Is There Any Thing New Under The Sun Vol.1

ISBN 978-976-95731-2-3

First Edition

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist ISBN 978-976-95731-2-3

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Dr. Joseph Drew was my advisor, mentor, and teacher during my academic tenure as a Media Arts Major at Jersey City State College now New Jersey City University (NJCU). The focus of our parting conversation was about me honing my writing skills after I had graduated and returned to Barbados. Between the period 1995 to 2016, I have discovered that the more that I practice this leisure pursuit profession it seemed to be infectious among other elements. The other elements such as being passionate and prolific combined together with the Creator’s help, made me a productive writer to the extent that I have now published 18 books.

In light of the aforesaid, I have decided to dedicate my 18th publication “Is There Anything New Under The Sun ?” Vol.1 in memory of Dr. Joseph Drew .

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First Edition

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist Cultural Practitioner ISBN 978-976-95731-2-3

All rights reserved.

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William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialists’ Cultural Practitioner

First Edition Š 2016 All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of William Anderson Gittens the copyright owner. Typesetting, Layout Design, Illustrations, and Photography by William Anderson Gittens Edited by William Anderson Gittens and Magnola Gittens ISBN 978-976-95731-2-3 Printed by Devgro Publishing Tel: 246 2404174 Published by William Anderson Gittens Email address wgittens11@gmail.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ................................................................

PAGE

Statement ............................................................. ………..……...…….....7 Foreword ............................................................. ………..……….……....9 Acknowledgements ................................................... ……….………….12 Overview .................................................................... ……………….....14 Introduction............................................................... ……………...…..17 Chapter 1 Agriculture..………………………………..…………..................27 Chapter 2 Antiquity ................................................... .………..………..47 Chapter 3Architecture .............................................. .…….……...……74 Chapter 4 Culture ..................................................... ….……….….…..91 Chapter 5 Editing ...................................................... ……..……….…106 Chapter 6 Family Planning ....................................... ……….….…….111 Chapter 7 Governance .............................................. ………..………129 Chapter 8 Immigration..………………………………………….................147 Page 5 of 252

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Chapter 9 Interpretations............................. ………….……………..….162 Chapter 10 Ownership.............................................. …………..…….191 Chapter 11 Religions ................................................. ………….….....203 Chapter 12Tripartite ................................................. …………..…….217 Chapter 13 Suggestion..…………………………………….…….................223 Chapter 14 Personal Reflections .............................. …………………224 Chapter 15 Conclusions and Reflections ................. …………………227 Chapter 16 Conclusion ............................................. ……………..….228 Chapter 17 Activities ................................................. ……………......232 About the Author .................................................. ….……………..….233 Works Cited .......................................................... ….………………...242

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STATEMENT There is this belief that people are made up of conscience, emotions, heart, mind, soul, and spirit, according to Craig von Buseck1 Of note, the said people can be considered as conduits of Identities2, namely class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race which functions as points of identification”3according to Stuart Hall.

These identities help to (a) define (b) identify the said people who occupied the B.C. space and are still residing in the global A.D. space and (c) at the same time quantifying what can be considered as popular culture.

In this context, for anything to become a popular culture it must be consume by all-inclusive class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race.

According John Fiske Popular Culture as a provoking conversation must be taken up by the people (79).

1 2 3

http://www1.cbn.com/questions/what-are-the-three-parts-of-man Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

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Fiske’s definition of popular culture has merit and is applicable to this conversation since it is applied in context.

I suppose that after much deliberation one can assume that such a provoking question would have and continues to pervade the mind of most human beings everywhere in every culture.

Correspondingly, in light of the afore mentioned admission it begs the question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” which is can be considered as a quintessential question- it is paradoxical 4 , is not a soliloquy 5 , it is a cultural expression, it makes people of every century complicit; it does not discriminate but people do because of their identity.

Conversely, this factually pragmatic theoretical question has seemingly provoked an analytical conversation.

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist 978-976-95731-2-3

A statement that is self-contradictory or logically untenable though based on a valid deduction from acceptable premises.

5 an act of speaking one's thoughts aloud when by oneself or regardless of any hearers, especially by a character in a play. Oxford Dictionaries · © Oxford University Press · Translation by Bing Translatorhttp://www.learnthebible.org/Ecclesiastes%20-%20Introduction.htm

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FOREWORD As a Media Arts Specialist I became very enthralled with the quintessential question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” In light of the aforesaid admission I suppose that an analytical conversation would be prudent in this circumstance in any attempt to fully ventilate this question since it will be discuss factually, theoretically, pragmatically but must be done within a cultural context. This reasoned conversation in my view summarizes People as the conduits of Identities 6 , such as class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race.

The stark reality is human beings are the conduits expressing these identities are everywhere. To understand this dynamic acknowledgement we must first examine the performances of identities such as class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race of human beings globally.

In such a context it makes you wonder if these said identities identified in this discussion would behave like music since they are everywhere. It is only logical to assume that since this question is logical, and relevant, and it comprises 6

Stuart Hall,

”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

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people, therefore it is reasonable to assume that the same can be interpreted as widespread. These identities, previously mentioned are signifiers which are used to categorize, to mark, to identify, to profile and to showcase people everywhere within a specific space and time is evident within any society.

What is also equally

important, an individual’s orientation and identity perhaps may influence their understanding during this discussion?

Consequently, it makes one wonder if the people who are considered as conduits becomes extinct; then it is highly probable that their culture, their diaspora and their ancestry may all become suspended. Further, it should be noted that when all the historical data pertaining to this conversation is analyzed it should help in determining relevance, influence and what type of impact if any at all it would have imposed upon humans with in the B.C. and the A.D. space.

The above mentioned evaluation in my view forms part of the basic principle of this deep thinking pertinent question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?� In my assessment this theme is like a recurring decimal, or the waves of the sea and it has a tendency to behave somewhat like music as it occupies the Page 10 of 252

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historical, political, post-colonial and post- modern landscape of B. C.7 and the A.D.8 John Fiske has argued that music is like a popular culture that- is everywhere; the same creates the logistical framework; as it provides substance to this debate certainly helps the populous to answer the said question but in the context of space.

Cultural Theorist Elaine Baldwin also joins the debate and argues that space is the “representation”, and part of the construction of culture and ways we live out our lives.”9 Therefore examining what can be considered as a cultural expression, since it is not a soliloquy, but a paradoxical question makes human beings complicit.

It is for all of the aforementioned reasons that (a) it begs the quintessential question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” and (b) why I was challenged and motivated to answer the same in my capacity as a Media Arts Specialist.

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist 978-976-95731-2-3

7 8 9

Et al The B.C./A.D. dating system is not taught in the Bible. It actually was not fully implemented and accepted until several centuries after Jesus’ death.

Elaine Baldwin Introducing Cultural Studies (Essex: Prearce Hall,1999).p.141.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Honouring all humanity who is deemed complicit of the quintessential question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?�

Special thanks to the Creator for his guidance and choosing me as a conduit to express the creative gifts he has given me and my late parents Charles and Ira Gittens.

Thanks to those who assisted me along this journey namely my Beloved wife Magnola Gittens, my Brothers- Shurland, Charles, Ricardo, Arnott, Stephen, Sisters- Emerald, Marcella, Cheryl, CousinsJoy Mayers, Kevin and Ernest Mayers, Donna Archer, Avis Dyer, Jackie Clarke, Uncles- Clifford, Leonard Mayers, David Bruce, Collin Rock.

My children Laron and Lisa Well-wishers-Mr.and Mrs. Andrew Platizky, Mr. Matthew Sutton, Mr. and Mrs. David Lavine, Dr.Nicholas Gordon, the late Dr.Joseph Drew, Merline Mayers, Mr. and Mrs. Trevor Millington, Page 12 of 252

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Rev. & Mrs. Donavon Shoemaker, Ms. Geraldine Davis, Rev.Carl and Rev Angie Dixon, Mrs. Gloria Rock, Rev.Pauline Harewood, Mr. and Mrs. Stewart Russell, Mrs. Shirley Smith, Mr. Ricardo Jordan, Mr. and Mrs. Felton Ince, Professor Jane Steuerwald, Mr.and Mrs. Laurie King, Mr. and Mrs. David Brathwaite, Mr.and Mrs. Ryan Miller Mr.and Mrs. Neilo Mascoll. Rev.and Mrs. Clayton Springer The

aforementioned

contributed

to

my

academic

developmental journey.

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist 978-976-95731-2-3

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OVERVIEW We are witnessing a revolution in knowledge in this twenty-first century. Such an admission presumably draws immense attention to the pertinent deep thinking philosophical quintessential question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” The same seemed to have baffled the populous for decades. Hence, I was motivated to rationalize in seventeen chapters an expository that answers the said question. Each chapter highlights and examines eleven social evolutionary topics namely- Agriculture, Antiquity, Architecture, Culture, Editing, Family Planning, Governance, Immigration, Interpretation, Ownership, Religions, and the Tripartite 10 of human beings way of life especially their behavior and their belief during the pre and the post B.C.11 and the A.D.12 period. Further it should be noted that the aforementioned B.C.13 and the A.D.14 period are critical reference points where these events were staged. Ironically, although Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle15 were among the greatest minds that have lived in Western Civilization yet

10

https://redeeminggod.com/humans-three-parts-body-soul-spirit/ B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

13 B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

14 A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

15 http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/ 11 12

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they believed different things. Conversely, in such a setting, just as human beings are the critical tenets of this investigative discussion; similarly, Clifford Geertz’s 16 thick description theory and Stuart Hall’s Identities17 theory aided the conversation whereby any individual can measure their understanding with empirical support.

The application of the Socratic Method 18 together with historical data created a factual, theoretical and pragmatic framework which allows:(a) The author to answer the pertinent question (b) To engage and transport the reader to other realms, (c) To acquiring more knowledge, and increase their vocabulary and (e) Hone analytical thinking skills.

As a Media Arts Specialist I must confess that I became very enthralled with this this deep-thinking question to the extent that the more that I wrestle and analyze the same I have discovered that it appears to be (a) Paradoxical (b) It makes all human beings complicit 16

Clifford James Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology, and who was considered "for three decades...the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States." [1] He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz 17 Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

18 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method

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(c) It does not discriminate but people do because of their identity; and (c) It is a perennial cultural expression To this end, such a deep-thinking question namely “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” was discussed within a broad-mind context since Aristotle19 Plato, and Socrates also asked deep-thinking questions too. Therefore to ignore this glaring fact in my view may be considered as hubris.

In light of such reasoning I was motivated as a Media Arts Specialist to address such a deep-thinking question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” .

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist 978-976-95731-2-3

19

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/

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INTRODUCTION As a Media Arts Specialist I became very enthralled with the quintessential question “Is there anything new under the sun?’

What is very interesting about this deep thinking question it is not a soliloquy but a paradoxical question that makes human beings complicit.

Not to mention the fact that the same is also an interactive invisible that influences all human beings within the B.C.20 and the A.D.21.

This question 22 can serve many purposes (a) be use as a linguistic expression (b) to request information and (c) to research information that helps in providing an answer.

The Socratic Method23 of the cooperative argumentative approach was employed to facilitate the author and the reader of this text.

This technique assisted in the asking and the answering of this inquiry with the purpose to stimulate critical thinking so as to draw out ideas and the underlying presumptions.

20

B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

22 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question 23 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method 21

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Further, the fact that should be underscored during this inquiry is the foremost reason of this question which has stimulated the thought processes of the enquirer.

This conversation provides an avenue to facilitate research whereby the said information obtained thru this process will educate the general public but not (a) Testing someone's knowledge, as in a quiz or examination24 (b) A rhetorical question25 (c) Pre-suppositional or loaded questions26 nor (d) Question used as titles of works of literature, art and scholarship27.

Invariably the underpinning of this analysis seeks to promote an interrogative statement that seeks to establish an intellectual inquiry designed at focusing on the specificity of the deep thinking question.

Of note, such an interrogative question has established the framework for (a) the academic pursuit of new knowledge; and (b) the said research probe will be expressed in a language that is appropriate for the populous.

24

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question etal etal 27 etal 25 26

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When all of the above is scanned, clearly it makes provision that this quintessential question can be answered in a theoretical, thoughtful / figurative context.

The same will always impact our opinions and our abilities directly and indirectly because it has become a historical expression.

What is also very poignant concerning this enquiry especially throughout the B.C. and A.D. centuries; there are many interpretations and diversion of cultural opinions expressed which must come to the fore.

From all accounts this pertinent question can be viewed as cultural and can be interpreted as tangible and /or as an intangible signifier that synchronizes with cultural identities occupying various geographical spaces.

Therefore, the cultural construct namely identities28have a tendency to behave somewhat like music. John Fiske has argued that music is like a popular culture and it is everywhere; in this context everywhere means century.

“Is there anything new under the sun?” makes people appeared puzzle 28

Stuart Hall,

”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

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because it does not discriminate but people do because they are the conduits of identities.

Stuart Hall argues that identities 29 , include class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy ownership, races, religious philosophy, practice, and or belief that functions as points of identification;”30 Clifford Geertz’ 31 argues that the thick description theory unearths some meaning and some understanding in the truest sense; Assist with the possible interpretations /meanings; Set appraises for the theoretical framework analysis; Assist in the construction of the said question “became the thick description of the global diaspora, and measured how and what the societies was thinking.

Further, depending on an individual’s perception, intellectual competence and ability can become a way of life for that said individual which is consistent with Harleen Kaur theoretical views.

29

Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

Clifford James Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology, and who was considered "for three decades...the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States."[1] He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz 30 31

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Kaur has argued in her article titled A Culture is a Way of Life that A culture is a way of life 32 of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.

A case in point, from one generation to the next it was reported that the annals of history has recorded that in the early 1st century BC Gaius Julius Caesar 33 (15 March) 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by a group of rebellious senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus.

In context, approximately two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, John Fitzgerald Kennedy34, the 35th president of the United States, was assassinated November 22, 1963, while traveling through Dallas, Texas, in an open-top convertible. He was 46 years of age.

When we examined these two historical tragic events it forces one to ask the pertinent question “Is there anything new under the sun?� even though these events happened centuries apart.

32 33 34

https://www.scribd.com/doc/307392037/Culture-is-a-Way-of-Life https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-f-kennedy-assassinated

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Gaius Julius Caesar35 was a politically adept and popular leader so was John Fitzgerald Kennedy; however the difference between these leaders- Caesar was the leader of the Roman Republic while Kennedy was the President of the United States of America.

Caesar and Kennedy represented the same gender there were men.

Caesar and Kennedy represented the colour Caucasoid or white race and the European ancestry diaspora which is perceived as dominant and hegemonic.

Caesar and Kennedy also represented the hierarchy structure and the upper class of society; not to mention the fact that they were leaders of their countries.

The reality is these two popular world leaders were murdered according to the annals of history but in different geographical spaces and time periods. These events occurred B.C. and A.D36. and were committed by people who are made up the spirit, the soul, the heart, the conscience, the mind and the

35 36

http://www.biography.com/people/julius-caesar-9192504#synopsis http://www.gotquestions.org/BC-AD.html

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emotions. According to Craig von Buseck37 people are made up the spirit, the soul, the heart, the conscience, the mind and the emotions.

Buseck added that the Bible38 has recorded that the soul and the spirit are the primary immaterial aspects of humanity, while the body is the physical container that holds them on this earth.

Conversely, People and their identities, such as class, culture, ethnicity, gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race are also part of the conversation.

These identities, behave somewhat like a recurring decimal because they have been occupying the BC space pre and post and therefore it begs the question “Is there anything new under the sun?”

Let us examine some more facts presented in this text as they relate to this theory:The annals of history has recorded that at beginning in the eighth century B.C39., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain,

37 38 39

http://www1.cbn.com/questions/what-are-the-three-parts-of-man http://www1.cbn.com/questions/what-are-the-three-parts-of-man http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/ancient-rome

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much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands.

Similarly during the 19th century Britain was the world's most powerful nation40, and the largest empire and the foremost global power41in history for over a century.

An examination of these two historic events regarding these two great super powers namely Ancient Rome and Britain have peaked and then decline in separate centuries- occupying different geographical spaces can be interpreted as coincidental concerning the quintessential question “Is there anything new under the sun?�

In this global space the cultural constructs of race, culture, hierarchy and ownership were/and are very prominent in both B.C and A.D.centuries.

40

Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire, The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2.

41

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And the inference, which can be extracted from the above-mentioned definition, is people are the conduits by which these dynamic constructs are manifested / expressed and the event that the population is wiped out then these constructs becomes dormant indefinitely.

In light of the aforesaid information in my opinion, depending on one’s orientation the answer can be yes or the answer can be no in this conversation since it is paradoxical.

Therefore from my perspective as a Media Arts Specialist the interpreting of this question can only be examined in its truest sense of the thick description theory.42

Cultural Theorist Clifford Geertz’s 43

has argued

that the thick

description theory focuses on observation, recording, analyzing but more specifically interpreting signs to gain their meaning within the culture itself.

42

Clifford Geertz’s thick description theory Geertz, Clifford. "Thick Description: Toward an Interpretative Theory of Culture." In The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973. In his first chapter in The Interpretation of Cultures, Clifford Geertz discusses the role of the ethnographer. Broadly, the ethnographer's aim is to observe, record, and analyze a culture. More specifically, he or she must interpret signs to gain their meaning within the culture itself. This interpretation must be based on the "thick description" of a sign in order to see all the possible meanings. His example of a "wink of any eye" clarifies this point. When a man winks, is he merely "rapidly contracting his right eyelid" or is he "practicing a burlesque of a friend faking a wink to deceive an innocent into thinking conspiracy is in motion"? Ultimately, Geertz hopes that the ethnographer's deeper understanding of the signs will open and/or increase the dialogue among different cultures. [M. Murphy] 43

Clifford James Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology, and who was considered "for three decades...the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States." [1] He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz

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Concurrently, the interpretation that was applied is this context and that specifically relates to this question is based on the "thick description" of a signifier that ensured that all the possible meanings that ultimately lead to a deeper understanding of the signs that open and increases the dialogue certainly begs the deep thinking question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?�

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CHAPTER 1 AGRICULTURE Agriculture was the foundation of the Ancient Greek economy. Nearly 80% of the population was involved in this activity.44 The Mediterranean climate is characterized45 by two seasons: the first dry and hot, from April to September (river beds tend to dry up); the second is humid, and is marked by often violent rain storms brought in by west winds, with mild, frost-free temperatures. As such in the mountains winters can be rigorous and snowy. Attica, Cyclades, the south of Peloponnese, and Crete are more dry than the rest of Greece.

