equality (Hill and Wang 2008) Dorris Whit, Black Hunger: Soul Food and America (U of Minnesota Press, 2004) Sheila Ferguson, Soul Food: Classic Cuisine From the Deep South (Grove Press, 1993)

Nicholas Scott Cardell and Mark Myron Hopkins the Effect of Milk Intolerance on the Consumption of Milk by Slaves in 1860 (The MIT Press 1978) Elizabeth M. Scott American Anthropologist: Food and Social Relations at Nina Plantation (Blackwell Publishing 2001) Barry Mackintosh George Washington Carver: The Making of a Myth (Southern Historical Association 1976) Jo-Ann Morgan Mammy the Huckster: Selling the Old South for the New Century (The University of Chicago Press 1995) Judith A. Carney, African Rice in the Columbian Exchange (Cambridge University Press 2001), 382 W EB S I T ES The Maryland Online Encyclopedia: Slave Diet and Drink http://www.mdoe.org/dietdrinkslaves.html American Heart Association: Heart Disease, Stroke and African Americans http://www.americanheart.org/downloaddable/ heart/1157061665970SYH_HDStrk_Reps.pdf

William J. Middleton, Southern Soul Food: Mom’s Favorite Family Recipes (Hillcrest Publishing Group) Fredrick Douglass Opie, Hog & Hominy: Soul Food From Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008) Sylvia Whitman, What’s Cooking?: The History of American Food (Twenty-First Century Books, 2001) Andrew F. Smith, The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink (Oxford University Press US, 2007 Anne Bower, Reel Food: Essays on Food and Film (Psychology Press, 2004) Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Yale University Press, 2009) John Dickie, Delizia!: The Epic History of the Italians and Their Food (Simon and Schuster, 2008)

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 21

R A G U S H G HI

the sweet f o n o i t a . plor king club a raphic ex b g o w t e o n h p ’s ge A ells Colle W f o s lt u res LO X SCH E L A Y B

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OP

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ORANGE BLOSSOM MADELEINES This recipe is adapted from Nick Malgieri’s book, Cookies Unlimited; Harper Collins, 1995, see page 209.

Preheat oven to 375 degrees. Butter and flour the cavities in a madeleine pan. This recipe makes at least 12 large madeleines, with a little batter left over.

2 large eggs, room temperature 1 pinch salt 1/2 cup granulated sugar, minus 1 tbsp.

1 tbsp. orange blossom honey finely grated zest of 1 large orange 1 tsp. orange flower water 1 cup all-purpose flour, sifted 8 tbsp. (1 stick) unsalted butter, melted Confectioners’ sugar for finishing In a medium sized bowl, using a hand whisk, beat the eggs and salt until they’re bubbly; this should take only about 15 seconds.

In a thin stream, whisk in the sugar. Whisk in the zest and orange flower water. then the honey.

Fold in the flour using a rubber spatula, then add in the melted butter, folding until well combined.

Use a large spoon to fill the cavities of the prepared pan about 2/3 of the way full.

Bake the madeleines until they’ve risen, feel firm to the touch, and are lightly golden. Immediately remove the madelienes from the pan; they’ll fall right out when you turn it over.

Put them on racks to cool. When they’re no longer hot, dust them very lightly with confectioners sugar using a sieve/sifter.

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BLUEBERRY PIE FILLING From gourmet.com 1 1/4 cups packed light brown sugar 5 tablespoons quick-cooking tapioca 6 cups fresh wild blueberries or 3 (10-oz) packages frozen (not thawed) 1 tablespoon fresh lemon juice Whisk together brown sugar and tapioca and toss with blueberries and lemon juice in a large bowl.

PERFECT PIE DOUGH From Ina Garten 12 tablespoons (1 1/2 sticks) very cold unsalted butter 3 cups all-purpose flour 1 teaspoon kosher salt 1 tablespoon sugar 1/3 cup very cold vegetable shortening 6 to 8 tablespoons (about 1/2 cup) ice water Dice the butter and return it to the refrigerator while you prepare the flour mixture. Place the flour, salt, and sugar in the bowl of a food processor fitted with a steel blade and pulse a few times to mix. Add the butter and shortening. Pulse 8 to 12 times, until the butter is the size of peas. With the machine running, pour the ice water down the feed tube and pulse the machine until the dough begins to form a ball. Dump out on a floured board and roll into a ball. Wrap in plastic wrap and refrigerate for 30 minutes.

Cut the dough in half. Roll each piece on a well-floured board into a circle, rolling from the center to the edge, turning and flouring the dough to make sure it doesn't stick to the board.

Fold the dough in half, place in a pie pan, and unfold to fit the pan. Repeat with the top crust.

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CHOCOLATE PIE FILLING From urbansacredgarden.com 1 1/2 cups bittersweet chocolate pieces 2 tbsp butter 2 tbsp corn starch 1/2 cup heavy cream 1/2 cup granulated sugar 1/8 cup all-purpose flour 1/3 cup low-fat milk Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Prepare a large baking sheet by covering with parchment paper (or foil). In a medium saucepan over low heat combine chocolate, butter, corn starch, heavy cream and sugar. Mix continuously as chocolate and sugar melt. Once melted, hot and thoroughly blended remove from heat and let cool.

ALL BUTTER, FLAKY PIE DOUGH From smittenkitchen.com 2 1/2 cups flour 1 tablespoon sugar 1 teaspoon salt 2 sticks (8 ounces, 16 tablespoons or 1 cup) unsalted butter, cold Fill a one cup liquid measuring cup with water, and drop in a few ice cubes; set it aside. In a large bowl, whisk together 2 1/2 cups flour, 1 tablespoon of sugar and a teaspoon of salt. Dice two sticks (8 ounces or 1 cup) of very cold unsalted butter into 1/2inch pieces. Get out your pastry blender.

Sprinkle the butter cubes over the flour and begin working them in with the pastry blender, using it to scoop and redistribute the mixture as needed so all parts are worked evenly. When all of the butter pieces are the size of tiny peas, stop.

Start by drizzling 1/2 cup of the ice-cold water over the butter and flour mixture. Using a rubber or silicon spatula, gather the dough together. You’ll probably need an additional 1/4 cup of cold water to bring it together, but add it a tablespoon as a time. Once you’re pulling large clumps with the spatula, take it out and get your hands in there. Gather the disparate damp clumps together into one mound, kneading them gently together.

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HOMEMADE PEANUT BRITTLE From browneyedbaker.com Nonstick cooking spray 2 cups granulated sugar 1 cup water ½ cup light corn syrup ½ teaspoon coarse salt 2 tablespoons unsalted butter ½ teaspoon baking soda 3 cups salted dry-roasted peanuts (about 1 pound) Line a rimmed baking sheet with parchment paper and lightly coat with cooking spray; set aside.

In a medium saucepan, combine sugar, water, corn syrup and salt.

Bring to a rapid simmer over medium-high and cook until deep golden, about 20 to 25 minutes. Remove pan from heat. Stir in butter, baking soda, and peanuts (mixture will foam). Stir until mixture is no longer bubbling and caramel is smooth, 1 minute.

Transfer to the prepared baking sheet and spread with a lightly greased spatula. Let cool until firm, 15 minutes. Break into pieces.

The brittle can be stored in an airtight container at room temperature for up to 3 weeks.

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BAKED APPLES From Paula Deen 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon 1/4 teaspoon ground nutmeg 1/2 cup sugar 6 same-size spy apples 2 tablespoons butter, cut into 6 teaspoon-size pieces 1 cup apple juice 6 sprigs fresh mint Preheat oven to 325 degrees.

Combine cinnamon, nutmeg, and sugar in a small bowl. Set aside.

Core apples, making sure not to puncture the bottom of the apples so that the juices will remain. Remove skin from 1/2-inch around top of apples at the opening. Fill each cavity with the cinnamon-sugar mixture. Top each apple with a teaspoon of butter.

Place apples in casserole dish and pour apple juice around them.

Cover pan with aluminum foil and bake for approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour. Remove from heat, garnish with fresh mint, and serve.

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BOURBON PEACH PIE FILLING From smittenkitchen.com 2 pounds of peaches 1/4 cup flour 1/4 cup sugar Pinch of salt 1 teaspoon bourbon 1/2 teaspoon vanilla extract Peel and chop the peaches into small bits (approx. 1/2-inch dice), much smaller than you’d use for a regular-sized pie. Mix them with the flour, sugar and pinch of salt, and add the bourbon and vanilla, if you wish.

BEST EVER PIE DOUGH From allrecipes.com 2 cups all-purpose flour 1 teaspoon salt 1 cup shortening 1/2 cup water In a large bowl, combine flour and salt. Cut in shortening until mixture resembles coarse crumbs. Stir in water until mixture forms a ball. Divide dough in half, and shape into balls. Wrap in plastic, and refrigerate for 4 hours or overnight.

Roll out dough on a floured counter. Don't over work it. Use as directed in pie recipe.

SEE MORE

igh's photos re of Sugar H .tumblr.com. • o m t u o k ec Ch igh WellsSugarH and recipes at

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A

fter orientation ended last year, I instantly began complaining about the food in the dining hall to everyone I knew. Caitlyn Copfer, Class of 2013, told me I had nothing to complain about. “You’re so lucky,” she said.

“It’s so much better than last year.” That sentiment is one that seems to echo throughout Wells—Alex Riad, Class of 2012, has told me more recently that I shouldn’t have to complain about the food here “now that Sodexo is gone.” Recent alumna Colleen Dietrich, Class of 2011, was so upset by the state of the food as she found it in the 2008-2009 academic year that she created a Facebook group in protest called “Sodexo Sucks: Get Wells College some REAL Food!” When contacted for 36 FEATURES

comment, Dietrich said that even after Sodexo was abandoned in favor of the Aurora Inn, “It was as if cutting corners was becoming a priority over the students, and that angered me. It’s almost like the Occupy movement needs to come to Aurora for that very reason. At least, that was the case when I was there.”

This state of affairs is nothing compared to what Wells Dining has seen in the deep recesses of its past, however. The only constant has been Wellsians’ determination to protest and to fight for what they deserve. In the early years of the college, around 1887, there was one night that stands out in all of dining hall history.

An alumna from that time recounted: “One Friday, when the socalled ‘whale’ was served, no student went down to the dining

BOUNDARIES, CULTURE, AND FOOD: A BRIEF HISTORY OF FOOD AT WELLS

BY REBEKKAH MCKALSEN PHOTOS BY FRANCES STAITI AND THE COLLEGE ARCHIVES

room, the timorous freshmen and conscientious objectors being herded into their rooms by their seniors and furnished with food surreptitiously slipped in.” According to Jane Marsh Dieckmann in her book, Wells College: A History, not only did the strike work, but their courage was “applauded by fellow sufferers among the faculty, and there soon followed a noticeable improvement in household management.”

Not only was the food worse, but there were also rules about students eating anything else! Students were prohibited from eating out for many years, and from 1887 to 1889, they were “pledged in honor not to have confectionery or eatables of any description whatever, fruit excepted. Any necessary exception to this agree-

ment must be made with the approval of the Lady Principal” (emphasis theirs). Indeed, the dining hall was a veritable fountain of restrictions. In 1887, students were bound to “be regular and prompt in their attendance at meals.”The 1889 student handbook explained that invitations for guests to regular meals in the dining room “must be given only with the sanction of the Dean” and they were completely forbidden during the first week of classes even as recently as 1974.

However, Wells students have always been creative thinkers.

The 17th edition of the Wells Collegiate Association Handbook (published for the 1904-1905 academic year) details provisions for daily exercise, which include “exercis[ing] daily in the open air, THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 37

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THE DINING HALL ON MAIN SECOND, CIRCA 1900 THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 39

THE DINING ROOM WAS ACTUALLY ON MAIN SECOND FOR FORTY-ONE YEARS

not less than forty-five minutes.” There were destinations north and south of Aurora that would satisfy this requirement, the most famous of which is “The Kicking Tree,” which grew in the sidewalk beyond the Aurora House and the bank. Students would walk to the tree, kick it, and then walk back—however, the regulation did not specifically say that the forty-five minutes had to be spent in continuous exercise, so many students would walk across the street from the kicking tree to a small cottage owned by a reported former slave. Mrs. Youngs, called “the Dark” by students, left her door and most importantly her kitchen open to students year-round. She was the woman who provided the students with food when they went on strike over the “whale” circa 1887, and she daily provided students with an absolute plethora of foods ranging from fried oysters to poached eggs on toast to her famous dark chocolate cake.

Speaking of chocolate cake, from the letters of Florence Welles Carpenter (Class of 1887) comes a hilarious anecdote from the days when “eatables of any description whatever” were banned.

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She smuggled in a chocolate cake for her birthday and hid it in the bustle of her dress in order to get it to her room on the sly. On her way through the first floor of Main, though, President Frisbee invited her into his study and insisted that she sit down. While she was horrified, she did not panic—she managed to avoid the invitation and save the cake, getting the unlawful confection to her room safely.

The physical dining room was a much smaller place during the early years at Wells, and, as if it had been shoved into any spare corner, the dining room was actually on Main second for fortyone years. Floor plans from 1890 show the dining room and the kitchen taking up the floor’s south wing. The kitchen was placed at the back of the dining room—roughly where the quads stand today—while students and resident faculty were both housed throughout the rest of Main second. The college looked and ran much more like a home during those days (feel the difference between a “dining room” and a “dining hall” on your tongue), with house faculty taking turns patrolling the hallways with candles

GROUNDBREAKING OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH DINING HALL WINGS OCTOBER 18, 1947 THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 41

CAFETERIA LINE, 1963 42 FEATURES

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GROUNDBREAKING OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH DINING HALL WINGS OCTOBER 18, 1947 THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 47

to make sure students weren’t eating forbidden sweets in their rooms or staying up after hours.

While the rule about food in students’ rooms vanished after 1889 and life “got better” for Wellsians, there was still a culture of rules and etiquette surrounding the dining room. Dress in the dining room/dining hall was never expressly labeled a “dress code;” however, there were “suggested” modes of dress at dinner until the seventies, when the only regulation left was to wear shoes. In 1958, students were told, “Wells has no rules governing individual appearance and behavior. Each student is expected to exercise her own discretion and common sense… however, a list of general decorum suggestions has been thought helpful.”

In 1944-1945, freshmen were advised on their dress as follows: “In winter anything goes, just so keep yourself warm… Most important of all—please note!—you must be neatly attired for dinner each night.” “Neatly attired” is a term left open in the handbook, but it wasn’t so loose in practice.

Throughout the years, the terms of dress in the dining hall have often been placed on the same level as dressing for lectures or classes. In the late fifties, students were told, “A student does not… wear rubbers or snow boots into the dining room… wear gym shorts to classes, meals or off-campus… wear pin curls, clips or curlers to class or in the dining room at any time, even if covered.” There was also a rule against wearing sweatshirts to dinner.

Various activities have been banned in the dining hall as well; in

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1958, both knitting and reading were on a list of activities that were considered against “general decorum” to practice during dinner or lectures.

