ISBN 978-976-96356-0-9
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation First Edition © 2019.
Volume1 William Anderson Gittens Page 1 of 288
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner, Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Normative
Statement
The particular tenure of
Technology1 is de-
cisive, expeditious and pervasive.
The more technology evolves, it is seemingly
creating a paradigm shift.
A case in point, metaphorically, this shift
is creating vibrations and waves within global
cultural spheres especially the populace way of
life.
1
https://literacysummit.ca/
Page 2 of 288
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Although these vibrations2 are physical evi-
dence of waves, yet they
ficity;
impacting
how
are varying in speci-
global
citizens
feel;
think, learn, understand, process an idea, con-
structing
sions
a
sentence,
and
within this cultural
structuring
expres-
post-globalization3
conversation.
In retrospect the aforementioned phenomenon
so activated the contours of my intellect that I
2
https://www.answers.com/
3 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
Page 3 of 288
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was compel to analyse the aforementioned phe-
nomenon through my lens.
A close-up in my field of view of a report
recorded in the Daily Trust dated Thursday July
25 2019 titled Norther Nigerian Writers4 Summit
activated the contours of my intellect.
The area of focus includes:-
• Budgetary allocations;
4
https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/Abubakar Adam Ibrahim | Published Date Oct 22, 2017 2:00 AM
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• Coercing and establishing writers and institu-
tions
elsewhere
to
facilitate
capacities
of
young writers through publishing;
• Deliberation,
• Designing a blueprint as a result of resolu-
tions;
• Developing creative writing;
• Exploring
and
establishing
Book
Development
Agencies;
• Get maximum value for their creative products;
Presenting of
papers by prominent writers; Page 5 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
• Institutionalise
book
development
initiatives
through official recognition;
• Issuing communiqués;
• Liaise with Copyrights Commission;
• Measuring of attaining literary development;
• Measuring one self to position one self;
• Mentoring of the next generation;
• Mentoring,
• Prizes,
• Promotion of literature;
• Raising of funds; Page 6 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
• Reaching resolutions;
• Residencies,
• Stirring of global citizens
intellectual con-
sciousness;
• Strategising;
• The
protection
of
intellectual
writers;
• Tools for cultural preservation.
• Trainings, and conferences;
• Transitioning;
• Workshops, Page 7 of 288
properties
of
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Presumably If culture and writing are inex-
tricably linked? then it is like a theoretical
framework which is crafted in this logical dis-
course for future research simultaneously set-
ting the tone and the tenor of a writer’s sum-
mit.
A
summit
refines
communication,
reading, and writing skills.
Page 8 of 288
literacy,
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
The aforesaid is like “Every mountain5 top
which is within reach if you just keep climbing”
a view espoused by Barry Finlay; is a way of
life in this conversation.
Although this discourse can be perceived as
a portrait yet
it is analysed within a cultural
context and is also
a pretext to examine the
contours of Culture and Writing.
5
https://travelingilove.com/category/mountains/
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Arguably, writing6, is a form of human commu-
nication by means of a set of visible marks that
are related, by convention, to some particular
structural level of language.
Writing7 is an expression of language rather
than simply a way of transcribing speech that
gives to writing, it is written language and to
literacy, its special properties a view espoused
by David R. Olson8
6
https://www.britannica.com/
7
https://www.britannica.com/
8
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
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As long as writing was seen merely as tran-
scription,
as
guists
Ferdinand
as
it
was
by
de
such
pioneering
Saussure
and
lin-
Leonard
Bloomfield earlier in the 20th century, its con-
ceptual significance was seriously underestimat-
ed.
Once
writing
was
seen
as
providing
a
new
medium for linguistic expression, its distinct-
ness from speech was more clearly grasped.
Scholars
such
as
Milman
Parry,
Marshall
McLuhan, Eric Havelock, Jack Goody, and Walter Page 11 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Ong were among the first to analyze the concep-
tual and social implications of using written as
opposed to oral forms of communication.
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner,Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self
Conversation. Volume1
Page 12 of 288
In This
Post-Globalization
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Copyright
A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This
Post-
Globalization Conversation.Volume1
William Anderson Gittens
Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner
First Edition © 2019 All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechaniPage 13 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
cal, photocopying, recording or otherwise, with-
out the prior written permission of William An-
derson Gittens the copyright owner. Typesetting,
Layout Design, Illustrations, and Photography by
William Anderson Gittens
Edited by William Anderson Gittens
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9
Published by Devgro Media Arts Services
Email address wgittens11@gmail.com
Twitter account William Gittens @lisalaron
https://www.facebook.com/wgittens2 Page 14 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
https://www.linkedin.com/in/william-anderson-
gittens-author-media-artsspecialist-b1886b26
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCxYWov8tzbe5r-
Hzik528dAw
Page 15 of 288
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Recognitions
Special thanks to the Creator for his guid-
ance and choosing me as a conduit to express the
creative gifts he has given me and my late par-
ents Charles and Ira Gittens.
Thanks to those who assisted me along this
journey namely my Beloved wife Magnola Gittens,
my Brothers- Shurland, Charles, Ricardo, Arnott,
Stephen,
Sisters-
Emerald, Page 16 of 288
Marcella,
Cheryl,
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Cousins-Joy
Mayers,
Kevin
and
Ernest
Mayers,
Donna Archer, Avis Dyer, Jackie Clarke, Uncles-
Clifford,
Leonard
Mayers,
David
Rock. My children Laron and Lisa.
Bruce,
Collin
Well-wishers-
Mr.and Mrs. Andrew Platizky, Mr. Matthew Sutton,
Mr.& Mrs. Gordon Alleyne, Mr. Juan Arroyo, Mr.
and
Mrs.
David
Dr.Nicholas
Lavine,
Gordon,
the
Mrs.
late
Ellen
Gordon,
Dr.Joseph
Drew,
Merline Mayers, Mr. and Mrs. Trevor Millington,
Rev.
&
Mrs.
Donavon
Shoemaker,
Ms.
Geraldine
Davis, Rev.Carl and Rev Angie Dixon, Mrs. Gloria Page 17 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Rock, Rev.Pauline Harewood, Mr. and Mrs. Stewart
Russell, Mrs. Shirley Smith, Mr. and Mrs. Felton
Ince, Mr. and Mrs. David Brathwaite, Mr.and Mrs.
Ryan Miller Mr.and Mrs. Neilo Mascoll, Mr. and
Mrs. Robert Quintyne
Special
mentioned
is
given
to
Dr.
Joseph
Drew was my advisor, mentor, and teacher during
my academic tenure as a Media Arts Major at Jer-
sey City State College now New Jersey
City University (NJCU). Page 18 of 288
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The focus of our parting conversation was
about me honing my writing skills after I had
graduated
and
returned
to
Barbados.
Between
theperiod 1995 to 2016, I have discovered that
the more that I practice this leisure pursuit
profession it seemed to be infectious among oth-
er elements.
The other elements such as being passionate
and
prolific
combined
together
with
the
Cre-
ator’s help, made me a productive writer to the
extent that I have now published 65 books. Page 19 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
In light of the aforesaid, I have decided to
dedicate my 66 th publication
“A Tribute To Culture” Vol 1 in memory of
Dr. Joseph Drew .
All of the above contributed to my academic
developmental journey.
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner, Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self
Post-Globalization
Conversation. Volume1
Page 20 of 288
In This
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Normative Statement
2
Copyright
13
Recognitions
16
Table of Contents
21
Foreword
24
Abstract
27
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History of Writing
54
Chapter 1 Literacy Acquisition
118
Chapter 2 Culture Defined
153
Chapter 3 Overview
161
Chapter 4 Digital Literacy
172
Chapter. 5 Communication Technology
183
Chapter 6 Reading
199
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Chapter 7 Writing Skills
209
Chapter 8 Personal Reflections
221
Chapter 9 Conclusion Reflections
223
Chapter 10 Conclusion
229
Works Cited
235
Author
252
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Foreword
Various modern cultural studies9 and social
theories have investigated what is lost and what
is gained as we embrace new forms of literacy.
Communication
and
relationships
are
stantly evolving in relation to technology.
9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity
Page 24 of 288
con-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
In the post globalised era where Culture is
a unique fingerprint;10 amalgamation of visual,
auditory, and functional components that allows
people see, hear, touch, or talk to as they in-
teract with computers (digital devices)11in this
post-globalization12 space creates so many dif-
ferent waves and vibrations13that it is impera-
tive that global citizens navigate their various
evolving environments. 10 https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/organisations/department-of-media-music-communication-and-cultural-studies 11 https://www.igi-global.com/ 12 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/ 13 https://www.dkfindout.com/us/science/sound
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New technology has brought some disruption
because
It has created a divide between what
was and what is.
Therefore the changing methods of communica-
tion
impact
common
the
values
populace’s
and
ability
understanding
life.
Page 26 of 288
to
among
create
way
of
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Abstract
The particular tenure of
decisive,
expeditious
and
Technology14 is so
pervasive
evolution has seemingly activated a
that
its
paradigm
shift; modifying the way of life of global citi-
zens to the extent that metaphorically; it has
created waves within the orbit of global citi-
zens the way that they feel, think, learn, and
14
https://literacysummit.ca/
Page 27 of 288
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understand has created an ethos
within this
post-globalization15 cultural space.
During the Deconstructing of the aforemen-
tioned
statement
I
unearthed
the
question
Is
culture and writing inextricably linked?
This framed theoretical question is synony-
mous to a writer’s summit which sets the tone
and the tenor of communication, literacy, read-
ing, writing skills which is a way of
life.
15 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
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In light of my field of view “Every moun-
tain16
top
is
within
reach
if
climbing” according Barry Finlay.
you
just
keep
And therefore
although this discourse can be perceived as a
portrait; yet
it is analysed within a cultural
context and is also
a pretext that underscores
the contours of Culture and Writing.
16
https://travelingilove.com/category/mountains/
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Writing , is a form of human communication
by means of a set of visible marks that are re-
lated, by convention, to some particular struc-
tural level of language. David R. Olson17 writ-
ing18 is an expression of language rather than
simply a way of transcribing speech that gives
to writing, and hence to written language and to
literacy, its special properties.
17
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
18
https://www.britannica.com/
Page 30 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
As long as writing was seen merely as tran-
scription,
as
guists
Ferdinand
as
it
was
by
de
such
pioneering
Saussure
and
lin-
Leonard
Bloomfield earlier in the 20th century, its con-
ceptual significance was seriously underestimat-
ed.
Once
writing
was
seen
as
providing
a
new
medium for linguistic expression, its distinct-
ness
from
speech
was
more
clearly
grasped.
Scholars such as Milman Parry, Marshall McLuhan,
Eric Havelock, Jack Goody, and Walter Ong were Page 31 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
among the first to analyze the conceptual and
social implications of using written as opposed
to oral forms of communication.
Language, for example, is a major aspect of
our identity and language, both what and how we
speak, is determined from birth by environment
and social culture. It is further influenced by
education.
Page 32 of 288
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It is for this reason that the expeditious-
ness and the pervasiveness of Technology19 is un-
derscored in this text because during its evulv-
inary process
invariably is changing the way of
life of global citizens feel, think, learn, and
understand has created an ethos
within this
post-globalization20 cultural space.
19
https://literacysummit.ca/
20 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
Page 33 of 288
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History of Writing
It is reported that historically, writing21
traces the development of expressing language by
letters or other marks22 and also the studies and
descriptions of these developments.
Chapter 1 Literacy Acquisition
Ulla Damber has asserted that literacy ac-
quisition23
21
by
using
computers
and
computer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Peter T. Daniels, "The Study of Writing Systems", in The World's Writing Systems, ed. Bright and Daniels, p.3 22
23
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1078345.pdf
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tablets
is
rapidly
gaining
classrooms. It appears
ground
in
Swedish
that computer-writing
vitalizes the learning of literacy, in compari-
son with approaches using books and pencils.
Chapter 2 Culture Defined
Clifford
Geertz24
(1926-present)
is
best
known for his ethnographic studies of Javanese
culture (Java is an Indonesian island south of
24 https://condor.depaul.edu/dweinste/popcult/geertz.html
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Borneo) and for his writings about the interpre-
tation of culture.
Chapter 3 Overview
According Werner Karl Heisenberg 25 Even for
the physicist the description in plain language
will be a criterion of the degree of understand-
ing that has been reached.
25
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awcgate.htm
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When I deconstructed the fact that the expe-
ditiousness and the pervasiveness
gy26
and
its
evolving
process
it
of
Technolo-
seems
to
be
changing the way of life of global citizens es-
pecially how they feel, think, learn, and under-
standing
This entire process
has created an ethos
with-
in this post-globalization27 cultural space and
hence advances the question Is culture and writ-
ing inextricably linked? 26
https://literacysummit.ca/
27 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
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The aforementioned frames the
theoretical ques-
tion which is synonymous to a writer’s summit
that examines
communication, literacy, reading,
writing skills which is now
a way of
life.
For example,“Every mountain28 top is within reach
if you just keep climbing” according Barry Fin-
lay
28
https://travelingilove.com/category/mountains/
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Although this discourse can be perceived as
a portrait yet
the same is analysed within a
cultural context and is also
a pretext that un-
derscores the contours of Culture and Writing.
Importantly, writing29, is a form of human
communication by means of a set of visible marks
that are related, by convention, to some partic-
ular structural level of language. For instance
29
https://www.britannica.com/
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David R. Olson30 writing31 is an expression of
language rather than simply a way of transcrib-
ing speech that gives to writing, and hence to
written language and to literacy, its special
properties.
Consequently,As
long
as
writing
was
seen
merely as transcription, as it was by such pio-
neering linguists as Ferdinand de Saussure and
Leonard Bloomfield earlier in the 20th century, 30
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
31
https://www.britannica.com/
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its conceptual significance was seriously under-
estimated. Once writing was seen as providing a
new medium for linguistic expression, its dis-
tinctness from speech was more clearly grasped.
Scholars such as Milman Parry, Marshall McLuhan,
Eric Havelock, Jack Goody, and Walter Ong were
among the first to analyze the conceptual and
social implications of using written as opposed
to oral forms of communication.
Chapter 4 Digital Literacy, Page 41 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Schools are continuously updating their cur-
ricula to keep up with accelerating technologi-
cal developments.