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture46, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River.

The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural,

44 45 46

As estimated by L. Migeotte, L'Économie des citÊs grecques, p. 55. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptagriculture.html

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technological, and artistic pursuits47. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

Flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February.

Farmers48 plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.

From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

The ancient Egyptians cultivated49 emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.

47 48

As estimated by L. Migeotte, L'Économie des citÊs grecques, p. 55. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece etal

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Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems.

These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing.

Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand.

Vegetables 50 included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed.

Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land.

Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvee system.

49 50

etal As estimated by L. Migeotte, L'Économie des citÊs grecques, p. 55. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece

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A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture51, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River.

The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.

Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

Farming52 in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting).

The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops.

After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February.

51 52

etal etal

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Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals.

Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest53 their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain.

Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.

Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems.

These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper.

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Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand.

Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

The Egyptians were very secure in that the Nile valley always yielded enough to feed54 the country, even when famine was present in other nearby parts of the world.

The Egyptian's basic food and drink, bread and beer, were made from the main crops they grew, wheat and barley.

There were many types of bread, including pastries and cakes. Since there was no sugar, honey was used as a sweetener55 by the rich, and poor people used dates and fruit juices.

Egyptians liked strong-tasting vegetables such as garlic and onions. They thought these were good for the health.

They also ate peas and beans, lettuce, cucumbers, and leeks.

Vegetables were often served with an oil and vinegar dressing.

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Figs, dates, pomegranates and grapes were the only fruits that could be grown in the hot climate.

The rich could afford to make wine from their grapes. Ordinary people ate fish and poultry.

On special occasions they ate sheep, goat, or pig; but there was little grazing land available so meat was expensive and most people ate it only on festive occasions.

Egyptians stored their food in jars and granaries. Fish and meat had to be especially prepared for storage.

One method was salting. Another was to hang up the fish in the sun, which baked them dry.

In ordinary families the cooking was done by the housewife, but larger households employed servants to work in the kitchen56 and a chef - usually a man - to do the cooking.

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The Egyptians had ovens, and knew how to boil roast, and fry food.

There were few kitchen tools: pestles, mortars, and sieves.

At this juncture, I recall that during my childhood journey I saw my parents using the mortars and pestle and the sieve. The fact that parents in the 1950’s used this technology is indicative of the fact that the culture of the Egyptians had an impact on the Caribbean.

Egyptian cuisine's57 history goes back to Ancient Egypt. Archaeological excavations have found that workers on the Great Pyramids of Giza were paid in bread, beer, and onions58, apparently their customary diet as peasants in the Egyptian countryside.

Dental analysis of occasional desiccated loaves found in tombs confirm this, in addition to indicating that ancient Egyptian bread was made with flour from emmer wheat. Though beer disappeared as a mainstay of Egyptian life following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the year 641, onions remain the primary vegetable for flavoring and nutrition in Egyptian food.

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Beans were also a primary source of protein for the mass of the Egyptian populace, as they remain today.

Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on vegetable dishes.

Though food59 in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground.

Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, and a great deal of vegetarian dishes have developed to work around this economic reality.

Did the ancient Egyptians eat like us? If you're a vegetarian, tucking in along the Nile thousands of years ago would have felt just like home. In fact, eating lots of meat is a recent phenomenon. In ancient cultures vegetarianism was much more common, except in nomadic populations. Most sedentary populations ate fruit and vegetables60.

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Although previous sources found the ancient Egyptians to be pretty much vegetarians, until this new research it wasn't possible to find out the relative amounts of the different foods they ate. Was their daily bread really daily? Did they binge on eggplants and garlic? Why didn't someone spear a fish?

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.

Animals61, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians.

Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them.

In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs.

Poultry such as ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them.

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The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and they provided both honey and wax.

The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil.

The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos62 in the Second Intermediate Period, and the camel, although known from the New Kingdom, was not used as a beast of burden until the Late Period.

There is also evidence that suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period, but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land63.

The first recorded evidence of the First Agricultural Revolution occurring is in the Fertile Crescent64, a region in the Middle East that includes most

62 63 64

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of Iraq (Known as Mesopotamia in the past), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and the Nile River basin in Egypt65.

Other occurrences of the First Agricultural Revolution66 appeared Later in places like China and South America. Specific locations of the Revolution have been lost to war, looters, and time.

The areas around them have been heavily changed since.

The First Agricultural Revolution started around 11,000 BC. The exact timing is uncertain and will likely remain that way as little written record has survived.

China is known to have experienced the Revolution later than in the Fertile Crescent/Mesopotamia, though timing is, again, uncertain.

In the Americas, the First Agricultural Revolution likely started much later than either China or the Crescent.

Some scholars believe that it occurred in the Americas from 2000 BC up to the discovery of the Americas by the Europeans as some Native Tribes had not progressed to the First Agricultural Revolution67 by that time.

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Most scholars agree that climatic changes from the end of the last Ice Age have the greatest impact on the reason for the dramatic shift of the First Agricultural Revolution 68 . Areas where the Revolution first cropped up were well irrigated and warm, making for ideal farming conditions.

The areas center around larger rivers or groups of them. The exact reason why is unknown.

The long term effects of the First Agricultural Revolution are some of the broadest reaching of any event in human history.

Without sedentary living and agriculture, most societal changes and technological innovations would not have been possible.

The growth of the human race from a couple hundred thousand to the seven billion would not have been possible without the sustained food production69 that results from agriculture.

The technological innovations and revolutions that occurred after this Revolution would not have been possible without the sedentary lifestyle.

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An agricultural revolution or agrarian revolution is a period of transition from the pre-agricultural period characterized by a Paleolithic diet, into an agricultural period characterized by a diet of cultivated foods; or a further transition from a living a more advanced and more productive form of agriculture, resulting in further social changes.70 Examples of historical agricultural revolutions includeThe Neolithic Revolution (around 10,000 B.C.), the initial transition from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture in prehistory and developing the ability to farm crops. This period is commonly referred to as the 'First Agricultural Revolution'.

The Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), diffusion of many crops and farming techniques across Arab world and Muslim world during Islamic Golden Age71.

The British Agricultural Revolution (1750–19th centuries), an increase in agricultural productivity in Great Britain which helped drive the Industrial Revolution.

70 71

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The Scottish Agricultural Revolution (18th–19th centuries), the British Agricultural Revolution in Scotland specifically, which led to the Lowland Clearances.

The Green Revolution (1943–late 1970s), a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives that increased industrialized agriculture production 72 in India and other states in the developing world (the 'Second Agricultural Revolution').

Agricultural 73 revolution, gradual transformation of the traditional agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th century.

Aspects of this complex transformation, which was not completed until the 19th century, included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms more compact and an increased investment in technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation.

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Among those new crop-rotation74 methods was the Norfolk four-course system, established in Norfolk County, England, which emphasized fodder crops and the absence of the theretofore conventionally employed fallow year.

Wheat was grown in the first year and turnips in the second, followed by barley, with clover and ryegrass under sown in the third.

The clover and ryegrass were cut for feed or grazed in the fourth year.

In the winter, cattle and sheep were fed the turnips.

The development of Shorthorn beef cattle through selective breeding of local cattle of the Teeswater district, Durham County, typified the advances brought about by scientific breeding.

The historiography of the period that emphasized the contributions of “great men” has lost much of its influence, but the names Jethro Tull and Arthur Young are still frequently invoked by those seeking to understand the significance of the agricultural revolution, which was an essential prelude to the Industrial Revolution.

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Crop rotation 75 , the successive cultivation of different crops in a specified order on the same fields, in contrast to a one-crop system or to haphazard crop successions.

Throughout human history, wherever food crops have been produced, some kind of rotation cropping appears to have been practiced.

One system in central Africa employs a 36-year rotation; a single crop of finger millet is produced after a 35-year growth of woody shrubs and trees has been cut and burned.

In the major food-producing regions of the world, various rotations of much shorter length are widely used.

Some of them are designed for the highest immediate returns, without much regard for the continuing usefulness of the basic resources. Others are planned for high continuing returns with protected resources.

The underlying principles for planning effective cropping systems began to emerge in the middle years of the 19th century.

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Early experiments, such as those at the Rothamsted experimental station in England in the mid-19th century, pointed to the usefulness of selecting rotation crops from three classifications: cultivated row, close-growing grains, and sod-forming, or rest, crops76.

Such a classification provides a ratio basis for balancing crops in the interest of continuing soil protection and production economy.

It is sufficiently flexible for adjusting crops to many situations, for making changes when needed, and for including go-between crops as cover and green manures.

A simple rotation would be one crop77 from each group with a 1:1:1 ratio.

The first number in a rotation ratio refers to cultivated row crops, the second to close-growing grains, and the third to sod-forming, or rest, crops. Such a ratio signifies the need for three fields and three years to produce each crop annually.

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This requirement would be satisfied with a rotation of corn, oats, and clover or of potatoes, wheat, and clover-timothy. Rotations for any number of fields and crop relationships can be described in this manner. In general, most rotations are confined to time limits of eight years or less.

The acreage devoted to sod-forming, or rest, crops should be expanded at the expense of row crops on soils of increasing slopes and declining fertility78.

This will provide better vegetative covering to protect sloping land from excessive erosion and supply organic matter for improving soil productivity on both sloping and level lands79.

With lessening slope and increasing fertility, the row crops may be expanded, but this should not be done with too much reduction in the sod-forming80 crops.

The differing effects of crops on soils 81 and on each other and in reactions to insect pests, diseases, and weeds require carefully planned sequences.

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The usefulness of individual field crops 82 is affected by regional differences in climate and soil.

A major crop in one region may have little or no value in another. In each region, however, there are usually row, grain, and sod, or rest, crops that can be brought together into effective cropping systems.

In addition to the many beneficial effects on soils and crops 83 , wellplanned crop rotations also provide the business aspects of farming with advantages.

Labour, power, and equipment can be handled with more efficiency; weather and market risks can be reduced; livestock requirements can be met more easily; and the farm can be a more effective year-round enterprise.

Consequently, when the aforesaid information is deconstructed it begs the question Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

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CHAPTER 2 ANTIQUITY Antiquity84 may refer to any period before the middle Ages (476–1453), but still within Western civilization-based human history or prehistory: Ancient history85, any historical period before the Middle Ages

The Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally-occurring outcroppings of copper ores, and then combining those ores to cast bronze.

These naturally-occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before 3000 BC. In some parts of the world, a Copper Age follows the Neolithic and precedes the Bronze Age.

The Iron Age was the stage in the development of any people in which tools and weapons whose main ingredient was iron were prominent.

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The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in some past societies often including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles, although this was not always the case.

c. 3200 BC: Sumerian cuneiform writing system.86

3200 BC: Cycladic civilization in Greece

3200 BC: Norte Chico civilization begins in Peru

3200 BC: Rise of Proto-Elamite Civilization in Iran

3100 BC: Skara Brae Scotland

3100 BC: First dynasty of Egypt

c. 3000 BC: Egyptian calendar

c. 3000 BC: Stonehenge construction begins. In its first version, it consisted of a circular ditch and bank, with 56 wooden posts.87

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c. 3000 BC: Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in Romania and the Ukraine

3000 BC: Jiroft civilization begins in Iran

3000 BC: First known use of papyrus by Egyptians

2800 BC: Kot Diji phase of the Indus Valley Civilization begins

2800 BC: Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period in China

2700 BC: Minoan Civilization ancient palace city Knossos reach 80,000 inhabitants

2700 BC: Rise of Elam in Iran

2700 BC: The Old Kingdom begins in Egypt

2600 BC: Oldest known surviving literature: Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn.

2600 BC: Mature Harappan phase of the Indus Valley civilization (in present-day Pakistan and India) begins

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2600 BC: Emergence of Maya culture in the Yucatรกn Peninsula

2560 BC: King Khufu completes the Great Pyramid of Giza.

2500 BC: The mammoth goes extinct.

2200 -2100 BC: 4.2 kiloyear event: a severe aridification phase, likely connected to a Bond event, which was registered throughout most North Africa, Middle East and continental North America.

Related droughts very likely caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt and of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia.

2200 BC: completion of Stonehenge.

2070 BC: Yu the Great established the Xia Dynasty in China

2000 BC: Believed birth year of Abraham in Ur of the Chaldeans, Mesopotamia, who is the father of Abrahamic Religions which as of the 21st Century AD are adhered to by more than 50% of humanity;[3] Domestication of the horse

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1700 BC: Indus Valley Civilization comes to an end but is continued by the Cemetery H culture; The beginning of Poverty Point Civilization in North America

1600 BC: Minoan civilization on Crete is destroyed by the Minoan eruption of Santorini island.

1600 BC: Mycenaean Greece

1600 BC: The beginning of Shang Dynasty in China, evidence of a fully developed Chinese writing system

1600 BC: Beginning of Hittite dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean region

1500 BC: Composition of the Rigveda is completed

1400-400 BC: Olmec civilization flourishes in Pre-Columbian Mexico, during Mesoamerica's Formative period

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1496 BC: Traditional date for giving of the Ten Commandments to Moses at Mount Sinai ushering in monotheistic religion

1200 BC: The Hallstatt culture

1200-1150 BC: Bronze Age collapse in Southwestern Asia and in the Eastern Mediterranean region. This period is also the setting of the Iliad and the Odyssey epic poems (which were composed about four centuries later).

c. 1180 BC: Disintegration of Hittite Empire

1100 BC: Use of Iron spreads.

1046 BC: The Zhou force (led by King Wu of Zhou) overthrow the last king of Shang Dynasty; Zhou Dynasty established in China

1020 to 930 BC: The beginning of the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy) occurred sometime between these dates

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800 BC: Rise of Greek city-states

Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. It refers to the timeframe of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome88.

Ancient history includes the recorded Greek history beginning in about 776 BC (First Olympiad). This coincides roughly with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC and the beginning of the history of Rome.89

776 BC: First recorded Olympic Games.

753 BC: Founding of Rome (traditional date)

745 BC: Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria. With time he conquers neighboring countries and turns Assyria into an empire.

728 BC: Rise of the Median Empire.

88

It is used to refer to various other periods of ancient history, like Ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia (such as, Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer) or other early civilizations of the Near East. It is less commonly used in reference to civilizations of the Far East.

5.William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. J. Murray, 1891 89 Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995).

7.Adkins, Lesley; Roy Adkins (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512332-8. page 3.

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722 BC: Spring and Autumn Period begins in China; Zhou Dynasty's power is diminishing; the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought.

700 BC: the construction of Marib Dam in Arabia Felix.

660 BC: purported date of the accession of Jimmu, the mythical first Emperor of Japan.

653 BC: Rise of Persian Empire.

612 BC: An alliance between the Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians succeeds in destroying Nineveh and causing subsequent fall of the Assyrian empire.

600 BC: Sixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") emerge in India.

600 BC: Evidence of writing system appear in Oaxaca used by the Zapotec civilization.

c. 600 BC: Pandyan kingdom in South India.

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586 BC: Destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem (Solomon's Temple) by the Babylonians.

563 BC: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe, which ruled parts of Magadha, one of the Maha Janapadas.

551 BC: Confucius, founder of Confucianism, is born.

550 BC: Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great.

549 BC: Mahavira, founder of Jainism is born.

546 BC: Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia.

544 BC: Rise of Magadha as the dominant power under Bimbisara.

539 BC: The Fall of the Babylonian Empire and liberation of the Jews

by Cyrus the Great.

529 BC: Death of Cyrus

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525 BC: Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt.

c. 512 BC: Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia, subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes Libya, Persian Empire at largest extent.

509 BC: Expulsion of the last King of Rome, founding of Roman Republic (traditional date).

508 BC: Democracy instituted at Athens

c. 500 BC: completion of Euclid's Elements

500 BC: Panini standardizes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the text Ashtadhyayi. Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit

500 BC: Pingala uses zero and binary numeral system

499 BC: King Aristagoras of Miletus incites all of Hellenic Asia Minor to rebel against the Persian Empire, beginning the Greco-Persian Wars.

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483 BC: Death of Gautama Buddha

480 BC: Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes; Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis

479 BC: Death of Confucius

475 BC: Warring States period begins in China as the Zhou king became a mere figurehead; China is annexed by regional warlords

470/469 BC: Birth of Socrates

465 BC: Murder of Xerxes

458 BC: The Oresteia by Aeschylus, the only surviving trilogy of ancient Greek plays, is performed.

449 BC: The Greco-Persian Wars end.

447 BC: Building of the Parthenon at Athens started

432 BC: Construction of the Parthenon is completed

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431 BC: Beginning of the Peloponnesian war between the Greek citystates

429 BC: Sophocles's play Oedipus the King is first performed

427 BC: Birth of Plato

424 BC: Nanda dynasty comes to power.

404 BC: End of the Peloponnesian War

400 BC: Zapotec culture flourishes around city of Monte Albรกn

399 BC: Death of Socrates

384 BC: Birth of Aristotle

331 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela, completing his conquest of Persia.

326 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River.

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323 BC: Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon.

321 BC: Chandragupta Maurya overthrows the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha.

305 BC: Chandragupta Maurya seizes the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan)from Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of Babylonia, in return for 500 elephants.

300 BC: Construction of the Great Pyramid of Cholula, the world's largest pyramid by volume (the Great Pyramid of Giza built 2560 BC Egypt stands 146.5 meters, making it 91.5 meters taller), begins in Cholula, Puebla, Mexico.

273 BC: Ashoka the Great becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire

261 BC: Kalinga war

257 BC: Thục Dynasty takes over Việt Nam (then Kingdom of Âu Lạc)

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250 BC: Rise of Parthia (Ashkâniân), the second native dynasty of ancient Persia

232 BC: Death of Emperor Ashoka the Great; Decline of the Mauryan Empire

230 BC: Emergence of Satavahanas in South India

221 BC: Qin Shi Huang unifies China, end of Warring States period; marking the beginning of Imperial rule in China which lasts until 1912. Construction of the Great Wall by the Qin Dynasty begins.

207 BC: Kingdom of Nan Yueh extends from Canton to North Việt Nam .

206 BC: Han Dynasty established in China, after the death of Qin Shi Huang; China in this period officially becomes a Confucian state and opens trading connections with the West, i.e. the Silk Road.

202 BC: Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama.

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200 BC: El Mirador, largest early Maya city, flourishes.

200 BC: Paper is invented in China.

c. 200 BC: Chera dynasty in South India.

185 BC: Shunga Empire founded.

149-146 BC: Third Punic War between Rome and Carthage. War ends with the complete destruction of Carthage, allowing Rome to conquer modern day Tunisia and Libya.