In 1970, the dining hall had the unusual experience of positive recognition. In an article by Ely Meyerson, Wells College was awarded “Kitchen of the Month” for April under Saga Food Services. The article spent some time enumerating the style of the dining hall at the time, which involved two head waitresses who supervised eighteen student waitresses at breakfast, twenty-five at lunch and thirty-seven at dinner. “The girls wear colored smocks at luncheon and pink and white pinafores at dinner,” Meyerson reported. He wrote many praises of the dining hall, saying that the students received “tender loving care” from Saga Food Services, and enumerated how the kitchen often supplied dorm parties with brownies, ice cream, coffee and other sweets upon request, even for parties as large as forty people. He also mentioned the practice of having treats such as banana splits and pizza available during exam times—something that has morphed over the years into Midnight Breakfast on the night before finals start.

Despite the praise, Collegiate’s 1973 “Read this Book,” a handbook for the freshman class of 1977, describes things as less than perfect—a review that looks more like what we are used to seeing.

“The food is definitely not as good as what you’re probably used to, but most of the time it’s edible. You’ll probably start eating a lot more bread and pasta than you’re used to, so beware.” And so,

award-winning month aside, the dining hall still received fairly mixed reviews even from Collegiate.

A publication from 1975 that was written “by and for Wells women” gives a bit of a perspective on why the dining hall had enough importance attached to it to have so many “decorum suggestions” surrounding it: “Everyone at Wells eats in one hall, which provides an opportunity to see everyone on campus (well, maybe not at breakfast) several times a day. Some say that meals are the major social event sponsored by Wells.” The publication also talks about long-dead perks the dining hall used to offer, including steak dinners cooked in the barbecue pit outside of Main every Saturday, even in the middle of winter!

The atmosphere in the dining hall also helps explain not only why the dining hall has been important in the past, but also reminds me of things we still have to be grateful for and the place the dining hall still holds in student life today. Writing of a time when fires were still lit in the dining hall, one anonymous woman in the 1975 Wells publication “Is College Bad for Girls?” couldn’t help but appreciate the privilege of being able “to come into a medieval hall and sit before a blazing fire after a day of trudging around in a January (or March!) blizzard.” Wells is a truly unique place, and while most of us have a hate relationship with the dining hall, we shouldn’t forget to show a little gratitude for the improvements, the great architecture, and the rich history we have here. •

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 49

Are You Going to Eat That?

Wells Students on Body Image & Eating Disorders

By Rita Feinstein

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IN T ROD UC T ION

I

love Santa Fe. I love the summer monsoons, the benevolent coven of underground astrologers, the independent bookstore where I drink iced vanilla lattes and read literary magazines. There’s a lot to love, but also a lot to fear. Santa Fe is the third largest art market in the world, and of that it is exorbitantly proud. Perhaps it is this pride that seeps into the teenagers and clumps them into highly judgmental, all-exclusive cliques.

This social scene is extremely hostile when it comes to puppy love. I found this out when I entered Santa Fe High as a meek, nameless freshman and became desperately enamored with the bisexual, chain-smoking Goth in my English class. Whatever chance I thought I stood was crushed when I heard that he only liked skinny girls. In the next couple months, I plummeted to a skeletal ninety-two pounds. And he still didn’t even know my name.

I dropped out of high school, spent the winter in my therapist’s office, and became a full-time student at Santa Fe Community College that fall. High school had turned me into a number (48801—I still remember), but SFCC nurtured my body and identity back to health. Though I continued struggling with anorexia, I reached and maintained a normal weight and fell instantly, utterly out of love with the boy who’d triggered my breakdown in the first place.

When looking at colleges, I ventured into New York City. The pressure in the air was stifling, and it wasn’t just the heat and humidity. These weren’t streets; they were catwalks.

And these weren’t pedestrians; these were models. I was suddenly grateful that NYU had rejected me.

Like Santa Fe Community College, Wells has been kind to me. I haven’t stopped battling my body, but I don’t feel threatened by my female peers the way I did in high school.

Though I realize I can’t speak for each woman, I hope to highlight some of the universal factors that contribute to unhealthy body image and eating habits. At the same time, I want to explore if—and how—Wells has changed its students’ relationships to food and to their bodies.

My therapist once reminded me that I wasn’t alone. At first I was indignant. I wanted my every fiber, every synapse, every hair and tooth and toenail and eating disorder to be unique. The statistics, however, beg to differ. Supposing they apply cleanly to Wells College, almost half of the female students have an eating disorder, and almost all of them have attempted to lose weight through dieting (Walden Behavioral Care).

College is a vulnerable time. We’re pried from the safe shells of our hometowns and plunged into a deep saucepan of new rules, responsibilities, and relationships. This transition can be thorny.

We may spend long, caffeinated nights cramming for an encroaching midterm.

We may be incompatible with our slovenly, half-naked roommate. We may become dizzy from juggling too many clubs and classes, or from the throes of social drama we somehow find ourselves enmeshed in. We may get desperately lonely. We’re eager to find friends and lovers, to be cute and funny, talented and kind, to be the best writer or dancer or musician, to be everything we couldn’t be at our previous schools.

These are only a few of the potential factors involved in the formation of an eating disorder. There are often too many social, psychological, and environmental components at play to trace the problem to its source, but it’s important to be aware of the things that can influence one’s relationship to food and to one’s body.

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T HE E AT IN G DI S OR DE R S The most common eating disorders are Anorexia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder, and Bulimia Nervosa. There are no cut-and-dried definitions, as each stems from unique psychological conditions and manifests in different ways. There are, however, certain features that remain constant for each disorder.

A N OR E XI A

“Social eating is exhausting.”

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I told my therapist to please call it NQA, Not Quite Anorexia. I was thirty pounds underweight, I hadn’t menstruated for months, and I was perpetually freezing, but I still clung to the illusion that I was a robust, motivated, organically grown young woman. If anything, I was healthier than I was pre-NQA, back when I actually ate bread. To my starving brain, anorexia meant not eating, not even a bite. Since I was eating what I considered decent portions (of steamed carrots, mostly), and since my therapist amiably went along with NQA, it took me years to realize I’d been diagnosably ill. The standard criteria for anorexia nervosa are: 1) Refusal to maintain at least 85% of what is considered normal for one’s body type, 2) an intense fear of becoming fat, 3) perceiving oneself as fat even though one is underweight and still losing weight, and 4) the loss of three consecutive periods.

Anorexia nervosa has the highest fatality rate of all psychological disorders. It affects mainly Caucasian, upper- or middle-class teenage girls and feeds off of perfectionist tendencies and low self-esteem. Its central feature is self-starvation, a process potentially aided by purgatives, diuretics, and excessive exercise. Over time, the desire to lose weight becomes secondary to the desire to maintain complete self-control (Dryden-Edwards). I know this was true for me. After a certain point, I was no longer concerned with weighing myself. All I knew was that straying from my food doctrine would have catastrophic results. Baking cake was a sign of strength; eating cake was a sign of weakness.

B UL IMI A Bulimia, or bulimia nervosa, manifests in episodes of overeating followed by purgation by means of self-induced vomiting, laxatives and diuretics, fasting, and/or excessive exercise.

It begins with intense feelings of anger, shame, and/or depression related to one’s weight or body type and is channeled into the highly addictive binge-and-purge cycles. As with anorexia, bulimia can be whittled down to issues of control—control that is lost when bingeing and regained when purging. Though bingeing and purging doesn’t usually result in severe weight loss, it is highly abusive to the digestive system. Repeated vomiting can lead to tooth decay and the erosion of enamel, resulting in extreme sensitivity to hot and cold foods. Too much exposure to acidic stomach contents can rupture the esophagus.

Dependence on laxatives can result in colonic failure.

Bulimia affects approximately 6% of all teenage girls and 5% of college-aged women, and is linked with other impulsive behaviors such as drug and alcohol abuse. A person can be diagnosed with bulimia if he or she binges and purges several times a week for at least three months. The prognosis and recovery rate is slightly higher than that of anorexia (Conrad Stöppler).

BIN G E E AT IN G DI S OR DE R Binge Eating Disorder is characterized by episodes of overeating without the subsequent use of purgatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. During these binges, which are often triggered by intense depression or anxiety, an individual may consume thousands of calories over a single long sitting while feeling powerless to stop. Those who are predisposed toward obesity, have been the victim of physical or sexual abuse, and/or have a history of depression, anxiety, and/or substance abuse are at risk for developing binge eating disorder. Individuals struggling with this disorder tend to have unhealthy eating habits such as eating until uncomfortably full, eating when not hungry, eating quickly, and eating alone out of shame.

As the most common eating disorder, it affects approximately 3.5% of all women and 2% of all men in the course of a lifetime. It is also clingier than either anorexia or bulimia, tending to persist for at least fourteen years (Dryden-Edwards).

S O C I A L FAC T OR S: RUL E S OF R E L AT ION S HIP S I eat alone. There are a couple reasons for this. The first is that I’m a food combiner and I don’t want to be ostracized for mixing salmon salad with black beans, salsa, and sautéed onions. The second is that social eating is exhausting. To achieve the fairy tale of laughing and bonding over a good meal, I have to shut off the calculative part of my brain. But if I do that, I might accidentally order dessert. I might dangle my fork over my friend’s half-eaten pancake and say, “Are you going to eat that?” I might break one or more of the many dietary rules I impose on myself and religiously follow. In other words, social eating is a complete loss of control.

One Wells student (let’s call her Maude), now living off campus, opened up about how Wells altered her relationship to food. “I end up feeling better about myself when I’m with people I perceive as being unhealthy, and then I start taking on the habits they have,” she says, describing part of the complicated dynamic between her, her friends, and food.

“It’s the opposite when I’m with people who—in my mind—are healthier than I am, so I end up eating less. I’m very influenced by the people around me. I end up going back to my normal tendencies when I’m alone.”

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Why is eating so complicated? Isn’t it enough to listen to our bodies, to eat when we’re hungry and stop when we’re full? Not if we’re constantly comparing ourselves to our friends. Not if we’re wondering how they—or even complete strangers—perceive us. As one student (Daphne, for all intents and purposes) says, “There are a lot of people on campus I feel are judging me, and a lot of people I judge too.” This awareness can be stifling, but a hyperawareness is potentially destructive. It’s natural to be concerned with the impression we make. If, however, this acute self-consciousness is channeled into eating habits, there could be serious repercussions for one’s mental and physical health.

Athletes, while not necessarily at a higher risk of developing an eating disorder than non-athletes (Smiley and Lim), confront intense pressure to achieve the “perfect body.”

Dance, cheerleading, gymnastics, and other athletics that accentuate aesthetics can be especially demanding. Girls who participate in these activities are frequently shamed and hounded into shedding enough pounds to leap that extra centimeter and to fit into a glitzy, predesigned costume.

Francesca (we’ll call her), a former competitive dancer and current Wells student, says that “It’s not even an option [for a dancer] to be bigger. Any type of body fat gets in your way, and in the way of people’s perceptions of you.” Though she’s abandoned the rigor of competition and now dances only for fun, Francesca is still deeply affected by what she witnessed and experienced in such a cutthroat environment. Most of the girls in her studio struggled with eating disorders, she says, but it was very hush-hush, something you knew but didn’t discuss. She gives the example of a pizza party, where “there are girls who are gorging it down [bulimics] and there are girls who are picking at it [anorexics], and there are girls who have one piece and then start dancing around the room [exercise fanatics].” Her instructors made huge contributions to the girls’ unhealthy relationships with food. “My teacher literally used to hold the fat on my stomach,” says Francesca. “And she’d be like, ‘What is this? You need to get rid of that.’” Francesca’s experiences are— unfortunately—quite common. In a society where body image bleeds into competition, all girls, not just athletes, are at risk of channeling their dissatisfaction with their bodies into eating disorders.

E N VIRONME N TA L FAC T OR S: W E L L S DININ G At home, we don’t eat three buffet-style meals a day. Buffets are cordial invitations to eat more than you can eat, to fill and refill your plate with more barbecue wings, more cheesy tots, more baked ziti, more everything (not to mention the glowing dessert racks and bottomless soda fountains.) What’s more, unspoken buffet etiquette dictates at least a second helping. With all these pans of simmering sauces and sizzling meats, it would be silly to stop at one. Not everyone feels this way about Wells Dining, but I—and a good number of my friends—have expressed a complete loss of control when confronted with so much food.

For Maude, eating in the Dining Hall made her anxious and frustrated. She’s much happier living off campus, where she has regained her sense of control over her eating habits. Daphne, another off-campus student, looks back at the quality of Dining Hall food with revulsion. “The food was terrible,” she says. “And it made me feel terrible about myself. After every meal I was like, ‘Why did I eat that? Why am I doing this to myself ?’”

Daphne also points out that Wells Dining doesn’t emphasize vegetables, and—let’s face it—most of the vegetables it offers are submerged in oil. As Francesca says, “It’s so much easier to go with the fries and the burgers and the pizza. It’s very easy to bypass the salad bar because it’s right in the middle of everything and then people wonder, 54 FEATURES

‘Why is she eating a salad?’” Subconsciously or not, we judge people based on the food on their plate. Take fries, for example. On Love Your Body Day (October 19th), students discussed how, depending on your weight, you could either hear, “Should you really be eating those?” or “Wow, you need to eat some fries.” Where does it come from, this desire to control what and how much our friends eat? It may be that by regulating our environment, we regulate ourselves. I know I’m guilty of encouraging my friends to get that second slice of pizza, that second square of fudge. It makes my raw bell pepper and cucumber even more enjoyable.

S E LF-R E S PE C T: T HE B E S T PR E V E N TAT I V E ME DIC INE Ironically, the nutrition unit in my ninth grade health class was a major catalyst in the development of my anorexia. I was required to tell my teacher my weight and height; he then calculated my BMI and informed me that although I was at the high end of normal, I had plenty of time to slim down. We were also shown an educational film meant to express the dangers of anorexia and bulimia, but instead of unsettling me, it provided me with a strong dose of “thinspiration,” if you will. I enthusiastically mimicked the characters in the movie, wanting to pit my willpower against theirs and rise victorious.

The National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA) warns against preventative measures that concentrate on the signs and symptoms of eating disorders, as these can often, as in my case, have adverse effects. The best educational materials are those that identify the media as a culprit in negative body image and encourage a type of self-confidence that transcends physical appearance.

Wanting to understand the initiative Wells takes to combat negative body image, I asked Daphne about her involvement in the Women’s Resource Center. Like SAGA and Sex Collective, the WRC strives to raise awareness about gender and sexuality, focusing specifically on women’s issues, feminist teachings, and body image. The WRC’s impressive little library is a well—both deep and broad—of informative, entertaining, and racy literature that can’t be found in the Long Library. Unfortunately, not many students take advantage of this great resource. Ideally, says Daphne, people would check out books and pamphlets, or even just use the WRC as a safe space and a study space.