This often includes computers in the class-
room, the use of educational software to teach
curricula,
and
course
materials
being
made
available to students online.
Students
are
often
taught
literacy
skills
such as how to verify credible sources online,
cite web sites, and prevent plagiarism. Google
and Wikipedia are frequently used by students Page 42 of 288
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"for everyday life research,"32 and are just two
common tools that facilitate modern education.
Digital technology has impacted the way ma-
terial is taught in the classroom.
With the use of technology rising over the
past decade, educators are altering traditional
forms of teaching to include course material on
concepts
related
to
digital
literacy33 Several
Head, A., & Eisenberg, M. (2009, December). How college students seek information in the digital age. Retrieved from http://ctl.yale.edu/sites/default/files/basic-page-supplementary-materials-files/how_students_seek_information_in_the_digital_age.pdf 32
Greenhow, Christine; Sonnevend, Julia; Agur, Colin (6 May 2016). Education and Social Media: Toward a Digital Future. MIT Press. ISBNÂ 9780262334860. 33
Page 43 of 288
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websites are assisting in these efforts such as
Google Docs, Prezi, and, Easybib
Chapter. 5 Communication Technology
Careers34 in communication technology require
the knowledge to operate, maintain, and upgrade
communications equipment.
Individuals
field
34
must
within
have
an
the
computer
understanding
https://learn.org/
Page 44 of 288
technology
of
wireless
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
technologies,
mechanical
operations,
computer
applications, and problem solving
Chapter 6 Reading
Mara E. Vatz reported Andrew Solomon, in a
New York Times op-ed, concludes: “Readers, in
other words, are active, while non-readers–more
than half the population–have settled into apa-
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thy.”that reading books35 “requires effort, con-
centration, attention.
In exchange, it offers the stimulus to and
the fruit of thought and feeling….The electronic
media, on the other hand, tend to be torpid.
Despite
the
existence
of
good
television,
fine writing on the Internet, and video games
that
test
logic,
the
electronic
large invite inert reception.”
35
https://www.technologyreview.com/
Page 46 of 288
media
by
and
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Chapter 7 Writing Skills
Historically,
Writing36
has
its
origins
in
the strip of fertile land stretching from the
Nile up into the area often referred to as the
Fertile Crescent.
This name was given, in the early 20th cen-
tury, to the inverted U-shape of territory that
stretches up the east Mediterranean coast and
then curves east through northern Syria and down
36
http://www.historyworld.net/default.asp?gtrack=mtop1
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the
Euphrates
and
the
Tigris
to
the
Persian
Gulf.
Chapter 8 Personal Reflections
In one general Digital technology has im-
pacted the way material is taught in the class-
room.
With the use of technology rising over the
past decade, educators are altering traditional
forms of teaching to include course material on
concepts related to digital literacy37 Greenhow, Christine; Sonnevend, Julia; Agur, Colin (6 May 2016). Education and Social Media: Toward a Digital Future. MIT Press. ISBNÂ 9780262334860. 37
Page 48 of 288
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Several websites are assisting in these ef-
forts such as Google Docs, Prezi, and, Easybib
Chapter 9 Conclusion Reflections
After pulling back the lens I have discov-
ered that Importantly, writing38, is a form of
human communication by means of a set of visible
38
https://www.britannica.com/
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marks that are related, by convention, to some
particular structural level of language.
For instance
David R. Olson39 writing40
is an expression of language rather than simply
a way of transcribing speech that gives to writ-
ing, and hence to written language and to liter-
acy, its special properties.
39
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
40
https://www.britannica.com/
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Careers41 in communication technology require
the knowledge to operate, maintain, and upgrade
communications equipment.
Individuals within the computer technolo-
gy field must have an understanding of wireless
technologies,
mechanical
operations,
applications, and problem solving
41
https://learn.org/
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computer
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Chapter 10 Conclusion
I deconstructed the theoretical question Is cul-
ture and writing inextricably linked? by showing
that because of the expeditiousness and the per-
vasiveness
evolutionary
of
Technology which is
still an
process is seemingly changing the
way of life of global citizens especially how
they feel, think, learn, and understanding.
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This entire process
within
this
has created an ethos
post-globalization
cultural
space
and hence culture and writing are inextricably
linked?
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner,Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self
Conversation. Volume1
Page 53 of 288
In This
Post-Globalization
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History of Writing
The history of writing42 traces the develop-
ment of expressing language by letters or other
marks43 and also the studies and descriptions of
these developments.
In the history of how writing systems have
evolved in different human civilizations, more
complete writing systems were preceded by proto-
writing, systems of ideographic or early mne42
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Peter T. Daniels, "The Study of Writing Systems", in The World's Writing Systems, ed. Bright and Daniels, p.3 43
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monic symbols (symbols or letters that make re-
membering them easier). True writing, in which
the content of a linguistic utterance is encoded
so that another reader can reconstruct, with a
fair
degree
of
accuracy,
the
exact
utterance
written down, is a later development. It is dis-
tinguished
from
proto-writing,
which
typically
avoids encoding grammatical words and affixes,
making it more difficult or impossible to recon-
struct the exact meaning intended by the writer
unless a great deal of context is already known Page 55 of 288
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in advance. One of the earliest forms of written
expression is cuneiform.44
It is generally agreed that true writing of
language (not only numbers, which goes back much
further) was independently conceived and devel-
oped in at least two ancient civilizations and
possibly more. The two places where it is most
certain
that
the
concept
of
writing
was
both
conceived and developed independently are in an-
cient Sumer (in Mesopotamia), between 3400 and Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon, New York, St. Martin's Press (2003) ISBNÂ 0-312-33002-2 44
Page 56 of 288
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3300 BC, and much later in Mesoamerica (by 300
BC)45 because no precursors have been found to
either of these in their respective regions.
Although writing systems also arose in Egypt
around 3100 BC and in China around 1200 BC in
the
Shang
whether
dynasty
these
(商朝),46
writing
systems
completely
independently
both
inspired
were
by
historians
or
were
whether
Sumerian
debate
developed
either
writing
or
via
Brian M. Fagan, Charlotte Beck, ed. (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 762. ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9. 45
William G. Boltz, "Early Chinese Writing", in The World's Writing Systems, ed. Bright and Daniels, p.191 46
Page 57 of 288
a
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process of cultural diffusion. That is, it is
possible that the concept of representing lan-
guage by using writing, though not necessarily
the specifics of how such a system worked, was
passed on by traders or merchants traveling be-
tween the two regions.47
Egyptian
script
is
dissimilar
from
Mesopotamian cuneiform, but similarities in con-
cepts and in earliest attestation suggest that
47
More recent examples of this include Pahawh Hmong and the Cherokee syllabary
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the idea of writing may have come to Egypt from
Mesopotamia.48
Ancient Chinese characters are considered by
many
to
be
an
independent
invention
because
there is no evidence of contact between ancient
China and the literate civilizations of the Near
East,[7] and because of the distinct differences
between the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches
to logography and phonetic representation.49
Peter T. Daniels, "The First Civilizations", in The World's Writing Systems, ed. Bright and Daniels, p.24 48
49
Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature. By Dr Gwendolyn Leick. Pg 3.
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Similar debate surrounds the Indus script of
the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization, the
Rongorongo
script
of
Easter
Island,
and
the
VinÄ?a symbols dated around 5,500 BCE. All are
undeciphered, and so it is unknown if they rep-
resent
authentic
writing,
proto-writing,
or
something else.
Symbolic
communication
systems
are
distin-
guished from writing systems in that one must
usually understand something of the associated
spoken language to comprehend the text. In conPage 60 of 288
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trast,
symbolic
systems,
such
as
information
signs, painting, maps, and mathematics, often do
not
require
prior
knowledge
of
a
spoken
lan-
guage. Every human community possesses language,
a
feature
regarded
by
many
as
an
innate
and
defining condition of humanity (see Origin of
language).
However
the
development
of
writing
systems, and their partial supplantation of tra-
ditional
been
oral
sporadic,
systems
uneven,
of
communication,
and
slow.
Once
have
estab-
lished, writing systems on the whole change more Page 61 of 288
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slowly than their spoken counterparts and often
preserve features and expressions that no longer
exist in the spoken language. The greatest bene-
fit of writing is that it provides the tool by
which society can record information consistent-
ly and in greater detail, something that could
not
be
achieved
as
well
previously
by
spoken
word. Writing allows societies to transmit in-
formation and to share knowledge.
An ancient Mesopotamian poem gives the first
known story of the invention of writing: Page 62 of 288
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Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and
he couldn't repeat (the message), the Lord of
Kulaba pattes some clay and put words on it,
like a tablet. Until then, there had been no
putting words on clay.
— Sumerian epic poem Enmerkar and the Lord
of Aratta. Circa 1800 BC.50
Scholars make a reasonable distinction be-
tween prehistory and history of early writing51
Shotwell, James Thomson. An Introduction to the History of History. Records of civilization, sources and studies. New York: Columbia University Press, 1922. 50
Shotwell, James Thomson. An Introduction to the History of History. Records of civilization, sources and studies. New York: Columbia University Press, 1922. 51
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but
have
becomes
disagreed
history
concerning
and
when
when
prehistory
proto-writing
became
"true writing." The definition is largely sub-
jective.52 Writing, in its most general terms, is
a method of recording information and is com-
posed of graphemes, which may in turn be com-
posed of glyphs.53
The emergence of writing in a given area is
usually followed by several centuries of frag-
Smail, Daniel Lord. On Deep History and the Brain. An Ahmanson foundation book in the humanities. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008. 52
Bricker, Victoria Reifler, and Patricia A. Andrews. Epigraphy. Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, v. 5. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. 53
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mentary inscriptions. Historians mark the "his-
toricity" of a culture by the presence of coher-
ent texts in the culture's writing system(s).54
The invention of writing was not a one-time
event but was a gradual process initiated by the
appearance of symbols, possibly first for cultic
purposes.
A conventional "proto-writing to true writ-
ing" system follows a general series of develop-
mental stages: Shotwell, James Thomson. An Introduction to the History of History. Records of civilization, sources and studies. New York: Columbia University Press, 1922. 54
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Picture
pictures)
writing
directly
system:
glyphs
represent
(simplified
objects
and
con-
cepts. In connection with this, the following
substages may be distinguished:
Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.
Pictographic:
glyphs
directly
represent
an
object or a concept such as (A) chronological,
(B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, ti-
tles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G)
historical, and (H) biographical.
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Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols
that directly represent an idea or concept.
Transitional
system:
graphemes
refer
not
only to the object or idea that it represents
but to its name as well.
Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds
or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme
is not related to its meanings. This resolves
itself into the following substages:
Verbal:
grapheme
(logogram)
whole word. Page 67 of 288
represents
a
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Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.
Alphabetic:
grapheme
represents
an
elemen-
tary sound.
The
best
known
picture
writing
system
of
ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:
Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in
Jiahu, c. 6600 BC
Vinča signs (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BC55
Early Indus script, c. 3100 BC
55
Haarmann, Harald: "Geschichte der Schrift", C.H. Beck, 2002, ISBN 3-406-47998-7, p. 20
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In the Old World, true writing systems de-
veloped
from
neolithic
writing
in
the
Early
Bronze Age (4th millennium BC). The Sumerian ar-
chaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and the Egyptian
hieroglyphs are generally considered the earli-
est true writing systems, both emerging out of
their
ancestral
proto-literate
symbol
systems
from 3400–3100 BC, with earliest coherent texts
from about 2600 BC.
Literature and writing[edit]
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The history of literature begins with the
history of writing, but literature and writing,
though obviously connected, are not synonymous.
The very first writings from ancient Sumer by
any reasonable definition do not constitute lit-
erature. The same is true of some of the early
Egyptian hieroglyphics and the thousands of an-
cient Chinese government records. Scholars have
disagreed concerning when written record-keeping
became more like literature, but the oldest sur-
viving literary texts date from a full millenniPage 70 of 288
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um after the invention of writing. The earliest
literary
(who
authors
wrote
in
known
by
Egyptian)
name
and
are
Ptahhotep
Enheduanna
(who
wrote in Sumerian), dating to around the 24th
and 23rd centuries BC, respectively.
The
first
writing
systems
of
the
Early
Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather,
they were a development based on earlier tradi-
tions of symbol systems that cannot be classi-
fied as proper writing, but have many of the
characteristics of writing. These systems may be Page 71 of 288
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described
as
"proto-writing."
They
used
ideo-
graphic or early mnemonic symbols to convey in-
formation, but it probably directly contained no
natural language. These systems emerged in the
early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th mil-
lennium BC, and include:
The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise
shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Ji-
ahu, Henan province, northern China, with radio-
carbon dates from the 7th millennium BC. [19]
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Most archaeologists consider these not directly
linked to the earliest true writing.[20]
Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube
script" - are a set of symbols found on Neolith-
ic era (6th to 5th millennia BC) artifacts from
the Vinča culture of Central Europe and South-
eastern Europe.[21]
The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millen-
nium may also be an example of proto-writing.
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The
Indus
script,
which
from
2600
BCE
to
1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscrip-
tions.
Even after the Neolithic, several cultures
went
through
writing
an
before
intermediate
they
used
stage
proper
of
proto-
writing.
The
"Slavic runes" from the 7th and 8th centuries
AD,
mentioned
by
a
few
medieval
authors,
may
have been such a system. The quipu of the Incas
(15th
century
AD),
sometimes
called
"talking
knots," may have been of a similar nature. AnPage 74 of 288
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other
example
is
the
pictographs
invented
by
Uyaquk before the development of the Yugtun syl-
labary for the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language
in about 1900.
Bronze Age writing[edit]
Further information: History of the alphabet
Writing emerged in many different cultures
in the Bronze Age. Examples are the cuneiform
writing of the Sumerians, Egyptian hieroglyphs,
Cretan
hieroglyphs,
Chinese
logographs,
Indus
script, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica. The Page 75 of 288
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Chinese script likely developed independently of
the Middle Eastern scripts around 1600 BC. The
pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (in-
cluding Olmec and Maya scripts) are also gener-
ally believed to have had independent origins.