146 BC: Roman conquest of Greece, see Roman Greece

129 BC: Roman conquest of Turkey.

121 BC: Roman armies enter Gaul for the first time.

111 BC: First Chinese domination of Viᝇt Nam in the form of the Nanyue Kingdom.

c. 100 BC: Chola dynasty rises in prominence.

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80 BC: The city of Florence is founded.

49 BC: Roman Civil War between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great.

44 BC: Julius Caesar murdered by Marcus Brutus and others; End of Roman Republic; beginning of Roman Empire.

40 BC: Roman conquest of Egypt.

27 BC: Formation of Roman Empire: Octavius is given titles of Princeps and Augustus by Roman Senate - beginning of Pax Romana. Formation of influential Praetorian Guard to provide security to Emperor

18 BC: Three Kingdoms period begins in Korea. The temple of Jerusalem is reconstructed.

6 BC: Earliest theorized date for birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Roman succession: Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar groomed for the throne.

4 BC: Widely accepted date (Ussher) for birth of Jesus Christ.

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9: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, the Imperial Roman Army's bloodiest defeat.

14: Death of Emperor Augustus (Octavian), ascension of his adopted son Tiberius to the throne.

26-34: Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, exact date unknown.

37: Death of Emperor Tiberius, ascension of his nephew Caligula to the throne.

40: Rome conquers Morocco.

41: Emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Roman senate. His uncle Claudius succeeds him.

43: Rome enters Britain for the first time.

54: Emperor Claudius dies and is succeeded by his grandnephew Nero.

68: Emperor Nero commits suicide, prompting the Year of the four emperors in Rome.

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70: Destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of Titus.

79: Destruction of Pompeii by the volcano Vesuvius.

98: After a two-year rule, Emperor Nerva dies of natural causes, his adopted son Trajan succeeds him.

106-117: Roman Empire at largest extent under Emperor Trajan after having conquered modern-day Romania, Iraq and Armenia.

117: Trajan dies of natural causes. His adopted son Hadrian succeeds him. Hadrian pulls out of Iraq and Armenia.

126: Hadrian completes the Pantheon in Rome.

138: Hadrian dies of natural causes. His adopted son Antoninus Pius succeeds him.

161: Death of Antoninus Pius. His rule was the only one in which Rome did not fight in a war.

192: Kingdom of Champa in Central Viᝇt Nam. Page 64 of 252

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200s: The Buddhist Srivijaya Empire established in Maritime Southeast Asia.

220: Three Kingdoms period begins in China after the fall of Han Dynasty.

226: Fall of the Parthian Empire and Rise of the Sassanian Empire.

238: Defeat of Gordian III (238–244), Philip the Arab (244–249), and Valerian (253–260), by Shapur I of Persia, (Valerian was captured by the Persians).

280: Emperor Wu established Jin Dynasty providing a temporary unity of China after the devastating Three Kingdoms period.

285: Diocletian becomes emperor of Rome and splits the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires.

285: Diocletian begins a large-scale persecution of Christians.

292: The capital of the Roman empire is officially moved from Rome to Mediolanum (modern day Milan).

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301: Diocletian's edict on prices

313: Edict of Milan declared that the Roman Empire would tolerate all forms of religious worship.

325: Constantine I organizes the First Council of Nicaea.

330: Constantinople is officially named and becomes the capital of the eastern Roman Empire.

335: Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire.

337: Emperor Constantine I dies, leaving his sons Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II as the emperors of the Roman empire.

350: Constantius II is left sole emperor with the death of his two brothers.

354: Birth of Augustine of Hippo

361: Constantius II dies, his cousin Julian succeeds him.

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378: Battle of Adrianople, Roman army is defeated by the Germanic tribes.

380: Roman Emperor Theodosius I declares the Arian faith of Christianity heretical.

395: Theodosius I outlaws all religions other than Catholic Christianity.

406: Romans are expelled from Britain.

407-409: Visigoths and other Germanic tribes cross into Roman-Gaul for the first time.

410: Visigoths sacks Rome for the first time since 390 BC.

415: Germanic tribes enter Spain.

429: Vandals enter North Africa from Spain for the first time

439: Vandals have conquered the land stretching from Morocco to Tunisia by this time.

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455: Vandals sack Rome, capture Sicily and Sardinia.

c. 455: Skandagupta repels an Indo-Hephthalite attack on India.

476: Romulus Augustus, last Western Roman Emperor is forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a chieftain of the Germanic Heruli; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno in Constantinople in return for the title of dux of Italy; most frequently cited date for the end of ancient history.

Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries.

By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.90

90

Grintz, Jehoshua M. (March 1960). "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple". Journal of Biblical Literature (The Society of Biblical Literature) 79 (1): 32–47. doi:10.2307/3264497. JSTOR 3264497.

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By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek. 91 Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time.92

For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula.

Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judæo-Georgian,

91 92

Feldman (2006), p. 54. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews

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Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.

Classical antiquity 93 (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia.

In Barbados the subject Antiquities 94 and Relics Bill was discussed Wednesday April 25, 2012.

The rational for such a discussion became very apparent because Members of the Barbadian public, namely divers, persons who own or work at construction firms and museums, as well members of the Barbados National Trust, the Property Developers Association, or the Barbados Association of Valuers and

93 94

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity http://www.gisbarbados.gov.bb/index.php?categoryid=13&p2_articleid=7982

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Auctioneers, or persons were concerned over the fact that there was a need in protecting Barbados’ island's tangible heritage95 were invited to attend a meeting.

According to Lisa Bayley of the Barbados Government Information Service who made the disclosed that a discussion concerning views concerning the draft Preservation of Antiquities and Relics Bill consultation on the legislation was scheduled for the Wednesday, April 25, 2012. Such an event was made possible to facilitate the Barbadian public to make recommendations to express their views on this critical matter.

Barbados’ Division of Culture and Sports hosted the discussion which was chaired by Minister with responsibility for Culture, Stephen Lashley, Permanent Secretary (PS) (Culture and Sports), Shirley Farnum and Deputy Permanent Secretary (PS) in the ministry, Ms. Celia Toppin. Members of the public, especially divers, persons who own or work at construction firms and museums, as well members of the Barbados National Trust, the Property Developers Association, or the Barbados Association of Valuers and Auctioneers, or persons interested in

95

http://www.gisbarbados.gov.bb/index.php?categoryid=13&p2_articleid=7982

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protecting this island's tangible heritage 96 were invited to attend the meeting at Queen's Park Steel Shed, The City at 5:30 p.m.

Of note, it was reported that the said Government was currently examining the legislation after some persons expressed concerns that it could permit the unconstitutional acquisition of heirlooms by the Crown.

The intention of the said Bill, however, was to prevent the illicit export of or trade in items of Barbadian cultural value. It was also reported that copies of the said Bill could be obtained from the Division of Culture and Sports, Warrens Office Complex, St. Michael; the National Cultural Foundation, West Terrace, St. James; or online from the Media Download Section of the Barbados Government Information Service's website97 Of note the fact that Preservation of Antiquities and Relics Bill consultation on the legislation in Barbados in 2012 was discussed and Antiquity was part was part of the pre and post B.C. cultural conversation and still is part of the A.D. is evident that Antiquity answers the pertinent question.

96

http://www.gisbarbados.gov.bb/index.php?categoryid=13&p2_articleid=7982 http://www.gisbarbados.gov.bb lisa.bayley@barbados@barbados.gov.bb 97

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In retrospect when we examined all of the facts as they relate to the period known as the antiquity period as compared to the 21st century it must be noted that all people under the sun are complicit because they conduits whereby all ideas, concepts, systems are expressed whereby a framework, a platform a system was established for the people who occupy and continue to any geographical space can build, expand, or modifying furthermore reinvent those said principles.

It is therefore reasonable to conclude that all of the specifics concerning evidence highlighted above in this chapter concerning Antiquity vis-Ă -vis the pertinent question it begs the question Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

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CHAPTER 3 ARCHITECTURE

In every century architects have provided architecture services. They are considered as global citizens98 who have provided representation, shared ideas which have provided a global architectural legacy.

This legacy was blended and preserved thru the centuries especially the Renaissance architecture global historic buildings.

In retrospect, once human beings 99 settle down to the business of agriculture, instead of hunting and gathering, permanent settlements become a factor of life.

The story of architecture can begin. The tent-like structures of earlier times evolve now into round houses100. Jericho is usually quoted as the earliest known town.

98 99 100

https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/ http://www.historyworld.net http://www.historyworld.net

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A small settlement here evolves in about 8000 BC 101 into a town covering 10 acres.

And the builders of Jericho have a new technology - bricks, shaped from mud and baked hard in the sun. In keeping with a circular tradition, each brick is curved on its outer edge.

Stone Age graves and temples: 5th - 2nd millennium B.C.

The massive Neolithic architecture102 of western Europe begins, in the 5th millennium B.C,

Most of the round houses in Jericho consist of a single room, the floor of each house is excavated some way down into the ground; then both the floor and the brick walls are plastered in mud.

The roof of each room, still in the tent style, is a conical structure of branches and mud ('wattle and daub).

101 102

http://www.historyworld.net http://www.historyworld.net

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The round tent-like house reaches a more complete form in Khirokitia, a settlement of about 6500 B.C. in Cyprus.

Most of the rooms here have a dome-like roof103 in corbelled stone or brick. One step up from outside, to keep out the rain, leads to several steps down into each room; seats and storage spaces are shaped into the walls; and in at least one house there is a ladder to an upper sleeping platform.

The round house has remained a traditional shape. Buildings very similar to those in Khirokitia are still lived in today in parts of southern Italy, where they are known as trulli.

Whether it is a mud hut with a thatched roof in tribal Africa104, or an igloo of the Eskimo, the circle remains the obvious form in which to build a roofed house from the majority of natural materials. Knossos and Mycenae: 2000-1100 BC

Renaissance architecture is that period between the early 14th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival

103 104

http://www.historyworld.net http://www.historyworld.net

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and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture.

In addition, the Jacobean105, the Georgian106 , and the Victorian107 styles combined with the traditional cultures houses comprising of wood and stone, and coral construction in this century.

The Jacobean108 era refers to the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland (1567–1625), who also inherited the crown of England in 1603 as James I.

The Jacobean era succeeds the Elizabethan era and precedes the Caroline era, and specifically denotes a style of architecture, visual arts, decorative arts, and literature which predominated in that period.

Victorian109 architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century.

105

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_era The Jacobean era refers to the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland (1567–1625) 106 www.bbc.co.uk/homes/design/period_georgian.shtml Georgian (1714 to 1837) Georgian style embraces a century under the reign of three Georges and is often divided into the Palladian, early and late Georgian periods.

107 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era The Victorian era of British history was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from 20 June 1837 until her death, on 22 January 1901 108 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_era

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Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901), called the Victorian era, during which period the styles known as Victorian were used in construction.

However, many elements of what is typically termed "Victorian" architecture did not become popular until later in Victoria's reign.

The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east and Asian influences.

The name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch.

Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, and was succeeded by Edwardian architecture.

109

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_architecture

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The Georgian110 era of British history is a period which takes its name from, and is normally defined as spanning the reigns of the first four Hanoverian kings of Great Britain who were all named George: George I, George II, George III and George IV.

The era covers the period from 1714 to 1830, with the sub-period of the Regency defined by the Regency of George IV as Prince of Wales during the illness of his father George III.

The definition of the Georgian era is often extended to include the short reign of William IV, which ended with his death in 1837.

The last Hanoverian monarch of the United Kingdom was William's niece Queen Victoria, who is the namesake of the following historical era, the Victorian, which is usually defined as occurring from the start of her reign, when William died, and continuing until her death.

110

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_era

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The term Georgian is typically used in the contexts of social history and architecture.

The word "Renaissance" derived from the term "la rinascita", which means rebirth, first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani The Lives of the Artists, 1550–60.

The history of architecture traces111 the changes in architecture through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates.

The branches of architecture are civil, sacred, naval, military, 112 and landscape architecture.

Neolithic architecture113

Antiquity

Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient Egyptian architecture 111 112 113

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_architecture Architecture. Def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_architecture

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Greek architecture

Roman architecture

Byzantine architecture

Persian architecture

Islamic architecture

Africa

Southern Asia 5.1 Indian architecture

Buddhist architecture

Southeast Asia 7.1 Architecture of the Khmer Empire

Indonesian architecture

Oceanic architecture

Eastern Asia 9.1 Chinese architecture

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Korean architecture

Japanese architecture

Pre-Columbian

Mesoamerican architecture

Incan architecture

Ancient architecture of North America

Europe to 1600

Medieval architecture

Pre-Romanesque

Romanesque

Gothic

Renaissance architecture

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European and colonial architecture 12.1 Baroque architecture

Return to Classicism

Revivalism and Orientalism

Beaux-Arts architecture

Art Nouveau

Early Modern architecture

Expressionist architecture

Art Deco

International Style

Contemporary architecture

Modern architecture

Critical regionalism

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Postmodern architecture

Deconstructivist architecture

Architecture in the 21st century

Egyptian architecture and the low-perspective, hieratic styles of Egyptian art have undergone several revivals in the Western world. Various obelisks have been carried off as trophies by colonial powers, or bestowed as gifts by Egyptian leaders, and these stand in a number of locations far from Egypt.

The "Cleopatra's Needles" that stand in London, Paris, and New York City are examples of these transported obelisks. Egyptian architectural motifs appear in the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, 114,and Athanasius Kircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus contains a fanciful attempt to translate Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Egyptian 115 themes became much more widespread, however, after Jean-Franรงois Champollion deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphics116, enabling Egyptian

114

Francesco Colonna, Hypnerotomachia Poliphili: The Strife of Love in a Dream (Joscelyn Godwin, translator). (London & New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999 and re-editions) 115 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture 116 Francesco Colonna, Hypnerotomachia Poliphili: The Strife of Love in a Dream (Joscelyn Godwin, translator). (London & New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999 and re-editions)

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works to be read. The nineteenth century proved to be a heyday for Egyptianizing themes in art, architecture, and culture; these persisted into the early 20th century, and were revived briefly after the discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen.

Various mystical and fraternal groups incorporated Egyptian themes.117

The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn had an "Isis-Urania" lodge in London, and an Ahathoor lodge in Paris.118 The Shriners incorporated both Islamic and Egyptian themes into their visual imagery, including their characteristic fezzes.

The Murat Shrine Temple in Indianapolis, Indiana contains a celebrated Egyptian Room, decorated with hieroglyphic motifs and Egyptian themed murals.

119

The Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC) opened a

Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum in 1928.

In literature, Rick Riordan has written three books based on Egyptian mythology120 in the modern world: The Kane Chronicles - The Red Pyramid, The Throne of Fire, and The Serpent's Shadow. These books are about the adventures 117

Joscelyn Godwin, Christian Chanel, and John Patrick Deveney, The Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor. Historical and Initiatic Documents of an Order of Practical Occultism (York Beach: Samuel Weiser, 1995) 118 Greer, Mary K. Women of the Golden Dawn. (Park Street, 1994) ISBN 0-89281-516-7.

119 Murat Shrine Temple history (official site), accessed Aug. 6, 2007 120 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture

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of two siblings, Sadie and Carter Kane, who discover that the ancient Egyptian world is still amongst them and they discover that they have the blood of pharaohs and must learn to become magicians in the House of Life.

In their adventures they meet and interact with several ancient Egyptian Gods, such as Thoth, Anubis, Isis, Horus, Tawaret, Osiris, Ra, Sobek, Ptah, Bes, and many others.

In The Age of Ra by James Lovegrove, humanity is ruled by the Egyptian pantheon.

The Egyptian gods have taken over the world by defeating all other Pantheons that once existed. They have since carved the world into different realms named after themselves.

Of note, thru the centuries the Barbadian architects have added value to its architectural legacy in Barbados by blending and preserving some of Barbados’ historic buildings, with the Jacobean 121 , the Georgian122 , and the Victorian 123 styles

121

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_era The Jacobean era refers to the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland (1567–1625)

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combined with the traditional Barbadian’ chattel houses comprising of wood and stone, and coral construction .

Although the term Renaissance was used first by the French historian Jules Michelet, it was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose book, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien 1860,

The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860, English translation,

by SGC Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878) was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.

The folio of measured drawings Édifices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, églises, couvents et autres monuments124 (The Buildings of Modern Rome), first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in the revival of interest in this period.

122

www.bbc.co.uk/homes/design/period_georgian.shtml Georgian (1714 to 1837) Georgian style embraces a century under the reign of three Georges and is often divided into the Palladian, early and late Georgian periods.

123 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era The Victorian era of British history was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from 20 June 1837 until her death, on 22 January 1901 124 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_architecture

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Erwin Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, (New York: Harper and Row, 1960)

The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term "all'antica", or "in the ancient manner" (of the Romans).

Renaissance architecture125 is the architecture of the period between the early 14th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture.

Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture.

Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities.

The style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact.

125

etal

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Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained.

Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.

During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, but also a matter for theoretical discussion. Printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas.

The first treatise on architecture was De re aedificatoria ("On the Art of Building") by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450.

It was to some degree dependent on Vitruvius's De architectura, a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland.

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De re aedificatoria in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture.

Sebastiano Serlio (1475 – c. 1554) produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537; it was entitled Regole generali d'architettura ("General Rules of Architecture"). It is known as Serlio's "Fourth Book" since it was the fourth in Serlio's original plan of a treatise in seven books. In all, five books were published.

In 1570, Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) published I quattro libri dell'architettura ("The Four Books of Architecture") in Venice.

This book was widely printed and responsible to a great degree for spreading the ideas of the Renaissance through Europe.

All these books were intended to be read and studied not only by architects, but also by patrons.

When we deconstruct all of the various reports and data regarding Architecture the question must be asked Is There Anything New Under The Sun?.

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CHAPTER 4 CULTURE There are many popular beliefs concerning the construct culture.

These includes :-

It occupies every geographical 126 space and therefore people can be distinguished because of their culture.

People learn culture127 Culture causes many qualities of human life to be transmitted genetically -- an infant's desire for food, a case in point, is activated by physiological characteristics determined within the human genetic code.

Culture, as a body of learned behaviors common to a given human society, acts rather like a template (ie. it has predictable form and content), shaping behavior and consciousness within a human society from generation to generation.

126 127

http://www.p12.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/grade3/geograph.html http://vandahm.name/Courses/Comp_Lit/34/Culture.pdf

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Culture resides in all learned behavior and in some shaping template or consciousness prior to behavior as well (that is, a "cultural template" can be in place prior to the birth of an individual person).