If you’ve lived in Main, you may have meandered into the WRC while waiting for your laundry and been confronted by a wall-full of painted breast prints. Where do these proud, vivid splotches come from? The answer is Love Your Body Day, an unassuming but impactful holiday that fell this year on October 19th. Hosted by the WRC, this event involved snacks and cider, breast painting, and a discussion about media and body image.

A large number of both male and female students attended, and many of them openly shared their personal triumphs and frustrations. Daphne wishes the WRC were able to host more events like this, as they offer students a safe environment in which to speak honestly, form connections, and establish and fortify healthy self-image.

I cannot speak for everyone, but I have found Wells’ atmosphere to be warm and embracing. Like me, Francesca says, “Here I have never felt pressured to be thinner.” Though I worry incessantly about my weight, I identify this as the voice of my inner critic, not an external, stifling pressure to conform. I have found that Wells supports positive body image through organizations like the WRC and the openness of its students, and I would encourage anyone struggling with their body image to find shelter under the wing of the Wells community. •

WOR K S C I T E D Conrad Stöppler, Melissa. “Bulimia.”

URL: http://www.medicinenet.com/bulimia/article.htm Dryden-Edwards, Roxanne. “Anorexia.”

URL: http://www.medicinenet.com/anorexia_nervosa/article.htm Dryden-Edwards, Roxanne. “Binge Eating Disorder.” URL: http://www.medicinenet.com/binge_eating_disorder/article.htm National Eating Disorders Association.

“Eating Disorders Can Be Prevented!”

URL: http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/nedaDir/files/documents/handouts/EDsPrev.pdf Smiley, Nikkie, and John Lim. “Eating Disorders Among Female College Athletes.” URL: http://www.thesportjournal. org/article/eating-disorders-among-female-college-athletes Walden Behavioral Care. “Eating Disorders Among College Students.” URL: http://www.waldenbehavioralcare.com/ eating_disorders_among_college_students.asp

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EATING IN An examination of Wel

ls's on-campus food cu

BY JULIE HUANG

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lture

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�auliflower �eart �ttacks, �aundry �am, �rotein �read, � �aw ��s �y �hoebe �hestna

“¡Nada más! ¡No puedo comer más! ¡Estoy llena!”

I knew the rules, and that I was on the verge of breaking them.

I knew that if my roommate, Lorraine, hadn’t left already, she’d know I was breaking our own rules that counteracted those Carmen had put into place from the very beginning. I couldn’t resist, though; my stomach could not handle any more food. I was beyond that feeling you get after a Thanksgiving dinner. I thought I had reached it countless times before today, but it was nothing like this.

It was my last night in Spain, yet tonight it felt like I had eaten more than I had had in my whole trip. This time I had to fight; my stomach couldn’t handle any more. I looked up into Maria’s eyes. Maria, who was still part of my Spanish family, even though she lived across the hall from me, had called herself my second Spanish mother, and looked at me as if I was her own child. Her eyes were filled with so much love, but now that love felt like 68 SHORT STORY CONTEST

an evil cold stare. Her sweet demeanor seemed ominous as she stared back, intimidating. “¡Sí, Phoebe! ¡Puede!”

Before I had even set foot on Spanish soil, I knew Carmen, my host mother, was an amazing cook and that during my time in Spain, I would be indulging in some of the best meals I would ever eat. Because I happened to be friends with one of the girls from Wells who had stayed with Carmen two years ago, I felt I had known Carmen before I first saw her that day in the train station. Before my first dinner, Carmen made sure to tell me the rules. Number one: you don’t waste food; there are starving children in Africa. Number two: if you don’t like something, Carmen would make you a whole new meal; you might get sick if you eat something you don’t like. Number three: Carmen cooks, no exceptions. Number four: you eat; being skinny means you aren’t eating enough.

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Lorraine had started her study abroad a month before I arrived. With her one month of experience, we managed to find ways to break these rules and make some of our own. Despite her many quirks, we loved our host mom. We also loved many of Carmen’s dishes—food we couldn’t even begin to replicate. Lorraine and I just never had the heart to tell her when we didn’t like a dish when we had watched her slave over our ten-course meal.

That was one of our biggest rules: you just eat it. No arguing if they want you to eat more. Even if you hate something and it makes you sick, you eat it.

A friend of mine returned from Portugal and told us never to eat Bacalao, a type of fish, because he had seen them feeding off a sewer plant and believed that the old saying “you are what you eat” was true. Someone must have wanted to punish us; we were eating together as a family one day when Carmen decided she

would make fried Bacalao. We ate the bland, earthy browned fish slowly in hopes that Carmen wouldn’t anxiously spear another steak and shake it on our plates. We pretended fried shit was delicious through clenched teeth as Carmen smiled with enthusiasm.

“Tan rico, no?” It was times like these where we didn’t want to eat what she had prepared for us, but suffered through it. There were foods like Bacalao, dishes we forced ourselves to eat out of love for our host mom, but then there were her favorite foods, or at least her favorite things to cook with: eggs, cauliflower, and olive oil.

Carmen loved eggs. She made egg soup, eggs on cauliflower, eggs in tortillas, fried eggs. There were eggs on everything. Carmen could cook foods that I don’t like at home, but surprisingly, something about being in Spain altered my taste buds. There were a few dishes that, if she had told me they were straight from THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 69

h

h

70 SHORT STORY CONTEST

heaven, I would not have been surprised. I don’t like any type of egg, to be honest—fried, poached, or scrambled. Tortillas are more or less the same thing as an omelet, only cooked with the finest olive oil, salt, and potatoes, yet the crazy thing was that I loved them. Carmen made a soup with fried eggs floating on top, barely cooked. She loved making sauces and other dishes with raw egg in them. One such dish was cauliflower with a mix of eggs, olive oil, and vinegar as a salsa over them. Lorraine and I were almost certain we would have salmonella by the time we got home. It’s still funny to me that Carmen came to me upset after a doctor’s appointment because she had no idea how she could possibly have high cholesterol.

Carmen loved cauliflower, too. Lorraine and I joked that we were going to die of a cauliflower heart attack. Our family had many dinners where we had different dishes, all of them cauliflower. Our soup? Cauliflower. The entrées? Cauliflower.

Then there was the olive oil, impossible to forget. Olive trees littered the countryside. It almost seemed ridiculous, too. You hear that Spaniards like their olive oil, but they don’t just like it—they would kill for it! There was a bottle beside the stove the length of my arm. Olive oil is an accent, except they use it in great abundance in every dish.

We survived salmonella, high cholesterol, and cauliflower heart attacks, but it was a close call. We may have survived these health risks, but we still had a fair share of problems.

Lorraine and I never wanted to see Carmen have to cook more food. Instead of admitting we didn’t like something, Lorraine started setting out two napkins for each of us: one for Carmen to see and one to hide in our lap. It was sneaky, but it was our system. When we didn’t like something, we put it in our napkin when Carmen wasn’t looking. Once, Ramón, Carmen’s ten-yearold grandson, caught Lorraine doing this. Gracias a la Macarena, we were eating fish! Lorraine brushed it off by saying she had a bone. Ramón looked away, looking less suspicious, but we also spoiled him, which probably allowed us some forgiveness. We were his tías for the time we were there, and we let him do things he wasn’t supposed to do: not only did we let him make forts out of umbrellas in our room, but we also stole chocolate from the closet. I walked into the kitchen on Carmen making bizcocho,

"�at was another thing: you don’t argue with the mothers when it comes to food. You finish i�."

one of her delicious cakes, once. She had dropped chocolate on her foot a minute before and caught my attention, pointing at her foot and saying, “My foot is eating chocolate!” Her foot wasn’t the only one eating her chocolate! Our bellies were full and happy.

Lorraine and I always cleared and set the table, which was our job, since we weren’t allowed to cook. It was easy to throw out our napkins with discarded food when Carmen was still sitting at the table watching her soap operas. There were a few times that Carmen prepared a dish for us and yet somehow, some way, we managed to be allowed to not finish it. It was after many nights of Carmen serving one particular awful dish, eggplant guts, something we were always too full to finish, even if our stomachs were still growling at us, that we finally decided it was time for these eggplants to take refuge in the trash instead of the fridge.

Then there was the part about Carmen’s food being a piece of heaven—the other way she cooked eggplants. Half of the food Carmen cooked I could describe to my friends and family at home and they would think it was disgusting. I, too, had once agreed, but some disgusting descriptions are deceiving to the actual taste. Lorraine and I had a mutual agreement that eggplant cooked with flour and oil and then drizzled in honey was the best food Carmen cooked in three months’ worth of meals. I honestly wouldn’t be surprised if berenjenas con miel was a part of heaven, but then again, Lorraine did think they tasted like waffles, and those are delicious.

Then there was the food Carmen made that we never would eat again. At the beginning of my time in Spain, there was a leg of a pig in the laundry room, which a friend and I came to call the laundry ham. Our families were still eating the same laundry ham when we left in December. There were bugs in the bread we ate. My personal belief was that Carmen counted the slices of this bread, since she seemed to know when Lorraine or I didn’t eat breakfast when she wasn’t home. Lorraine and I began calling the bread “protein bread,” and when we didn’t get any protein in our meals from Carmen, we’d say it was ok because we’d already had our protein at breakfast. Carmen left the milk out for my coffee. I used to love coffee, but after finding thick plastic-y skins in it, the mere thought of it is revolting now; I can still taste the skins. Frances (a girl who lived with Maria) and I borrowed sugar

to make cookies for a required class project and found bugs in the sugar. I came home one day to find Carmen and the cleaning lady cleaning the kitchen. Carmen explained to me that day, with complete childish excitement, that they were cleaning it out for Christmas. The cleaning lady was there once a week and I had seen her turn the house upside-down in her efforts at cleaning, but after my food was completely and utterly jeopardized with bugs, I wondered exactly what she did during this time. If cleaning out the kitchen was such a big event for Christmas, how many times was it really cleaned during the rest of the year?

With all of this in mind, I knew I couldn’t argue with Maria.

That was another thing: you don’t argue with the mothers when it comes to food. You finish it. Sometimes, with Carmen, we were able to tell her when we were full, and if she was full, it was ok; we would skip dessert. At family dinners, though, when my “other mother” cooked, we mostly had paella. You don’t turn down paella—it’s a treat. It was one of those dishes from heaven, like the eggplant with honey. How you can take something as simple and boring as rice and make it so delicious is beyond me, but whenever Carmen or Maria made paella for us, they made it in abundance. Usually if you said you couldn’t eat any more, they put it on your plate and you just stopped arguing. Sometimes, though, with the almost insane overabundance of food, eating and trying new food made me miserable because of how much they forced us to eat when we were full.

I knew there was no point in arguing because Maria would give me a heaping spoonful anyway, and I would have to finish it.

But this time, there was no possible way I could eat more, and I had to argue.

“No puedo. Estoy harto. Estoy llena. No puedo. Por favor. Me encanta paella. Pero, ¡no puedo comer más!”

Of course, Maria didn’t care. Because she loved me, she wanted me to eat her good food. “¡Sí, Phoebe! ¡Mi niña! ¡Sí! ¡Puede!”

Defeated, I looked down at the heaping spoonful of paella she was scraping onto my plate. Slowly and painfully, my stomach screaming bloody murder at me, I forced a smile at Maria and lifted my spoon filled with the delicious paella to my mouth, and this delicious dish suddenly looked and tasted like all the bad foods I had eaten for three months. • THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 71

U P “ U P

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R U O ” Y N T U E DOW S R U

ING K N I R D OK O E C V I LE AT L M E I R RFO & GABR E P Z ND E A D N Y E IT M N I A L ES CU R S E A H M

BY T

T

he November 2011 issue of Men’s Health features an article titled “The Thinking Man’s Guide to Drinking.” It includes liquor brand recommendations, recipes, an interview with Mad Men star Christina Hendricks, and a list of 12 rules for “real men” to follow when they are consuming alcohol. The author, Hugh O’Neil, suggests that men “think of drinking as oil. A drop or two keeps the gears from grinding, but too much and you lose traction,” to send the message to men that being drunk is not “manly”; rather, the exhibition of loss of control signifies a lack of “manliness.” The number seven rule dictates, “Never measure masculinity in a shot glass.” The author

states that “we confuse drinking with boldness, forthrightness, authentic maleness.” The implication here is that men shouldn’t link the amount of drink with masculinity. However, the assertion that masculinity is tied to drinking and control that is echoed in every other rule in the article, directly contradicts rule number seven. For O’Neil, men who have some, but not too much represent the measure of a “real man.” This article highlights the importance of appearance. The rules suggest that there are particular performances linked to drinking that communicate “true” manliness.

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 73

Public drinking is important in the creation of “manhood” because the intake of alcohol allows individuals to “prove” their manhood in the sight of others. Furthermore, the bar room has traditionally been a gendered “male only” space, and so has provided men with the opportunity to prove themselves to other men. Examining public drinking as a performance allows individuals to perform masculinity; we can discern how drinking plays an important role in the ritual of “becoming a man.” It is through the affirmation of other men that men “become” men, and as the bar room has been a gendered location, it has been a main site for this affirmation to occur. While it has become more acceptable for women to occupy these drinking spaces, men remain prominent in these locations where affirmation of masculinity takes place.

PERFORMATIVE DRINKING & THE SALOON Some scholars (Wells et al. 2007; Mullen et al. 2007) have studied masculinity and alcohol consumption as a public health issue, looking at patterns between males who drink in groups and the propensity toward aggressive behaviors. Mullen et al. (2007) found that men are most likely to drink with other men and are less likely than women to have a specified reason to get drunk.

They go on to argue that an understanding of masculinity and its effects on aggression and men’s perceptions would allow for prevention of aggressive behavior resulting from social alcohol consumption. Wells et al. (2007) also link masculinity to drinking in social contexts, and discuss how bars set the stage for masculine performances. They suggest that men who are aggressive in a bar setting may be seeking approval from their male peers, or wish to give the audience a “good show,” while others may believe that their “social honor” is at stake and must engage in barroom brawls to protect their image of masculinity. It is asserted that alcohol and violence in this context is, in part, a cultural construction (Wells et al. 2007).

While the authors above illuminate some of the trends in alcohol consumption among males, they do not specifically examine masculinity as a social construct. Therefore, they are not able to look at the abilities of both sexes to perform masculinity, or the discourse of masculinity in specific contexts. However, the literature suggests that the bar room, or saloon, has historically been defined as a male space.

Parsons (2000) suggests that the late-nineteenth century saloon was known for its climate of competition and companionship, and thus played a role shaping masculinities. The saloon was the premier place for the “enactment” of manhood and a place where men could act like “men.” Parsons notes that “maleness” was most “emphatically confirmed in the company not of women, but of other men,” an observation that seems to echo the findings of Mullen et al. (2007), stating that in the early twenty-first century men tend to drink with other men.

In the findings and discussion that follows, we examine contemporary “saloons” to observe how masculinities are performed in this space through the social consumption of alcohol, referred to as performative drinking. The term “social drinking,” as defined by the Vaden Health Center, refers to the consumption of alcohol in social situations within legal limitations in a safe and responsible manner. It also implies drinking without reaching the point of being drunk. Based on our findings, “social drinking” and achieving masculinity in this context are contradictory concepts.