It
is
thought
that
the
first
true
alphabetic
writing was developed around 2000 BC for Semitic
workers in the Sinai by giving mostly Egyptian
hieratic glyphs Semitic values (see History of
the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet). The
Ge'ez writing system of Ethiopia is considered Page 76 of 288
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Semitic. It is likely to be of semi-independent
origin, having roots in the Meroitic Sudanese
ideogram system.[22] Most other alphabets in the
world today either descended from this one inno-
vation,
many
via
the
Phoenician
alphabet,
or
were directly inspired by its design. In Italy,
about 500 years passed from the early Old Italic
alphabet to Plautus (750 to 250 BC), and in the
case of the Germanic peoples, the corresponding
time span is again similar, from the first Elder
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Futhark inscriptions to early texts like the Ab-
rogans (c. AD 200 to 750).
Tablet
with
proto-cuneiform
pictographic
characters (end of 4th millenium BC), Uruk III.
The original Sumerian writing system derives
from a system of clay tokens used to represent
commodities. By the end of the 4th millennium
BC, this had evolved into a method of keeping
accounts, using a round-shaped stylus impressed
into soft clay at different angles for recording Page 78 of 288
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numbers. This was gradually augmented with pic-
tographic writing by using a sharp stylus to in-
dicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and
sharp-stylus
writing
were
gradually
replaced
around 2700–2500 BC by writing using a wedge-
shaped
stylus
(hence
the
term
cuneiform),
at
first only for logograms, but developed to in-
clude phonetic elements by the 29th century BC.
About 2600 BC, cuneiform began to represent syl-
lables of the Sumerian language. Finally, cu-
neiform writing became a general purpose writing Page 79 of 288
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system
for
logograms,
syllables,
and
numbers.
From the 26th century BC, this script was adapt-
ed to the Akkadian language, and from there to
others,
such
as
Hurrian
and
Hittite.
Scripts
similar in appearance to this writing system in-
clude those for Ugaritic and Old Persian.
Egyptian hieroglyphs[edit]
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Designs on some of the labels or token from
Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400-3200 BC and
among the earliest form of writing in Egypt.56
They are virtually similar to contemporary clay
tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.57
Writing
was
very
important
in
maintaining
the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concen-
trated among an educated elite of scribes. Only
Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian M. (2016). Ancient Civilizations. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 9781317296089.
^ Jump up to: a b "The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 56
Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. p. -24-25. ISBN 9780931464966. 57
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people from certain backgrounds were allowed to
train as scribes, in the service of temple, roy-
al (pharaonic), and military authorities.
Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hiero-
glyphs
"came
into
existence
a
little
after
Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented
under the influence of the latter",58 and that it
is "probable that the general idea of expressing
words of a language in writing was brought to
Geoffrey Sampson (1 January 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011. 58
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Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".59 Despite the
importance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations,
given the lack of direct evidence "no definitive
determination has been made as to the origin of
hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".60 Instead, it is
pointed out and held that "the evidence for such
direct
influence
remains
flimsy”
and
that
“a
very credible argument can also be made for the
Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1150–. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44. 59
Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (December 2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–. ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011. 60
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independent development of writing in Egypt..."61
Since the 1990s, the discoveries of glyphs at
Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may
challenge
the
which
Mesopotamian
the
classical
notion
symbol
according
system
to
predates
the Egyptian one, although Egyptian writing does
make a sudden apparition at that time, while on
the
contrary
Mesopotamia
has
an
evolutionary
history of sign usage in tokens dating back to
Simson Najovits, Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56. 61
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circa 8000 BCE.62 These glyphs, found in tomb U-J
at Abydos are written on ivory and are likely
labels for other goods found in the grave.63
The
undeciphered
Proto-Elamite
script
emerges from as early as 3100 BC. It is believed
to have evolved into Linear Elamite by the later
3rd millennium and then replaced by Elamite Cu-
neiform adopted from Akkadian.
The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012. 62
63
Baines, J. (2007). Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt. Oxford. p. 118.
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Indus
script
tablet
recovered
from
Khi-
rasara, Indus Valley Civilization
The Middle Bronze Age Indus script, which
dates back to the early Harappan phase of around
3000 BCE in the Indian subcontinent correspond-
ing to northwestern India and what is now Pa-
kistan, has not yet been deciphered.64 It is un-
clear whether it should be considered an example
of proto-writing or whether it is actual writing
64
Whitehouse, David (1999) 'Earliest writing' found BBC
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of the logographic-syllabic type of the other
Bronze
Age
writing
systems.
Mortimer
Wheeler
recognises the style of writing as boustrophe-
don, where "this stability suggests a precarious
maturity."
Early Semitic alphabets[edit]
Middle Bronze Age alphabets
The
first
"abjads",
pure
mapping
alphabets
single
symbols
(properly,
to
single
phonemes, but not necessarily each phoneme to a
symbol) emerged around 1800 BC in Ancient Egypt, Page 87 of 288
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as
a
representation
of
language
developed
by
Semitic workers in Egypt, but by then alphabetic
principles had a slight possibility of being in-
culcated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards
of
a
millennium.[clarification
needed]
These
early abjads remained of marginal importance for
several centuries, and it is only towards the
end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic
script splits into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet
(c. 1400 BC) Byblos syllabary and the South Ara-
bian alphabet (c. 1200 BC). The Proto-Canaanite Page 88 of 288
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was probably somehow influenced by the undeci-
phered Byblos syllabary and, in turn, inspired
the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BC).
Anatolian hieroglyphs[edit]
Main article: Anatolian hieroglyphs
Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous hi-
eroglyphic
script
native
to
western
Anatolia,
used to record the Hieroglyphic Luwian language.
It first appeared on Luwian royal seals from the
14th century BC.
Chinese writing[edit] Page 89 of 288
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Main articles: Chinese writing and Chinese
characters
The earliest confirmed evidence of the Chi-
nese script yet discovered is the body of in-
scriptions on oracle bones and bronze from the
late
Shang
dynasty.
The
earliest
of
these
is
dated to around 1200 BC.65
There have recently been discoveries of tor-
toise-shell carvings dating back to c. 6000 BC,
Robert Bagley (2004). "Anyang writing and the origin of the Chinese writing system". In Houston, Stephen (ed.). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. p. 190. ISBN 9780521838610. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
^ William G. Boltz (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780521470308. Retrieved 3 April 2019. 65
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like Jiahu Script, Banpo Script, but whether or
not the carvings are complex enough to qualify
as writing is under debate.66 At Damaidi in the
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, 3,172 cliff carv-
ings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discov-
ered,
featuring
8,453
individual
characters,
such as the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes
of hunting or grazing. These pictographs are re-
puted to be similar to the earliest characters
confirmed to be written Chinese. If it is deemed
66
Archaeologists Rewrite History". China Daily. 12 June 2003.
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to be a written language, writing in China will
predate
edged
as
Mesopotamian
the
first
cuneiform,
appearance
long
of
acknowl-
writing,
by
some 2,000 years; however it is more likely that
the
inscriptions
writing,
similar
are
to
rather
the
a
form
contemporary
of
proto-
European
Vinca script.
Cretan and Greek scripts[edit]
Main articles: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A,
and Linear B
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Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of
Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to
MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at
the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of
the Mycenaean Greeks,67 has been deciphered while
Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence
and the geographical spread of the three over-
lapping, but distinct, writing systems can be
summarized as follows (note that the beginning
date refers to first attestations, the assumed
67
Olivier 1986, pp. 377f.
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origins of all scripts lie further back in the
past):68
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main article: Mesoamerican writing systems
A
stone
slab
with
3,000-year-old
writing,
the Cascajal Block, was discovered in the Mexi-
can state of Veracruz, and is an example of the
oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preced-
68
Olivier 1986, pp. 377f.
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ing the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about
500 BC.69
Of
several
pre-Columbian
scripts
in
Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been
best developed, and has been fully deciphered,
is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions
which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd cen-
tury BC, and writing was in continuous use until
"Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere". New York Times. 15 September 2006. Retrieved 30 March 2008. “A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere.”
^ "'Oldest' New World writing found". BBC. 14 September 2006. Retrieved 30 March 2008. “Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests.”
^ "Oldest Writing in the New World". Science. Retrieved 30 March 2008. “A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica.” 69
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shortly after the arrival of the Spanish con-
quistadores in the 16th century AD. Maya writing
used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic
glyphs: a combination somewhat similar to modern
Japanese writing.
Iron Age writing[edit]
Cippus Perusinus, Etruscan writing near Pe-
rugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alpha-
bet
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The sculpture depicts a scene where three
soothsayers are interpreting to King Suddhodana
the dream of Queen Maya, mother of Gautama Bud-
dha. Below them is seated a scribe recording the
interpretation.
This
is
possibly
the
earliest
available pictorial record of the art of writing
in India. From Nagarjunakonda, 2nd century CE.
The Brahmi script however is known from the 3rd
century BC.
The Phoenician alphabet is simply the Proto-
Canaanite alphabet as it was continued into the Page 97 of 288
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Iron Age (conventionally taken from a cut-off
date of 1050 BC). This alphabet gave rise to the
Aramaic and Greek alphabets. These in turn led
to the writing systems used throughout regions
ranging from Western Asia to Africa and Europe.
For its part the Greek alphabet introduced for
the
first
time
explicit
symbols
for
vowel
sounds.[39] The Greek and Latin alphabets in the
early centuries of the Common Era gave rise to
several European scripts such as the Runes and
the Gothic and Cyrillic alphabets while the AraPage 98 of 288
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maic alphabet evolved into the Hebrew, Syriac
and Arabic abjads and the South Arabian alphabet
gave rise to the Ge'ez abugida, with other adap-
tations leading as far as Mongolian script. The
Brahmic
family
of
India
is
believed
by
some
scholars to have derived from the Aramaic alpha-
bet as well.70
Writing
in
the
Greco-Roman
civilizations[edit]
Salomon, Richard (1996). "Brahmi and Kharoshthi". The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBNÂ 978-0-19-507993-7. 70
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Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the Na-
tional Archaeological Museum of Athens
The history of the Greek alphabet started
when the Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet
and adapted it to their own language.71 The let-
ters of the Greek alphabet are more or less the
same as those of the Phoenician alphabet, and in
modern times both alphabets are arranged in the
McCarter, P. Kyle. "The Early Diusion of the Alphabet", The Biblical Archaeologist 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 62. 71
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same order.72 The adapter(s) of the Phoenician
system added three letters to the end of the se-
ries, called the "supplementals". Several vari-
eties
of
the
Greek
alphabet
developed.
One,
known as Western Greek or Chalcidian, was used
west of Athens and in southern Italy. The other
variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in
present-day
eventually
Turkey
the
and
rest
of
by
the
the
Athenians,
world
that
and
spoke
Greek adopted this variation. After first writMcCarter, P. Kyle. "The Early Diusion of the Alphabet", The Biblical Archaeologist 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 62. 72
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ing
right
to
left,
like
the
Phoenicians,
the
Greeks eventually chose to write from left to
right.
Greek is in turn the source for all the mod-
ern scripts of Europe. The most widespread de-
scendant of Greek is the Latin script, named for
the Latins, a central Italian people who came to
dominate Europe with the rise of Rome. The Ro-
mans learned writing in about the 5th century BC
from the Etruscan civilization, who used one of
a
number
of
Italic
scripts
Page 102 of 288
derived
from
the
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western Greeks. Due to the cultural dominance of
the Roman state, the other Italic scripts have
not survived in any great quantity, and the Etr-
uscan language is mostly lost.
Writing during the Middle Ages[edit]
With the collapse of the Roman authority in
Western Europe, the literary development became
largely confined to the Eastern Roman Empire and
the Persian Empire. Latin, never one of the pri-
mary literary languages, rapidly declined in im-
portance (except within the Church of Rome). The Page 103 of 288
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primary literary languages were Greek and Per-
sian, though other languages such as Syriac and
Coptic were important too.
The rise of Islam in the 7th century led to
the rapid rise of Arabic as a major literary
language
in
the
region.
Arabic
and
Persian
quickly began to overshadow Greek's role as a
language
adopted
of
as
scholarship.
the
primary
Arabic
script
of
script
the
was
Persian
language and the Turkish language. This script
also heavily influenced the development of the Page 104 of 288
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cursive scripts of Greek, the Slavic languages,
Latin, and other languages[citation needed]. The
Arabic language also served to spread the Hindu–
Arabic
numeral
system
throughout
Europe.[cita-
tion needed] By the beginning of the second mil-
lennium the city of Cordoba in modern Spain, had
become one of the foremost intellectual centers
of the world and contained the world's largest
library at the time.73 Its position as a cross-
roads between the Islamic and Western Christian
73
Bury, J.B. The Cambridge Medieval History volumes 1-5. p. 1215.
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worlds helped fuel intellectual development and
written communication between both cultures.
Renaissance and the modern era[edit]
By the 14th century a rebirth, or renais-
sance, had emerged in Western Europe, leading to
a temporary revival of the importance of Greek,
and a slow revival of Latin as a significant
literary
language.
A
similar
though
smaller
emergence occurred in Eastern Europe, especially
in Russia. At the same time Arabic and Persian
began a slow decline in importance as the IslamPage 106 of 288
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ic Golden Age ended. The revival of literary de-
velopment in Western Europe led to many innova-
tions in the Latin alphabet and the diversifica-
tion of the alphabet to codify the phonologies
of the various languages.
The nature of writing has been constantly
evolving, particularly due to the development of
new technologies over the centuries. The pen,
the printing press, the computer and the mobile
phone are all technological developments which
have
altered
what
is
written,
Page 107 of 288
and
the
medium
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through which the written word is produced. Par-
ticularly with the advent of digital technolo-
gies, namely the computer and the mobile phone,
characters can be formed by the press of a but-
ton, rather than making a physical motion with
the hand.
The nature of the written word has recently
evolved to include an informal, colloquial writ-
ten style, in which an everyday conversation can
occur
through
writing
rather
than
speaking.
Written communication can also be delivered with Page 108 of 288
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minimal time delay (e-mail, SMS), and in some
cases, with an imperceptible time delay (instant
messaging). Writing is a preservable means of
communication.