A way of life or a structure of feeling. • “…‘Culture128’ is ‘ordinary’ in that it refers not to a ‘high’ culture but to the totality of practices and modes of communication that make up a way of life and a community.”

Culture 129 is interwoven systems of signs. • Man is inherently a symbolizing and meaning-seeking animal. • Geertz feels that art “materializes a way of experiencing the world….” • Takes definition of culture from Clyde Kluckhohn (anthropologist): “the total way of life of a people” “the social legacy the individual acquires from his group” “a way of thinking, feeling, and believing” “an abstraction from behavior”

128

http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vcwsu/commons/topics/culture/culture-definitions/raymondwilliams.html Raymond Williams Very well-known British cultural and literary critic (-198 129 http://vandahm.name/Courses/Comp_Lit/34/Culture.pdf Clifford Geertz Social Scientist at Princeton

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a theory on the part of the anthropologist about the way a group of people behaves a “storehouse of pooled learning” “a set of standardized orientations to recurrent problems” “learned behavior” a mechanism for the normative regulation of behavior “a set of techniques for adjusting both to the external environment and to other men” “a precipitate of history” [what remains after time] a behavioral map, sieve, or matrix A particular130 society at a particular time and place. • The tastes in art and manners that are favored by a social group. • All the knowledge and values shared by a society. • The attitudes and behaviors that are characteristic of a particular social group.

130

Dictionary Definition of Culture http://vandahm.name/Courses/Comp_Lit/34/Culture.pdf

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Arnold, Matthew131 defined culture as “the best that has been thought and said in the world�

What is culture?

Culture132 is the training, development, and refinement of mind, tastes, and manners (Oxford English Dictionary). Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought (The American Heritage English Dictionary). There are lots of definitions for culture, but I would rather think of the characteristics of culture. Most cultures are passed from generation to generation. Although there are cultural differences and, all cultures share the similar characteristics or components.

Topical:

Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, or

categories, such as social organization, religion, or economy Historical:

Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on to

future generations 131

http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/pop/theorists_at_a_glance.htm http://web.stanford.edu/~hakuta/www/archives/syllabi/E_CLAD/SU_SFUSD_cult/ma/Chinese_culture.htmChinese Culture by Gloria Last Modified 6/1/02

132

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Behavioral: Culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way of life Normative: Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living Functional: Culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the environment or living together Mental:

Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that

inhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals Structural: Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or behaviors Symbolic:

Culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are

shared by a society Culture is LEARNED – we are not born with behaviors, but we are born with an ability to learn. So, obviously, cultural characteristics are not inherited Culture is PATTERNED – people within a culture do the same things repeatedly, and when a society agrees upon certain relationships, a system of meaning is developed.

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Culture is SHARED – archaeologists can tell the period of certain artifacts by judging from the decorations on them. Shared behaviors can be easily understood by archaeologists.

Culture is Cumulative – As it exists in a state of constant change, there are different versions of things.

Culture is NEGOTIATED – members of a society have a system of meaning developed from negotiated agreements. Beliefs and values are developed and affect every learned behavior. Belief system involves myths or legends that give an insight into how members of a society should feel, think or behave, whereas a value system differentiates right feelings thoughts and behaviors from wrongdoings "High culture133" is a term now used in a number of different ways in academic discourse, whose most common meaning is the set of cultural products, mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a culture.

In more popular terms, it is the culture of an upper class such as an aristocracy or an intelligentsia, but it can also be defined as a repository 133

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_culture

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of a broad cultural knowledge, a way of transcending the class system. It is contrasted with the low culture or popular culture of, variously, the less well-educated, barbarians, Philistines, or the masses. 134 Both high culture and folk culture act as the repository of shared and accumulated traditions functioning as a living continuum between the past and present. Culture is properly described as the love of perfection; it is a study of perfection.

Characteristics of culture135 Culture is shared People living together in a society share culture. For example, almost all people living in the Philippines share the Filipino language, dress in similar styles, eat many of the same foods, and celebrate many of the same holidays. Characteristics of Culture Culture is learned People are not born with culture; they have to learn it.

134

In all human societies, children learn culture from adults.

Gaye Tuchman, Nina E. Fortin (1989). "ch. 4 The High-Culture Novel". Edging women out: Victorian novelists, publishers and social change. ISBN 978-0-415-03767-

9 135

http://www.slideshare.net/MhycaMacalinao/characteristics-of-culture-10772426

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Anthropologists call this process enculturation, or cultural transmission.

Characteristics of Culture Culture is symbolic People have culture primarily because they can communicate with and understand symbols. Symbols allow people to develop complex thoughts and to exchange those thoughts with others.

Language and other forms of symbolic communication enable people to create, explain, and record new ideas and information.

Characteristics of Culture Culture is integrated in order to keep the culture functioning, all aspects of the culture must be integrated. For example the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one set of people to another.

Characteristics of Culture

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presently is complicit of culture because it appears that culture harmonizes with other cultures such as interculturation/acculturation system.

Kamau Brathwaite cites “ac/culturaltion as the yoking or forcing of one culture to another whereas inter/culturation is an unplanned unstructured but osmotic relationship proceeding from this yolk.”136

A case in point Kamau Brathwaite cites “ac/culturaltion as the yoking or forcing of one culture to another whereas inter/culturation is an unplanned unstructured but osmotic relationship proceeding from this yolk.”

Egyptian 137 themes became much more widespread, however, after Jean-François Champollion deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphics138, enabling Egyptian works to be read. The nineteenth century proved to be a heyday for Egyptianizing themes in art, architecture, and culture; these persisted into the early 20th century,

136

Kamau Brathwaite Selected Pages : “Contradictory Omens (Mona: Savacon,1974) p.6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture Francesco Colonna, Hypnerotomachia Poliphili: The Strife of Love in a Dream (Joscelyn Godwin, translator). (London & New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999 and re-editions) 137 138

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and were revived briefly after the discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen.

Various mystical and fraternal groups incorporated Egyptian themes.139

Therefore within all nations whose cultural tradition comprises of components from various countries of the world invariably there will be dynamics diverse point of views which are harmonizing within the cultural space.

It is highly probable that consciously or unconsciously as people continue probing trying to ascertain what is really theirs in terms of my culture; they may be surprise at the fact that there are diverse cultural traditions will merge which result in recreation .

Therefore Sociologist Ralph Linton definition of culture “as the way of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learnt, share and transmit from generation to another generation which has become

a very relevant

conversation Linton’s explanation of culture has validated the relevance of the pertinent question is there anything new under the sun?

139

Joscelyn Godwin, Christian Chanel, and John Patrick Deveney, The Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor. Historical and Initiatic Documents of an Order of Practical Occultism (York Beach: Samuel Weiser, 1995)

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The reality is that at some point this question has to be answered individually or collectively by people of the countries of the world since they are members of the society who are practitioners of culture and acculturation140.

The modification of the culture of a group or individual as a result of contact with a different culture.

All cultures 141 change through time. No culture is static. However, most cultures are basically conservative in that they tend to resist change.

Some resist more than others by enacting laws for the preservation and protection of traditional cultural patterns while putting up barriers to alien ideas and things.

For example, the French government has forbidden the commercial use of English words for which there are French equivalencies. This is a reaction particularly to the widespread use and popularity of terms such as "sandwich" and "computer" among young people.

140 141

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/acculturation http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm

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More recently, Starbucks has found it very difficult to become established in France despite the fact that it is becoming successful elsewhere in Europe.

In contrast, some cultures are extremely open to some kinds of change.

Over the last two decades, the Peoples Republic of China has been rapidly adopting western technology and culture in everyday life142.

This can be seen in their wide acceptance of everything from cell phones to American television shows and fast food.

McDonald's has already established 560 of their restaurants in China and soon will be adding 100 more. KFC fried chicken franchises have been even more popular.

There are 1000 KFC outlets throughout the country with more than 100 in Beijing alone. Taco Bell, A & W, and Pizza Hut are not far behind.

In 2003, the Chinese government made the decision to require all children in their country, beginning with the 3rd grade of elementary school, to learn English.

142

http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm

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This will very likely accelerate westernization.

China is far from being unique in experiencing a revolutionary rate of change143.

It is now abundantly clear that we are in an accelerating culture change period all around the world regardless of whether we try to resist it or not.

It is driven by the expansion of international commerce and especially mass media.

Ultimately, what is driving it is our massive human population explosion.

The number of people in the world now doubles in less than half a century.

The interrelationship between culture and environment also can be seen in our depletion of energy resources and forced adoption of new energy sources.

As wood became relatively scarce by the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe144, it was replaced by coal to fuel factories and heat homes.

143

http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm

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In turn, coal began to be replaced by oil and natural gas during the early 20th century.

The increasing costs associated with petroleum products have now caused it to begin to be replaced by nuclear, solar, and other energy sources.

Human economies change as necessity forces us to alter our relationship with the environment.

As our economies change, the rest of culture145 changes in response.

We are now facing potential major global cultural changes over the next century as a result of the greenhouse effect that is presumably being caused or aggravated by the accelerated burning of fossil fuels and forest products.

The result likely will be progressive global warming, shifting climates, and flooded coastal regions. Entire island nations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans may disappear below the sea.

Actually, this process of people changing the global climate may have begun much earlier than the beginning of the Industrial Revolution as it has been commonly thought.

144 145

http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm

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William Ruddiman of the University of Virginia has evidence indicating that the rise of global temperatures began about 8,000 years ago with the early spread of agriculture.

He suggests that the massive clearance of forests in Europe and Asia for farming beginning at that time released huge amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

In his estimation, this was enough warming to put off an impending ice age.

After scanning all of the aforesaid information the question still must be asked Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

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CHAPTER 5 EDITING Through the centuries the construct editing was practiced in the B.C. cultural space and currently A.D. cultural space.

A case in point in the 19th century, according to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia there was demographic, cultural and economic deterioration that supposedly occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire146.

In 1860, in the Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt delineated the contrast between the "dark ages" of the medieval period and the more enlightened period of the Renaissance, which had revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity.147

146

Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989. "a term sometimes applied to the period of the Middle Ages to mark the intellectual darkness characteristic of the time; often restricted to the early period of the Middle Ages, between the time of the fall of Rome and the appearance of vernacular written documents."

2."Dark age" in Merriam-Webster 147 Barber, John (2008). The Road from Eden: Studies in Christianity and Culture. Palo Alto, CA: Academica Press, p. 148, fn 3.

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However, the early 20th century saw a radical re-evaluation of the Middle Ages, and with it a calling into question of the terminology of darkness148, or at least of its pejorative use.

Historian Denys Hay exemplified this when he spoke ironically of "the lively centuries which we call dark".149 However, from the mid-20th century onwards, other historians became critical of even this nonjudgmental use of the term for two main reasons.150 First, it is questionable as to whether it is possible to use the term "Dark Ages" effectively in a neutral way; scholars may intend this, but it does not mean that ordinary readers will so understand it.

Second, the explosion of new knowledge and insight into the history and culture of the Early Middle Ages, which 20th-century scholarship has achieved, 151 means that these centuries are no longer dark even in the sense of "unknown to us".

148

Jordan, Chester William (2004). Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Supplement 1. Verdun, Kathleen, "Medievalism" pp. 389–397. Sections 'Victorian Medievalism', 'Nineteenth-Century Europe', 'Medievalism in America 1500–1900', 'The 20th Century'. Same volume, Freedman, Paul, "Medieval Studies", pp. 383–389.

149 Hay, Denys (1977). Annalists and Historians. London: Methuen, p. 50.

150 Jordan, Chester William (2004). Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Supplement 1. Verdun, Kathleen, "Medievalism" pp. 389–397. Sections 'Victorian Medievalism', 'Nineteenth-Century Europe', 'Medievalism in America 1500–1900', 'The 20th Century'. Same volume, Freedman, Paul, "Medieval Studies", pp. 383–389.

151 Welch, Martin (1993). Discovering Anglo-Saxon England. University Park, PA: Penn State Press.

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To avoid the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians avoid it altogether.152 Historians who use the term usually flag it as incorrect. A recently published history of German literature describes "the dark ages" as "a popular if ignorant manner of speaking" about "the mediaeval period", but then immediately (in the next sentence) goes on to use the term "dark age" to mean "little studied."153 Of note when we examine the aforementioned facts there is evidence that suggest that the construct editing was practiced in the B.C. and the A.D. cultural space . For instance:i. The fact that the people of that century had inserted an approach that ii. revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity iii. caused a radical re-evaluation of the Middle Ages, that they were in a position to call into question of the terminology of darkness, iv. there was the explosion of new knowledge 152

EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica "It is now rarely used by historians because of the value judgment it implies. Though sometimes taken to derive its meaning from the fact that little was then known about the period, the term's more usual and pejorative sense is of a period of intellectual darkness and barbarity."

153 Dunphy, Graeme (2007). "Literary Transitions, 1300–1500: From Late Mediaeval to Early Modern" in: The Camden House History of German Literature vol IV: "Early Modern German Literature". The chapter opens with the words: "A popular if uninformed manner of speaking refers to the medieval period as "the dark ages." If there is a dark age in the literary history of Germany, however, it is the one that follows: the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the time between the Middle High German Blßtezeit and the full blossoming of the Renaissance. it may be called a dark age, not because literary production waned in these decades, but because nineteenth-century aesthetics and twentieth-century university curricula allowed the achievements of that time to fade into obscurity."

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Ages, which 20th-century scholarship has achieved, means that these centuries are no longer dark even in the sense of "unknown to us". vi. Avoided the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians avoid it altogether. vii. Historians who use the term usually flag it as incorrect viii. While the terms "scientific management" and "Taylorism" are commonly treated as synonymous, the work of Frederick Taylor marks only the first form of scientific management, followed by other approaches; thus in today's management theory, Taylorism is sometimes called, or considered a subset of, the classical perspective on scientific management. ix. Taylor's own names for his approach initially included "shop management" and "process management".

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x. When Louis Brandeis popularized the term "scientific management" in 1910, 154 Taylor recognized it as another good name for the concept, and adopted it in his 1911 monograph.

These approaches seem to suggest that the people during the B.C. and A.D. centuries practice editing.

The fact that they accepted or preferred one method as opposed to another furthermore deleted one system and replaced it with another system implies editing.

The facilitators of such changes were like editors who can be considered as an invisible presence shaping everything.

The term "editing" is often used in two slightly different ways.

Sometimes it refers to the process of selecting and re-organizing just the good information, eliminating the bad within the digital space.

Consequently, this analysis has shown that editing was applied symbolically and philosophically as a way of life in my view begs the pertinent question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?�

154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management Drury 1915, pp. 15–21.

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CHAPTER 6 FAMILY PLANNING Humans have always practiced Family Planning.

To this end, the history of birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, refers to the methods or devices that have been historically used to prevent pregnancy.155 Planning and provision of birth control156 is called family planning.157 Given the specificity of this subject it should be highlighted that in some times and cultures, abortion had none of the stigma which it has today, making birth control less important; abortion was in practice a means of birth control.158 Birth control and abortion are well documented in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. (See History of abortion.)

The Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BCE and the Kahun Papyrus from 1850 BCE have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth

155

Definition of Birth control". MedicineNet. Retrieved 9 August 2012. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_birth_control Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. June 2012 (online).

158 Dr Dag Stenvoll, "Contraception, Abortion and State Socialism," http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_5428.pdf 4.Jump up ^ Libor Stloukal, "Understanding the 'Abortion Culture' in Central and Eastern Europe," in From Abortion to Contraception: A Resource to Public Policies and Reproductive Behavior in Central and Eastern Europe from 1917 to the Present, ed. Henry P. David, ISBN 0313305870 156 157

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control, the use of honey, acacia leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm.159 Another early document explicitly referring to birth control methods is the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus from about 1850 BCE. It describes various contraceptive pessaries, including acacia gum, which recent research has confirmed to have spermatocidal qualities and is still used in contraceptive jellies. Other birth control methods mentioned in the papyrus include the application of gummy substances to cover the "mouth of the womb" (i.e. the cervix), a mixture of honey and sodium carbonate applied to the inside of the vagina, and a pessary made from crocodile dung.

Lactation (breast-feeding) of up to three years was also used for birth control purposes in ancient Egypt.160 The Book of Genesis references withdrawal, or coitus interruptus, as a method of contraception when Onan "spills his seed" (ejaculates) on the ground so as to not father a child with his deceased brother's wife Tamar.161 159

Cuomo, Amy (2010). "Birth control". In O'Reilly, Andrea. Encyclopedia of motherhood. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. pp. 121–126. ISBN 9781412968461.

6.^ Jump up to: a b c Lipsey, Richard G.; Carlaw, Kenneth; Bekar, Clifford (2005). "Historical Record on the Control of Family Size". Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth. Oxford University Press. pp. 335–40. ISBN 978-0-19-928564-8.

160 Lipsey, Richard G.; Carlaw, Kenneth; Bekar, Clifford (2005). "Historical Record on the Control of Family Size". Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth. Oxford University Press. pp. 335–40. ISBN 978-0-19-928564-8.

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Plants with contraceptive properties were used in Ancient Greece from the 7th century BCE onwards and documented by numerous ancient writers on gynaecology, such as Hippocrates.

The botanist Theophrastus documented the use of Silphium, a plant well known for its contraceptive and abortifacient properties.

The plant only grew on a small strip of land near the coastal city of Cyrene (located in modern-day Libya), with attempts to cultivate it elsewhere failing.

Its price increased due to high demand, leading to it being worth "more than its weight in silver" by the 1st century BC. The high demand eventually led to the extinction of Silphium during the 3rd or 2nd century BC.162 Asafoetida, a close relative of siliphion, was also used for its contraceptive properties. Other plants commonly used for birth control in ancient Greece include Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), willow, date palm, pomegranate, pennyroyal, artemisia, myrrh, and rue. Some of these plants are toxic and ancient Greek documents specify safe dosages.

161

Cuomo, Amy (2010). "Birth control". In O'Reilly, Andrea. Encyclopedia of motherhood. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. pp. 121–126. ISBN 9781412968461.

162 unspecified (2001). "Herbal contraceptives and abortifacients". In Bullough, Vern L. Encyclopedia of birth control. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 125–128.

ISBN 9781576071816.

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Recent studies have confirmed the birth control properties of many of these plants, confirming for example that Queen Anne's lace has post coital antifertility properties. Queen Anne's lace is still used today for birth control in India.

Like their neighboring ancient Greeks, Ancient Romans practiced contraception and abortion.163 In the 7th century BC, the Chinese physician Master Tung-hsuan documented both coitus reservatus and coitus obstructus, which prevents the release of semen during intercourse.