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We use the term performative drinking to describe how public consumption of alcohol is a gendered activity that is used to communicate membership to a particular sex category.

INTERVIEW FINDINGS The demographics of the interviews that we conducted were varied according to age, but were fairly static in regards to race and class. Ages ranged from 25 to 48, five participants identified as Caucasian and one identified as Hispanic, and all were roughly middle class. Demographics for the participant observation were extremely varied, from white, working-class, over-40’s men in the neighborhood bar to seemingly privileged, mixed race, 20-something men and women in the college bar. Age, gender, race, and class all played a role in this research and are mentioned throughout where appropriate.

Most of the men interviewed said that when they go out, they normally order a beer or a “rocks” drink, although one participant said that he usually orders mixed drinks. However, there were situations that changed what the participants said that they would order. For instance, Ian said that while he normally orders a dark imported beer, if he is at a sports bar with a bunch of friends, he will order a more light domestic beer and most likely share from a pitcher with everyone. Other participants mirrored this, saying that if they were at a more formal restaurant, they may order wine, but that at a sports bar “portability is an issue” and so they would order a beer. In fact, observation in the sports bar showed all of the men present drinking beer. There was also some discussion in the interviews that men might order different drinks depending not just on the setting, but on the clientele of the venue. For instance, Cliff made the statement, “If I was in a more blue-collar place I wouldn’t order wine, because I might get laughed at—or not laughed at, but it might be seen as not a fitting drink.” Furthermore, when asked about what men in general prefer to drink, the participants largely said beer or liquor such as whiskey, bourbon, rum, or scotch. Ian said that he thinks that men’s tastes have been “pigeon-holed by social indoctrination.”

Two of the men thought that the glass that the drink was served in may play a role in what men order; Mike said that he doesn’t see many men ordering drinks that come in small or “delicate” glasses, such as shot glasses, champagne flutes, or martini glasses.

This was confirmed in observations at the “neighborhood” bar and the “college” bar, where the men were nearly all drinking beer out of bottles or glasses, or drinking liquor out of a rocks glass.

Yet Dan said that there was a social stigma attached to what men drink, and that “drinking is a badge of courage/manhood,” and to some extent this was visible in the college bar, as men were drinking more heavily than women and could be seen to almost be putting on a show. The interviewed participants seemed to be aware that there was a social aspect to the drinks that they chose, that even though they enjoyed beer and liquor, they were aware that those choices may have been socially determined to some extent.

When asked about the drinks that they thought women, in general, preferred, many of the men said that women usually ordered more sugary or fruity drinks. Ian thought that women did not generally enjoy the taste of alcohol, but rather enjoyed the intoxicating effects and ordered sugary drinks to mask the taste.

This was repeated by other participants, that women were rarely seen drinking liquor by itself unless they were drinking shots with

“DRINKING IS A BADGE OF COURAGE/ MANHOOD” THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 75

a group of friends, but were much more likely to drink it mixed with juice or soda, and this was mirrored at the college bar. This is significant because it implies that the interview participants believe that there is a fundamental difference in tastes between women and men, because while they recognized that their own choices may be socially determined in certain situations, they did not mention this as the case for women. Rather, it was generally agreed that women’s “dislike” for the taste of alcohol was due not to social construction, but to their personal tastes. Although some of the men recognize that their decision to drink certain drinks over others may be socially constructed, they themselves have fallen into this construction.

Drinks that were perceived as more masculine or feminine continued to fall into the categories of more fruity or sugary for women and more bitter for men, with one man claiming that “color is important.” When asked why men prefer drinks that are bitter tasting, Ian said that “men are not allowed to enjoy their alcohol.” This falls in line with the research done by Mullen et al., in that the participants in their study claimed that “girls get drunk for a reason. Guys just get drunk” (2007: 160). In this case, Ian stated that men drink even though it may not be enjoyable, that it is almost a mindless activity that men do when in a social setting, as opposed to women who are drinking for the express purpose of becoming intoxicated. However, if it is a non-enjoyable activity, then why do men do it? Again, there seems to be a link between performative masculinity and drinking; indeed, Dan said that men order inexpensive light beer as a way to show that a person can drink more, “quantity over quality.” It is noted that this performance is perceived to change as a person gets older; the need to prove oneself lessens somewhat and there is more freedom to drink what the individual likes and not be pressured to push the limits.

As we have already noted, drinking is a performance that is tied to masculinity and the question of what happens when men order drinks that are perceived to be more feminine addresses the issue of that performance. When men order more “feminine” drinks, it is usually seen as a joke or it is assumed that they must be ordering it for their girlfriend. A few of the men claimed that in social settings, it would be more acceptable for a woman to order outside of her gendered category than it would be for a man, that it might be seen as sexy. Ian stated that when he sees men or women ordering drinks that are outside of the gendered prescription of acceptability, he sees them as more mature and an interesting person to engage in conversation. Similarly, Dan said that when he orders a “feminine” drink, he does so to challenge society. Other participants were also unlikely to make a big deal if someone they were with ordered something outside of the gendered norms; however, the participants also noted that this rarely happens. On the night of the participant observation, the “gay” bar was mainly occupied by women and the drinks that were ordered appeared to fall somewhat in line with gendered 76

DISCUSSION categories, beers for the women who appeared more “masculine” and mixed drinks for the women who appeared more “feminine.”

In this case, however, there was more ordering of drinks in the opposite category than at any of the other places, even though it was still, for the most part, in line with gendered drinking habits.

Even though the participants felt that it was rare to see people ordering drinks outside of their gendered categories, most of the participants said that they had done so at least a couple of times.

For the most part, there was a particular setting that enabled this to occur. For example, Mike said that there was particular restaurant that he liked to go to that made a drink that he enjoyed and would order when he was there, even though he considered it to be more of a “girly” drink. Dan also told of a circumstance when he ordered a cosmopolitan and one of the men that he was with made a comment that was meant to question his manhood, leaving the participant in a position to defend himself. Ability to defend against emasculation seems to be important if one is ordering outside of the masculine drinking standard; however, according to the men in the interviews, it appears that being in a more upscale or formal environment afforded them greater freedom to order outside of their normative drinking habit. Observations in the upscale restaurant did not afford much agreement, however, as most of the men present were still drinking beer.

When asked how much individuals drink when they go out, the answers varied much more than with any other question. Ian said that he does not like to be drunk in public and orders beer because the volume allows him to pace himself much more. Conversely, Mike said that he rarely goes out unless there is a particular reason, usually to celebrate something, and so when he goes out he tends to drink a lot no matter what the setting may be.

Furthermore, from our interviews, men appear to be pressured by the people that they are with to drink. Some of the participants said that they were often the initiators of drinking and tried to persuade others to drink with them, while other participants said that their friends were the ones to persuade them to drink more.

It is here that we see language as a very important site of masculinity. Participants said that, commonly, men would tell other men to “sac up,” “put your purse down,” or “don’t be a pussy,” in order to guilt them into drinking more. This is significant because it links the act of not drinking to unmasculine behavior and the act of drinking as a distinctly masculine trait. It furthermore serves as a way to emasculate men, by tying them to femininity.

While we (the researchers) saw no persuasion of others at the neighborhood bar or the gay bar, we saw quite a bit at the college bar. This could certainly be because of the difference in gender or age demographics. While the college bar was mainly full of 20-somethings, the neighborhood bar had only a few customers in it and all of them appeared to be over 40. This subject is broached by one of the interview participants, saying, “I gave up measuring masculinity by how much one drinks a long time ago.”

Each of the interview participants acknowledged that bars are spaces that enable performative drinking. The respondents indicated gendered differences in the ways in which men and women select, consume, and discuss alcoholic beverages in bars and restaurants. Since the respondents, as well as the patrons of the establishments we visited vary in age, it is necessary to discuss the importance of age as it shapes performative drinking. Since each of the respondents are categorized as middle-class, which is a subjective category at best, it is also necessary to discuss the perceived social class of particular establishments in order to explain how the setting influences performative drinking. Finally, the discourse surrounding gender and performative drinking provides insight into how the men from our sample make sense of the pressures to conform to masculine standards of drinking.

AGE The “doing” of masculinity through performative drinking, as indicated by our interview participants, is shaped, in part, by age.

The amount of alcohol consumed seems to be a marker of masculinity; the more an individual drinks, the more he is expressing his “maleness.” Dan, for example, described drinking as “a badge of courage or manhood,” and that it’s all about “how much are you drinking” as well as “what are you drinking” that serve to measure masculinity.

While there was no clear pattern between the age of the participants and the amount of alcohol they preferred or tended to drink, there is some indication that their perceptions of age have an impact on the performance of masculinity. Dan, age 31, stated that those who are in their “40’s and up, they don’t care anymore,” meaning that after age 40, men and women are not as concerned with proving their gender through drinking. “Cliff,” age 48 stated, “I’m masculine enough […] I gave up measuring masculinity by how much one drinks a long time ago. It’s just more messiness and damage to my liver.” Cliff also remarked that younger men, men in the “college” crowd, were a part of the “let’s get fucked up crowd,” indicating that younger men appear to drink more heavily than older men.

Age appears to have an effect on the amount of alcohol men consume in order to prove their masculinity. It seems that the performative drinking younger men engage in requires a larger amount of alcohol consumption for the purposes of proving their membership to the male sex category. The performances of older men seem to require less overt consumption; their age allows them more flexibility in the amount of alcohol they can drink.

In addition to the amount of alcohol consumed, the type of drink also correlates to age. When asked about drinks that appear the most masculine, Cliff stated: Yeah, I think beer is definitely the ultimate, but also guys who are a little more sophisticated/macho will drink Jameson, THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 77

name brand whiskey; it has associations with "maleness"—or the more palatable jack and coke—has associations with the macho but is easier to drink.

Eric, age 23, builds on this idea. When asked the same question he stated: “Beer, usually. But I see a lot of vodka or gin and tonics.

Young guys will drink captain and cokes or vodka Red Bulls, older guys drink manhattans, Dewars and water, or straight liquor.”

In both examples, each of the participants associates liquor with not only “maleness,” but with sophistication, indicating that older men may have more choice in the types of drinks they are able to choose to enact their masculinity. Liquor drinks are often more expensive than are bottled or draught beers; thus, the ability to choose different types of drinks may be influenced by social class.

CLASS Masculine performances appear to depend on the setting in which they take place. A few of the respondents indicated that the setting may, to some degree, influence the type of drink they ordered. The setting seems to be important for two reasons: first, it indicates the types of drinks that may be featured, and second, it identifies the social class of the other patrons. Both reasons shape performative drinking.

A few of the participants mentioned the importance of setting in terms of the type of drinks they preferred to order. Eric mentioned that he would order wine if he were sitting down to eat at a restaurant, but not at a bar. When asked about the importance of setting, Cliff stated: Yes. Well, setting is associated with, the, um, menu and offerings, so, I’m not going to order wine at a restaurant that doesn’t offer good wine. Setting is often indicative of the wine offerings. To be honest, certain bar settings might influence the choice I make based on judgment. If I was in a place that was more blue-collar I wouldn’t order wine—I might get laughed at—or, not laughed at but it might be seen as not a fitting drink. I don’t think about these things, but if I’m at a biker bar I’m not going to order a cabernet sauvignon. The setting is pretty low on the motivation scale. Most of the time I’m motivated by what I want, how hot it is, time of year, what I’m going to eat.

Mike offered a similar response: Well, like I said, if it’s a nice place with a better selection then I will order something nice, like a bourbon or scotch. I don’t really go to sports bars, but at a regular bar I will order a dark beer. If I’m with a bunch of friends and they want to get a pitcher, then I’ll just drink whatever the group wants.

Both participants suggest that the type of bar will connote the menu offerings, which will either limit or liberate the possible drink choices. A “nicer place” will have a “better” selection, creating more options, whereas a more “blue-collar” place will offer limited drink options.

In addition to the menu offerings, the quotes selected above also indicate the importance of the social class of, not only the establishment, but also of the patrons. Cliff assumes that order78 ACADEMIC PAPER CONTEST

ing a cabernet sauvignon in a “biker bar” would either produce laughter among his audience or at least would not appear to be a “fitting choice” given the atmosphere and the social class of the other patrons. The other participant also reflects the importance of others in the bar, commenting that he will go along with the group if they are in a “regular bar” and choose to order something that he wouldn’t typically order of his own accord.

Based on the responses, it seems that the type of performative drinking required for the enactment of masculinity in a lower class bar limits the drink options for males, while performative drinking in higher class, or “nicer” bars allows men more options to choose from.

DISCOURSE OF EMASCULATION Thus far, we have suggested that the age and social class status of men may determine the type of performance they give in order to enact masculinity. The discourse surrounding the gendered activity of drinking, however, permeates men’s experiences with public drinking regardless of age or class.

A crucial element to performative drinking is the critique of what other men choose to drink. Men appear to scrutinize the drink choices of other men, as well as the amount of alcohol consumed. Usually, this critique takes the form of feminizing the drink choices of their peers. Dan suggested that “guys are always looking for opportunities to emasculate other men,” and that drinking provides the opportunity to do so. When asked if his friends ever try to goad him to drink more, Eric responded: So, like one of my guy friends will say, “sac-up” when I decide to stop drinking or if I’m not drinking as fast as he’d like. Another of my friends says, “put your purse down” if I don’t order another drink fast enough. It’s just easier not to add to it by ordering something like an appletini or a glass of white wine.

Here, it is clear that emasculation is a rhetorical device by which men enact their own masculinity by questioning the performance of their peers. It seems that not drinking fast enough would be compounded by the choice to drink a feminized drink, adding to the emasculating ridicule. This participant indicates that performative drinking requires a rejection of the feminine, if not in the amount consumed, then in the type of drink consumed, in order to enact masculinity. When asked the same question, Cliff stated: Well, they’ll say things like, anything ranging from “come on, you don’t have to get up early” to “your wife’s not here, why are you worried?” or teasing and some questioning manhood, like, “maybe I should order your husband something.” I just try to humor them like saying something like “I’m on my period,” by making a joke, yes I’m being a little girl, which is my way of showing that I’m ultimately more masculine.

Cliff sees his choice to participate in the emasculating banter as a way to prove that he is more masculine than those who resort to such tactics. But this is the same respondent who indicated previously that, due to his age, he gave up trying to prove his masculinity a long time ago. Regardless of age, performative drinking and the rhetoric that accompanies it requires that men,

to some degree, either avoid behaviors that could be categorized as feminizing, or participate in the emasculation ritual to prove their masculinity.

CONCLUSION As Ian noted, “No one wants to be the guy with the wine glass in a room full of beer cans.” The men who participated in our study seem acutely aware of the unwritten social codes that exist to measure one’s masculinity. Though age and social class inform gendered performances, the discourse that accompanies performative drinking exists regardless of age and class. Perfomative drinking serves as a tool through which masculine behaviors are enacted and repeated, affirming membership in the male sex category. • REFERENCES Butler, J. 1996. “Imitation and Gender Insubordination”. Pp 371386 in Women, Knowledge, And Reality: Explorations in Feminist Philosophy, edited by A. Garry & M. Pearsall. London: Routlage Press.