There is no very definite statement as to
the material which was in most common use for
the purposes of writing at the start of the ear-
ly writing systems.74 In all ages it has been
customary to engrave on stone or metal, or other
durable material, with the view of securing the McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1885). Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement. New York: Harper. Pages 990–997. 74
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permanency of the record; and accordingly, in
the very commencement of the national history of
Israel, it is read of the two tables of the law
written in stone, and of a subsequent writing of
the law on stone. In the latter case there is
this
peculiarity,
that
plaster
(sic,
lime
or
gypsum) was used along with stone, a combination
of materials which is illustrated by comparison
of the practice of the Egyptian engravers, who,
having
first
carefully
smoothed
the
stone,
filled up the faulty places with gypsum or cePage 110 of 288
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ment,
in
order
to
obtain
a
perfectly
uniform
surface on which to execute their engravings.75
Metals, such as stamped coins, are mentioned as
a material of writing; they include lead,76brass,
and gold. To the engraving of gems there is ref-
erence also, such as with seals or signets.77The
common materials of writing were the tablet and
the roll, the former probably having a Chaldean
origin, the latter an Egyptian. The tablets of McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1885). Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement. New York: Harper. Pages 990–997. 75
though whether to writing on lead, or filling up the hollow of the letters with lead, is not certain. 76
McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1885). Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement. New York: Harper. Pages 990–997. 77
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the Chaldeans are among the most remarkable of
their
remains.[according
small
pieces
of
clay,
to
whom?]
somewhat
There
rudely
are
shaped
into a form resembling a pillow, and thickly in-
scribed with cuneiform characters.78
Similar use has been seen in hollow cylin-
ders, or prisms of six or eight sides, formed of
fine terra cotta, sometimes glazed, on which the
characters were traced with a small stylus, in
These documents have been in general enveloped, after they were baked, in a cover of moist clay, upon which their contents have been again inscribed, so as to present externally a duplicate of the writing within; and the tablet in its cover has then been baked afresh. The same material was largely used by the Assyrians, and many of their clay tablets still remain. They are of various sizes, ranging from nine inches long by six and a half wide, to an inch and a half by an inch wide, and even less. Some thousands of these have been recovered; many are historical, some linguistic, some geographical, some astronomical. 78
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some specimens so minutely as to be capable of
decipherment only with the aid of a magnifying-
glass.[43]
In Egypt the principal writing material was
of quite a different sort. Wooden tablets are
found pictured on the monuments; but the materi-
al which was in common use, even from very an-
cient times, was the papyrus, having recorded
use as far back as 3,000 B.C.E.79
Gascolgne, Arthur Bamber. "HISTORY OF WRITING MATERIALS". Retrieved 18 February 2019. 79
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This reed, found chiefly in Lower Egypt, had
various economic means for writing, the pith was
taken out, and divided by a pointed instrument
into the thin pieces of which it is composed; it
was then flattened by pressure, and the strips
glued
together,
other
strips
being
placed
at
right angles to them, so that a roll of any
length might be manufactured. Writing seems to
have become more widespread with the invention
of papyrus in Egypt. That this material was in
use in Egypt from a very early period is eviPage 114 of 288
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denced by still existing papyrus of the earliest
Theban dynasties.80
As the papyrus, being in great demand, and
exported to all parts of the world, became very
costly, other materials were often used instead
of it, among which is mentioned leather, a few
leather
mills
of
an
early
period
having
been
found in the tombs.81 Parchment, using sheepskins
left after the wool was removed for cloth, was
sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be 80
Mark, Joshua J. "Egyptian Papyrus". Ancient History Encyclopedia.
McClintock, J., & Strong, J. (1885). Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement. New York: Harper. Pages 990–997. 81
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imported outside Egypt. With the invention of
wood-pulp paper, the cost of writing material
began a steady decline. Wood-pulp paper is still
used
today,
and
in
recent
times
efforts
have
been made in order to improve bond strength of
fibers. Two main areas of examination in this
regard
have
been
“dry
strength
of
paper”
and
“wet web strength”.82 The former involves exami-
nation of the physical properties of the paper
Lindström, Tom (Summer 2005). "On the nature of joint strength in paper-A review of dry and wet strength resins used in paper manufacturing". 13th Fundamental Research Symposium. 1: 457–562 – via Researchgate. 82
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itself, while the latter involves using addi-
tives to improve strength.
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Chapter 1 Literacy Acquisition
Ulla Damber has asserted that literacy ac-
quisition83
by
tablets
rapidly
is
using
computers
gaining
classrooms. It appears
and
ground
in
computer
Swedish
that computer-writing
vitalizes the learning of literacy, in compari-
son with approaches using books and pencils.
The results of two separate studies in two
different settings where prewriting and writing
83
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were used to enhance literacy development will
be described and discussed.
The results of a recent study of classrooms
where computers were used will be compared with
an older study where students used pencils and
paper for writing.
The results indicated that the nature of the
literacy
practice
was
strongly
linked
to
the
teacher’s conceptions of literacy and learning.
The teachers’ choices of computers or pen-
cils as tools for writing do, however, not seem Page 119 of 288
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to
influence
the
processes
of
writing
in
the
classrooms.
How writing was enacted in the classrooms
and the potential to further development of the
literacy
practices,
were
linked
to
teacher
knowledge and the teacher’s conception of liter-
acy.
This
generation
as
opposed
to
yesteryears
generation are probably more dependent on their
literacy abilities than any previous generation. Page 120 of 288
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The
information
transmitted
through
different
media, both traditional and digital is very per-
vasive and intrusive.
Navigating in this plethora of information
could be challenging and has now become away of
life .
For example in the UNESCO World Education84
Report (1993) a literate person was described as
someone who “with understanding both read and
84
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write a short simple statement on his or her
everyday life” (p. 24).
The past 20 years have outdated this defini-
tion and the current aims for students’ reading
and writing abilities are far more demanding,
including the competency of digital literacy.
The teachers are obliged to provide their
pupils with sufficient tools for personal and
professional development as readers and writers.
The
pupils’
educational
trajectories
may
rise or fall in line with their literacy skills Page 122 of 288
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as large-scale international survey studies give
evidence of (OECD, 2011), thus, successful out-
comes of the children’s first encounters with
reading and writing in educational settings are
of great importance (Samuelsson et al., 2005).
Ulla Damber adds that it is recommended that
Pre-writing and writing may support literacy ac-
quisition
among
both
first
second language (L2) learners.
Page 123 of 288
language
(L1)
and
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This
paper
illustrates
how
young
Swedish
children deciphered the alphabetic code and ap-
proached literacy through pre-writing and writ-
ing, firstly, by traditional scribbling and sec-
ondly, by writing on computers.
Pre-writing is an approach to literacy that
many children favour in their first efforts to
get acquainted with the written language, even
though
formal
training
employing
phonics
ap-
proaches and a sole focus on reading dominate in
most schools (Fast, 2007). Page 124 of 288
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For the reader’s information, the emergent
literacy activities of children trying to write
before they have deciphered the alphabetic code,
will in the following sections be referred to as
scribbling, pretend writing and pre-writing seen
as part of the continuum of children’s emergent
literacy development (Teale & Sulzby, 1986).
Declining reading comprehension85
international
comparative
surveys
levels in
have
caused
debate in Sweden about how the students’ reading
85
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levels can be raised (Skolverket, 2007). Some
voices in media link the declining reading lev-
els with with an increased student population
with Swedish as their second language.
Sweden,
unlike
many
countries,
remained
a
fairly mono-cultural society until the middle of
the past century.
Today, the demographical scenery has changed
and every fifth Swede is of foreign origin (SCB,
2011).
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The classrooms have transformed into inter-
cultural arenas with a diversity of different
languages.
As
will
be
described
in
the
following,
scribbling and pretend writing has been observed
to
support
development
of
emergent
literacy
skills in inter-cultural classrooms.
However, the strong focus on results, evoked
by
the
declining
reading
levels,
has
brought
about a search for new methods to boost national
reading results, including learning to read by Page 127 of 288
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writing on computers. Pens and notebooks still
have their place in many classrooms, but comput-
ers and computer tablets are gradually finding
their way into the Swedish classrooms (Skolver-
ket, 2009).
Write to read, a method for literacy acqui-
sition through writing on computers (Trageton,
2005), may be described as a growing trend in
Swedish schools86.
86
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According
to
Trageton
(2005),
learning
to
read by writing on computers may stimulate chil-
dren’s reading interest, a not yet thoroughly
researched assumption that sparked our interest,
as the objective of this study was to explore
how
teachers
may
create
literacy
environments
where literacy thrives.
The introduction of computers in the class-
room is often initiated by principals and civil
servants at a municipal level.
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Even though media attention has been direct-
ed towards this type of projects, only a small
number of scientific studies have focused liter-
acy learning by use of computers (Rasmusson &
Eklund, 2012).
It is in this context we chose to conduct
the second study of the two studies that will be
referred to in the following.
In this paper the findings of two separate
studies,
conducted
in
two
will be discussed. Page 130 of 288
different
settings,
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In both the studied practices there was an
emphasis on writing from school year one.
In one of the practices the students were
learning to read primarily by writing on comput-
ers.
The findings from this study will be com-
pared with an older study illustrating literacy
learning in a learning environment without com-
puters (Damber, 2009, 2011). Both practices may
be viewed as attempts to renew teaching literacy
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in accordance with the changing demands of soci-
ety.
In the comparison between the practices the
focus is on the teacher’s role for the chil-
dren’s
active
participation
in
the
classroom
literacy practices.
In the second of the two studies, the com-
puter tablet, as the major artefact for literacy
acquisition, attracted our interest, as write to
read
was
employed
as
the
method
of
teaching.
Would new technology bring about any changes in Page 132 of 288
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the teachers’ conception of literacy and have
impact on how literacy was acquired?
Ulla Damber was careful to point out that
the second study was performed87 in 2011–2012.
The objective was to explore and analyse the
role
of
scribbling
and
writing
for
classroom
life and literacy learning at an all-Swedish K-5
school located in a middle-class/lower middle-
class commuter community (around 2,000 inhabi-
tants) 17 kilometres outside one of the larger
87
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northern Swedish cities, which is dominated by
the forest industry. The school, denoted as Riv-
er School, had about 325 pupils with an even
distribution between boys and girls, ages 6–12
years, including a unit for preschool classes.
The targeted classes had between 22 and 25
children in each class.
3.1 Method
The reasons for targeting the River School
classes as an object of study was its informa-
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tion technology (IT) strategy aiming at making
use of IT as a pedagogic tool.
Three teachers responded positively to the
principal’s call for interested teachers to par-
ticipate
would
in
a
replace
project
pencils
where
and
computer
reading
tablets
primers
as
tools for the initial literacy learning.
Tablet computers with a touch interface were
purchased, so that all the pupils in grades 1
and 2, when divided into pairs, had access to
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tablets, which were kept in the classrooms with
two or three computers.
The
kindergarten
children
had
access
to
where
the
tablets as well.
The
teachers
started
a
project
children in the preschool class and in grade 1
wrote exclusively on computer tablets in order
to learn to read (LĂśvgren, 2009).
These three teachers and their classes were
selected as they were the ones who had been pro-
vided with computer tablets for the students. Page 136 of 288
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In
grade
2,
the
children
started
writing
with pens and pencils.
The idea was that learning letters by writ-
ing them on the tablet would enhance the pupils’
phonological awareness in combination with tra-
ditional
phonics
as
the
children
similarly
learnt the alphabet and started to decode.
According to the teachers and the principal
the
children
turned
into
skilled
readers
and
writers much faster than classes who were given
traditional reading instruction. Page 137 of 288
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The
results
of
classroom
observations
and
interviews will be reported here. Two collabo-
rating researchers visited the classrooms (in-
cluding the preschool class) four times and ob-
served the classroom activities in the Autumn
2011.
Teacher
interviews
were
performed
in
Spring 2012.
One of the researchers focused her observa-
tions on the children’s interactivity in front
of
the
computers/tablets
while
the
other
re-
searcher focused the teacher’s talk and actions. Page 138 of 288
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Field notes were taken, but no recording devices
were used in order not to intervene too much in
the regular classroom activities.
The
three
teachers
were
in-depth
inter-
viewed, by use of the same interview-guide as
the
one
employed
in
the
City
School
Classes,
with questions added focusing the use of comput-
er tablets.
The data collection was carried out in ac-
cordance with the general acquirements for Re-
search Ethics (VetenskapsrĂĽdet, 2010). Page 139 of 288
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The interviews were recorded and transcribed
by the author. All contributing informants in
the
following
sections
were
given
fictitious
names.
The teachers turned down an offer to perform
the reading comprehension test employed in the
City School Classes.
Thus, a simpler reading comprehension test,
standardized and normed for grade 2 was used to
give
an
indication
of
the
Page 140 of 288
children’s
reading
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levels, even though the literacy practices as
such were in focus of this study.
3.2 Findings
3.2.1 Focus on Technology
The reading comprehension test results from
grade 2 revealed that both the targeted class
performed at levels somewhat below the average
results in the population of Swedish children
taking the test.
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The
observations
showed
that
reading
had
been given a subordinated role in the studied
practices.
During our observations, we saw very little
of meaning-making connected to reading and no
silent reading sessions exceeded 20 minutes.
The
teachers
read
children’s
books
aloud,
but never for more than 10 minutes and no activ-
ities introduced the reading sessions, nor were
any follow-up activities undertaken.
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The children were having their morning fruit
during
the
reading
sessions,
so
the
sound
of
chewing competed with the teacher’s voice. Dur-
ing Read-Alouds the children were occupied with
drawing,
tearing
little
pieces
of
papers
or
talking.
That the reading session was not a very im-
portant
activity
was
signalled
also
when
the
teacher in grade 1 read aloud.
Also in grade 1, the children were having
their fruit during the reading session. No inPage 143 of 288
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troductions of texts were made, not even when
children had been absent when the teacher read
the previous chapter of the book.
Nor
were
pauses
for
children’s
comments
made. The lack of time for communicative activi-
ties
in
connectionto
both
silent
reading
and
Read Alouds, was partly due to the time spent on
connecting cables, helping the children to log
in, save, print and so forth, according to the
teachers. That the teacher’s interactions during
lessons primarily were preoccupied with technolPage 144 of 288
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ogy-related issues, showed to be a solid pattern
both in grade 1 and grade 2.
Damber
teachers
in
concluded by suggesting that, the
the
City
Classes
give
many
hints
about how the teachers at River School could em-
bed learning activities in meaningful authentic
contexts.
Computers offer rich opportunities of let-
ting young children experiment with real world
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artefacts, such as pictures and photos, to ex-
plore i.e. story structures.