However, it is not known if these methods were used primarily as birth control methods or to preserve the man's yang.

In the same century Sun Ssu-mo documented the "thousands of gold contraceptive prescription" for women who no longer want to bear children.

This prescription, which was supposed to induce sterility, was made of oil and quicksilver heated together for one day and taken orally.164

163

Lipsey, Richard G.; Carlaw, Kenneth; Bekar, Clifford (2005). "Historical Record on the Control of Family Size". Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth. Oxford University Press. pp. 335–40. ISBN 978-0-19-928564-8.

164 Middleberg, Maurice I. (2003). Promoting reproductive security in developing countries. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-306-47449-1.

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Indians used a variety of birth control methods since ancient times, including a potion made of powdered palm leaf and red chalk, as well as pessaries made of honey, ghee, rock salt or the seeds of the palasa tree. A variety of birth control prescriptions mainly made up of herbs and other plants, are listed in the 12th century Ratirahasya ("Secrets of Love") and the Ananga Ranga ("The Stage of the God of Love").165 In the late 9th to early 10th century, the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi documented coitus interruptus, preventing ejaculation and the use of pessaries to block the cervix as birth control methods. He described a number of pessaries, including elephant dung, cabbages and pitch, used alone or in combination.166 During the same period Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi documented the use of pessaries made of rock salt for women for whom pregnancy may be dangerous.

In the early 10th century the Persian Polymath Abu Ali al-Hussain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, known in Europe as Avicenna, included a chapter on birth

165 166

etal Bullough, Vern L., ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Birth Control. ABC-CLIO. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-57607-533-3. Retrieved September 19, 2012.

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control in his medical encyclopedia The Canon of Medicine, listing 20 different methods of preventing conception.167

In medieval Western Europe, any efforts to halt or prevent pregnancy were deemed immoral by the Catholic Church168.

Women of the time still used a number of birth control measures such as coitus interruptus, inserting lily root and rue into the vagina, and infanticide after birth169.

Knowledge of herbal abortifacients and contraceptives to regulate fertility decreased in the Early Modern period -170 John M. Riddle attributed this to attempts of European states to "repopulate" Europe after dramatic losses following the plague epidemics that started in 1348171.

167

etal Cuomo, Amy (2010). "Birth control". In O'Reilly, Andrea. Encyclopedia of motherhood. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. pp. 121–126. ISBN 9781412968461.

169 McTavish, Lianne (2007). "Contraception and birth control". In Robin, Diana. Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance : Italy, France, and England. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9781851097722.

170 Riddle 1999, Chapter 6: "The Broken Chain of Knowledge", pp. 169–207 171 Riddle 1999, Chapter 6: "The Broken Chain of Knowledge", pp. 169–207 12.Jump up ^ Heinsohn G, Steiger O (1999). "Birth Control: The Political-Economic Rationale behind Jean Bodin's Demonomanie". History of Political Economy 31 (3): 423–48. doi:10.1215/00182702-31-3-423. PMID 21275210.

13.Jump up ^ Heinsohn, Gunnar; Steiger, Otto (2004). "Witchcraft, Population Catastrophe and Economic Crisis in Renaissance Europe: An Alternative Macroeconomic Explanation". Discussion Paper. University of Bremen.

168

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Birth control became a contested political issue in Britain during the 19th century.

The economist Thomas Malthus argued in An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of plenty until the size of the population relative to the primary resources caused distress. He demonstrated that two types of checks hold population within resource limits: positive checks, which raise the death rate; and preventive ones, which lower the birth rate.

The positive checks include hunger, disease and war; the preventive checks, abortion, birth control, prostitution, postponement of marriage and celibacy172.

Malthus later clarified his view that if society relied on human misery to limit population growth, then sources of misery (e.g., hunger, disease, and war) would inevitably afflict society, as would volatile economic cycles.

172

Geoffrey Gilbert, introduction to Malthus T.R. 1798. An Essay on the Principle of Population. Oxford World's Classics reprint. viii

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On the other hand, "preventive checks" to population that limited birthrates, such as later marriages, could ensure a higher standard of living for all, while also increasing economic stability.173 His ideas came to carry great weight in British political debate in the 19th century, and they heavily influenced the movement toward the adoption of laissez-faire liberal capitalism.

Malthusians were in favour of limiting population growth and began actively promoting birth control through a variety of groups. The term 'voluntary motherhood' was coined by feminists in the 1870s as a political critique of "involuntary motherhood" and as expressing a desire for women's emancipation174.

Advocates for voluntary motherhood disapproved of contraception, arguing that women should only engage in sex for the purpose of procreation and advocated periodic or permanent abstinence.175 In contrast, the birth control movement advocated for contraception so as to permit sexual intercourse as desired without the risk of pregnancy.176

173

Essay (1826), I:2. See also A:1:17 Gordon 2002, p. 55 23.Gordon 2002, p. 56 175 Gordon 2002, p. 57 174

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By emphasizing "control", the birth control movement argued that women should have control over their reproduction - the movement was closely tied to the emerging feminist movement.

The Malthusian League was established in 1877 and promoted the education of the public about the importance of family planning and advocated for the elimination of penalties against the promoters of birth control.177 It was initially founded during the "Knowlton trial" of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh in July 1877.178 They were prosecuted for publishing Charles Knowlton's Fruits of Philosophy which explained various methods of birth control.

Besant and Bradlaugh wrote that it was "...more moral to prevent the conception of children, than, after they are born, to murder them by want of food, air and clothing."179

176

Gordon 2002, p. 59 Simms, Madeleine (27 January 1977). "Revie w: A History of the Malthusian League 1877-1927". New Scientist.

F. D'arcy (Nov 1977). "The Malthusian League and Resistance to Birth Control Propaganda in Late Victorian Britain". Population Studies 31: 429–448. doi:10.1080/00324728.1977.10412759. JSTOR 2173367 179 Women’s History Month: Marie Stopes".

177 178

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The trial of Bradlaugh and Besant counter-productively triggered a wave of public interest in contraception, and book sales of Knowlton's book surged180.

Starting in the 1880s, birth rates began to drop steadily in the industrialized countries, as women married later and families in urban living conditions increasingly favoured having fewer children.

This trend was particularly acute in the United Kingdom, where birth rates declined from almost 35.5 births per 1,000 in the 1870s to about 29 per 1,000 by 1900.

While the cause is uncertain, the 29% decline within a generation shows that the birth control methods Victorian women used were effective. Many women were educated about contraception and how to avoid pregnancy.

While the rhythm method was not yet understood, condoms and diaphragms made of vulcanized rubber were reliable and inexpensive.181

180

McLaren, Angus (1978). Birth control in nineteenth-century England. Taylor & Francis.

Draznin, Yaffa Claire (2001). Victorian London's Middle-Class Housewife: What She Did All Day (#179). Contributions in Women's Studies. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 98–100. ISBN 0-313-31399-7.

181

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In the United States, contraception had been legal throughout most of the 19th century, but in the 1870s the Comstock Act and various state Comstock laws outlawed the distribution of information about safe sex and contraception and the use of contraceptives. Margaret Sanger and Otto Bobsein popularised the phrase "birth control" in 1914.182 Sanger was mainly active in the United States, but had gained an international reputation by the 1930s.

Sanger established a short lived birth control clinic in 1916,183 which was shut down just nine days later.

Sanger was arrested for distributing contraceptives, and went on trial.184 Here as well, the publicity surrounding the arrest, trial, and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States, and earned the support of numerous donors, who would provide her with funding and support for future endeavors.185

182

Wilkinson Meyer, Jimmy Elaine (2004). Any friend of the movement: networking for birth control, 1920–1940. Ohio State University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-08142-0954-7.

32.Galvin, Rachel. "Margaret Sanger's "Deeds of Terrible Virtue"". National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved 24 October 2010.

183 Selected Papers, vol 1, p 199 Baker, p 115 184 Lepore, Jill (November 14, 2011). "Birthright: What's next for Planned Parenthood?". New Yorker. Retrieved November 13, 2011.

185 McCann 2010, p 751

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She went on to found the first birth control league in America in 1921.

The first permanent birth control clinic was established in Britain in 1921 by the birth control campaigner Marie Stopes, in collaboration with the Malthusian League.

Stopes, who exchanged ideas with Sanger186, wrote her book Married Love on birth control in 1918; - it was eventually published privately due to its controversial nature.187 The book was an instant success, requiring five editions in the first year 38 and elevating Stopes to a national figure. Its success was followed up with Wise Parenthood: a Book for Married People, a manual on birth control, published later that year.188 She originally tried to publicize her message through the dissemination of pamphlets in the slums of East London, but this approach failed to work, as the working class was too mistrustful of well-intentioned meddlers at the time.189 In 1921, after years of planning, Stopes and her husband Humphrey Verdon Roe opened the Mothers' Clinic in Holloway, North London.190

186

Greer, Germaine (1984). Sex and Destiny. Secker and Warburg. p. 306.

Rose, June (1992). Marie Stopes and the Sexual Revolution. Faber and Faber. pp. 102–103.

Hall, Ruth (1977). Passionate Crusader. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 148.

189 Hall, Ruth (1977). Passionate Crusader. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 174.

187 188

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The clinic, run by midwives and supported by visiting doctors,191 offered mothers birth control advice and taught them the use of a cervical cap.

Later in the same year, Stopes founded the Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress, a support organization for the clinic.

Her clinic made contraception acceptable during the 1920s by framing it in scientific terms and gained an international reputation.

The Malthusian League opened up a second clinic shortly afterward, but admitted that Stopes clinic had been the first in the British Empire, although the League emphasised that theirs was the first scientific clinic where birth control instruction was given under medical supervision (the medical officer was Norman Haire).192 These two clinics 'opened up a new period in the history of the movement aimed at the emancipation of women from their slavery to the reproductive function'.193

190

Hall, Ruth (1977). Passionate Crusader. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 186.

Marie Stopes (1925). The First Five Thousand. London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson. p. 9.

Diana Wyndham (2012) "Norman Haire and the Study of Sex". Foreword by Michael Kirby. Sydney University press / page 77.

193 Himes Norman; Himes Vera C (1929). "Birth Control for the British Working Classes: A Study of the First Thousand Cases to Visit an English Birth Control Clinic".

Pamphlet digitized by the British Library of Political and Economic Science". Hospital and Social Service XIX: 580 191 192

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Although the clinic helped few patients in 1921 'the year was one of the most important in the whole history of birth control simply because of their very existence'.194 Throughout the 1920s, Stopes and other feminist pioneers, including Dora Russell and Stella Browne, played a major role in breaking down taboos about sex and increasing knowledge, pleasure and improved reproductive health.

Stopes was particularly influential in helping emerging birth control movements in a number of British colonies.195 In 1930 the National Birth Control Council was formed.

Stella Browne's initial activism was limited to giving speaking tour across the country, providing information on birth control, women’s health problems, even problems related to puberty and sex education196 In 1929 began to openly call for the legalization of abortion, during her lecture in front of the World Sexual Reform Congress in London197.

194

Clive Wood and Beryl Suitters (1970) "The Fight for Acceptance: A History of Contraception", Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire: Medical and Technical Publishing Co Ltd, p. 161.

195 Blue, Gregory; Bunton, Martin P.; Croizier, Ralph C. (2002). Colonialism and the modern worlds: selected studies. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-76560772-0.

196 Hall, Lesley (2011). pp. 142–143.

48Rowbotham, Sheila (1977). p. 39.

197 Hall, Lesley (2011). p. 144

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In April 1930 the Birth Control Conference assembled 700 delegates and was successful in bringing birth control and abortion into the political sphere 198

three months later, the Ministry of Health allowed local authorities to give birth

control advice in welfare centres.

The societal acceptance of birth control required the separation of sexual activity from procreation, making birth control a highly controversial subject in some countries at some points in the 20th century.199 Birth control also became a major theme in feminist politics; reproduction issues were cited as examples of women's powerlessness to exercise their rights.200 Starting in the 1930s and intensifying in the '60s and'70s, the birth control movement advocated for the legalisation of abortion and large scale education campaigns about contraception by governments.201

198

Hall, Lesley (2011). p. 173 Gordon, Linda (2002). The moral property of women: a history of birth control politics in America. University of Illinois Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-252-02764-2.

Gordon 2002, pp. 295–6 201 Poston, Dudley (2010). Population and Society: An Introduction to Demography. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9781139489386.

199 200

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In a broader context birth control became an arena for conflict between liberal and conservative values, raising questions about family, personal freedom, state intervention, and religion in politics, sexual morality and social welfare.202 Gregory Pincus and John Rock with help from the Planned Parenthood Federation of America developed the first birth control pills in the 1950s which became publicly available in the 1960s.203 Medical abortion became an alternative to surgical abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the availability of mifepristone in the 1980s204.

In 1965, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in the case Griswold v. Connecticut that a Connecticut law prohibiting the use of contraceptives violated the constitutional "right to marital privacy".

In 1972, the case Eisenstadt v. Baird expanded the right to possess and use contraceptives to unmarried couples.

202

Gordon 2002, pp. 295–6 Poston, Dudley (2010). Population and Society: An Introduction to Demography. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9781139489386.

Kulier, Regina; Kapp, Nathalie; GĂźlmezoglu, A. Metin; Hofmeyr, G. Justus; Cheng, Linan; Campana, Aldo (November 9, 2011). "Medical methods for first trimester abortion". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11): CD002855. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub4. PMID 22071804.

203 204

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In France, the 1920 Birth Law contained a clause that criminalized dissemination of birth-control literature205.

That law, however, was annulled in 1967 by the Neuwirth Law, thus authorizing contraception, which was followed in 1975 with the Veil Law. Women fought for reproductive rights and they helped end the nation's ban on birth control in 1965.206 In 1994, 5% of French women aged 20 to 49 who were at risk of unintended pregnancy did not use contraception.207 The availability of contraception in the Republic of Ireland was illegal in the Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) from 1935 until 1980, when it was legalised with strong restrictions, later loosened. This reflected Catholic teachings on sexual morality. In Italy women gained the right to access birth control information in 1970.208 In the Soviet Union birth control was made readily available to facilitate social equality between men and women.

205

Soubiran, Andre (1969). Diary of a Woman in White (English ed.). Avon Books. p. 61 Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Third ed. Vol. C. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009.

207 Laurent Toulemon; Henri Leridon (1998). "Contraceptive Practices and Trends in France". Family Planning Perspectives 30 (3): 114. doi:10.2307/2991624. Retrieved 2012-05-05.

208 Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Third ed. Vol. C. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009.

206

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Alexandra Kollontai, USSR commissar for public welfare, promoted birth control education for adults.

A recent, well-studied example of governmental restriction of birth control in order to promote higher birth rates in Ceaușescu-era Romania.209 The surge in births resulting from Decree 770 led to great hardships for children and parents, matched by an increase in illegal abortions. In Eastern Europe and Russia, natality fell abruptly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.210 There is a general consensus that Religion211 is considered to be one of the cultural universals, a trait common to all human cultures worldwide right throughout the history of humanity.

In this setting it would have developed alongside other cultural universals that were also evolving at this time such as art, music and of course language which is key to the origin and development of all the cultural universals.

209

Gail Kligman (6 July 1998). The politics of duplicity: controlling reproduction in Ceausescu's Romania. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21075-2.

Retrieved 26 February 2012.

59.Jump up ^ Lataianu, M. (2001)"The 1966 Law Concerning Prohibition of Abortion in Romania and Its Consequences: The Fate of One Generation" Proceedings of the Euroconference on Family and Fertility Change in Modern European Societies: Explorations and Explanations of Recent Developments (Rostok, Germany: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research) 210 "Birth Rates Plummeting in Some Ex-Communist Regions of Eastern Europe". The New York Times. December 31, 1991 211 http://www.garvandwane.com/religion/religion1.html

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CHAPTER 7 GOVERNANCE Governance

212

refers to "all of processes of governing, whether

undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language."213

It relates to "the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in a collective problem that lead to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of social norms and institutions.

The term Ancient, or Archaic, Greece 214 refers to the time three centuries before the classical age, between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C.—a relatively sophisticated period in world history.

212 213 214

Bevir, Mark (2013). Governance: A very short introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governance http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/ancient-greece

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Archaic Greece saw advances in art, poetry and technology, but most of all it was the age in which the polis, or city-state, was invented. The polis became the defining feature of Greek political life for hundreds of years.

In the year 507 B.C.,215 the Athenian leader Cleisthenes introduced a system of political reforms that he called demokratia, or “rule by the people.”

This system was comprised of three separate institutions: the ekklesia, a sovereign governing body that wrote laws and dictated foreign policy; the boule, a council of representatives from the ten Athenian tribes; and the dikasteria, the popular courts in which citizens argued cases before a group of lottery-selected jurors216.

Although this Athenian democracy 217 would survive for only two centuries, Cleisthenes’ invention was one of ancient Greece’s most enduring contributions to the modern world. The End of Athenian Democracy. Demokratia and the Demos

215 216 217

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“In a democracy,” the Greek historian Herodotus wrote, “there is, first, that most splendid of virtues, equality before the law.” It was true that Cleisthenes’ demokratia abolished the political distinctions between the Athenian aristocrats who had long monopolized the political decision-making process and the middle- and working-class people who made up the army and the navy (and whose incipient discontent was the reason Cleisthenes introduced his reforms in the first place).

However, the “equality” Herodotus described was limited to a small segment of the Athenian population218.

For example, in Athens in the middle of the 4th century there were about 100,000 citizens (Athenian citizenship was limited to men and women whose parents had also been Athenian citizens), about 10,000 metoikoi, or “resident foreigners” and 150,000 slaves. Out of all those people, only male citizens who were older than 18 were a part of the demos, meaning only about 40,000 people219 could participate in the democratic process.

218 219

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The Ekklesia Athenian democracy was made up of three important institutions. The first was the ekklesia, or Assembly, the sovereign governing body of Athens. Any member of the demos–any one of those 40,000 adult male citizens–was welcome to attend the meetings of the ekklesia, which were held 40 times per year in a hillside auditorium west of the Acropolis called the Pnyx. (Only about 5,000 men attended each session of the Assembly; the rest were serving in the army or navy or working to support their families.)

At the meetings, the ekklesia made decisions about war and foreign policy, wrote and revised laws and approved or condemned the conduct of public officials. (Ostracism, in which a citizen could be expelled from the Athenian citystate for 10 years, was among the powers of the ekklesia.) The group made decisions by simple majority vote.