Halberstam, J. 1998. Female Masculinity. Duke University Press.

Kimmel, M. S. 2000. The Gendered Society. New York: Oxford University Press.

Messner, Michael. 2004. “On Patriarchs and Losers: Rethinking Men’s Interests.” Paper presented at the Berkeley Journal of Sociology Conference: Rethinking Gender, University of California, Berkeley, March.

Mullen, K. & Watson, J. & Swift, J. & Black, D. 2007. Young Men, Masculinity, and Alcohol. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. 14 (2): 151-165.

O’Neil, Hugh (2011). “The Thinking Man’s Guide to Drinking.”

Men’s Health Nov. 2011. Pennsylvania: Rodale Inc. Parsons, E.F. 2000. Risky Business: The Uncertain Boundaries of Manhood in the Midwestern Saloon. Journal of Social History.

283-307.

Pascoe, C. J. 2007. Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Pleck, J.H. 1995. “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm” Pp 11-32 in A New Psychology of Men, edited by R.F. Levant & W.S. Pollack.

New York: Basic Books.

Wells, S. & Graham, K. & Tremblay, P. 2007. Beliefs, Attitudes, and Male-to-Male BarroomAggression: Development of a Theoretical Predictive Model. Addiction Research and Theory. 15 (6): 575-586.

West, C. & Zimmerman, D.H. 1987. Doing Gender. Gender & Society. 1 (2): 125-151.

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 79

T HE

CO$T FOOD OF

t W H AT YO UR COR N FL AK E S D O T O S OIL HE A LT H

BY COLIN EVANS

I

n the rapidly developing countries of the world, agricultural practices are being borrowed from already developed countries, practices that are the hallmark of industrialized agriculture; mechanization, irrigation, inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, genome manipulation, intensive tillage, and of course, monoculture. Soils in these developing countries are potentially at a risk for degradation as these countries continue to use industrialized practices, especially monoculture, as studies indicate that practicing monoculture can have negative effects on soils.   Corn is the most widely grown crop in the United States, which is also the largest producer of it in the world, with nearly 72 million acres of land devoted to its production (epa.gov). The United States, being a highly developed country, for the most 80  SCIENTIFIC PAPER CONTEST

part has farmers that practice the techniques of industrialized agriculture, and much of the corn grown here is grown on monoculture fields. It is widely known that corn degrades the soil it is grown in, usually stripping the soil of its nitrogen, as corn needs abundant amounts of nitrogen to produce well. One study looked intensively into the effects of corn monoculture on soil carbon and nitrogen levels.   Knops and Tilman (2000) tested 19 different fields in Minnesota that had been abandoned between the years of 1927 and 1982. Their testing method consisted of setting up four parallel transects on each of the 19 fields, and each transect at 25 quadrants from which they took soil core samples (Knops and Tilman, 2000). Over the course of 12 years, they continued to take soil samples from the different quadrants set up and later performed

carbon and nitrogen analysis on the soils (Knops and Tilman, 2000). The purpose of this study was to determine how long it takes nitrogen and carbon levels to return to natural levels.

Their results showed that due to the slow natural accumulation of nitrogen in the soil, it would take up to 180 years for levels to return to normal (Knops and Tilman, 2000). Furthermore, it would take up to 230 years for carbon levels to return to normal (Knops and Tilman, 2000). They found that agriculture practices, such as monoculturing, results an 89% loss of soil carbon levels and a 75% loss of soil nitrogen levels (Knops and Tilman, 2000).

These results produce some startling facts about the effect of monoculture on soils. Carbon levels in soil are an indicator of the amount of organic material in that soil (Gliessman, 2006).

Soil, which is made of a five distinct layers, relies heavily on its

organic matter layer to maintain soil structure; organic matter in soil holds water, releases nutrients, resists erosion, and promotes the food chain in soils (Gliessman, 2006). Without all of these added benefits, soil is adversely affected.

A different study that looked beyond the effect on soil nitrogen and carbon levels was done over the course of eight years in West Africa in order to see the effect of corn monoculture on soil quality and soil chemistry (Lal, 1997). A total of eight different treatments were set up on a field that had been in fallow for six years previous to the start of the study (Lal, 1997). The treatments included no-till, mouldboard ploughing, disc ploughing, and mouldboard ploughing and harrowing, among others (Lal, 1997).

For the fields that were being treated with no-till, soil pH levels dropped in the 0-5cm depths, on average, from 6.7, almost neuTHE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 81

tral, to 5.6, which is acidic (Lal, 1997). In fields that were treated with mouldboard ploughing, pH levels dropped from 6.7 to 5.4 on average (Lal, 1997). Further findings showed that soil chemical quality declined as a whole, with levels of soil organic carbon and soil organic nitrogen levels decreased from year to year during the study (Lal, 1997).

Though it is widely known that corn strips soils of its nitrogen, not all crops do so. Soybeans are an example of a crop that actually adds nitrogen back to the soil instead of stripping it. A study done by Li, et al. (2010) tested whether or not the monoculture of soybeans had any effect on soil microbial communities. Microbes in soils are essential because there are many mutualistic relationships between microbes and plants (Gliessman, 2006). In order to test this, they studied three different cropping systems; a rotation system between corn and soy, a system that had continuous soy for three years, and a system that had continuous soy for nine straight years (Li et al., 2010).

Their goal was to see if the monoculturing of soy had as bad an effect on yield and quality that had been previously reported.

They accomplished this by comparing the yields of soy of the three different cropping methods (Li et al., 2010). To do this, seeds were collected from the different systems and weighed in order to determine yield (Li et al., 2010). In addition to comparing the yields, they tested the make-up of the soil bacterial and fungal community by taking soil samples from the different systems at 30, 62, and 115 days (Li et al., 2010). Each soil sample was placed in sterile bags and later analyzed by DNA extraction and DGGE analysis in order to determine soil microbial and fungal communities (Li et al., 2010).

Their findings produced both results that were expected and unexpected. The highest yield of soybeans came from the system that rotated between corn and soy (Li et al., 2010). However, the unexpected result was that the nine-year monoculture system produced a higher yield of seeds than the three-year monoculture system (Li et al., 2010). Furthermore, their results indicated no significant difference in soil microbial communities between the different cropping systems (Li et al., 2010). Though this study indicates that the nine-year crop did better than the three-year crop, the best method is crop rotation.

In a similar study done in Minnesota, four different plots were set up to test the possible effects of mycorrhizae on soy and corn yields ( Johnson et al., 1992). The four cropping systems studied were continuous corn, continuous soy, soy planted after five years of corn, and finally corn planted after five years of soy ( Johnson et al., 1992). Plant stalk samples were taken at random and dried to weigh biomass in order to compare yield ( Johnson et al., 1992).

Another form of comparison was done using the technique of inductively coupled plasma discharge, which is a method of instrumental analysis used to determine quantities of certain elements in different materials; in this case the levels of phosphorus, zinc, and copper in the stalks of the plants ( Johnson et al., 1992). The concentrations of these elements in the stalks of soy and corn are influenced by the amount of mycorrhizae in the soil ( Johnson et al., 1992). Comparing the levels of those elements in the different stalks will give an indication of the amount of mycorrhizae in the soils ( Johnson et al, 1992). Furthermore, two soil core samples were taken from each plot in order to extract spores and determine soil microbial community levels ( Johnson et al., 1992).

82 SCIENTIFIC PAPER CONTEST

Their results showed that the continued monoculturing of certain crops, like soy and corn, lead to the proliferation of certain fungi, like mycorrhizae ( Johnson et al., 1992). When mycorrhizae proliferate in the soil, there tends to be a negative effect on the accumulation of those elements, like phosphorus, zinc, and copper found in the stalks of the plants ( Johnson et al., 1992). Their results showed that the plot with corn after five years of soy and the soy plot after five years of corn both had higher concentrations of those elements in their stalks than the either the continuous corn plot or continuous soy plot ( Johnson et al., 1992). That this study indicates is that the continued practice of monoculturing may make it possible for certain fungi, like mycorrhizae, to do better in the soil which can have negative effects on the yield of those crops ( Johnson et al., 1992).

Since monoculture is one of the seven common practices of industrialized agriculture, it is more often than not combined with the other practices, especially intensive tillage practices. Studies have shown that the combination of monoculturing crops, such as wheat, combined with tillage practices can also have negative effects on soil health due to erosion (Littleboy et al., 1992). This long-term study tested three different areas in Australia to determine how quickly and how much soil was being lost due to tillage and monoculturing wheat. They tested this by setting up three sites in different parts of Australia and setting up plots with soil that was 100cm deep and continually measured the soil to determine how quickly it was eroding away (Littleboy et al., 1992).

What they found is that in some areas, depending on factors like slope of the land and rainfall, 0.35 centimeters of soil were lost on average each year, which does not seem like a lot, but over the course of ten years, adds up to a lot of soil being moved and replaced somewhere else (Littleboy et al. 1992). Furthermore they found that the yield of the crop declined when the soil got shallower and that as the soil got shallower, the rate of erosion actually increased (Littleboy et al., 1992). This study indicates that there is actually a positive feedback relationship with soil erosion. As the soil erodes and it becomes shallower and shallower, the rate at which the soil erodes increases, leading to even shallower soil and even faster erosion rates. The implications of this are that the continued practice of monoculture, combined with other practices like tillage, will eventually lead to an inadequate amount of soil needed to produce good crops.

Finally, in another study, a combination of glasshouse and field studies was done with sugarcane monocultures in order to determine the effects of biocides on soil organisms (Pankhurst et al., 2005). In Australia, where the monoculture of sugarcane is common, productivity of new fields is higher than the productivity of old fields; fields that have been used for sugarcane for some time (Pankhurst et al., 2005). What they found was that the biomass of the sugarcane roots in soils that had been fumigated was higher than the biomass of sugarcane roots in soils that had not been fumigated (Pankhurst et al., 2005). What happens when the soil goes unfumigated is that different fungi and nematodes negatively affect the overall health and growth of the sugarcane crops (Pankhurst et al., 2005). What this indicates is that farmers must fumigate their fields in order to continue to produce high yields of sugarcane.

A study done in South Africa over a number of years tested the effect of monoculturing sugarcane on soil organic carbon levels

on two different soil types (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002). What this study found is that the continued monoculturing of sugarcane resulted in a significant loss of organic carbon levels (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002). Both sites tested the soil between 0-10cm deep and both soils started between 40 and 50 g C kg-1 (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002). After 20-30 years of continuous sugarcane monoculture one site declined to 17 g C kg-1 and the other site declined to 33 g C kg-1, the difference in sites being the make-up of the soil (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002). One site had more clay particles in the soil than the other site which resulted in the soil holding more organic matter than the other site as clay particles are more adequate at retaining organic matter than other soils (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002). As a result of the decrease in organic carbon levels also resulted in the decline in soil microbial biomass (Dominy, Haynes, and van Antwerpen, 2002).

Studies have shown the answer to these issues that monoculturing and tillage practices cause. A long term study done in 1961 compared the effects on yield of five different cropping systems; corn monoculture, wheat monoculture, diculture, triculture, and something called a Norfolk crop rotation, which cycles through four different crops; corn, spring barely, peas, and wheat (Berzsenyi, Gyorffy, and Lap 2000). Their results indicate that crop yield was lowest in the monoculture cropping systems and that the highest yield came from the Norfolk cropping system (Berzsenyi, Gyorffy, and Lap 2000).

A similar study done in Texas tested the comparison of different tillage practices instead of cropping systems on the amount of soil organic carbon and soil organic nitrogen levels (Wright and Hons, 2004). This study, done over a 20 year period, compared no tillage practices against conventional tillage practice (Wright and Hons, 2004). To test the soil, 25 soil core samples were taken per plot established in the experiment and analyzed for organic carbon content and organic nitrogen content (Wright and Hons, 2004). Results indicated that even with continuous wheat monoculture, no tillage practice resulted in a 72% increase in soil organic carbon levels over conventional tillage practices (Wright and Hons, 2004).

All of these studies indicate the same thing: the continued practices of monoculture and intensive tillage are having adverse effects on soil quality. The continued rise in human population means a continued rise in food production demand. As food production increases in the developing countries of the world, conventional industrialized farming practices are likely going to become more and more popular. Sustainable practices like crop rotation and no-tillage techniques, techniques that studies show do not have as harsh adverse effects on soil quality and often times increase crop yield, are not widely used in the developed countries, and therefore there is little chance of those strategies being implemented in the developing countries as they continue to become industrialized, meaning soil quality in those places are potentially in jeopardy, which also places food production in jeopardy. •

L I T E R AT UR E C I T E D Berzsenyi, Z., Gyorffy, B., and Lap, D. (2000). Effect of crop rotation and fertilization on maize and wheat yields and yield stability in a long-term experiment. European Journal of Agronomy, 13(2-3). Pp. 225-244.

Dominy, C.S., Haynes, R.J., and van Antwerpen, R. (2002). Loss of soil organic matter and related soil properties under long-term sugarcane production on two contrasting soils. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 36(5). Pp. 350-356.

Gliessman, S.R. (2006). Agroecology: The Ecology of Sustainable Food Systems.

Johnson, N.C., Copeland, P.J., Crookston, R.K., and Pfleger, F.L. (1992). Mycorrhizae: possible Explanation for yield decline with continuous corn and soybean. Agronomy Journal, 84(3). Pp. 387390.

Knops, J.M.H, and Tilman, D. (2000). Dynamics of soil nitrogen and carbon accumulation for 61 years after agricultural abandonment. Ecology, 81(1). Pp. 88-98.

Lal, R. (1997) Long-term tillage and maize monoculture effects on tropical Alfisol in western Nigeria. II. Soil chemical properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 42(3). Pp. 161-1 74 Li, C., Li, X., Kong, W., Wu, Y., and Wang, J. (2010). Effect of monoculture soybean on soil microbial community in the Northeast China. Plant Soil, 330. Pp. 423-433.

Littleboy, M., Freebairn, D.M., Hammer, G.L., and Silburn, D.M. (1992). Impact of soil erosion on production in cropping system. II. Simulation of production and erosion risks for a wheat cropping system. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 30(5). Pp. 775788.

“Major Crops Grown in the United States” (2009) Retrieved from www.epa.gov.

Pankhurst, C.E., Blair, B.L., Magarey, R.C., Stirling, G.R., and Garside, A.L. (2005). Effects of biocide and rotation breaks on soil organisms associated with the poor early growth of sugarcane in continuous monoculture. Plant and Soil, 268. Pp. 255-269.