Furthermore, smooth technical solutions are
needed to ensure that teachers’ time is spent on
the pupils, not on the technology. In the fu-
ture, all schools need to adjust to the demands
of the information society and providing comput-
ers.
Instrumental practices transferred onto com-
puters may, however, preserve the mechanical ef-
fects
of
such
approaches
whatever
Page 146 of 288
tools
for
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learning that are employed, unless the issue of
teacher
knowledge
is
highlighted
(Peacock
&
Beard, 1997).
In addition, Damber found significant prac-
tical
that
implications
invest
in
for
principals
technology,
and
and
hope
schools
for
far-
reaching effects without investments and initia-
tives to in-service training of the teachers,
not promoting “quick fixes”-methods, but aimed
at deeper knowledge of literacy learning.
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The results of their studies indicated that
the teacher’s knowledge and conception of liter-
acy is fundamental for the development of the
classroom practice.
Therefore the teacher’s conceptions of lit-
eracy and learning set the aims for learning and
form how different literacy events are carried
out.
New technology in no way will provide knowl-
edge about literacy learning or compensate for
teachers’ poor craftsmanship. It is also up to Page 148 of 288
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the teacher to adapt the literacy practice to
the children in the class.
Explicit
children
teaching
with
less
and
scaffolding
favourable
home
provide
conditions
with the knowledge and skills needed for academ-
ic success (Damber, 2009).
Irrespective of the tools used for learning,
the teacher needs to observe the different re-
sources different children need to develop lit-
eracy (Freebody & Luke, 2003). Schön’s (1983)
idea of how teachers develop their professional Page 149 of 288
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skills according to the children’s and the soci-
ety’s
needs
in
an
ever-changing
practice
em-
anates in the idea of the reflective practition-
er. Overall In their complex, multi-literate and
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inter-cultural world88, the ability of reflection
Alvesson, M., & Sköldberg, K. (2004). Tolkning och reflektion. Vetenskapsteori och kvalitativ metod. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.
Andrade, H. L. G., & Perkins, D. N. (1998). Learnable intelligence and intelligent learning. In R. J. Sternberg, & W. M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction and assessment: Theory in practice (pp. 67-94). Mahwan, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Axelsson, M. (2000). Framgång för alla. Från att inte kunna – till att inte kunna låta bli att läsa. In H. Åhl (Ed.),
Svenskan i tiden - verklighet och visioner (pp. 9-22). Stockholm, Sweden: HLS Förlag.
Bell, J. (1999). Introduktion till forskningsmetodik. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.
Bialystok, E. (2007). Acquisition of literacy in bilingual children: A framework for research. Language Learning, 57(Supplement 1), 45-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00412.x
Chiappe, P., Siegel, L. S., & Wade-Wooley, L. (2002). Linguistic diversity and the development of reading skills: A longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6(4), 369-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0604_04
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters LTD.
Damber, U. (2009). Using high demands and high expectations to resist the deficit syndrome: A study of eight grade three classes, high achieving in reading. Literacy, 43(1), 43-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4369.2009.00503.x
Damber, U. (2011). Literature and empowerment. US-China Education Review, 8(4), 88-102.
Damber, U., Samuelsson, S., & Taube, K. (2012). Differences between over-achieving and under-achieving classes in reading: Teacher, classroom, and student characteristics. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468798411417376
Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading ability in first- and second-language learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 78-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.38.1.4
Dyson, A. H. (1997). Writing superheroes: Contemporary childhood, popular culture, and classroom literacy. Williston, VT: Teachers College Press.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 92(2), 167-188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s1532799xssr0902_4
Eriksen Hagtvet, B. (2004). Skriftspråksutveckling genom lek. Stockholm, Sweden: Natur & Kultur.
Fredrickson, N., & Petrides, K. V. (2008). Ethnic, gender and socio-economic group differences in academic performance and secondary school selection. A longitudinal analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(2), 144-151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2005.09.001
Fast, C. (2007). Sju barn lär sig läsa och skriva. Familjeliv och populärkultur i möte med förskola och skola. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Studies in Education 115.
Freebody, P., & Luke, A. (2003). Literacy as engaging with new forms of life: the “four roles” model. In G. Bull, & M. Anstey (Eds.), The Literacy Lexicon (2nd ed, pp. 52-57). Sydney, Australia: Prentice Hall.
Gottfried, A. E. (2009). Encouraging Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation. Center for Teaching and Learning, California State University, Northridge. Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/education/ctl/ResearchPubPres/adelemotivation.pdf
Guthrie, J. T. (2004). Classroom contexts for engaged reading: An overview. In J. T. Guthrie, A. Wigfield, & K. C. Perencevich (Eds.), Motivating reading comprehension: Concept-oriented reading instruction (pp. 1-24). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Reading research handbook (Vol. 3, pp. 403-424). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Haas, C. (1996). Writing technology: Studies on the materiality of literacy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hakkarainen, K., Lipponen, L., & Jaervelae, S. (2001). Epistemology of inquiry and computer-supported collaborated learning. In T. Koschmann, & H. Rogers (Eds.), CSCL 2 carrying forward the conversation: Computers, cognition and work (pp.129-156). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Liberg, C. (1990). Learning to read and write. Uppsala, Sweden: Department of linguistics, Uppsala University. Lundberg, I. (2001). Vilken bild är rätt? En enkel klassdiagnos av läsförståelse. Stockholm, Sweden:
Bokförlaget Natur och Kultur. Lövgren, E. (2009). Med datorn som skrivverktyg. Stockholm, Sweden: Sanoma Utbildning. Maranhao, T. (1991). Reflection, dialogue and the subject. In F. Stier (Ed.), Research and reflexivity. London,
UK: Sage.
McLane, J. B., & McNamee, G. D. (1990). Early Literacy. The developing child. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
OECD. (2011). OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education Sweden. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/preschoolandschool/ 47169533.pdf
Peacock, M., & Beard, R. (1997). Almost an invincible repugnance? Word processors and pupil writers. Educational Review, 49, 283-294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0013191970490307
Rasmusson, M., & Eklund, M. (2012). “It’s easier to read on the Internet – you just click on what you want to read...” Abilities and skills needed for reading on the Internet. Education and Information Technologies. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10639-012-9190-3
Reynolds, T. H., & Bonk, C. J. (1996). Facilitating college writers’ revisions within a generative-evaluative computerized prompting framework. Computers and Composition, 13, 93-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S8755-4615(96)90038-9
Salomon, G., Kosminsky, E., & Asaf, M. (2003). Computers and writing. In T. Nunes, & Bryant, P. (Eds.), Handbook of children's literacy (pp. 409-442). London, UK: Kluwer.
Samuelsson, S., Byrne, B., Quain, P., Wadsworth, S., Corley, R., Defries, J.. et al. (2005). Environmental and genetic influences on prereading skills in Australia, Scandinavia, and the United States. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 705-222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.705
SCB. (2011). Statistics Sweden. Retrieved from http://www.scb.se/
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J.-A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children ́ s reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445-460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00417
Skolverket. (2007). PIRLS 2006. Läsförmågan hos elever i årskurs 4- i Sverige och i världen. Rapport 305. Stockholm; Sweden: Skolverket.
Skolverket. (2009). Vad påverkar resultaten i svensk skola? Kunskapsöversikt om betydelsen av olika faktorer. Stockholm, Sweden: Skolverket.
Stipek, D. (2002). Good instruction is motivating. In A. Wigfield, & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 309-332). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012750053-9/50014-0
Teale, W., & Sulzby, E. (Eds) (1986). Emergent Literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corpn.
Tornberg, U. (2009). Språkdidaktik. Malmö, Sweden: Gleerups.
Trageton, A. (2005). Att skriva sig till läsning – IKT i förskoleklass och skola. Stockholm, Sweden: Liber.
Van der Slik, F., Driessen, G., & De Bot, K. (2006). Ethnic and socioeconomic class composition and language proficiency: a multilevel examination in Dutch Elementary Schools. European Sociological Review, 22(3), 293-308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/esr/jci058
Vetenskapsrådet. (2010). Forskningsetiska principer i humanistisk-samhällsvetenskaplig forskning. Retrieved from http://www.ibl.liu.se/student/bvg/ filarkiv/1.77549/Forskningsetiska_principer_fix.pdf
88
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is the heart of the matter for all educators, if
“quick
fixes”
are
to
be
replaced
by
genuine
learning approaches.
And it is for such reasons that literacy ac-
quisition89
by
tablets
rapidly
is
using
computers
gaining
and
ground
in
computer
Swedish
classrooms.
That’s why it appears
that computer-writing
vitalizes the learning of literacy, in compari-
son with approaches using books and pencils.
89
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Chapter 2 Culture Defined
Clifford
Geertz90
(1926-present)
is
best
known for his ethnographic studies of Javanese
culture (Java is an Indonesian island south of
Borneo) and for his writings about the interpre-
tation of culture.
The most influential aspect of Geertz's work
has been his emphasis on the importance of the
symbolic -- of systems of meaning -- as it re-
90 https://condor.depaul.edu/dweinste/popcult/geertz.html
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lates to culture, cultural change, and the study
of culture; notice this emphasis as you read the
summaries and excerpts below.
Bodley
and
Geertz
can
both
compared
here
with Matthew Arnold for for perspective on the
great transition which has taken place regarding
the concept "culture" in Western thought over
the past century;
Raymond Williams's perspective might be tak-
en as a middle ground in this transition.
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In attempting to lay out the various mean-
ings attached to the word "culture,91"
Clifford Geertz refers to the important an-
thropological work, Clyde Kluckhohn's Mirror for
Man, in which the following meanings are sug-
gested:"the total way of life of a people�
"the social legacy the individual acquires
from his group""a way of thinking, feeling, and
believing""an abstraction from behavior"a theory
91 https://condor.depaul.edu/dweinste/popcult/geertz.html
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on the part of the anthropologist about the way
in which a group of people in fact behave
a "storehouse of pooled learning”
"a set of standardized orientations to re-
current problems”
"learned behavior”a mechanism for the norma-
tive regulation of behaviour
"a set of techniques for adjusting both to
the external environment and to other men”92
92 https://condor.depaul.edu/dweinste/popcult/geertz.html
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"The concept of culture I espouse. . . is
essentially a semiotic one.
Believing, with Max Weber, that man is an
animal suspended in webs of significance he him-
self has spun, I take culture to be those webs,
and the analysis of it to be therefore not an
experimental science in search of law but an in-
terpretative one in search of meaning. It is ex-
plication I am after. . . . (pp. 4-5)"
Geertz compares the methods of an anthropol-
ogist analyzing culture to those of a literary Page 157 of 288
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critic analyzing a text: "sorting out the struc-
tures
of
signification.
.
.
and
determining
their social ground and import. . . .
Doing ethnography is like trying to read (in
the sense of 'construct a reading of') a man-
uscript. . . ."
Once human behavior is seen as . . . symbol-
ic
action--action
which,
like
phonation
in
speech, pigment in painting, line in writing, or
sonance in music, signifies--the question as to
whether culture is patterned conduct or a frame Page 158 of 288
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of mind, or even the two somehow mixed together,
loses sense.
The thing to ask [of actions] is what their
import is" (pp. 9-10).
Geertz argues that culture is "public be-
cause meaning is"--systems of meaning are neces-
sarily the collective property of a group.
When we say we do not understand the actions
of people from a culture other than our own, we
are acknowledging our "lack of familiarity with
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the imaginative universe within which their acts
are signs" (pp. 12-13).93
93 https://condor.depaul.edu/dweinste/popcult/geertz.html
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Chapter 3 Overview
According Werner Karl Heisenberg 94 Even for
the physicist the description in plain language
will be a criterion of the degree of understand-
ing that has been reached.
The particular tenure of
decisive,
expeditious
and
Technology95 is so
pervasive
evolution has seemingly activated a 94
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awcgate.htm
95
https://literacysummit.ca/
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that
its
paradigm
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shift modifying the way of life of global citi-
zens to the extent that metaphorically it has
created waves.
Although
vibrations96,
are felt
these
are
waves
behave
varying
in
somewhat
specificity
by global citizens
like
which
in the way that
they think, learn, understand, process an idea,
constructing a sentence, and structuring expres-
sions
within this cultural
post-globalization97
conversation. 96 https://www.dkfindout.com/us/science/sound 97 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
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In retrospect the aforementioned phenomenon
activated the contours of my intellect to the
extent that I decided to take a close-up with my
lens metaphorically of a report recorded in the
Daily Trust dated Thursday July 25 2019 titled
Norther Nigerian Writers98 Summit focussed on:-
• Budgetary allocations;
• Coercing and establishing writers and institu-
tions
elsewhere
to
facilitate
capacities
young writers through publishing;
98
https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/Abubakar Adam Ibrahim | Published Date Oct 22, 2017 2:00 AM
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of
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• Deliberation,
• Designing a blueprint as a result of resolu-
tions;
• Developing creative writing;
• Exploring
and
establishing
Book
Development
Agencies;
• Get maximum value for their creative products;
Presenting of
papers by prominent writers;
• Institutionalise
book
development
through official recognition;
• Issuing communiqués; Page 164 of 288
initiatives
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• Liaise with Copyrights Commission;
• Measuring of attaining literary development;
• Measuring one self to position one self;
• Mentoring of the next generation;
• Mentoring,
• Prizes,
• Promotion of literature;
• Raising of funds;
• Reaching resolutions;
• Residencies,
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• Stirring of global citizens
intellectual con-
sciousness;
• Strategising;
• The
protection
of
intellectual
writers;
• Tools for cultural preservation.
• Trainings, and conferences;
• Transitioning;
• Workshops,
Page 166 of 288
properties
of
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
The tone and the tenor of this conversation
is the underpinning of the question Is culture
and writing inextricably linked?
In this theoretical frame, the ground work
was laid for the question which is a snapshot of
a writer’s summit.
The summit refines communication, literacy,
reading, and writing skills which is like “Every
mountain99 top is within reach if you just keep
99
https://travelingilove.com/category/mountains/
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climbing� according Barry Finlay;
way of
have become a
life in this conversation.
Although this discourse can be perceived as
a portrait yet
it is analysed within a cultural
context and is also
a pretext that underscores
the contours of Culture and Writing.