The Boule The second important institution was the boule, or Council of Five Hundred. The boule was a group of 500 men, 50 from each of ten Athenian tribes,

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who served on the Council for one year. Unlike the ekklesia, the boule met every day and did most of the hands-on work of governance. It supervised government workers and was in charge of things like navy ships (triremes) and army horses. It dealt with ambassadors and representatives from other city-states. Its main function was to decide what matters would come before the ekklesia. In this way, the 500 members of the boule dictated how the entire democracy would work.

Positions on the boule were chosen by lot and not by election. This was because, in theory, a random lottery was more democratic than an election: pure chance, after all, could not be influenced by things like money or popularity. The lottery system also prevented the establishment of a permanent class of civil servants who might be tempted to use the government to advance or enrich themselves220.

However, historians argue that selection to the boule was not always just a matter of chance. They note that wealthy and influential people–and their relatives–served on the Council much more frequently than would be likely in a truly random lottery.

220

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The Dikasteria The third important institution was the popular courts, or dikasteria.

Every day, more than 500 jurors were chosen by lot from a pool of male citizens older than 30. Of all the democratic institutions, Aristotle argued that the dikasteria “contributed most to the strength of democracy� because the jury had almost unlimited power.

There were no police in Athens, so it was the demos themselves who brought court cases, argued for the prosecution and the defense, and delivered verdicts and sentences by majority rule221. (There were also no rules about what kinds of cases could be prosecuted or what could and could not be said at trial, and so Athenian citizens frequently used the dikasteria to punish or embarrass their enemies.)

Jurors were paid a wage for their work, so that the job could be accessible to everyone and not just the wealthy (but, since the wage was less than what the average worker earned in a day, the typical juror was an elderly retiree).

221

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Since Athenians did not pay taxes, the money for these payments came from customs duties, contributions from allies and taxes222 levied on the metoikoi.

The one exception to this rule was the leitourgia, or liturgy, which was a kind of tax that wealthy people volunteered to pay to sponsor major civic undertakings such as the maintenance of a navy ship (this liturgy was called the trierarchia) or the production of a play or choral performance at the city’s annual festival.

Around 460 B.C. 223 , under the rule of the general Pericles (generals were among the only public officials who were elected, not appointed) Athenian democracy began to evolve into something that we would call an aristocracy: the rule of what Herodotus called “the one man, the best.�

Though democratic ideals and processes did not survive in ancient Greece, they have been influencing politicians and governments ever since.

222 223

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When we think of tyrants224, we think of oppressive, autocratic rulers. In ancient Greece, tyrants could be benevolent and supported by the populace, although not usually the aristocrats. However, a tyrant did not gain supreme power by constitutional means; nor was he the hereditary monarch. Tyrants seized power and generally maintained their position by means of mercenaries or soldiers from another polis. Tyrants and oligarchies (the aristocratic rule by the few) were the main forms of government of the Greek poleis after the fall of the kings.

Sparta was less interested than Athens in following the will of the people. The people were supposed to be working for the good of the state.

However, just as Athens experimented with a novel form of government, so also was Sparta's225 system unusual? Originally, monarchs ruled Sparta, but over time, Sparta hybridized its government: •The kings remained, but there were 2 of them at a time so one could go to war, •there were also 5 annually-elected ephors, 224 225

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•a council of 28 elders [technical term to learn: Gerousia], •and an assembly of the people.

The kings were a monarchical element, the ephors and Gerousia were an oligarchic component, and the assembly was a democratic element.

At the time of Philip of Macedonia and his son Alexander the Great, the government of Macedonia was monarchical. Macedonia's monarchy was not only hereditary, but powerful, unlike Sparta whose kings held circumscribed powers226.

Although the term may not be accurate, feudal captures the essence of the Macedonian monarchy. With the Macedonian victory over mainland Greece at the Battle of Chaeronea, the Greek poleis ceased to be independent, but were forced to join the Corinthian League.

Usually, the types of government relevant to ancient Greece are listed as three: Monarchy, Oligarchy (generally synonymous with rule by the aristocracy), and Democracy. Simplifying, Aristotle divided each into good and bad forms.

Democracy in its extreme form is mob rule. Tyrants are a type of monarch, with their own self-serving interests paramount.

226

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For Aristotle, oligarchy was a bad type of aristocracy. Oligarchy, which means rule by the few, was rule by and for the wealthy for Aristotle. Aristotle preferred rule by the aristocrats who were, by definition, those who were the best.

They would operate to reward merit and in the interests of the state.

The inventors of democracy227 were the Greeks who lived in small citystates called poleis. Contact with the wide world was slower. Life lacked modern conveniences. Voting machines were primitive, at best. The people -- the ones who put the demo- in democracy -- were intimately involved in decisions that affected them and would be appalled that bills to be voted on now require reading through thousand-page tomes. They might be even more aghast that people actually vote on those bills without doing the reading.

The ancient Athenian Greeks are credited with inventing the institution of democracy. Their governmental system wasn't designed for the enormous, spreadout, and diverse populations of modern industrialized countries, but even in their small communities [see Social Order of Athens], there were problems, and the problems led to inventive solutions. The following are roughly chronological 227

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problems and solutions leading to what we think of as Greek democracy:1. The Four Tribes of Athens The ancient tribal kings were too weak financially and the uniform material simplicity of life enforced the idea that all tribesmen had rights. Society was divided into two social classes, the upper of which sat with the king in council for major problems.

2. Conflict Between Farmers and Aristocrats With the rise of the hoplite, non-equestrian, non-aristocratic army, ordinary citizens of Athens could become valued members of society if they had enough wealth to provide themselves the body armor needed to fight in the phalanx.

3. Draco, the Draconian Law-Giver The privileged few in Athens had been making all the decisions for long enough. By 621 B.C. the rest of the Athenians were no longer willing to accept arbitrary, oral rules of 'those who lay down the law' and judges. Draco was appointed to write down the laws.

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4. Solon's Constitution Solon redefined citizenship so as to create the foundations of democracy. Before Solon, the aristocrats had a monopoly on the government by virtue of their birth. Solon replaced the hereditary aristocracy with one based on wealth228.

5. Cleisthenes and the 10 Tribes of Athens When Cleisthenes became chief magistrate, he had to face the problems Solon had created 50 years earlier through his compromising democratic reforms -- foremost among which was the allegiance of citizens to their clans. In order to break such loyalties, Cleisthenes divided the 140-200 demes (natural divisions of Attica and the basis of the word "democracy") into 3 regions: •city, •coast, and •inland.

228

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Cleisthenes is credited with instituting moderate democracy In ancient Athens, the birthplace of democracy, not only were children denied the vote (an exception we still consider acceptable), but so were women, foreigners, and slaves. People of power or influence weren't concerned with the rights of such non-citizens. What mattered was whether or not the unusual system was any good. Was it working for itself or for the community? Would it be better to have an intelligent, virtuous, benevolent ruling class or a society dominated by a mob seeking material comfort for itself? In contrast with the law-based democracy of the Athenians229, monarchy/tyranny (rule by one) and aristocracy/oligarchy (rule by the few) were practiced by neighboring Hellenes and Persians.

All eyes turned to the Athenian experiment, and few liked what they saw.

Democracy 230 . Then as now, whoever benefits from a given system tends to support it such as the philosophers, orators, and historians of the time. One of the most positive positions Thucydides puts into the mouth of a leading beneficiary of the Athenian democratic system, Pericles.

229 230

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1. Aristotle 2. Thucydides via Pericles' Funeral Oration 3. Age of Pericles 4. Plato's Protagoras 5. Aeschines 6. Isocrates 7. Pseudo-Xenophon

Recent decades have brought the greatest benefits history has known.

At the same time, globalisation 231 , population and economic growth, as well as technological progress have created a world where growing interdependency and complexity have led to the emergence of new systemic risks. The financial crisis characterises the nature of a global systemic crisis in the 21st century.

It has demonstrated that increasing linkages, technical innovation and management changes have increased both the robustness and fragility of the global financial network. The shortcomings of financial governance within and between all

231

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spatial scales, from local to global, as well as the inadequacy of global financial institutions to pre-empt or adequately respond to the crisis, reflected a failure to understand or address the underlying systemic risks.

Systemic risks232 do not only plague global finance. The financial crisis highlights the real threat of systemic risks in other areas and exposes the alarmingly profound shortcomings of modern global institutions.

Neither their present institutional structures, nor their planned reforms, meet the test of addressing new global systemic risks in the 21st century. While the need for global governance is indisputable and radical structural changes are clearly necessary, the very nature of systemic risk and the pace of innovation have made it impossible for even the best equipped of the global institutions, such as the IMF and BIS, to govern these challenges effectively. Unfortunately, the devastating consequences of the financial crisis have not been capitalised upon.

The crisis failed to transmit into action and kick-start the fundamental structural changes necessary for global institutions effectively to govern future 232

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systemic risks. Nevertheless, growing pressure for more inclusive, secure and sustainable globalisation233 is likely to add to the impetus for new patterns, institutions and processes in global governance that address the need for proactive global systemic risk management.

The question is not if structural change will take place in global governance, but when and at what cost? regarding global governance.

While the precise deďŹ nition and various periods of globalisation234 have been widely studied and debated (see Held et al., 1999 for an overview), the latest wave of globalisation 235 has been unique, with particularly widespread and intense integration of markets, trade and ďŹ nance.

This has been facilitated over the past 20 to 30 years by seismic policy shifts, such as the economic and political reform process in China, and much of Asia, Latin America and Africa, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, European

233 234 235

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integration following the signature of the 1992 Maastricht Treaty 236 , and the ideological convergence around market primacy ushered in during the Reagan, Thatcher and Kohl era in the 1980s.

According to International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Trade Organisation (WTO) reports, between 1980 and 2005, global foreign investment inflow increased 18 times, real world GDP growth had increased by approximately 32 per cent and world merchandise imports and exports increased more than sevenfold. Technological innovation has also accelerated economic integration 237 through both virtual and physical time–space compression (Harvey, 1989).

While the development of fibre optics, the Internet and mobile telephony, as well as exponential growth in computing power all revolutionised the underlying architecture of systems by virtually increasing proximity, physical proximity has also increased through technological innovation in transport and infrastructure. Population growth and urbanisation, too, are driving physical proximity, integration and interdependence. The world population has nearly 236 237

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doubled since 1950, and the urban share has increased dramatically from 29 per cent in 1950 to over 50 per cent in 2009.1 Policy shifts, technological innovation and increased population density have also been paralleled by changes in managerial practice and accounting standards, which extended the ‘Just-In-Time’ management238 strategy to emphasise that inventories reflect tied-up working capital, and must be made to ‘sweat’ (Hutchins, 1999).

This has shortened the time between the production and consumption of goods and services, while outsourcing and global.

Since all of the aforesaid reasons are factual and can be considered lived experiences of people then it justifies why the pertinent question Is There Anything New Under The Sun? should be ask and answered.

238

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CHAPTER 8 IMMIGRATION It has been asserted that 'the basic human stock of England has been settled and relatively homogenous since time immemorial’239 but there have always been some movements of people to (and from) Britain. Defining the first occurrence of immigration to the British Isles is difficult and a point of controversy. It is important to note that, although we can estimate the size of the population and of migrations to Britain before records began, we cannot be precise about a period before documentary records survive.240 Though it was almost certainly inhabited in a previous period, the area that is today Britain was uninhabitable during the ice age, with the oldest settled populations only migrating here after the end of the glacial period some 25,000 years ago.

The period that followed until the Roman invasion is known as prehistory due to the lack of written records and as such little is known of the people that settled during that period.

239 240

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There is some controversy however as to whether the advent of agriculture in Britain 10,000 years ago was the result of cultural diffusion or the migration of peoples.

In the first millennium AD, Britain experienced considerable inward flows of people although estimates of invaders and settlers are still uncertain.

The Roman period

During the Roman period it is widely accepted that, during the Roman occupation 241 , the population of Britain was as large as it was during the Middle Ages242, and, although estimates vary, most would accept a figure of 4-5 million.243 There is some evidence of migration to Roman Britain from other parts of the Empire, but there is considerable evidence to suggest that ‘the population of Roman Britain remained overwhelmingly indigenous.’244

241

http://www.migrationwatchuk.org/briefing-paper/48 Migration Watch UK | MW48 : A summary history of immigration to Britain Migration Watch UK | MW48 : A summary history of immigration to Britain 244 Ibid,p28 242 243

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Indeed, while the Roman invasion force consisted of ‘45,000 men’245 the garrison that was left in its place was usually smaller-falling from a peak of about 55,000 in the first century to a low of about 10,000-20,000 in the fourth century.246 The administration of the country was left largely to the British, with one historian describing a ‘relatively small number of Roman officials’ with most of the ‘day to day work entrusted to the Romanized British.’247 Including the Army’s dependants, there were probably 125,000 migrants248 in the British Isles out of a population of 4 million, about 3%.

5. Anglo Saxons, Vikings and Normans 5.1. The population of Britain declined markedly after the end of the Roman occupation, perhaps falling to as low as one and quarter million.249 In the period of upheaval that followed the end of the Roman Empire, England experienced invasions and settlement by Germanic tribes such as the Jutes, Angles and Saxons.250

245

David Shotter,”Roman Britian” (1998, Routledge),p.16 Martin Millett”Roman Britain” (1995), p.37 David Shotter,”Roman Britian” (1998, Routledge),p.38 248 David Shotter,”Roman Britian” (1998, Routledge),p.37 249 Valerie Hetet”Life in Saxon and Viking Britain” 250 Ibid,page 3 246 247

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The size and scale of the migrations that followed is a matter of historical debate. While the culture of the Anglo Saxons had become predominant in England a few centuries later and there is no doubt that a migration of AngloSaxons took place, the size and scale of it is disputed.

Some historians advance a model in which only relatively small numbers of Germanic settlers came to England251 but in which the people became Germanic through a process of acculturation compounded by the fact that those in positions of authority were Anglo-Saxon. Others argue that there was a large scale migration of Germanic people to Britain.252 Most Historians have veered toward the minimalist model.253 It is widely accepted that inflows from the subsequent Viking and Norman invasions were much smaller and less demographically significant. It has been estimated that the inflows from Viking invasions may have made up as much as 4-8% of the total population. Despite the huge significance of the Norman conquest of 1066, the numbers of Normans that followed William the Conqueror to England

251 252 253

Bassett,1989 Esmonde Clearly 1989 Don Henson� The Origins of the Anglo Saxons(Anglo- Saxon books, 2006),p.50 Ibid,p.53

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are accepted by most historians as being small. Indeed, one historian states that ‘only ten thousand or so Frenchmen followed in William’s footsteps-less than one percent of the population.’254 Other Historians point to higher inflows, with some estimating that Norman settlers eventually made up as much as 5% of the population.255 Regardless of the size of their migration, the Normans made a tremendous impact on England; quickly becoming the country’s governing elite and biggest landowners.

In the Middle Ages during the sixteenth century onwards, it is arguable that the first wave of migrants to the contemporary British Isles arrived in the sixteenth century256, as England became a trading power. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, England was still largely homogenous. Even London was not particularly diverse.

African Migration as the nation became increasingly involved in the slave trade from the sixteenth century onwards, one of the by-products was the

254

Winder R” Bloody Foreigners-The”Story of Immigration to Britain” p.24 cited in David Conway’” A Nation of Immigrants? A Brief Demographic History of Britain ?” p.32 255 Miles D, “The Tribes of Britain “ (London, 2005), p.236 cited in David Conway’” A Nation of Immigrants? A Brief Demographic History of Britain ?” p.32 256

Fyer, p. “ Staging Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London, 1984)

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importation of a small number of unwilling Africans257 and by the beginning of the seventeenth century there was an established African community in England258.

From the 1650s the numbers of Africans brought to the British Isles began to increase markedly259and by the late eighteenth century there is documented evidence that tens of thousands of people of African descent lived in Britain.260 Most estimates range between 10,000 and 20,000 261 , with some outlying estimates of 30,000.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, conditions in Eastern Europe convinced many Jews to emigrate to the United States. In Germany, Jewish integration into the Army and other occupations was successful. In the United States traditional disabilities were generally absent but they faced many different challenges of acculturation. In the early 20th century, there was social discrimination against

257

Idib,p.8 In 1596, Queen Elizabeth1 issued an order that all Black people should be deported from England and the effort failed and the order was re issued in 1601.Cited in Fyer, P.11 Staying Power. “The History of Black People in Britain” (London,1984) 259 idib 260 In 1764, for example, the Gentlemen’s Magazine estimated that thre were 20, 000 black people living in London alone while in 1772, another estimate put the number in the whole if England at 1500, The first scholarly work to deal with Britain’s black population in the Eighteenth Century which documented a small but well integrated black population in the Capital. The BBC Cite there being 14,000 Black people living in England in 1770 http://news.bbc.co.uk 261 Except from the Gentleman, In the 1771-1772 Somerset vs. Stewart legal case which found the Chattel Slavery was unsupported in English Law Lord Mansfield accepted that there were between 14,000 and 15 000 slaves in Britain , Cited in E.d. George London Life in the Eighteenth Century (LSE,1951), P.134 258

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Jews in certain quarters,262with many universities and professions barred to them or with a quota limit.

Jewish Migration Although Jews were expelled from England in 1290, Jewish immigration resumed centuries later and by 1734 it was estimated that were around 6,000 Jews in England.263 In 1800, it was estimated that there were around 15,000-20,000 Jewish people living in Britain.264 In the 19th Century Jewish people from Eastern Europe immigrated to the UK in fairly sizable numbers. This number had been fuelled by Jewish migrants fleeing unrest in Russia and Eastern Europe. There was so much concern among the public and government about the level of Jewish immigration that in 1905 the Aliens Act was introduced designed to curb it265.

262

The American Jewish Experience in the Twentieth Century: Antisemitism and Assimilation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_assimilation E.D.Georges’s London Life in The Eighteenth Century 9LSE,1951),P.111 ibid,p.27 265 Ibid,p.62 263 264

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Despite migrants from a variety of backgrounds coming to Britain from the sixteenth century onwards, only Jews really ever settled in appreciable numbers.266 By the 1940s, the Jewish population of Britain was about 400,000 and had come mostly in four major waves.267 The first of those waves broadly consisted of merchants from Portugal, Amsterdam and other Western European Commercial Cities in the sixteenth century, which was followed by the arrival of poor Jews from other parts of Europe in the 18th Century. At the end of the 19th century a larger wave came from Tsarist Russia and Eastern Europe. Another wave from Nazi Germany came in the 1930swith perhaps as many as 100,000 coming.