Wright, A.L. and Hons, F.M. (2004). Soil carbon and nitrogen storage in aggregates from different tillage and crop regimes. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 69(1). Pp. 141-147

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ECJU LPMNO Ya i m z t ZQ B DR Hn T I K 84

US O t Re K

THE EVOLU T ION OF THE AMERICAN MEAL B Y J I LLI A N F I ELD S

American lifestyles are always changing. They are influenced by society, technology, and the world around us. There are some things that remain constant, however, taxes and food being two of the most notable. Yet even the constants morph—especially food. Over the years, food has been subject to change in relation to the trends of the time. The standard fare of the Middle Ages is a far cry from the things people eat today, as is the process of eating itself. With the constant rushing that most individuals seem to do, the meal that was once a grand affair or even just a daily time for the family to gather is often shoved aside to make way for soccer practice or a late meeting. The changes in lifestyles and food reflect each other, in regards to every aspect of life, from economy to entertainment and health. Our diets and food habits are a reflection of the extremely malleable world in which we live.

Up until recently, dinner and supper were two separate concrete ideas. Dinner was typically served around the middle of the day, when people would be able to leave work for a little while to eat with their families. This was typically the larger meal, especially before the onset of electricity, when oil for lamps was expensive and would have only been used when absolutely necessary. This held true especially for the lower classes. The upper classes had more money to spare on luxuries such as oil, and were therefore able to dine at more flexible times. Thus, to dine at night became a symbol of status. Meal times also shifted with the changes in society. After the dawn of the 17th century, more and more things were happening at night. Theatrical productions were now also put on at night, as well as in the daytime hours. These changes progressed until the meals settled where they are. Currently in

the USA, the midday meal is generally eaten at noon or slightly after, and is referred to as lunch, a term coined by Emily Post in the 1940’s. The nightly meal is generally called dinner, but supper is still a recognized term. The significance of dinner seems to have changed over time with society. Dinner, even a few decades ago, was a time of the day for the family to all come home and eat together. Currently, 74% of families say they eat together most of the time during the work week, while 20% say sometimes, according to a CBS News poll.

Another aspect of meals that has changed even more than the times is the food that is eaten. A typical dinner, whether eaten in the home or in a restaurant, will typically include a salad, a main course, and a dessert. It may be surprising to discover that prior to the 1920s, salads were rarely eaten at all. They were considered “effeminate and French,” which led to them being “looked upon with suspicion by conservative, middle class Americans” (Leite).

It was not until the creation of the classic Caesar Salad that salads in general were accepted into the American diet. The trailblazing salad itself was created quite by accident, as many of the most well-known dishes are. On July 4, 1924, in the Hollywood prohibition getaway, Caesar’s Palace in Mexico, proprietor Caesar Cardini used the few ingredients left in the kitchen to make something to feed his hungry guests. The result was of course the ever-popular Caesar salad, which currently holds a spot on nearly every menu in America. The 20’s were a milestone decade for food.

With the creation of Speakeasies came the invention of cocktail parties, and through that, finger foods. The feeling of prosperity also encouraged people to try the most exotic or extravagant THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 85

"THE APPEAL OF MODERN CONVENIENCES AND NEW METHODS FOR SHIPPING COMBINED FOR A SOMEW H AT N E G AT I V E I N F L U E N C E O N T H E A M E R I C A N D I E T. "

86 HISTORY

foods they could find, and household appliances began to appear in houses all across the nation. This all came crashing down with the stock market on October 29, 1929, as the Great Depression took a hold of the nation. All of the luxurious foods and lifestyles of the 1920s were a fond memory, and casseroles scraped together with whatever ingredients were available became the new norm.

Meatloaf became a particular favorite, due to the fact that it could be stretched so far with filler. People living in urban areas, however, came to rely a great deal on the inexpensive hot dogs and hamburgers offered by Horn & Hardant’s automat. Some of the products which first appeared at that time and have retained their popularity up to today are Ritz crackers, which first appeared in 1932, and, of course, Spam. With a shelf life of up to seven years and an affordable price, Spam has retained its notoriety since it first appeared on shelves in 1937. Another aspect that would come to affect the overall style of American cooking was the release of the recipe book The Joy of Cooking, by Irma Rombauer, an average American housewife. Her book gave other American women looking to cook for their families simple and accessible recipes, which were criticized for the “blanding of the American’s palate” (Leite) as well as an over reliance on vegetable shortening, and an “insistence on overcooked vegetables” (Leite). Despite the criticisms, though, The Joy of Cooking still retains its popularity today.

The economic depression broke, but only to led to harder times.

The 1940’s brought the Second World War—and with it—rations. Wartime limitations led to several new culinary discoveries, one of the most notable of which was margarine. In addition to the mysterious substance which arrived to replace butter, Americans began to eat more vegetables as they were encouraged to grow a “victory garden” in their homes. This resulted in an influx of vegetable recipes in both popular magazines and cookbooks.

In other aspects of American life, with many of the men off to war, more and more women began to leave the house to join the workforce. After the close of the war the men returned, but many of these women were loath to leave the factories and return to the domestic sphere. Thus entered the 50’s, where the appeal of modern conveniences and new methods for shipping combined for a somewhat negative influence on the American diet. One of the most crucial points of the 50’s is the TV dinner. These little trays of premade food ready to heat and serve combined modern technology with the fascination that was television, creating a phenomenon. The TV dinner also succeeded due to another aspect of modern times. Most of the wives and mother that joined the workforce during the war had found other jobs once they had been required to leave their factory jobs, which left them with little time to prepare dinner. TV dinners allowed them to work during the day, come home at night, place a tray in the oven, and serve dinner within the hour. In this respect, times have not changed that much. Premade meals are still a staple for many families who are constantly on the go. The television aspect has not changed too much, either; 33% of Americans say that the television is always on while eating, and an additional 27% say that it is only on sometimes (CBS News). TV dinners were such a large part of American post-war life that in 1987, one of the original aluminum trays from a Swanson TV dinner was entered into the Smithsonian institute.

The 1960’s saw the return of other cultural influences to American food. The causes: President John F. Kennedy took office, and Julia Child published a book. While seemingly unrelated, these two factors together are what influenced the newfound fascina-

tion with French cuisine. After Kennedy took office, First Lady Jackie Kennedy hired a French chef for the White House. At the time, the American public was fascinated by the life of their president, and many decided to seek out French cooking on their own. Enter Julia Child. Her debut cookbook, Mastering the Art of French Cooking, entered the food scene at the same opportune moment. Child later admitted that if had not been for this combination of factors, she likely would have never known the success she experienced. While some Americans were enjoying the pleasures and challenges of French cooking, others were taking to the opposite side of the spectrum in a schism that mirrored the political situation at the time. Along with the Vietnam protests came an era of “natural” foods, where the partakers shied away from anything processed, made everything from scratch, and ate a lot of granola.

The 1970’s brought variety. Bruch became a weekend tradition for many, and new immigration laws opened the door to Asian cuisines. The introduction to Asian cuisines began the American fascination with spicy food, and northern Italian food also grew in popularity. Another woman entered the cooking scene and changed how Americans viewed cooking once again. Alice Waters reminded Americans about concepts such as seasonal vegetables, which had been forgotten with the onset of mass importation from all over the world. The following decade’s culinary attitude continued to explore and experiment, with food becoming vogue and chefs stepping into the limelight and finding celebrity. The notorious Wolfgang Puck was amongst them. By the end of the decade, however, there was a complete pole reversal, with the economic crisis of 1987 sending many Americans retreating into comfort foods. Meatloaf, an old favorite, returned, along with chicken-fried steaks and mashed potatoes.

All of those comfort foods and decadent desserts gave way to a new craze in the 90’s—low-fat. While some were lulled into a false sense of security by the influx of new products with reduced or no fat, others ran enough to jog across the country without ever leaving their living rooms on treadmills. Others began to look into new styles of cooking that were deemed healthier and began to eat Mediterranean foods or other cuisines. Yet even during the health craze, new trends in food emerged. Fusion cooking, the practice of blending different cuisines into one dish, took off.

Others simply tried to simplify their food. They strove for fewer additives so that nothing could detract from the flavors.

All of this eventually gave way to our current trends in food.

The emphasis still seems to be on health, but instead of the lowfat craze, organic is the new pink. Even fast food seems to be trying to make a change. Places like Panera Bread, which is well known for its salads and overall healthy options, are growing in popularity. Other more notorious chains are also attempting change; many McDonald’s locations are being remodeled to appear more like a café than a fast food restaurant. Over the years, dining out in general has changed drastically. Originally, dining out was only done by travelers who stopped in a tavern for the night. It was not until the late 18th century that families began to dine out for pleasure. The fast food restaurant appeared in 1921, with White Castle as the premier. The first White Castles could be given credit for the popularity of the hamburger in America—before they opened, hamburgers were considered to be low-quality carnival fare. White Castle changed that image once they opened, however. Their buildings were clean-looking and costumers could see their meals being prepared. Fast food

as we know it today was not created until the largest fast food chain in the world opened its doors. McDonald’s was the first restaurant to employ the assembly line method of preparation.

They currently remain the largest chain globally, and have dealt with a great deal of backlash as the most notorious face of the fast food world. Many of their locations have been attacked by protestors who accuse the corporation of serving unhealthy food and “marketing aggressively to children” (Wilson).

The current trend, according to a poll done by CBS News, seems to be people returning home for dinner. Is this due to the current economical situation, or to health concerns? The same report done by CBS shows that 75% of the sodium we consume comes from processed foods and restaurants. In the same vein, is the remaining popularity of fast food restaurants due to their cost effectiveness or our hectic daily lives? Both of these factors have been two of the most important in terms of their impacts on our diets. Other factors have appeared in more recent times as well, such as political views. Prior to the previous century, nobody would have been a vegetarian or a vegan, mostly because it would have been impossible to avoid those things with their limited amounts of food, except for religious reasons. The increasing commodity and variety in recent times, however, allows for people to convey their ideology by the simple act of eating, or not eating, certain things. Yet however much it changes, food will always remain a constant in life, no matter when we are eating, what name the meal goes by, where we eat it, or what it is that we eat. • WO R K S C I T ED America’s Food Evolution. CBS News, 2010. Film. <http://www. cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=6086947n>.

Bellis, Mary. “The History of TV Dinners.” About.com.Web. 29 Oct 2011. <http://inventors.about.com/od/inventionsalphabet/a/ tv_dinner.htm>.

Leite, David. “Dining Through the Decades: 100 Years of American Food.” Leite’s Culinaria. 16 Dec 1999. Web. 29 Oct 2011. <http://leitesculinaria.com/10348/writings-dining-through-thedecades-american-food-history.html>.

McMillan, Sherie. “What Time is Dinner?” History Magazine.

October/November 2001: n. page. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. <http:// www.history-magazine.com/dinner2.html>.

Mintz, S. (2007).

Food in America.

Digital History.

Retrieved 29 Oct 2011 from <http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/food.cfm>.

Picarello , Gary. “Come and Get It! The Evolution of Dinner in the US (And Abroad).” 14 May 2007. Web. 29 Oct 2011. <http:// www.associatedcontent.com/article/240425/come_and_get_ itthe_evolution_of_dinner_pg3.html?cat=25>.

Wilson, Tracy V. “The History of Fast Food.” HowStuffWorks.

N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct 2011. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/ innovation/edible-innovations/fast-food3.htm>.

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 87

BRAIN FOOD E AT I N G R I G H T F O R THE BODY’S BUSIEST ORGAN

BY JUDITH LAVELLE 88 HEALTH

FOOD BRAIN T H E PA L AT E WA NTS WHAT THE PALATE WANTS

ILLUSTRATIONS BY C.B. WILKINSON THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 89

BRAIN FOOD Society’s preoccupation with weight management produces a myriad of advice on keeping our waistlines tiny and our biceps toned, while our body’s most complex organ—and the nutrition required to keep it running smoothly—is often overlooked.

Though it consists of only two percent of the average person’s body mass, the human brain accounts for twenty percent of our energy consumption (Nixon 2009). Because of the nutritional toll the brain takes on our bodies and the vital role it plays in our lives, it is absolutely essential that we tailor our diet to our brain’s needs.

A PRETZEL FOR YOUR THOUGHTS? It turns out the empirical practice of fueling late-night essay writing with the occasional “study snack” is fairly legitimate. Though even the most nutritious food cannot replace a good night’s rest, a regular supply of carbohydrates—the large, energy-packed molecules found in fruits, vegetables and grains—will keep the brain from suffering the hazy effects of low blood sugar. Unlike our muscles and other organs, the gray matter of our brain responsible for complex thought is particularly picky about its energy source. Simply put, the brain just can’t do its job without easily accessible energy; only glucose (blood sugar) will do. And yet, paradoxically, “stressful” spikes of high glucose can be damaging to the body’s tissues.

Fueling the brain in a healthy way therefore requires maintaining a delicate balance. Fortunately, that balance is neatly packaged in many natural sources of carbohydrates. The key to satisfying the brain’s needs while keeping the rest of the body healthy lies in paying close attention to the glycemic index—a system of ranking food based on how quickly it raises your blood sugar.

Carbohydrates placed high on the glycemic index—like candy and white bread—may provide the brain the energy it needs but also cause a harsh flux of sugar in the blood. It is a far wiser choice to choose foods low on the glycemic index—like whole grains, fruits and vegetables—which provide adequate energy over time (Nixon 2009, TFIO 2004).

START ’EM YOUNG

90 HEALTH

Supplying your brain with energy in the short term alone cannot ensure brain health throughout your lifespan. Because much of the critical development the brain undergoes occurs during childhood, the brain is particularly sensitive to the nutrition it receives at this time, and many studies have shown that the proper diet at a young age can have lasting effects on mental capabilities.

Though there is still a lot of controversy surrounding the issue, a breadth of evidence supports the assertion that breastfeeding is a great example of early nutrition contributing to brain health. A blend of important salts and nutrients, breast milk’s effects have been empirically and statistically observed. In a research study in which children were given a series of cognitive tests, children who were breast-fed as infants scored an average of eight points higher than bottle-fed children (Medina 2011).

Continued on page 88

FOOD BRAIN When early man rummaged his environment for wild berries and hunted for bison, he would settle for anything that was edible and seemingly safe. Meals were evaluated not by their culinary intricacy but by the amount of energy they provided minus the amount of energy required to obtain them. Food was fuel. Food was food. But those were the good old days…

In the modern world, this antiquated—and biologically obvious—model of eating is far too simple. For many of us, the word “food” does not particularly bring to mind the calories that satisfy our daily energy needs or the vitamins and minerals that keep our hair strong and our eyes functioning. Instead, many of us think of how much we love to eat and the essential role food plays in our economy, culture, and everyday lives. We think of our favorites, whether they are the components of a five-star, three-course meal or one’s favorite sugary cereal. We think of the emotions associated with what we eat—the comfort of cuddling up with a bowl of mother-made mac n’ cheese or the excitement of trying eel sushi for the first time. Our species has complicated food to an extraordinary degree, and we have our brains to blame.

OUR BRAINS ARE BIGGER THAN OUR STOMACHS Anyone who has ever heard their stomach rumble in a quiet morning classroom after skipping breakfast might disagree that hunger could be ruled by anything other than the pesky digestive system. In fact, a good number of researchers have speculated on which body system has the greatest influence on hunger, and these hypotheses have produced some interesting experiments.