Arguably, writing100, is a form of human com-
munication by means of a set of visible marks
100
https://www.britannica.com/
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that are related, by convention, to some partic-
ular structural level of language.
Writing 101
is
an
expression
of
language
rather than simply a way of transcribing speech
that gives to writing, it is written language
and to literacy, its special properties a view
espoused by David R. Olson102
As long as writing was seen merely as tran-
scription,
as
it
was
by
such
101
https://www.britannica.com/
102
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
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pioneering
lin-
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guists
as
Ferdinand
de
Saussure
and
Leonard
Bloomfield earlier in the 20th century, its con-
ceptual significance was seriously underestimat-
ed.
Once
writing
was
seen
as
providing
a
new
medium for linguistic expression, its distinct-
ness from speech was more clearly grasped.
Scholars
such
as
Milman
Parry,
Marshall
McLuhan, Eric Havelock, Jack Goody, and Walter
Ong were among the first to analyze the concep-
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tual and social implications of using written as
opposed to oral forms of communication.
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner,Publisher
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versation. Volume1
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In This
Post-Globalization
Con-
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Chapter 4 Digital Literacy,
Schools are continuously updating their cur-
ricula to keep up with accelerating technologi-
cal developments.
This often includes computers in the class-
room, the use of educational software to teach
curricula,
and
course
materials
being
made
available to students online.
Students
are
often
taught
literacy
skills
such as how to verify credible sources online, Page 172 of 288
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cite web sites, and prevent plagiarism. Google
and Wikipedia are frequently used by students
"for everyday life research,"103 and are just two
common tools that facilitate modern education.
Digital technology has impacted the way ma-
terial is taught in the classroom. With the use
of technology rising over the past decade, edu-
cators are altering traditional forms of teach-
ing to include course material on concepts re-
Head, A., & Eisenberg, M. (2009, December). How college students seek information in the digital age. Retrieved from http://ctl.yale.edu/sites/default/files/basic-page-supplementary-materials-files/how_students_seek_information_in_the_digital_age.pdf 103
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lated to digital literacy104 Several websites are
assisting in these efforts such as Google Docs,
Prezi, and, Easybib
Digital
literacy105,
literacies106 ,
refers
also
to
the
known
as
shared
digital
cultural
practices of encoding and decoding meaning on
the world107 through multiple modalities produced
Greenhow, Christine; Sonnevend, Julia; Agur, Colin (6 May 2016). Education and Social Media: Toward a Digital Future. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262334860. 104
105
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_literacy
Belshaw, D.(2011) What is ‘digital literacy’? https://clalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/files/ doug-belshaw-edd-thesis-final.pdf 106
Lanskhear and Knobel. (2007) New Literacies Sampler http://everydayliteracies.net/files/ NewLiteraciesSampler_2007.pdf 107
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or
transferred
using
information
digitally
recorded and stored .
Digital literacies encompass a diverse range
of skills, attitudes, and dispositions as par-
ticipants negotiate meaning and identity108 in a
networked society
limited
to,
an
109and
may include, but is not
individual's
grammar,
composi-
tion, writings, images, audio, video, podcast-
ing, remixing and designs using technology. boyd, d (2013). It's Complicated the Social Networking Lives of Teens. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300199000/its-complicated 108
109Network
society is the expression coined in 1991 related to the social, political, economic and cultural changes caused by the spread of networked, digital information and communications technologies. The intellectual origins of the idea can be traced back to the work of early social theorists such as Georg Simmel who analyzed the eect of modernization and industrial capitalism on complex patterns of aďŹƒliation, organization, production and experience.
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Digital literacy, first coined in 1997 by
Paul Gilster
110built
on the expanding role of
anthropological research in the field of litera-
cy111 as well on concepts of visual literacy
computer literacy
113,
112,
and information literacy,
114
Overall digital literacy shares many defin-
ing principles with other fields that use modi-
110
Gislter, P. (1997). Digital Literacy
Au, K,, and Jordan, C (1981)Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution 111
112
Dondis, 1973, A Primer in Visual Literacy
113
Molnar, A. (1979). The Next Great Crisis in America
Paul G. Zurkowski (Nov 1974). "The Information Service Environment: Relationships and Priorities. Related Paper No.5". National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved December 3, 2015. 114
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fiers in front of literacy to define ways of be-
ing and domain specific knowledge. The term has
grown in popularity in education and higher edu-
cation settings and can be found used in In-
ternational and national standards
Similar
to
other
expanding
115.
definitions
of
literacy that recognize cultural and historical
ways of making meaning
116
digital literacy does
not replace traditional forms of literacy, in-
115
Knobel, M & Lanskear, C. (2008). Digital Literacies: Concepts, Policies, and Practices.
116
The New London Group (1997). New Literacy Studies
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stead
building
upon
the
skills
that
form
the
foundation of traditional forms of literacy.117
Digital literacy is often discussed in the
context of its precursor media literacy. Media
literacy education began in the United Kingdom
and the United States as a result of war propa-
ganda in the 1930s and the rise of advertising
in the 1960s, respectively.118 Manipulative mes-
Jenkins, Henry (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century (PDF). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-03. 117
Boyd, Danah (2014). It's Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-0-300-16631-6. 118
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saging and the increase in various forms of me-
dia further concerned educators.
Educators
began
to
promote
media
literacy
education in order to teach individuals how to
judge and access the media messages they were
receiving.
The ability to critique digital and media
content
allows
individuals
to
identify
biases
and evaluate messages independently.119
Boyd, Danah (2014). It's Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-0-300-16631-6. 119
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danah boyd stresses the importance of criti-
cal media literacy, especially for teens. She
advocates
that
critical
media
literacy
skills
are the first step in identifying biases in me-
dia content, such as online or print advertis-
ing.
Technical skills and knowledge of navigating
computer
systems
further
helps
individuals
in
evaluating information on their own. Barriers in
acquiring technical skills and computer knowl-
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edge set forth a limit for individuals in fully
participating in the digital world.120
In order for individuals to evaluate digital
and
media
demonstrate
messages
digital
independently,
and
media
they
literacy
must
compe-
tence.
Renee Hobbs developed a list of skills that
demonstrate
digital
and
media
literacy
compe-
tence.121
Boyd, Danah (2014). It's Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-0-300-16631-6. 120
Hobbs, Renee; Martens, Hans (2015). "How media literacy supports civic engagement in a digital age". Atlantic Journal of Communication. 23 (2): 120–137. doi: 10.1080/15456870.2014.961636 – via Fusion. 121
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Digital
and
media
literacy
includes
the
ability to examine and comprehend the meaning of
messages,
judging
credibility,
and
assess
the
quality of a digital work.
A
digitally
literate
individual
becomes
a
socially responsible member of their community
by spreading awareness and helping others find
digital solutions at home, work, or on a nation-
al platform.122
Hobbs, Renee; Martens, Hans (2015). "How media literacy supports civic engagement in a digital age". Atlantic Journal of Communication. 23 (2): 120–137. doi: 10.1080/15456870.2014.961636 – via Fusion. 122
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Chapter. 5 Communication Technology
Careers 123
in
communication
technology
re-
quire the knowledge to operate, maintain, and
upgrade communications equipment.
Individuals
field
must
within
have
technologies,
an
the
computer
understanding
mechanical
of
wireless
operations,
computer
applications, and problem solving
123
technology
https://learn.org/
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Hayley Eastman has reported via The Daily
Universe that New technology124 and social media
sites are constantly changing, evolving and de-
veloping, which means the face of personal com-
munication is also changing.
These changes often mean people are having
less and less face-to-face interaction.
Email,
texting,
and
are
just a few examples of mediums that have diminhttps://universe.byu.edu/2013/07/07/1communication-changes-with-technology-socialmedia/ 124
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ished verbal communication. Verbal communication
has decreased dramatically from just 20 years
ago, when most of the technology used today did
not even exist.
Email was one of the first forms of communi-
cation technology to come about that is still
used today, starting during the ’70s but not be-
coming popular until the ’90s.
Email is currently the most popular form of
online communication, even after discounting the
large volume of spam messages sent. According to Page 185 of 288
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readwrite.com, about 188 billion emails are sent
out per day. In addition, there are three times
as many email accounts as Twitter and Facebook
accounts combined.
Communication 125
(from
Latin
communicare,
meaning "to share")126 is the act of conveying
meanings
from
one
entity
or
group
to
another
through the use of mutually understood signs,
symbols, and semiotic rules.
125
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication
126
Harper, Douglas. "communication". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
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The main steps inherent to all communication
are:127
The formation of communicative motivation or
reason.
Message
technical
composition
elaboration
on
(further
what
internal
exactly
to
or
ex-
press).
Message encoding (for example, into digital
data, written text, speech, pictures, gestures
and so on). C.E. Shannon. "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" (PDF). Math.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-01. 127
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Transmission of the encoded message as a se-
quence of signals using a specific channel or
medium.
Noise sources such as natural forces and in
some cases human activity (both intentional and
accidental)
begin
influencing
the
quality
of
signals propagating from the sender to one or
more receivers.
Reception of signals and reassembling of the
encoded message from a sequence of received sig-
nals. Page 188 of 288
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Decoding of the reassembled encoded message.
Interpretation and making sense of the pre-
sumed original message.
The scientific study of communication can be
divided into:
Information theory which studies the quan-
tification, storage, and communication of infor-
mation in general;
Communication
studies
which
communication;
Page 189 of 288
concerns
human
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Biosemiotics which examines communication in
and between living organisms in general.
The channel of communication can be visual,
auditory, tactile (such as in Braille) and hap-
tic, olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical.
Human communication is unique for its exten-
sive use of abstract language. Development of
civilization
has
been
closely
linked
with
progress in telecommunication.
In any communication model, noise is inter-
ference with the decoding of messages sent over Page 190 of 288
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a channel by an encoder. There are many examples
of noise:
Environmental
noise.
Noise
that
physically
disrupts communication, such as standing next to
loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a
construction site next to a classroom making it
difficult to hear the professor.
Physiological-impairment
maladies
that
prevent
noise.
effective
Physical
communication,
such as actual deafness or blindness preventing
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messages from being received as they were in-
tended.
Semantic noise128. Different interpretations
of the meanings of certain words. For example,
the word "weed" can be interpreted as an unde-
sirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism for
marijuana.
Syntactical noise. Mistakes in grammar can
disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in
verb tense during a sentence.
128
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication
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Organizational noise. Poorly structured com-
munication can prevent the receiver from accu-
rate
interpretation.
For
example,
unclear
and
badly stated directions can make the receiver
even more lost.
Cultural
can
cause
tionally
noise.
Stereotypical
misunderstandings,
offending
a
such
non-Christian
assumptions
as
uninten-
person
by
wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
Psychological
noise.
Certain
attitudes
can
also make communication difficult. For instance, Page 193 of 288
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great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose
focus on the present moment. Disorders such as
autism may also severely hamper effective commu-
nication.129
To face communication noise, redundancy and
acknowledgement must often be used. Acknowledge-
ments are messages from the addressee informing
the
originator
that
his/her
communication
has
been received and is understood.130Message repe-
Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010) 9–12 129
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Nato Standardization Agency AAP-6 – Glossary of terms and definitions, p. 43. 130
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tition and feedback about message received are
necessary in the presence of noise to reduce the
probability of misunderstanding. The act of dis-
ambiguation
regards
the
attempt
of
reducing
noise and wrong interpretations, when the seman-
tic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to
noise,
or
in
presence
of
multiple
meanings,
which makes the sense-making difficult. Disam-
biguation attempts to decrease the likelihood of
misunderstanding.
skill
in
This
communication
is
also
processes
Page 195 of 288
a
fundamental
activated
by
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counselors, psychotherapists, interpreters, and
in coaching sessions based on colloquium. In In-
formation Technology, the disambiguation process
and the automatic disambiguation of meanings of
words and sentences has also been an interest
and concern since the earliest days of computer
treatment of language.131
Natalie Burg Business132 doesn't happen face
to face as often as some would like. Instead,
today's
communication
depends
on
conference
Nancy Ide, Jean Véronis. Word Sense Disambiguation: The State of the Art", Computational Linguistics, 24(1), 1998, pp. 1–40. 131
132
https://www.forbes.com/
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calls and emails chains that make it challenging
to get to know your partners. It's been a common
lament among business people dissatisfied with
the technology that has become the norm in their
daily lives. But with so many workers worldwide
now working in virtual teams, many business re-
lationships do depend on technology. And that's
not a bad thing -- as long they're using the
right technologies in the right ways.
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Burg
tions
adds A new generation133 of communica-
technologies
are
upon
us.
They
are
ad-
dressing the new way to work that is permeating
workplaces worldwide. It's what Puskar calls a
"dynamic,
cultural
shift
in
the
marketplace."
They're making the global workplace exactly what
it's looking for: a joyful, delightful experi-
ence.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/unify/2013/12/10/how-technology-has-changed-workplacecommunication/#365a1718670b 133
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Chapter 6 Reading
Mara E. Vatz reported Andrew Solomon, in a
New York Times op-ed, concludes: “Readers, in
other words, are active, while non-readers–more
than half the population–have settled into apa-
thy.”that reading books134 “requires effort, con-
centration,
attention.
In
exchange,
it
offers
the stimulus to and the fruit of thought and
feeling….The
134
electronic
media,
https://www.technologyreview.com/
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on
the
other
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hand, tend to be torpid. Despite the existence
of good television, fine writing on the Inter-
net, and video games that test logic, the elec-
tronic media by and large invite inert recep-
tion.�
Ferris Jabr believes that Young children135
who have never seen a tablet like the iPad or an
e-reader like the Kindle will still reach out
and run their fingers across the pages of a pa-
per book; they will jab at an illustration they
135
https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/ferris-jabr/
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like; heck, they will even taste the corner of a
book.
Today's
interact
with
so-called
a
mix
of
digital
paper
natives
still
magazines
and
books, as well as tablets, smartphones and e-
readers; using one kind of technology does not
preclude them from understanding another.