Forced to Migrate The Jewish people have been moving steadily around the world since 586 BC. The Diaspora, which is Greek for "scattering," began when Jews were forced to move out of their Israelite kingdoms to Mesopotamia and other neighboring

266 267

Ibid,p.72 Jews in Britain –Origin and Growth of Anglo Jewry (1943) This publication states that the Jewish population increased from 300,000 in 1931 to 370,000 1938.p.7

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countries. Jews have experienced periods of peace only to be persecuted and forced out of their homes time and again.

While Columbus set out to discover new lands in 1492, the Spanish government was forcing Jews to convert to Catholicism or leave the country. Some Jews converted and practiced their religion in secret, but most left the country and settled in Italy, Holland, and northern Africa.

Unfortunately these Sephardic Jews (those from Spain and Portugal in the later Middle Ages) were unable to find peace in their newly acquired countries.

Similarly the Ashkenazi Jews (from the Rhineland valley from Alsace and further north) were pushed further and further from their homeland.

Many Jews were forced to live in poor, confining sections of towns known as ghettos. Word of the New World began to spread and with it the hope for a new life without the constant threat of anti-Semitism. In 1654, the first Jews came to America from Brazil and settled in New Amsterdam (now New York).268

268

http://www.archives.com/experts/alford-jennifer/how-the-jews-came-to-america.html

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European Migration -French Protestants, or Huguenots first arrived in numbers from France after the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre in Paris in 1572.

After political unrest in France in the late 17th Century269 Huguenots again migrated to Britain in their thousands, with some sources claiming that 50,000 eventually came from the combined episodes of migration.270 In 1709 German refugees known as ‘Poor Palatines’, fleeing French invasion, began to move to England with perhaps as many as 13,000 arriving.

There is also a long standing history of migration from Eastern Europe to the UK. Polish merchants began arriving in England in the sixteenth century, and in the eighteenth century, a number of Polish Protestants immigrated to England.

After the failed uprising against the Russian Empire in the 1831, several thousand Polish insurgents moved to London. By the 1901 Census there were 82,844 Eastern Europeans living in Britain.271

269

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes 1685 James Walvin,”Passage to Britain- Immigration in Britain History and Politics- It is estimated that by 1700, about 50,000 Huguenots had settled in England. They may have made up as much as 1% of England’s total population in 1700’s, according to Materlene Flow’s the Roots of the Future: Ethnic Diversity in the Making of Britain (London:CRE,1996),P.13 271 James Walvin,”Passage to Britain- Immigration in Britain History and Politics 270

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During the Second World War, hundreds of thousands of Poles were stationed in Britain and the Polish resettlement Act of 1947 offered citizenship to 200,000 Polish soldiers who did not wish to return to a Soviet dominated Poland.

The 1951 Census subsequently recorded 162,339 Poles living in Britain.272 After the Second World War quite large numbers of other Eastern Europeans were allowed to settle in Britain273 many of whom were actively recruited to work in Britain as part of an overseas workers scheme- one of the very few episodes of a ‘guest workers’ scheme in British history.

Asian and American Migration- People also came to Britain from the Indian Sub-Continent from the 18th Century onwards, 274 with the importation of domestic workers from India becoming more popular in the 19th century.275 However, the numbers were small; one estimate puts the number of Indians in Britain at the start of the 19th Century as a ‘few hundred’276 while another source claims that in 1814, 2,500 Indians came to Britain.277

272

Burrell, Kathy (2002). “ Migrant memories, migrant lives: Polish national identity in Leicester since 1945(PDF) Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Societies: p.60 273 For example, the number of Polish born people recorded at the 1951 Census was 162,339.Cited in C.Holmes, John Bull’s Island- Immigration and Britain Society (Macmillan 1988).p’s 168,211-212 274 http://www.netnationalarchives.org.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/intro/in 275 http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/show 276 Rusian Visram estimates the number as being several hundred at the beginning of the 19 th century in Peoples of the Move-indians in Britain(1987),p.1 277 E.D.George London Life in the Eighteenth Century (LSE,1951), p.158

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There is evidence that African and Chinese sailors established small communities’ in the port cities of the British Isles in the latter part of the 19th century.278 Very small numbers of Chinese people came to Britain from 1860 onwards, with census records showing that they were a tiny community. In 1901, there were just 387 Chinese nationals in Britain and in 1911, just 1,219.279 There were also fairly large number of Americans in Britain in the 19th Century; 18,496 at the census of 1881 and 16,860 in 1891280.

Some Historians estimate that the number of Chinese and African born migrants was so small that it was only about a tenth of the number of Americans resident at those two censuses.281 Small numbers of people born in the colonies of Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa also migrated to Britain. These people were often themselves the descendants of British emigrants.

278 279 280

281

http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm#1500 JPMay The Chinese in Britain in Colin Holmes (eds.) Immigrants and Minorities in British Society(Allen & Unwin,1978), p.121 James Walvin, “Passage to Britain-Immigration in British History and Politics( Pelican Books,1984),p.74 ibid

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migrations but, before the mid twentieth century, most inflows were very small in scale and the more substantial ones were short-lived. For the most part, their impact was not so much demographic as economic and cultural - and often beneficial.

Commonwealth Immigration after World War Two The British Nationality Act 1948 granted the subjects of the British Empire the right to live and work in the UK. Commonwealth citizens were not, therefore, subject to immigration control but the Home Office estimate is that the net intake from January 1955 to June 1962 was about 472,000.282 From 1962 onwards, successively tighter immigration controls were placed on immigration from the Commonwealth. In the 1960s New Commonwealth citizens were admitted at the rate of about 75,000 per year.

In practice the new immigration controls resulted in only a modest reduction in Commonwealth immigration.

282

Control of immigration: statistics UK 1999: table6.6 footnote1

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The average number of acceptances for settlement in the 1970s was 72,000 per year; in the 1980s and early 1990s it was about 54,000 per year. From 1998 onwards, numbers began to increase very substantially.283 In 1998, net Commonwealth migration leapt to 82,000 and continued to grow before peaking at 156,000 in 2004 before beginning to decline. Some historians argue that the majority of early “New Commonwealth migrants” were, in fact, British settlers and colonial officials and their descendants returning from Britain’s former colonies.284 Historic ‘foreign born’ population- recorded in censuses Census data indicates that the foreign born population grew rather slowly between 1851 and 1931. Although it increased from 100,000 to 700,000, the general population of the country also saw a large increase, more than doubling from 18 million to 40 million.

Thus the percentage of the population that was foreign born increased from 0.5% in 1851 to just 1.75% in 1931. This underlines the fact that, before the Second World War, immigration levels were low.

283 284

Control of immigration: statistics UK 1999: As Hasley Trends in British Society since 1900-A guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain , p.454

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The percentage of the population of England and Wales that was ‘foreign born’285 at every census between 1851 and 2011.286 There was no census conducted in 1941, due to the Second World War. Britain has experienced many relatively small episodes of immigration over the centuries. For nearly a thousand years migration was on a very small scale compared to the size of the population.

In the decades between the Second World War and the late 1990s, foreign immigration grew steadily at a relatively modest rate before declining in the late 1960s and becoming fairly stable between 1971 and 1981.

The massive increase in the level of migration since the late 1990s is utterly unprecedented in the country’s history, dwarfing the scale of anything that went before.

In light of the critical information highlighted above begs the question Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

285

Censuses between 1851 and 1931 used a number of categories to reward people born abroad.These categories were: those born in British Dominions or Colonies, those who were British subjects by naturalization, those who were Ailens or had no stated Nationality, those born at sea and those whose birth place was not stated. For the purposes of this report all the aforementioned have been included in the “foreign born” total. Those born in Ireland have been excluded from the category foreign born. Ireland was part of the United Kingdom until 1921 and we have chosen to exclude those born in Ireland from the foreign born category because of this unique historical connection.

286

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CHAPTER 9 INTERPRETATIONS Aristotle,287 Plato, and Socrates,288 were among the greatest minds that have lived in Western Civilization.

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are responsible for shaping society as we know it. However, it's important to note that the three believed different things - and that we should keep them separate in our minds.

It is for this reason that I believe that all human beings are entitled to have an opinion furthermore an interpretation regarding any subject.

As a

consequence of this view there is that distinct possibility that (a) Plato would have answered the pertinent question “Is there anything new under the sun?� in the context idealism, (b) Aristotle have answered the pertinent question in the context of realism and (c) Socrates would probably have answered the said question from a historical context by raising questions.

287 288

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/ http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/

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According to the Oxford online dictionary interpretation289 means the action of explaining the meaning of something.

The something that I am referring to in this text in context is the pertinent question “Is there anything new under the sun?”

N. Gregory Smith G. Frank & Winston Purvis Professor of Law LSU Law Center290 has answered the question “Is there anything new under the sun?” yes.

Frank and Winston believe that the law of lawyering is subject to rapid change.

They further added that Change comes as the result of court orders, court decisions, legislative enactments, and the work of bar associations and their constituent groups.

The most important changes, for most lawyers, are those that as a result from actions by the state supreme court.

But actions by other courts, and other groups, can also have significant

289

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/interpretation Repository Citation Smith, N. Gregory (2007) "Legal Ethics - Is There Anything New Under the Sun?,"Annual Institute on Mineral Law: Vol. 54, Article 10. Available at:http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/mli_proceedings/vol54/iss1/10 290

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impact on the practice. Local law practice can also be affected by developments outside of the state.

Among other things, local law practice can be influenced by congressional enactments, by actions of the American Bar Association, and by decisions of courts and ethics committees in other jurisdictions.

The above mentioned explanation equips me to analyse this topic since it creates the framework for the possible interpretations/meanings; in the observing, recording, and analyzing class, culture, ethnicity gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race in a philosophical context thru the lenses of a Media Arts Specialist.

In Warren E. Berkley’s Expository Files 19.8; August 2012 interpretation implies that “A generation goes, and a generation 291 comes, but the earth remains forever.”

291

The Expository Files “There Is Nothing New Under The Sun” Ecclesiastes 1:4-11http://www.bible.ca/ef/expository-ecclesiastes-1-4-11.htm Warren E. Berkley’s Expository Files 19.8; August 2012

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There is transience about human existence on earth that really fails to bring us in touch with something that is absolutely new.

If, therefore, we root our hope in the next generation or time, we are setting ourselves up for disappointment. It will simply not be that different. Nothing ever really changes except for the faces, the names, the methods and perhaps the social/political dynamics.

In fact, history repeats itself and no great thing emerges from “under the sun� that changes the essence of our existence here. We are born. We live and die. Others are born, etc.

The world is a very repetitive place. Nothing ever changes. So, any search for real meaning and lasting profit cannot come from under the sun.

Todd Strandberg’s interpretation regarding this pertinent question has argued that If there is nothing new under the sun 292 , however here is where it

292

http://www.raptureready.com/rap70.html

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becomes paradoxical because the other part of this probe is seemingly implying how it is possible for people to keep finding new interpretations of Scripture?

If the Bible is said to be sealed up (Rev. 22:18-19), why does God supposedly keep providing new information to select groups of people?

The only valid answer that he can think of is that this new stuff is just the same old lies and deceptions repackaged.

Farlex’s Free Dictionary interpretation suggests that under the sun everything under the sun293 is everything that exists or is possible we talked about everything under the sun. She seems to have an opinion on every subject under the sun.

Bible Dictionary: nothing new under the sun

A phrase adapted from the Book of Ecclesiastes 294 ; the author complains frequently in the book about the monotony of life. The entire passage

293 294

http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/under+the+sun https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080815230046AA6loe7

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reads, “The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun.”

Peter May 295 makes the telling point that this ancient and fascinating document both intrigues and disturbs its readers. It is so denigrated by some Christians, that they have wondered why it is in the Bible at all.

However, if you have read the French Existentialists, you will find yourself in familiar territory.

Certainly, the words of the Preacher, which the word Ecclesiastes means, are memorable and have enriched the English language with several wellknown phrases296, such as:

•Eat, drink and be merry…(8:15)

•A fly in the ointment … (10:1)

•There is a time for everything… (3:1)

295 296

http://www.bethinking.org/is-there-meaning-to-life/the-book-of-ecclesiastes-absurdity-pointing-to-meaning http://www.bethinking.org/is-there-meaning-to-life/the-book-of-ecclesiastes-absurdity-pointing-to-meaning

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•Cast your bread upon the waters… (11:1)

•There is nothing new under the sun … (1:9)

Nothing new under the sun in Culture Expand

Nothing new under the sun definition

A phrase adapted from the Book of Ecclesiastes 297 ; the author complains frequently in the book about the monotony of life.

The entire passage reads, “The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun298.”

Further, I have always been intrigued and fascinated by this question and therefore my interpretation of this cultural construct has to do with my lived experiences which would have influenced my outlook about life.

297

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/nothing-new-under-the-sun The American Heritage® Idioms DictionaryCopyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company 298 etal

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To this end People are the conduits of identities, such as class, culture, ethnicity gender, hierarchy, ownership, and race of this conversation.

It must be noted that the said people who are educational, political, and religious, regardless of their status make up the global village status quo conversation.

Such a conversation puts the spot light on history, politics, post-colonial and post- modern societies since they comprises of classes, cultures, gender, and ethnicities.

In view of this admission it was prudent that I examine various theorist positions regarding the social construct race.

Race299, as a social construct, is a group of people who share similar and distinct physical characteristics300.

299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(human_categorization) Anemone, Robert L. (2011). "Race and biological diversity in humans". Race and Human Diversity: A Bicultural Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pretice Hall. pp.

1–10. ISBN 0-131-83876-8.

Anemone, Robert L. (2011). "Race as a cultural construction". Race and Human Diversity: A Bicultural Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 163–183.

ISBN 0-131-83876-8.

Takezawa, Yasuko I. "Race (human)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved June 25, 2015.

Cartmill, Matt (1998). "The status of the race concept in physical anthropology" (PDF). American Anthropologist (American Anthropological Association) 100 (3): 651– 660. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.651.

"The Race Question" (PDF). UNESCO. July 18, 1950. Retrieved January 10, 2015.

Wade, Nicholas (May 9, 2014). "What Science Says About Race and Genetics". Time.com. Retrieved October 24, 2015.

300

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First used to refer to speakers of a common language and then to denote national affiliations, by the 17th century race began to refer to physical (i.e. phenotypical) traits.

The term was often used in a general biological taxonomic sense,301 starting from the 19th century, to denote genetically differentiated human populations defined by phenotype.302

Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies 303 that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits.

Scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete,304and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits.305

301

"Race2". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 October 2012. "1. Each of the major division of humankind, having distinct physical characteristics [example elided]. 1.1. MASS NOUN The fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group; the qualities or characteristics associated with this. 1.2. A group of people sharing the same culture, history, language, etc.; an ethnic group [example elided]." Provides 8 definitions, from biological to literary; only the most pertinent have been quoted.

302 Lie 2004 Thompson & Hickey 2005 Gordon 1964[page needed] AAA 1998 PalmiÊ 2007 Mevorach 2007 Segal 1991 Bindon 2005 Keita, S. O. Y.; Kittles, R. A.; Royal, C. D. M.; Bonney, G. E.; Furbert-Harris, P.; Dunston, G. M.; Rotimi, C. N. (2004). "Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics 36 (11s): S17–S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998. Retrieved September 5, 2015. "Religious, cultural, social, national, ethnic, linguistic, genetic, geographical and anatomical groups have been and sometimes still are called 'races'" 303 Montagu 1962 Bamshad & Olson 2003 304 Sober 2000 305 Lee et al. 2008: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores" AAA 1998: "For example, 'Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups.

Conventional geographic 'racial' groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them.'"

Keita, S O Y; Kittles, Royal, Bonney, Furbert-Harris, Dunston, Rotimi; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004).

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Even though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptualizations of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways, some of which have essentialist implications.306

While some researchers sometimes use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race often is used in a naive307or simplistic way,308 and argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance by pointing out that all living humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, and subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.309

Other researchers contended that changes in the ways in which genetics is being practiced and promoted, as well as the "confusion of analytical

"Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics 36 (11s): S17–S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998. "Modern human biological variation is not structured into phylogenetic subspecies ('races'), nor are the taxa of the standard anthropological 'racial' classifications breeding populations. The 'racial taxa' do not meet the phylogenetic criteria. 'Race' denotes socially constructed units as a function of the incorrect usage of the term."

Harrison, Guy (2010). Race and Reality. Amherst: Prometheus Books. "Race is a poor empirical description of the patterns of difference that we encounter within our species. The billions of humans alive today simply do not fit into neat and tidy biological boxes called races. Science has proven this conclusively. The concept of race (...) is not scientific and goes against what is known about our ever-changing and complex biological diversity."

Roberts, Dorothy (2011). Fatal Invention. London, New York: The New Press. "The genetic differences that exist among populations are characterized by gradual changes across geographic regions, not sharp, categorical distinctions. Groups of people across the globe have varying frequencies of polymorphic genes, which are genes with any of several differing nucleotide sequences. There is no such thing as a set of genes that belongs exclusively to one group and not to another. The clinal, gradually changing nature of geographic genetic difference is complicated further by the migration and mixing that human groups have engaged in since prehistory. Human beings do not fit the zoological definition of race. A mountain of evidence assembled by historians, anthropologists, and biologists proves that race is not and cannot be a natural division of human beings."

306 Lieberman, L.; Kaszycka, K. A.; Martinez Fuentes, A. J.; Yablonsky, L.; Kirk, R. C.; Strkalj, G.; Wang, Q.; Sun, L. (December 2004). "The race concept in six regions: variation without consensus". Coll Antropol 28 (2): 907–21. PMID 15666627.

307 Lee et al. 2008: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores" 308 Graves 2001[page needed] 309 Keita et al. 2004 20.Jump up ^ AAPA 1996 "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."-p.714

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domains in making assertions about race," are undermining the validity of the position that race is a social construct 310 that can be racialized with in economic participation space.

Drawing on both historical and contemporary examples, the authors argue that today's global capitalist system is maintained and structured within a global system of White supremacy. Groups of workers are located within a hierarchically organized, racialized labor system that differentially exploits workers based upon their racialized and gendered location.

Dominant racialized311 labor groups (mainly White/European workers) are in general afforded more privileges than subordinate racialized labor groups (workers of color), who face the denial of basic citizenship rights and higher degrees of exploitation and inferior working conditions.

310

Hartigan, John (June 2008). "Is Race Still Socially Constructed? The Recent Controversy over Race and Medical Genetics". Science as Culture 17 (2): 163–193. doi:10.1080/09505430802062943.