In 1912, physiologist W.B. Cannon had his associate and graduate student, A. L. Washburn, skip meals and then swallow a balloon attached to a tube. To test his “stomach contraction theory” of hunger, the balloon was inflated so that Washburn no longer felt hungry. (We can only hope he was awarded some extra credit!) In a similarly extreme experiment, P.A. Bash tested his “glucose theory” by giving starved dogs blood transfusions from well-fed dogs. Bash postulated that high blood glucose makes us feel full and was no doubt pleased to see that the treated dogs no longer seemed to search for food (Hara 1997).

Other experiments and theories suggest that hormones, heat production, and other internal biological factors also play a large role in notifying us that we need food. However, the desire to eat occurs in humans more often than when we are responding to the biological needs of our metabolism. And for a better understanding of this desire, we turn not to our stomach or our blood or our endocrine system, but to our own minds and the complexity that lies within.

In 2010, researchers in the John B. Pierce Laboratory at the Yale School of Medicine published their findings after conducting a long study questioning the brain’s response to taste. Using functional MRI scans—a method of neurological imaging that allows scientists to see patients’ brains respond to stimuli in real time—these researchers were able to identify and better understand areas of the brain directly related to responding to food. They found that the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex were two areas chiefly responsible in the neurological process of eating (Wohl 2011).

Continued on page 89

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 91

However, bottle-fed children need not be distressed about missing out on this head start; nature provides us a variety of other foods that our brains can benefit from after infancy. As the brain develops in childhood and adolescence (and renews itself throughout adulthood), it uses fatty acids to create large, intricate, specialized cells called neurons as well as protective myelin tissue.

In fact, fatty acids compose about sixty percent of our brains. Two specific fatty acids in particular—DHA and AA—are crucial to brain development in fetuses and infants, and deficits of DHA and AA have been linked to many neurological defects. Though they are best absorbed in early childhood, fatty acids benefit the brain at all stages of life (some studies support that they may help prevent or treat Parkinson’s disease, depression and other disorders) and can be found primarily in fish, nuts, seeds and other sources of unsaturated or “healthy” fats.

The brain also benefits from an early intake of amino acids.

These building blocks of protein play a large role in creating neurotransmitters, which are hugely important chemicals in the brain that facilitate communication between neurons. Amino acids come from a variety of sources but are most abundantly found in protein-rich food. This is just one reason that children should have a protein-packed diet to help build their rapidly growing bodies and rapidly developing brains (TFIO 2004).

A SUPPER OF “SUPERFOODS”

“SUPERFOODS” FOR HEALTHY BRAINS Blueberries Salmon Nuts & Seeds Avocado Whole Grains Beans Pomegranate Green Tea Dark Chocolate

92 HEALTH

Because the brain has so many specific nutritional needs, scientists have identified an assortment of foods that contain highly concentrated doses of nutrients that benefit the brain. “Superfoods”—the term used to describe them and other highly nutritious foods that benefit the body as a whole—has become a popular buzzword in scientific journalism because of the enthusiasm with which many specialists encourage us to include them in our diets. Superfoods tend to gain their tremendous reputation for promoting brain health by having an abundant supply of all or some of the nutrients the brain craves: unsaturated fat for building its cells, protein for uniting its components with neurotransmitters, complex carbohydrates for energy, and micronutrients for preventing the deterioration of its tissues (TFIO 2004).

However extraordinary they may seem, most of these superfoods can be conveniently found in the dining hall for nearly every meal. A breakfast of green tea, fresh blueberries and a whole grain bagel, for example, provides potent supply of antioxidants (a powerful micronutrient that helps prevent tissue deterioration and cancer) from the tea and berries and enough complex carbohydrates in the bagel to keep you focused through your morning classes and protected from memory loss in years to come. At lunchtime, sitting down to a zesty salmon filet and some guacamole and pita chips is an excellent way to get a healthy dose of fatty acids and protein. Rounding the day off with a dinner of whole grain pasta drizzled with olive oil and sun-dried tomatoes and a side salad covered in nuts and seeds will once again refuel you with complex carbohydrates, micronutrients from the tomatoes, and the appropriate fats and amino acids in the nuts and seeds (Sorgen 2008).

Continued on page 90

The amygdala is a small bulb located in the core of the brain— the limbic system, a structure we share with many other animals with less evolved brains and that is traditionally associated with our primal urges and instincts. The amygdala itself is involved in helping us remember our emotions, especially fear (Black 2001).

The Pierce Laboratory team found that the amygdala seems to be the driving force between detecting the “flavor intensity” of certain foods and “inducing the desire to eat more.” This is a distinctly different—though related—process from the orbitofrontal cortex’s involvement in assessing flavor. While the amygdala controls “desire,” the orbitofrontal cortex is located in the highly evolved human “gray matter” and is involved in decision-making.

The Pierce Laboratory team describes the orbitofrontal cortex’s job as detecting “how ‘pleasant’ a food is” after processing the five elements of flavor the senses recognize while eating: taste, smell, temperature, texture, and spiciness (Wohl 2011).

However, the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex are only two areas of the brain directly involved in responding to food. When human beings eat, their brains must do far more than assess the tastiness of food in a universal process common to everyone. If that were the case, how could fish be delicious to some and disgusting to others? The answer to such questions requires a more psychological perspective.

THE PAVLOV SPECIAL: AVERSIONS AND PREFERENCES In a memorable scene from 2004’s fast-food documentary, Super Size Me, director Morgan Spurlock jokes about “punching my kids in the face every time we pass a McDonald’s” in order to counteract the corporation’s attempts at marketing to children (Spurlock 2004). Though a bit crass, Mr. Spurlock just may have been onto something. Conditioning—learning behaviors in association with particular stimuli—is one of the most powerful and somewhat unexpected influences on what, when, and how we eat.

One of the most extreme—and yet very common—examples of classical conditioning applied to eating is taste aversion to a specific food after contracting food poisoning. A person who unknowingly eats expired vegetable dip—the “stimulus”—and feels the cruel effects of food poising an hour or two later may not touch the stuff for several years. The extreme avoidance of a food associated with illness is the “learned behavior” that then continues to influence this person’s hunger and food preferences (Smith 2002). Taste aversion, however, is not just a psychological fluke that makes us detest once-loved foods. Hunger is based on learning, and it’s no accident that the structures in our brain that control hunger and eating are also associated with memory. We have evolved this response to protect ourselves from pathogens, spoiled food, and becoming sick in the future. If we remember not to eat things that can make us sick, we can adopt a “fool me once, shame on you” mentality.

The same psychological principles that explain why we avoid certain foods also help illuminate why some of us have strong preferences for others. The aforementioned close link between taste, smell, and memory often helps us connect emotions to the food we eat. Conditioned preferences are the reason corporations like McDonald’s focus so much on advertising to children, why restaurants try to create a memorable atmosphere, and why chocolate chip cookies make you homesick for Grandma’s house.

Human beings are creatures of habit and will associate happiness with certain foods and certain foods with happiness (Hara 1997).

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THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 93

IT DOESN’T END HERE While you’re swallowing your morning regimen of preventative, antioxidant multivitamins with a glass of milk to prevent osteoporosis, consider your brain for a moment. Just as children benefit from certain food as they grow, adults can ease the brain’s aging process by maintaining a healthy diet rich in superfoods.

Even with the recent spike of Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia in the last century, aging should never mean surrendering your mental faculties as luxuries of the past. Researchers at the USDA Human Research Center on Aging have discovered that one of the most powerful tools available in preventing the negative effects of aging on the brain are the previously mentioned micronutrients, antioxidants. These researchers have also developed a breakthrough assessment technique called the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, which can be used to rank how antioxidant-packed certain foods are. Topping the list were fruits and some vegetables, including blueberries (with the highest ORAC value), black plums, sweet cherries, navel oranges, avocado and red grapes (Schulze 2011).

Of course, it is important to mention that food alone—no matter how “super”—cannot make someone intelligent. That would be the equivalent of guzzling protein shakes without the intent of actually lifting weights. Though proper nutrition significantly amplifies its effects, there is really only one way to capitalize on your brain’s potential: use it! Socialize, read, write, and do arithmetic! Keep yourself psychologically well. Relish the excitement of acute stressful episodes and avoid the exhausting cycle of chronic stress. Expose yourself to new, fascinating things and learn every day. An active brain thrives on proper nutrition, yes, but activating it is up to you; mental fitness builds in both the classroom and the cafeteria. •

WORKS CITED Medina, John. “Breast-Feeding Debate Closed? Brain Science Weighs In.” Breaking News and Opinion on The Huffington Post.

26 Jan. 2011. Web. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/john-medina-phd/breastfeeding-debate-brain-development_b_807768. html>.

Nixon, Robin. “Brain Food: How to Eat Smart.” Live Science.

7 Jan. 2009. Web. <http://www.livescience.com/3186-brain-foodeat-smart.html>.

Schulze, Deb. “Food and the Aging Brain.” The Baltimore Sun. 2 Feb. 2011. Web. <http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/health/fitness/2011/02/food_and_the_aging_brain.html>.

Sorgen, Carol. “Best Brain Foods for Brain Function, Health, and Memory.” WebMD - Better Information. Better Health. 18 Dec. 2008. Web. <http://www.webmd.com/diet/guide/eat-smarthealthier-brain>.

The Franklin Institute Online. “The Human Brain - Brain Food Pyramid.” Resources for Science Learning. The Franklin Institute, 2004. Web. <http://fi.edu/learn/brain/pyramid.html>.

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MMM… DOPAMINE… Some of the most recent and fascinating research done on the brain and eating suggests that brain chemicals have a surprising involvement in our response to food. A study published earlier this year in the journal Obesity has even implicated dopamine— a neurotransmitter associated with “reward and motivation”—as a culprit in binge eating behavior. This study, conducted at the Department of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory, measured dopamine spikes in the brains of obese binge-eaters and obese people who did not binge eat. The spikes were found to be dramatic in the former group and mostly absent in the latter (DOE 2011). One conclusion of this study and others like it could be that our brains can process food as if it is an addictive substance. Of course, there is plenty of controversy over the phrase “food addiction,” and for good reason. Certainly, it would be unreasonable to ask a “food addict” to quit cold turkey.

Still, many abnormalities in eating behavior—from binge eating to anorexia nervosa—can be traced back to having chemical or psychological origins in the brain. This is one reason why many prominent neuroscientists in this field of study assert that the controls of eating are best studied primarily through behavioral neuroscience, rather than with a strict focus on our metabolic needs (Smith 2000). It can be baffling to observe how our minds can override what our bodies seem to require—driving us to overindulge in nutritionally horrendous foods… or not eat at all. Ironically, listening to our bodies may be the brightest choice of all. •

WORKS CITED Black, Harvey. “The Amygdala’s Inner Workings.” The Good Drug Guide. The Scientist, 1 Oct. 2001. Web. <http://biopsychiatry.com/amygdala.htm>.

DOE/Brookhaven National Laboratory. “Binge eaters’ dopamine levels spike at sight, smell of food.” ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2011.

Web. 7 Oct. 2011.

Hara, Takako. “Hunger and Eating.” California State University, Northbridge. 1997. Web. 5 Oct. 2011. http://www.csun. edu/~vcpsy00h/students/hunger.htm.

Smith, Gerard P. “The Controls of Eating: a Shift from Nutritional Homeostasis to Behavioral Neuroscience.” Nutrition 16.10 (2000): 814-20. ScienceDirect. Web. 6 Oct. 2011.

Smith, Gerard P., and Nori Geary. “The Behavioral Neuroscience of Eating.” Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress. Ed. Kenneth L. Davis. 1st ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002. 1665-673. Print.

Super Size Me. Dir. Morgan Spurlock. 2004.

Wohl, Shirlee. “The Experience of Eating.” Yale Scientific Magazine | The Nation’s Oldest College Science Publication. 3 Apr. 2011. Web. <http://www.yalescientific.org/2011/04/the-experience-of-eating/>.

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S F T O N E S ’ M C E L B P 12 A P THE ARY SU T E I D

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QUICK TIPS

1

Eat a healthy diet. A multivitamin provides some insurance against deficiencies but is far less important for health than the healthy food patterns.

Choose a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and healthy oils, and low in red meat and unhealthy fats.

2

Choose a dail y multivitamin.

A dail y multivitamin is an inexpensive nutrition insurance policy. Try to take one every day.

3

Think about D. In addition to its bone health benefits, there’s growing evidence that getting some extra vitamin D can help lower the risk of colon and breast cancer.

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WE FRE

How many times a semester do you find yourself tagged out because of the infamous Wells plague? Depending on your daily routine and personal eating habits, the answer may be more often than you would like. What if you could decrease your chances of getting sick and boost your overall health? Would you take the steps to achieve this?

When illness hits mid-semester and causes work, academic and extra-curricular commitments, and stress to pile up, I, like most students, do my best to sidestep it. While many students have some general idea of how to prevent sickness and how to recover if they do catch the latest cold, vitamins are often a source of confusion when navigating the long list of potential aids. With the ever-expanding pharmaceuticals market churning out new over-the-counter medications, it is easy to head to the store and grab the option that looks best in order to put your cold out of commission. While otc medications can provide the necessary cure for an illness, I personally try to avoid taking medications unless absolutely necessary and I try to avoid getting sick in the first place, because, let's face it, who actually wants to get sick? This is where vitamins and dietary supplements come into play.

As defined by the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, a dietary supplement is a “product that supplements the food you eat, contains one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and other substances), comes in a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid form, and is labeled as a dietary supplement.” Dietary supplements can benefit individuals from every walk of life: children and teens with irregular eating habits, people with medical conditions, vegetarians and vegans, dieters avoiding specific food groups, and people who often eat processed or fast foods. Standing in the vitamin aisle of your local store, however, can be confusing and overwhelming, to say the least. Even if you know which supplement you need, the dosage and safety of a particular supplement is often unclear, creating a new slew of questions and concerns for potential users.

In order to break down the range of dietary supplements, I will distinguish between two types of supplements: vitamin and mineral supplements, and herbal supplements.

Vitamin and mineral supplements are those supplements that contain micronutrients to help the human body function smoothly. Herbal supplements are those supplements that have a medicinal purpose and are generally meant to aid a targeted area of the body, such as the liver, skin, or bones. The main distinction between vitamin and mineral supplements and herbal supplements is that herbal supplements are considered to have medicinal value. As a precaution, individuals who take other medications should talk to their doctor before deciding to start an herbal supplement regimen because prescription drugs and herbal supplements can negatively interact and cause adverse side effects.

While a majority of students are healthy and don’t take prescription medications, there are some common interactions that could pertain to the health of a student: calcium can interact with heart medication, diuretics, and antacids containing aluminum and magnesium; magnesium can interact with diuretics, cancer drugs, and antacids containing magnesium; vitamin K can interact with blood thinning medication; and St. John’s Wort can interact with anti-depressant medications and birth control pills and decrease their effectiveness.