In this environment it is believe that the
video brings into focus an important question:
How exactly does the technology we use to read
change the way we read? How reading on screens
differs from reading on paper is relevant not Page 201 of 288
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just to the youngest among us, but to just about
everyone
who
reads—to
anyone
who
routinely
switches between working long hours in front of
a computer at the office and leisurely reading
paper magazines and books at home; to people who
have
embraced
e-readers
for
their
convenience
and portability, but admit that for some reason
they still prefer reading on paper; and to those
who have already vowed to forgo tree pulp en-
tirely. As digital texts and technologies become
more prevalent, we gain new and more mobile ways Page 202 of 288
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of reading—but are we still reading as atten-
tively and thoroughly? How do our brains respond
differently to onscreen text than to words on
paper? Should we be worried about dividing our
attention between pixels and ink or is the va-
lidity of such concerns paper-thin?
Since at least the 1980s researchers in many
different fields—including psychology, computer
engineering,
ence—have
and
library
investigated
and
such
information
questions
in
sci-
more
than one hundred published studies. The matter Page 203 of 288
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is by no means settled. Before 1992 most studies
concluded that people read slower, less accu-
rately and less comprehensively on screens than
on
paper.
Studies
published
since
the
early
1990s, however, have produced more inconsistent
results: a slight majority has confirmed earlier
conclusions, but almost as many have found few
significant differences in reading speed or com-
prehension between paper and screens. And recent
surveys suggest that although most people still
prefer paper—especially when reading intensivePage 204 of 288
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ly—attitudes are changing as tablets and e-read-
ing technology improve and reading digital books
for facts and fun becomes more common. In the
U.S., e-books currently make up between 15 and
20 percent of all trade book sales.
In most cases, paper books have more obvious
topography than onscreen text. An open paperback
presents a reader with two clearly defined do-
mains—the left and right pages—and a total of
eight corners with which to orient oneself. A
reader can focus on a single page of a paper Page 205 of 288
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book without losing sight of the whole text: one
can see where the book begins and ends and where
one page is in relation to those borders. One
can even feel the thickness of the pages read in
one hand and pages to be read in the other.
Turning the pages of a paper book is like leav-
ing one footprint after another on the trail—
there's a rhythm to it and a visible record of
how far one has traveled. All these features not
only make text in a paper book easily navigable,
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they also make it easier to form a coherent men-
tal map of the text.
Ferris Jabr has concluded by stating that
although when it comes to intensively reading
long pieces136 of plain text, paper and ink may
still have the advantage. But text is not the
only way to read.
Arguably,Readers,
in
other
words,
are
ac-
tive, while non-readers–more than half the popu-
lation–have
136
settled
into
apathy.”that
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/reading-paper-screens/
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reading
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books137 “requires effort, concentration, atten-
tion.
137
https://www.technologyreview.com/
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Chapter 7 Writing Skills
Historically, Writing138 has its origins in
the strip of fertile land stretching from the
Nile up into the area often referred to as the
Fertile Crescent.
This name was given, in the early 20th cen-
tury, to the inverted U-shape of territory that
stretches up the east Mediterranean coast and
then curves east through northern Syria and down
138
http://www.historyworld.net/default.asp?gtrack=mtop1
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the
Euphrates
and
the
Tigris
to
the
Persian
Gulf.
The
first
known
writing
derives
from
the
lower reaches of the two greatest rivers in this
extended region, the Nile and the Tigris. So the
two
civilizations
separately
responsible
for
this totally transforming human development are
the Egyptian and the Sumerian (in what is now
Iraq).
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It has been conventional to give priority,
by a short margin, to Sumer – dating the Sumer-
ian script to about 3100 BC and the Egyptian
version a century or so later.
However,
in
1988
a
German
archaeologist,
Günter Dreyer139, unearths at Abydos, on the Nile
in central Egypt, small bone and ivory tablets
recording in early hieroglyphic form the items
delivered to a temple – mainly linen and oil.
139
http://www.historyworld.net/default.asp?gtrack=mtop1
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These
fragments
have
been
carbon-dated
to
between 3300 and 3200 BC.
Meanwhile
neiform
the
tablets
dating
from
of
Sumeria
the
earliest
has
been
cu-
pushed
further back, also to around 3200 BC. So any
claim to priority by either side is at present
too speculative to carry conviction.
As writing develops, a standardized method
of doing it begins to emerge. This is essential
to the very purpose of writing, making it capa-
ble of carrying a message over unlimited disPage 212 of 288
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tances of space or time. Doing so depends on the
second scribe, in a faraway place or the distant
future, being able to read what the first scribe
has written
In Mesopotamia clay remains the most common
writing surface, and the standard writing imple-
ment becomes the end of a sharply cut reed.
These two ingredients define this early hu-
man script.
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Characters are formed from the wedge-shaped
marks which the reed makes when pressed into the
damp clay, so the style of writing becomes known
as
cuneiform
(from
the
Latin
cuneus,
meaning
wedge).
Vignesh
Ramachandran asked the populace to
Think back to the last time you wrote in cur-
sive140 — you know, that fancy penmanship you may
140
https://mashable.com/
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have learned way back in grade school, complete
with elegant loops, curls and flourishes.
These days, with our fingers tapping on QW-
ERTY
keyboards,
Evernote
taking
the
place
of
sticky notes and tablets replacing paper note-
books, a question arises: Has the rise of tech-
nology led to the fall of cursive handwriting?
Suzanne Asherson, an occupational therapist
with the Beverly Hills Unified School District
in California, is among those who believe curPage 215 of 288
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sive should very much still be taught to chil-
dren today.
Asherson argues cursive is not only faster
and more efficient than print writing but says
the benefits go beyond writing.
"There’s definitely a link between cursive
writing and brain development," said Asherson,
who also presents national workshops on behalf
of the Handwriting Without Tears program.
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She recently wrote an opinion piece for The
New
York
Times,
in
which
she
highlighted
her
perspective:
“In today’s world … children need to know
how to both use keyboarding to type, as well as
being able to pick up a pencil or a pen and be
able to write," Asherson said. "Both skills are
necessary and should be taught to our children
in order to have functional adults who are effi-
cient in their jobs and in the real world.”
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Michael Ray Smith, a new media professor at
Campbell
University
in
North
Carolina,
agrees
that cursive is important.
He wonders about the costs of school dis-
tricts
ditching
cursive
instruction
for
other
skills in demand, like computer keyboarding.
"The problem with this kind of trade-off is
that students are not getting the brain activity
that only occurs with handwriting and all goes
along with motor and cognitive skills," wrote
Smith, in a statement to Mashable. "In the short Page 218 of 288
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run, handwriting is poorer. In the long run, ab-
stract
thinking
and
higher-order
thinking
may
not be as well developed.”
Handwriting expert and instructor Kate Glad-
stone argues that while handwriting is impor-
tant, cursive isn’t.
“Teaching handwriting doesn’t mean it has to
be cursive, any more than teaching math means it
has
to
be
in
Roman
numerals,"
Gladstone
told
Mashable. She advocates for students learning to
read
cursive
but
opposes
cursive
Page 219 of 288
handwriting
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
mandates,
saying
that
cursive
writing
should
just be an elective.
Technology is not killing handwriting, ac-
cording to Gladstone, but instead technology is
giving "handwriting a new playground — a whole
new realm to be in.”technology is giving "hand-
writing a new playground — a whole new realm to
be in.”
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Chapter 8 Personal Reflections
Digital technology has impacted the way ma-
terial is taught in the classroom.
With the use of technology rising over the
past decade, educators are altering traditional
forms of teaching to include course material on
concepts related to digital literacy141
Greenhow, Christine; Sonnevend, Julia; Agur, Colin (6 May 2016). Education and Social Media: Toward a Digital Future. MIT Press. ISBNÂ 9780262334860. 141
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Several websites are assisting in these ef-
forts such as Google Docs, Prezi, and, Easybib.
Is is for the above reasons why schools are
continuously updating their curricula to keep up
with accelerating technological developments.
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Chapter 9 Conclusion Reflections
A Writer’s Summit is not only about optics
but a field of view which was the extent of the
perceptible cultural space that is seen through
a
philosophical
lens
at
any
given
moment
by
global citizens .
Importantly, writing142, is a form of human
communication by means of a set of visible marks
142
https://www.britannica.com/
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that are related, by convention, to some partic-
ular structural level of language.
As a result of researching this question I
discovered that culture and writing are inextri-
cably linked?
And during the post-globalization period A
Writer’s Summit invariably will be impacted by
these elements:-143
Deliberation,
143
https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/Abubakar Adam Ibrahim | Published Date Oct 22, 2017 2:00 AM
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Designing
a
blueprint
as
a
result
of
resolu-
tions;
Developing creative writing;
Exploring
and
establishing
Book
Development
Agencies;
Get maximum value for their creative products;
Presenting of
papers by prominent writers;
Institutionalise
book
development
initiatives
through official recognition;
Issuing communiquĂŠs;
Measuring of attaining literary development; Page 225 of 288
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Measuring one self to position one self;
Mentoring of the next generation;
Mentoring,
Prizes,
Promotion of literature;
Raising of funds;
Reaching resolutions;
Residencies,
Stirring of global citizens
sciousness;
Strategising; Page 226 of 288
intellectual con-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
The
protection
of
intellectual
properties
of
writers;
Tools for cultural preservation.
Trainings, and conferences;
Transitioning;
Workshops,
Although culture and writing are inextrica-
bly linked? it is still a theoretical framework;
crafted in this logical discourse; for future
research;
simultaneously
setting
Page 227 of 288
the
tone
and
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
the tenor of a writer’s summit evaluates Self
In This
Post-Globalization
Conversation.
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner,Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self
versation. Volume1
Page 228 of 288
In This
Post-Globalization
Con-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Chapter 10 Conclusion
After gleaning through all the information I
am under an obligation to inform that the par-
ticular tenure of
Technology144 is decisive, ex-
peditious and pervasive.
What is uniquely stark the more technology
evolves,
it
is
seemingly
creating
shift.
144
https://literacysummit.ca/
Page 229 of 288
a
paradigm
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A case in point, metaphorically, this shift
is creating vibrations and waves within global
cultural
spheres
especially
citizens
way
of
life.
Although these vibrations145 are physical ev-
idence of waves, yet they
ficity;
impacting
how
are varying in speci-
global
citizens
feel;
think, learn, understand, process an idea, con-
structing
145
a
sentence,
and
https://www.answers.com/
Page 230 of 288
structuring
expres-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
sions
within this cultural
post-globaliza-
tion146 conversation.
In retrospect the aforementioned phenomenon
so activated the contours of my intellect that I
was compel to analyse the aforementioned phe-
nomenon through my lens.
A close-up in my field of view of a report
recorded in the Daily Trust dated Thursday July
25 2019 titled Norther Nigerian Writers147 Summit
activated the contours of my intellect. 146 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/ 147
https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/Abubakar Adam Ibrahim | Published Date Oct 22, 2017 2:00 AM
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The area of focus includes:-
• Budgetary allocations;
Invariably,
such
actions
certainly
created
the environment to ventilate whether culture and
writing are inextricably linked?
In this context writing148 is just an ex-
pression of language rather than simply a way of
transcribing speech that gives to writing, and
hence to written language and to literacy, its
special properties.
148
https://www.britannica.com/
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In this environment Careers149 in communica-
tion technology require the knowledge to oper-
ate, maintain, and upgrade communications equip-
ment.
Individuals
field
must
within
have
technologies,
an
the
computer
understanding
mechanical
technology
of
wireless
operations,
computer
applications, and problem solving according to
David R. Olson150
149
https://learn.org/
150
https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-R-Olson/2195
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Therefore, a close-up with my lens metaphor-
ically provided that tightly selected frame of
the most detail of one self, deliberately ex-
cluding other elements of A Writer’s151 Summit
which evaluates Self in this
post-globaliza-
tion152 conversation.
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Dip., Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner,Publisher
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self
In This
Post-Globalization
versation. Volume1
151
https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/Abubakar Adam Ibrahim | Published Date Oct 22, 2017 2:00 AM
152 https://sonicfield.org/2018/04/defining-tradition-sound-culture-questioning-importance-authenticity/
Page 234 of 288
Con-
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April 30, 2009. "Parrots have got rhythm, stud-
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Berry, Wallace (1987). Structural Functions in
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Covaciu-Pogorilowski, Andrei. n.d. "Musical Time
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Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Ox-
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John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford Uni-
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White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music.
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ley Smith Stevens,[page needed]. New York: Wi-
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About the Author
William Anderson Gittens
IDEOLOGY-
Page 252 of 288
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Developing and growing in the context of ex-
cellence, professionalism and quality in Multi-
media Services
Married
Children Lisa Gittens and Laron Gittens
2018 Produced an outside broadcast at Wes-
leyan Holiness Church the Barbados District for
Retired Educator Mrs. Shirley Smithen
2018
Produced
Multimedia
Documentary-Bel-
mont Methodist Church Celebrating 180 Years in
Barbados Page 253 of 288
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2017 Produced Multimedia Trailer- Codrington
College Estate Committee
2017 Produced Centennial Multimedia Documen-
tary
&
Murals
-
Carrington
Wesleyan
Holiness
Church
2015 CEO/Managing Director Consultant Devgro
Media Arts Services
2011Project Manager Thorsby
EDUCATION:
Page 254 of 288
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2004-2006 Post Masters work at the Universi-
ty of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus Cultural
Studies
2002 Management Course BIMAP
1995 Bachelors of Arts in Media Arts Jersey
City State University-special concentration pre
and postproduction 1992 General Education Diplo-
ma (U.S.A.)
1992 pursued the Diploma Video Production at
the Barbados Community College.
Page 255 of 288
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1991 Diploma in Communication Arts at the
University of the West Indies the course concen-
trated primarily upon public speaking; Journal-
ism techniques, Writing and speaking; Audio and
video production, and the legal aspect of jour-
nalism.
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
2015
CEO
,Managing
Director,
Consultant,
12th January 2015, Devgro Media Arts Services
was registered in the Register of Business Names
Page 256 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
under No. 54463 and a Member of Small Business
Association # 20912
We
Devgro Media Arts Services
will develop and grow in what we do best
in this Global Space
in the context of Excel-
lence, Professionalism and Quality in the pro-
duction
of
Multimedia
PowerPoint
for - Anniversaries,
Planning,
Funerals,
dings ..