AB6B12CDE: DO YOU KNOW YOUR (VITAMIN) ABC’S? Multivitamins: The “All Purpose” Vitamin Multivitamins offer one-hundred percent of the Recommended Daily Allowance for many important vitamins and minerals, including vitamins A, C, D, and E, B vitamins, and folic acid. The upside to multivitamins is that you only have one vitamin to take and one label to pay attention to. Since extreme deficiencies are uncommon in healthy, young individuals, multivitamins are often an ideal supplement that help to fill in the minor deficiencies not filled by a healthy diet.

Vitamin A: The “Superpower” Vitamin This nutrient improves your eyes’ ability to see in the dark, stimulates white blood cell production, aids in the remodeling of bone, helps maintain endothelial cells that line the body’s interior surfaces, and regulates cell growth and division. Since vitamin A regulates cell growth, researchers have been exploring whether vitamin A can help reduce the risk of cancer. The current recommended Daily Value for vitamin A is 700 micrograms and common sources of vitamin A include breakfast cereals, juices, dairy products, and many fruits and vegetables.

Vitamins B6 and B12 : The “Healthy Heart” Vitamin Some studies show that these two B vitamins lower the risk of heart disease and some types of cancer. The two B vitamins are important for ensuring stable moods and avoiding addiction because they aid in the formation of the brain chemicals dopamine, epinephrine, and serotonin. These nutrients also help maintain a sharp mind; lack of these vitamins can lead to memory loss and inability to focus. Most individuals get sufficient levels of the B vitamins from food intake, so the recommended Daily Values are low. The current recommended Daily Value for vitamin B6 is 1.5 micrograms and for B12 the recommended Daily Value is 2.4 micrograms. Common sources of the two B vitamins are fortified cereals, beans, poultry, fish, dark leafy greens, papayas, oranges, and cantaloupe.

Vitamin C: The “Cold Fighting” Vitamin Vitamin C is most commonly known to ward off colds and boost immune health. This nutrient is also a strong antioxidant that helps neutralize the harmful effect of free radicals and it helps make collagen and tissue necessary for healthy bones, teeth, gums, and blood vessels. The recommended Daily Value for vitamin C is 200-300 milligrams and common sources of the vitamin include citrus fruits or citrus juices, berries, green and red peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, and spinach.

Vitamin D: The “Sunshine” Vitamin This is one of the most common vitamin deficiencies world-wide. Problems that arise from having low levels of vitamin D include osteoporosis, heart diseases, tuberculosis, and the seasonal flu. Walking outside in the sun for just fifteen minutes a day can provide your body with the necessary vitamin D. The recommended Daily Value for this nutrient is 800-1,000 IU. If you are unable to get your vitamin D intake from the sun, good sources of vitamin D include dairy products, breakfast cereals, and fatty fish (salmon and tuna).

4

Say no to “megas.” In general, avoid mega-dose vitamins and mega-fortified foods. Higher doses of vitamin E may help to prevent heart disease, but in general, the amount in a standard multivitamin is enough to have health benefits.

5

Avoid “super” supplements. Don’t be swayed by the wild health claims of the many health supplements advertised on TV and the Internet. If they sound too good to be true, you can be sure they are.

Save your money for healthy food and a good vacation.

Adapted from the website for Harvard’s School of Public Health

5 QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING A SUPPLEMENT Do I need this supplement?

Do I know that this supplement is safe?

Does this supplement interact with any drug or food I am consuming?

Do I know that this supplement works?

Do I know enough about this supplement?

Adapted from helpguide.org

THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 97

Vitamin K: The “Red Cross” Vitamin This nutrient helps produce one-fourth of the proteins necessary for blood clotting. Vitamin K is also an essential nutrient in bone health because it is involved in building bone. The recommended Daily Value is 120 micrograms for men and 90 micrograms for women. Common sources of vitamin K include kale, collard greens, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and commonly used cooking oils.

Calcium: The “Strong Bone” Vitamin This nutrient plays a strong role in bone health. Calcium helps reduce the risk for osteoporosis and colon cancer, although extremely high intake of the vitamin can actually increase the risk of prostate and ovarian cancers. The recommended Daily Value is 1,000 IU and sources of calcium include milk and dairy products, collards, bok choy, and baked beans.

While eating a well-balanced array of foods is the most ideal way to absorb all of the nutrients our body needs, we as college students who depend on the food provided by the dining hall do not consistently eat healthfully, especially given the buffet style dining and abundant dessert options. Since vitamins are meant to aid and support a (generally) healthy diet, simply taking vitamins will not make you healthy or provide you with the superpower ability to skip the veggies and eat only dessert. If you decide that supplements are something that could benefit your health, always do research about the supplements first! Prior to starting a dietary supplement, check the safety and effectiveness of what you are going to take. The website for the National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements has information about every dietary supplement sold in stores. Once you have checked the safety and effectiveness of a supplement, be sure to find out what the proper dosage is. The Mayo Clinic offers a searchable supplement database available to the public via their website. The database rates the effectiveness of a supplement for various health conditions, explains safety concerns, and outlines recommended dosages.

There are also a few guidelines and safety precautions to keep in mind when assessing which supplements may be right for you.

Since nutritional, dietary, and herbal supplements are not classified as drugs, the Food and Drug Administration does not analyze the contents of supplements. Additionally, the manufacturers of these products are not required to determine product safety or efficacy, although they are required to meet the FDA’s Good Manufacturing Practices for food. If you find yourself in the vitamin aisle examining the labels on different supplement containers, keep in mind that specific health claims are not approved by the FDA and the manufacturers are required to include a disclaimer that states the supplement is not intended to “diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.” The label will also include a Daily Value describing the recommended daily intake of that par98 HEALTH

ticular supplement, if a Daily Value is established. It is also important to look for supplements that are “standardized” products from manufacturers that are members of the US Pharmacopeia’s Dietary Supplement Verified Program or the NSF International program, to ensure the quality and safety of the supplement.

Since dietary supplements do not have to be analyzed by the FDA, they can often be marketed without evidence of safety or efficacy. Supplement manufacturers are allowed to make claims regarding health, nutritional content, and supplement function, with very limited restrictions. A health claim describes a connection between a dietary supplement ingredient and reducing the risk of a health-related condition. Nutrient claims refer to the percentage of Daily Value of the nutrient provided in the supplement. Function claims describe how a product might affect organs or body systems, but this type of claim cannot mention specific diseases. As a final precaution, never substitute supplements for medications because they do not always serve the same purpose.

Living in the Wells bubble and being a college student, catching a cold or lacking nutrients seems inevitable. Dietary supplements can support your overall health and boost your immune system; just like the alphabet provides the foundation for words and keeps the English language functioning smoothly, supplements provide the nutrients necessary to keep your body running smoothly. Take advantage of the benefits that dietary supplements can offer, and you won’t have to worry about whether you are eating one-hundred percent healthy. •

WORKS CONSULTED “The Bottom Line.” Harvard School of Public Health. N.p., n.d.

Web. 10 Oct. 2011 <http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/vitamins/index.html> Kemp, Gina; Robinson, Lawrence; Segal, Jeanne. “Dietary Supplements: The Smart and Safe Use of Vitamins and Supplements.”

Help Guide. N.p., n.d. Web 8 Oct. 2011 <http://www.helpguide. org/life/supplements_dietary_nutritional_herbal.htm> Wadyka, Sally. “CNN Health.” 1 Jan. 2010. CNN. 7 Oct. 2011 <http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-01/health/multi.vitamins. info_1_mineral-supplement-b-vitamins-chewable-vitamins?_s= PM:HEALTH>.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.

Feb. 2009. 6 Oct. 2011. <http://nccam.nih.gov/health/supplements/wiseuse.htm>.

WELLS’S RESIDENT GODDESS ANSWERS YOUR BURNING QUESTIONS.

PHOTOGRAPH BY ALEX SCHLOOP / THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 99

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

How do I make sure I stay connected with campus when I study abroad next year?

At times I feel that I joined too many clubs and activities with all my homework.

Should I drop something, even if I love everything I’m involved with?

I feel very lonely. I ask people to hang out and attend social events. Despite all the reaching out I do, no one seems to reach back. What should I be doing?

Sincerely, Overwhelmed

Sincerely, Seeking Camaraderie

Dear Insanely Involved,

Dear Solitary Student,

While it’s fantastic that you’re involved in so many of the wonderful clubs and activities Wells College has to offer, I would absolutely recommend that you drop something. Just dropping one or two activities will certainly lighten your load, and you can certainly rejoin when you have more time. Think of it this way: if you’re stretching yourself between all your involvements and schoolwork, you’re not contributing 100% to any of it. Allowing yourself more free time permits you to commit greater value into the clubs you’re still involved with.

I applaud your efforts to attend social events and reach out to your fellow students. However, it is not always easy to break into social groups. I would suggest buying a pizza or snacks and inviting a group of people over to play a variety of games. This creates a lowpressure situation, and people are likely to show up if their friends are also invited. Note, you should not invite people on Facebook or passing in the esophagus! These types of invitations can easily be blown off. Instead invite the group when they’re sitting down in the dining hall or in another social setting.

Sincerely, Abroad but not Forgotten Dear Connected to Campus, Skype is a great way to keep in contact with your friends. For additional fun, suggest they hold a Skype party where they can all get together at once! Staying in touch with the campus in general can be done by checking your Wells e-mail routinely and emailing your professors. Also, the celebration of traditions such as Odd/Even can be performed with new friends even while abroad. And although you won’t be on campus, keep in touch with any clubs and activities you’re involved in. Remember, with the use of computers you can still make posters for events or write articles for publications.

100 DEAR MINERVA

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

What do you do if people on your floor are too loud at night but you don’t want to be “that kid” and complain?

My roommate continues to sexile me. We established in our roommate agreement that we would not do that, but he still does.

I feel awkward bringing it up but it really bothers me. How do I confront them about it?

Why do people use Facebook for things they can’t say to someone’s face?

Sincerely, That Kid Dear Careful Complainant, If you really want to see results, you’re going to have to be “that kid.” The good news is that you should only have to be the complaining person once, possibly twice. Nicely explain to the noisemakers that it is past quiet hours, and with these paper-thin walls, you can hear all their activity while you’re trying to study or sleep. If the noise persists, I would suggest speaking to your RA or calling security to make a noise complaint. Through these methods, you should receive results without the loud students realizing you’re the complainant. Quality ear buds or ear plugs are also recommended.

Sincerely, Locked Out Dear Secluded by Sex, Many students have faced this unfortunate situation. I would recommend first talking to your roommate, one-on-one. Remind him of the roommate agreement and the rules you both laid out. Also make sure to explain how uncomfortable the situation makes you. The best way to solve the problem is through compromise. Suggest he stay in her room occasionally, and set up a schedule of when he can use the room. Maybe one or two evenings a week you could spend some time with other friends or doing work in the library. Add this new arrangement to the roommate agreement and make sure he knows you expect him to follow it.

Sincerely, Trying to Live in the Real World Dear Facebook Flustered, Facebook, like any social networking website, allows people to express their emotions while simultaneously hiding behind a computer screen. Even though their name appears on the screen, there’s still a sense of anonymity. I encourage you to sit down in a calm environment with said person(s) and discuss whatever the problem is. You will most likely find that this person tends to be less opinionated and hostile when confronted face to face.

PHOTOGRAPH BY ALEX SCHLOOP / THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 101

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

How do I stop procrastinating? I always get everything down, but I’m tired of working up to the absolute last minute.

I have two friends that have been together for a long time. Their relationship has become toxic. He is manipulative and she will not leave the relationship. Is there anything anyone can do to make her see things differently?

My roommate has a friend that will never leave our room. She sleeps on our floor every night, even though she has a single.

How can I ask her to leave without hurting her feelings?

Sincerely, I Put the “Pro” in “Procrastination” Dear Professional Procrastinator, Starting your projects earlier is a simple answer to your question, but it’s definitely easier said than done. Instead, schedule time during your week to work on projects. Time before, in between, or after a class allows you to be most productive because you will still be of the learning mind-frame. Scheduling this time with a friend is also helpful in making sure you keep your homework commitment. Even just an hour a day in the library will help so you’re not finishing all your work the morning it is due.

D E A R M I N ERVA , I want to live with someone else next semester. My current roommate and I get along and I don’t want to offend them.

What do I do?

Sincerely, Looking for an Out Dear Mindful Mover, This conversation can be difficult. Obviously you do not want to hurt your current roommate’s feelings, yet you need to do what is best for yourself. Discussion on the topic is going to be necessary eventually, and sooner is definitely better than later. Start a conversation with your roommate by reliving some of the great memories the two of you shared. Then explain to hir how much you enjoyed being roommates, but that you received the opportunity to live with a friend that you feel very compatible with. To further lessen the sting, you could offer suggestions for a new roommate for hir.

102 DEAR MINERVA

Sincerely, A Concerned Friend Dear Anxious Amigo, Unfortunately there is not much you can do.

While we hate to see our friends in awful relationships, they need to come to this realization on their own. Constantly telling your friend how much of a jerk her boyfriend is and that she should break up with him is only going to make her angry at you. Instead, next time she is upset, suggest she make a pro-con list about the relationship. Be present for support, but be wary of making suggestions to the con side of the list. After this list is complete, have a serious discussion with your friend about her wants, needs, and where she sees the relationship going.

Sincerely, The Third Wheel Dear Treacherous Triple, First have a discussion with your roommate about the situation. Remind her that you signed up for a double with her, not a triple with her and her friend. Make sure you explain that it’s nothing against the friend, and describe how you feel uncomfortable. You could also suggest that your roommate stay in her friend’s room occasionally. If your roommate wants you to confront the friend, I would recommend sitting down with the third girl and just being honest. If the problem is not resolved, you may want to consider a new roommate or a single for next semester.

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

D E A R M I N ERVA ,

How is statue life? What’s your story?

What do you do when you like someone on campus but you hear he’s a player?

Love, A Big Fan

Sincerely, Player-wary

Dear Minerva’s Minion,

Dear Self-respecting Sister, You’re going to have to judge this person for yourself. At a small school like Wells, stories and gossip spread like wildfire. While most rumors usually emerge from a seed of truth, they can be elaborated and blown out of proportion to make a more interesting tale. Be aware of the warnings you have received, and let them be present in the back of your mind. However, overall you’re going to have to be responsible for making your own assessment of the guy’s character.

I was originally a gift from Henry Wells’ son, Charles Wells, in 1868. I am the Roman goddess of poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, and the inventor of music. During the fire of 1888, I watched in horror as the building—along with all the furniture, classrooms, records, and statues—was destroyed. I was the only entity left standing. Against all odds, Main building was rebuilt and here I stand. Through the years I have been presented flowers, decorated in all colors, was subject to a couple abductions, had my feet routinely kissed by seniors, and have had the pleasure to watch the faces of many strong women (and now men!) come and go. •

PHOTOGRAPH BY ALEX SCHLOOP / THE SYCAMORE / FALL 2011 103

BY TANK BRADLEY ’12 PHOTOGRAPHY CONTEST WINNER

FIELD. DUBLIN HILL.