Birthdays,
Consultancy Services,
Graduations,
Presentations
Conference
Documentaries,
Publishing and
July 4-8 2011
Page 257 of 288
Wed-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Coordinator 47th Caribbean Food Crops Soci-
ety Conference
Managing a budget of BDS. $200.000.00 dol-
lars as well as managing the logistical aspect
of the conference, networking information to in-
ternational
delegates,
coordination
12
soliciting
subcommittees,
sponsorship,
drafting
the
president’s speech,
Liaising with the following;
migration
Officer
requesting
the Chief Im-
the
waiving
visas for international delegates from Haiti, Page 258 of 288
of
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Chief
Protocol Officer Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Foreign Trade regarding seating of
diplomats and specially invited guests.
Ministry
of
Health,
requesting
information
of the countries that will require vaccinations
to facilitate their at Conference; CEO at Grant-
ley Adams International Airport Incorporated re-
questing passes for Liaison Officers and Trans-
portation Officers in facilitating delegates.
The Commissioner of Police requesting Police
Officers to provide security and to serve on the Page 259 of 288
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Protocol Committee for the conference. Managed a
budget of BDS$110,489.91the 21st Conference of
the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
Regional
Commission
for
the
Americas
held
in
Barbados November 26-29, 2012 at two hundred and
forty-three
thousand
six
hundred
(BDS$110,489.91) Barbados dollars;
AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER FROM OCTOBER 2000:
1.13.75
978-976-95731-4-7 2018
Page 260 of 288
dollars
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
2.A Writer’s Summit Vol.1 ISBN978-976-96356-0-9
29 JULY 2019
3.A
Pluralistic
Society
A
Cultural
Discourse
Vol.1 ISBN978-976-96337-4-2 May 9 2019
4.A
Portrait
of
Civilization
Volume
1
978-976-96220-9-8 Jan 3 2019
5.Are There Protocols In Culture
Vol. 1 ISB-
N978-1-64570-046-3 & ISBN978-976-96343-0-5
6.A Singular Island Vol.1 “ISBN 978-976-96337-5-
9”. April 2018 Page 261 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
7.A Slice of Culture Vol.1
978-976-96313-4-2
April 8 2019
8.A Tribute To Culture Vol.1 978-976-96336-3-6
April 28 2019
9.Andromeda Gardens Vol1 978-976-96294-3-1 2019
10.Are There Myths About Culture ? Vol.1 ISB-
N978-976-96337-3-5 May 20 2019
11.Are
There
Rhythms
In
978-976-96343-2-9
Page 262 of 288
Culture?Vol.1ISBN
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
12.Barbados in Review Vol.1,
978-976-95731-3-0
Jan 18 2018
13.Belmont Methodist Church Celebrating 180 Vol.
1
978-976-96220-8-1 2018
14.B e y o n d
Cultural
Boundaries
Vol.1
ISBN
978-976-96343-6-7 June 7 2019
15.Beyond The Call Of Duty A Cultural Discourse
Volume1 ISBN 978-976-96342-5-1June 23 2019
16.Bridgetown Barbados Vol.1
Jan. 2019 Page 263 of 288
978-976-96286-2-5
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
17.Building for the Future Vol.1,
976-8078-30-8
2000
18.Can Culture Be Read Like A Text ? Vol.1
ISBN
978-976-96336-5-0 Jan. 2019
19.Can Human Rights Conflict with Long-standing
Cultural Practices?
20.A
Cultural
Discourse
Volume1
ISBN
978-976-96342-6-8
21.Can Culture Affect PoliticsVol.1ISBN 978-976-
96343-7-4 June10 2019 Page 264 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
22.Carrington Village Vol.1
978-976-96286-3-2
Jan. 2019
23.Codrington College Vol.1
978-976-96286-6-3
2018
24.Colour Me Vol.1, ISBN976-8079-28-2 2000
25.Conduit Vol.1
978-976-96286-8-7
Feb 16
2019
26.C o n s t i t u t i o n
&
Culture
978-976-96286-7-0 Feb 12 2019
Page 265 of 288
Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
27.C u l t u r a l
Convergence
Vol1ISBN978-976-96337-2-8 May 19 2019
28.C u l t u r e s
Evolve
Over
Time
Vol.
1ISBN978-976-96337-7-3
29.Cultural Identity Vol.1 ISBN 978-976-96343-3-
6 June 3 2019
30.Digital Insurgency Vol.1
978-976-96220-4-3
Sept. 24 2018
31.Established in Barbados Vol.1, 976-8080-24-8
2000 Page 266 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
32.Excerpts from Icons Vol.1 ISBN 978-976-96337-
5-9 April 2018
33.E x p r e s s i o n s
of
Culture
Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96337-1-1 May 17 2019
34.E x p r e s s i o n s
of
a
Century
Vol.1
978-976-95731-7-8 Aug. 17 2018
35.Focus Vol.1, 976-8080-53-1 2000
36.Global
Images
Vol.1
ISBN
June12 2019
Page 267 of 288
978-976-96342-2-0
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
37.Global Landmarks Vol.1
978-976-96220-0-5
(Part ABC) Sept. 6, 2018
38.Have
You
Considered
This
Approach?
Vol.1,
978-976-8233-38-7 Jan 18 2018
39.Illustrations Vol.1
978-976-96220-1-2
Aug.
27 2018
40.Images of Yesteryear in Barbados Vol. 2,ISBN
976-8078-30-8 2000
41.Images of Yesteryear in Barbados volume 1,
976-8078-41-3 2000 Page 268 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
42.Is
Culture
&
Religion
Inextricably
Linked?
Vol.1 ISBN978-976-96336-9-8 Jan. 2019
43.I s
Culture
A
Paradox
Vol.1
ISBN
978-976-96336-0-5 May32019
44.Is Language And Culture Inextricably Linked?
Vol.1 ISBN 978-976-96343-8-1 June 10 2019
45.Is It Culture of The Ecosystems ? Vol.1
N978-976-96336-6-7 Jan. 2019
Page 269 of 288
ISB-
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
46.Is
Semiotics
nique
An
Unconscious
Of
Cultural
Tech-
Culture?Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96342-0-6June 12 2019
47.Is
There
A
Culture
Of
Poverty
Vol.1ISBN
978-976-96336-7-4
48.Is There Anything New Under The Sun? Vol.1,
978-976-95731-2-3 Jan. 18 2018
49.Is There An Existential Threat To Culture?
Vol.ISBN 978-976-96342-1-3
Page 270 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
50.Is There A Why In Culture? Vol.1ISBN 978-976-
96343-4-3
51.Is
the
June 4 2019
Pen
Mightier
Than
the
Sword
Vol.1?
978-976-96220-2-9 Sept.5 2018
52.Is There A Lack of Cultural Criticism VOL.1
ISBN 978-976-96343-9-8 June 12 2019
53.It’s The Lens Vol.1
978-976-95731-8-5 Aug.
10 2018
54.It’s The Lens Vol.2
978-976-96220-3-6 Sept.
24 2018 Page 271 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
55.It’s the Lens Vol.3
56.Is Culture
978-976-96286-5-6
And
Mise en scène Correlated
Vol.1
57.Land Marks Vol.1, 976-8078-81-2. 2000
58.Matrix!
A
Global
Cultural
Discourse
Vol.1
978-976-96313-3-5 April 6 2019
59.M e d i t e r r a n e a n
Memories.Vol.1
978-976-95731-6-1 2017
60.Mia the Leader Vol.1 978-976-95731-9-2. Oct.
12 2018 Page 272 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
61.Mise en scene Vol.1, 976-8079-27-4 2000
62.Monuments Vol.1, 976-8080-22-1 2000
63.Narrative Vol.1 978-976-96286-1-8. Feb 8 2019
64.Our
Matriarch
Vol.1
978-976-95731-6-1
Jan.
2018
65.People Vol.1, 976-8080-59-0 Jan. 18 2018
66.P e o p l e
of
Conversation
Vol.1,
978-976-95731-0-9 Jan 18 2018
67.Profiles Vol1 978-976-95731-4-7 Feb 15 2019
Page 273 of 288
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68.Relics Vol.1
69.Reparations
978-976-96294-4-8 2018
!
A
Global
Cultural
Discourse
Vol.1 978-976-96313-1-1 March 29 2019
70.Shades of Global Culture Vol.1 978-976-96220-
7-4 Dec. 3 2018
71.S o c i a l
Psychology
of
Culture
Vol.
1978-976-96294-0-0 Feb. 28 2019
72.ISBN 978-976-96342-9-9 Sticking To His Cul-
tural Task Vol.1 July 12 2019
Page 274 of 288
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73.THE CARNEGIE FREE LIBRARY VOL1 978-976-96294-
2-4 Feb. 2019
74.Technique Demonstration Vol.1, 976-8079-96-7
2000
75.The
Cultural
SpheresVol.1978-976-96294-1-7
March 2 2019
76.T h e
Antithesis
of
Culture
Vol.1
978-976-96313-8-0 April 23 2019
77.T h e
Children
of
Immigrants
978-976-95731-1-6 Jan. 18 2018 Page 275 of 288
Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
78.T h e
Classics
Of
Culture
Vol.1.
ISBN
978-976-96336-8-1 April 2019
79.The
Conversation
Vol.1
978-976-95731-5-4
Feb. 16 2019
80.The Cultural Footprints We Leave Behind Vol.1
ISBN 978-976-96343-5-0 June 4 2019
81.The Defining Moments In Culture Vol.1 ISBN
978-976-96336-3-6 .April 2019
82.The Economic History of Culture Vol.1 ISBN
978-976-96336-2-9. April 2019 Page 276 of 288
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83.The Foreword of Culture Vol.1
978-976-96313-
6-6 April 18 2019
84.The
Green
Monkey
&
Sparrows
Vol.1
ISBN
978-976-96342-4-4 June 13 2019
85.T h e
Humanity
of
Culture
Vol1
978-976-96294-9-3 Mar. 12 2019
86.T h e
Implications
of
Culture
Vol.1
978-976-96337-9-7
87.The Launch Vol.1
978-976-96286-9-4 Nov. 2018
Page 277 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
88.T h e
Law
Versus
Culture
Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96336-1-2 April 30, 2019
89.The Linkages of Culture Vol.1
978-976-96337-
0-4 May 16 2019
90.The Optics Vol.1 978-976-95731-63-7 2018
91.The Relics of Culture Vol.1
978-976-96313-7-
3 April 21 2019
92.The Sound of Culture
Is A Cultural Discourse
93.Vol.1 ISBN 978-976-96342-7-5
Page 278 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
94.The Soul of Culture Vol1
978-976-96294-8-6
March 8 2019
95.The
Space
They
Occupy
Vol1978-976-96286-4-9
2018
96.T h e
Space
Turtles
Occupy
Vol.
1978-976-96294-6-2 2019
97.The Value of Culture Vol1
978-976-96294-7-9
2019
98.Through The Lens of a Media Arts Specialist
Vol1 ISBN 978-976-96337-7-3 April Page 279 of 288
2018
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
99.T o
Classic
Or
Not
To
Classic
Vol.1
978-976-96294-5-5 2018
100.What
Cultural
Practitioners
Believe
Vol.1
978-976-96313-5-9 April 15 2019
101.W h a t
Is
The
Colour
of
Culture
Vol.1
Cultured
Vol.1
978-976-96313-2-8 April 3 2019
102.W h a t
It
Means
To
Be
978-976-96313-9-7 2019
103.W h a t ’ s
That
In
Your
978-976-96220-5-0 Nov. 1st 2018 Page 280 of 288
Hand
Vol.1
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
104.W h o / W h a t
Holds
Your
Culture
Vol1
Anyway
Vol.
978-976-96313-0-4 March 28 2019
105.W h o ’ s
Culture
Is
It
1978-976-96220-6-7 Oct. 15
106.Why
Artifacts
Of
2018
Culture?
Vol.1
ISBN
978-976-96336-4-3 May 9 2019
107.Why Culture Vol.1ISBN978-976-96337-8-0
108.Why Little England? Vol.1
Jan 30 2019
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109.Why Document Culture Vol1 ISBN978-976-96343-
1-2
June1 2019
Editor In Chief 1992-1994 -Duties included set-
ting up meetings to discuss tender proposals.
With prospective tenders of publishing firms and
- photography firms for selection.
Managed a staff of ten students;
managed a budget of $35,000.00 to $50,000.00 in
U.S.
currency
pages,
laying
ready.
Page 282 of 288
out
pages
press
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Taking photographs of students and activities on
campus
1992- 1994 -Member of the Judicial Committee
Jersey
City
State
University
Duties
included
listening to student's complaints that contra-
vened the institutions 'regulations.
1990 ~ 1991 Seconded to the Faculty of Edu-
cation, University of the West Indies Cave Hill
Campus. Duties included preparing workshops for
CARNEID and UNESCO.
Page 283 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
Teaching graphic arts, video and still pho-
tography to teachers in the Dip Ed Programme and
Masters programme Graphic Artist-
1990 -1991 Technical Assistant- Ministry of
Education, Youth Affairs and Sports Audio Visual
Aids Department.
Duties-processing
black
and
white,
colour
film and Transparencies slide, graphic arts and
illustrations.
1983-1988
1
Official
Composite
Artists
of
The Royal Barbados Police Force Duties included Page 284 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
-sketching composites of suspects, stolen items
jewelry from written information,
1989
–2005
Freelance
Photojournalist
–Car-
ibbean Broadcasting Corporation Duties - field
assignments, live broadcast, and shell umbra cup
football Jazz festival, Arial photography
1978-1979
Supervisor
at
Barbados
Knitting
and Spinning
1972-2015 Member of the Barbados Regiment
and the Barbados Boys Scouts Association
HONORS AND AWARDS Page 285 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
➢ Inducted in the Hall of Professionals of
St.Giles Primary
➢ Recipient of the 12th International Pres-
tigious Scout Award Arco Italy
➢ Presented to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth
II of England for outstanding contributions in
the field of art.
➢ Presented to His Excellency Governor Gen-
eral Sir Hugh Springer for outstanding contribu-
tions in the field of art and Scouting in Barba-
dos. Page 286 of 288
ISBN978-976-96356-0-9A Writer’s Summit Evaluates Self In This Post-Globalization Conversation. Volume1
➢ Received Special accreditation from Hack-
ney England International Art Exhibition.
➢ Designer of postage stamps commemorating
60 years of scouting in Barbados
Page 287 of 288
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Published by Devgro Media Arts Services ISBN 978-976-96356-0-9
Page 288 of 288