311 http://abs.sagepub.com/content/52/3/342.abstract

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Racialized

312

This paper is an account of the process whereby race,

whiteness, and white supremacy were invented in colonial Virginia.

It was first delivered at the Radical Philosophy Conference in November, 1996, and subsequently published in Race, Class, and Community Identity (eds. Andrew Light and Mechthild Nagel) by Humanity Books.

Recorded in a paper on Martin Luther King313, Gerald Early made the statement that King was "a black leader in a society in which there are no white leaders."314

It was a somewhat surreal way of reflecting the American blind spot, and points to a central incommensurability in U.S. politics.

White recognition of King as a black leader grants him cultural legitimacy, and at the same time withholds it by bestowing it through the assumed hegemonic power to grant cultural legitimacy in the first place.

312 313 314

https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~marto/semiohst.htm The paper, delivered March 13, 1996, in UC-Berkeley, was entitled "Martin Luther King and the Reinvention of Christian Leadership in the U.S."

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It confirms a hegemonic in the very act of presuming a non- hegemonic situation.

A similar situation obtains for other political issues. Affirmative action programs, for instance, were instituted to rectify (in small part) the effects of centuries of exclusion and discrimination against large groups of people (called minorities and women). They attempt to open a space of economic and political inclusion on the theory that social parity is a necessary condition for democratic participation.

These programs have been attacked by conservatives for being forms of exclusion and "reverse" discrimination against white people.

In thus forgetting the history to be rectified, such attacks render those prior forms of discrimination by whites as non-existent as "white leaders315."

315

The paper, delivered March 13, 1996, in UC-Berkeley, was entitled "Martin Luther King and the Reinvention of Christian Leadership in the U.S." Racialized Whiteness: its History, Politics, and Meaning by Steve Martinot

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In 1988 according to Meeks et al that identifies Linden Lewis 316 as stating that “Donald (Don) Blackman, a government minister of the then Democratic Labour Party was responsible for the ministry of transport and works.

The minister of transport and works became embroiled in a national controversy.

What sparked the controversy-Donald (Don) Blackman awarded a contract to a small black company construction firm Rayside Asphalt Company as opposed to a big white-owned company CO. Williams Construction.

Linden Lewis317 highlights the facts are CO. Williams Construction had purported a lower bid for the contract than Rayside Asphalt Company. Blackman argued the fact that given the history of ownership patterns in the country and the way in which economic participation was racialized; the time had come in Barbados for a policy of redressing imbalances in order to enhance economic justice.

316 317

Charles W.Mills The Racial Contract Cornell University Press Ithaca and London 1997.p.9 Charles W.Mills The Racial Contract Cornell University Press Ithaca and London 1997.p.9

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The inferred interpretation is Donald Blackman was an attempting to reverse the historical legacy of this world that is the economic political and cultural domination of the planet by Europeans and their descendants.

To this end, Minister Blackman’s decision can be construed as a racial contract that borders on the principles of an exploitation contract. According to Charles W.Mills “Racial contract highlights its differences from as well as its similarities to the classical and contemporary social contract.

The real contract is political, moral and epistemological; the real contract is real; and economically, in the determining who gets what, the racial contract is an exploitation contracts.”318

Minister Blackman’s political decision was made along the colour lines of demarcation.

The perception of Blackman’s action impinges prejudice and discriminatory because of the comments he espoused ”given the history of

318

Charles W.Mills The Racial Contract Cornell University Press Ithaca and London 1997.p.9

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ownership patterns in the country and the way in which economic participation was racialized, the time had come in Barbados for a policy of redressing imbalances in order to enhance economic justice.�319

Suffice to say, that what Minister Blackman said may have some merit but perhaps the language and methodology used to correct what is he perceived as an injustice further complicated the issue.

As a result of this decision, According to Meeks et al. who describe Linden Lewis as stating that C.O.Williams felt that this was reversed racism and took the minister and the government to court. Williams appeal the High Court decision and he went to the Court of Appeal and the Privy Council. Williams was awarded damages approximately $1.3 million dollars.�320

When we examined the historical events that unfolded in Dr. Martin Luther King of the United States of America and C.O. Williams of Barbados

320

319 Meeks,Brian. and Folke Lindah(ed) New Caribbean Thought: A Reader (Mona:The Press,2001). p.166 Brian Meeks and Folke Lindah(ed) New Caribbean Thought: A Reader (Mona:The Press,2001).p.166-168.

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narrative there is one common denominator and catalyst that is the identity of race that drove that conversation.

The two celebrities occupied different geographical locations cultural differences although they had some things in common their gender men; status hierarchy; determined; focus and successful.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the associations of race with the ideologies and theories that grew out of the work of 19th-century anthropologists and physiologists have led to the use of the word race itself becoming problematic.

Although still used in general contexts, race has often been replaced by other words which are less ambiguous and emotionally charged, such as populations, people(s), ethnic groups, or communities, depending on context.(321)(322)

Debra Thompson joins the discourse; she is from the Department of Political Science University of Toronto. Thompson argues in her text The (Mono-)

321

Race2". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 October 2012. "1. Each of the major division of humankind, having distinct physical characteristics [example elided]. 1.1. MASS NOUN The fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group; the qualities or characteristics associated with this. 1.2. A group of people sharing the same culture, history, language, etc.; an ethnic group [example elided]." Provides 8 definitions, from biological to literary; only the most pertinent have been quoted 322 Keita, S O Y; Kittles, Royal, Bonney, Furbert-Harris, Dunston, Rotimi; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004).

"Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics 36 (11s): S17–S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998. "Many terms requiring definition for use describe demographic population groups better than the term 'race' because they invite examination of the criteria for classification."

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Racial Contract: Mixed-Race Implications made the telling point that ‘Race’323 is one of the most powerful social signifiers of identity and difference.

Ellis Cashmore 324 also joins the discussion and makes the point that “race is a group of people who are socially defined in a given society as belonging together because of physical markers such as skin pigmentation, hair texture, facial features, and stature.”325 When Thompson’s and Cashmore’s theory regarding race is reviewed it appears that they connote specificity of characteristics of identity, namely feeling and belonging.

Maybe it is highly probable that this maybe the primary reason why people in this global village of every culture are socialized together.

A case in point Elinor Ochs, Merav Shohet326 in her text “The Cultural Structuring of Mealtime Socialization” makes the point that in many communities, commensality involves eating together at the same time.

323

Though scare quotes are, at times, dismissed as mere sarcasm, I use them here in all seriousness to reinforce the socially – and politically – constructed nature of ‘race’.

Ellis Cashmore is Professor of Culture, Media and Sport at Staffordshire University Ellis Cashmore;Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations 4 th Edition, 1999.p.296.

326 http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/ochs/articles/06Mealtime.pdf NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, no. 111, Spring 2006 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) • DOI: 10.1002/cad.153 324 325

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For at least the past three decades, the ideal in the United States and Western Europe has been for family members to come together for the evening meal (Dreyer & Dreyer, 1973; Murcott, 1982; Ochs, Pontecorvo, & Fasulo, 1996)327.

When children violate this ideal by beginning to eat before all family members are seated at the table, they may be explicitly reprimanded, as in the American family dinner interaction below (Ochs & Capps, 2001, p. 233): Elinor Ochs Merav Shohet regards eating together as a family and children as been reprimanded as valid in this context is a lived experience for me in the Barbadian diaspora.

Shohet further adds to this conversation the significances of Mealtimes which are cultural sites not only for eating but also for communication328.

Who participates in which kinds of communicative practices during mealtimes is linked to historically rooted ideologies and practices329.

327 328 329

et al http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/ochs/articles/06Mealtime.pdf et al

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In addressing children’s socialization into mealtime communication, it is important to consider both norms of appropriate mealtime communication and the social positioning of children in mealtime communication.

Norms of communication may include the norm that all participants will largely remain silent during the course of the meal, as among the Matsigenka of the Peruvian Amazon (Izquierdo, 2001).

Alternatively, in some families and communities, children are expected to generally remain silent while adults converse, as in the adage, “Children are to be seen and not heard.”

A study of New England family mealtimes found that parent’s significantly dominated the conversation, with children producing only one third of the talk (Dreyer & Dreyer, 1973)330.

Further, persons showcasing different skin pigmentation, hair texture, facial features, and stature may resent or show descent.

330

et al

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David Goldenberg on ‘Racism, Symbolism and Colour Prejudice331’ is an ambitious essay, which focuses upon a wide range of views of black people from the Greeks through to the Romans and Hebrews to the Early Christians.

Racism is “an attitude toward individuals and groups of people which posits a direct and linear connection between physical and mental qualities” (p. 23).

Goldenberg further argues that the opposition towards them rested both upon appearance and the negative associations of the colour black (with death and evil for example) rather than fear of their actions or behavior.

However, Goldenberg questions whether the animosity which Black people faced in antiquity merits the description of racism.

Studying Caribbean race relations, the sociologist H. Hoetink332 showed that a preference for the “somatic norm image” – the toad’s beauty – is a universal phenomenon.333 Neither the Greeks nor the Romans saw very dark skin or very light skin as aesthetically pleasing.

331

http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/887 file:///C:/Users/devgro/Downloads/Benjamin%20Isaac%20post-web%20+++%20m.pdf The Two Variants in Caribbean Race Relations, Oxford, 1967, pp. 120-121 (originally published in Dutch in 1962).

332 333

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One wonders if the Greeks and the Romans were practicing what Edward Said cites as othering334.

The Othering is represented through many methods (biological, social, demographic, etc.), which are present across the globe335 and illustrated in the media, along with academic text.

Expressions of distaste for the darker or lighter complexion are commonly found in Greco-Roman sources and have been thoroughly documented

by Frank Snowden and Lloyd Thompson.336 Both of these scholars furthermore found that a preference for the Mediterranean somatic norm of light brown skin was largely responsible for any expressions of anti-Black sentiment in the classical world, which was explained as an ethnocentric manifestation of conformism to dominant aesthetic tastes.337

334

Representations of the Other[edit]

Knowledge of representations (metaphoric, metonymic, anthropomorphic) illuminates the cultural attitude in the historiographies of the foreign cultures of the Other, all created by the dominant culture, by way of the analytical discourses (academic, geopolitical, military, etc.) that surround the histories (written and oral) that explain the East to the West. The foreign cultures that a supposedly superior ethnic-group deems important to study, and the aspects of the studied culture, either ignored or considered valuable knowledge, relies upon the judgement of the ethnic group in power. In the case of historiographies of the Middle East, and in the Oriental-studies field, before the late-nineteenth century, Western European empires studied what Orientalists said was the high culture of the Middle East—the literature, language, and philology of the cultures comprised by the term The Orient.

335 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other 336 Frank Snowden, Before Color Prejudice, pp. 75-79, and Blacks in Antiquity, pp. 171-179; Lloyd Thompson in Romans and Blacks, passim; see index, “somatic norm image.”

337 Similarly Jean-Jacques Aubert, “Du noir en noir et blanc: éloge de la dispersion,” Museum Helveticum 56 (1999) 159-182, especially 176.

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It should be noted that the Greek environmental theory for anthropological differences also favored the somatic norm and was not as devoid of racist or proto-racist sentiment as Snowden claims.

Implicit in the theory is its ethnocentric character, which viewed others’ skin color as an aberrant result of extreme environmental conditions on the normal complexion.

The Greeks and Romans were not unusual in this regard.

As I have shown elsewhere, Rabbinic etiologies of dark-skinned people similarly express a late-antique Jewish preference for the somatic norm, as do also black African etiologies of light-skinned people.

Only, in Africa the colors are reversed.338 I recalled as a child growing up in Barbados that some folk seemed to focus a lot on whether some people were light-skinned or not.

This point was also borne out by George M. Fredrickson339 in his text the Historical Origins and Development of Racism has suggested- that he Renaissance and Reformation period the time when Europeans were coming into 338 339

The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Princeton, 2003), pp. 95-112. http://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-02-01.htm

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increasing contact with people of darker pigmentation in Africa, Asia, and the Americas and were making judgments about them.

Bert Thompson, Ph.D340 in his text The Origin of Races has suggested that Humans come in a rainbow of colors: sandy yellows, reddish-tans, creamy whites, pale pinks.

And those are three or four major “races� of humans, as the word race is commonly defined: (a) Australoid; (b) Caucasoid; (c) Mongoloid; and (d) Negroid.

Thompson further explains that the Australoids are considered a subgroup of the Caucasoids, simply because the two groups have so many features in common, despite the fact that Australoids possess dark skin (the Australoid group is often known as the Australian Aboriginal Group)341.

340 341

http://www.apologeticspress.org/apcontent.aspx et al

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I can appreciate information especially when presented by theorist such as Ellis Cashmore, George M. Fredrickson and Dr. Bert Thompson and Debra Thompson regarding race. Their expressions are very analytical, interesting and insightful.

However in this context my preference is Cooper P. Abrams’ 342 III simply because his explanation seems be in succinct with the bible regarding race.

Abrams makes the point that traditionally; biblical scholars have concluded that the three races were the progeny of Noah's three sons, Shem, Japheth and Ham343 And therefore the term is a loose one and that modern science is replacing with another definition, which is, essentially "race is determined by physical characteristics344."

Physical characteristics can also be applied in the case of person/s that is considered as an interviewer who’s interviewing another person namely the interviewee for a specific purpose.

342 343 344

http://www.bible-truth.org/race.htm 1 Charles F. Pfeifer. The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, Chicago:Moody Press, 1962, p14. http://www.bible-truth.org/race.htm

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Invariably, they meaning the interviewer would have observed, the physical characteristics of that interviewee or suspect so that a definitive decision can be made.

Therefore in the absences of documented infallible proof there will be controversy. As you are aware although controversy is as old as Methuselah345 who is mentioned in the bible would have been discussed ad nauseam throughout the centuries.

A case in point regarding Physical characteristics346 it is a fact that the race and appearance of Jesus have been discussed Ad nauseam 347 pre and post Christianity.

Although there are no firsthand accounts, and the New Testament includes no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death, and its narrative is generally indifferent to racial appearances,348 it is generally clear in the Christian scripture that Jesus would have been of Hebrew descent, his genealogy

345

According to Genesis 5:27, Methuselah was 969 years old when he died. http://christianity.about.com/od/oldtestamentpeople/fl/Methuselah.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_appearance_of_Jesus Ad nauseam is a Latin term for disgust that has continued so long that it has continued "to nausea". For example, the sentence "This topic has been discussed ad nauseam" signifies that the topic in question has been discussed extensively, and that those involved in the discussion have grown tired of it.

348 Robin M. Jensen "Jesus in Christian art", Chapter 29 of The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 477-502 346 347

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being attested as of the Hebrew patriarchs in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke.

Importantly various theories about the race of Jesus have been advanced and debated.349 By the Middle Ages a number of documents, generally of unknown or questionable origin, had been composed and were circulating with details of the appearance of Jesus. Now these documents are mostly considered forgeries.350 While many people have a fixed mental image of Jesus, drawn from his artistic depictions, these images often conform to ethnic-European stereotypes which are not grounded in any serious research on the historical Jesus, but are based on second- or third-hand interpretations of inauthentic sources.351 By the 19th century, theories that Jesus was non-Semitic, and in particular Aryan, were developed.352

349

The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss 2010 ISBN 1-61640-309-8 pages 114-116 3.Racializing Jesus: Race, Ideology and the Formation of Modern Biblical Scholarship by Shawn Kelley 2002 ISBN 0-415-28373-6 pages 70-73 350 The Oxford companion to the Bible 1993 ISBN 0-19-504645-5 page 41 5.Making Sense of the New Testament by Craig L. Blomberg 2004 ISBN 0-8010-2747-0 pages 3-4 6.Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 pages 6-9 351 Colin Kidd (2006). The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-79324-7.

352 Arvidsson, Stefan (June 1999). "Aryan Mythology As Science and Ideology". Journal of the American Academy of Religion (Oxford University Press) 67 (2): 327–354. doi:10.1093/jaarel/67.2.327. Retrieved Sep 18, 2013.

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However, as in other cases of the assignment of race to Biblical individuals, these claims have been mostly subjective, based on cultural stereotypes and societal trends rather than on scientific analysis.353 For two millennia a wide range of artistic depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.354 There is no major disagreement that he was ethnically Middle Eastern.

Though some question what exactly that looked like at that time, there is a general scholarly consensus that first-century Hebrews from Judea were Levantine Middle Easterners.355 The facts surrounding Jesus’s physical characteristic has always been debated and the documents provided are mostly considered forgeries.

Conversely counterfeiting is almost as old as money itself. The producing or using counterfeit money356 is a form of fraud or forgery.

353

Colin Kidd (2006). The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-79324-7.

354 Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 082648011X pages 63-100 10. The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France by Stephen Perkinson 2009 ISBN 0-226-65879-1 page 30 355 Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 page 10 356 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit_money

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Before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver.

A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to fraudulent instructions357.

During World War II, the Nazis forged British pounds and American dollars.

In the present day some of the finest counterfeit banknotes are called Superdollars because of their high quality and likeness to the real United States of America dollar.

It must be noted that all of crime committed in this century has a technological component.

Consequently, crime is not new but the technological component is and since it is just a modification the question must be ask Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

357

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit_money

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CHAPTER 10 OWNERSHIP Ownership358 of property may be private, collective, or common and the property may be of objects, land/real estate, intellectual property, or people.

According History World 359 people used Slavery 360 in ancient Egypt, Greece and in the Roman Empire. In 1492 Christopher Columbus361 founded the first settlement in the New World on an island in the Caribbean Sea. In the middle of the 15th century 362 Portuguese navigators started exploring the coast of Africa on their search to find a sea route to India.

Slave trade to the English colonies in America started in the early 17th century. By the beginning of the 18th century slave trade was a big business. The British started what was called Triangular Trade. 1 January 1863 A.D. President Abraham Lincoln issues his Emancipation Proclamation regarding the freedom of slaves.

358

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp? http://www.english-online.at/history/slavery/slavery-history.htm 361 http://www.english-online.at/history/slavery/slavery-history.htm 362 http://www.english-online.at/history/slavery/slavery-history.htm 359 360

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Thus, when we contextualize such a cultural and historical disclosure it seems to highlight the behavior of people who have resided in the first century seemed to be one of tension363.

Anupam Sharma has argued that social tension arises 364 because of political issues.

For example, agitation for political rights365 of locals versus non-locals, hills versus plains led to tension.

Social tension arises out of political decisions

366

during the

reorganization of the states on linguistic basis.

They exist in all societies, including the small and primitive, developed and developing, although societies differ in terms of the causes and the degree of manifestation of social tension.

Given some of the reasons highlighted after the uprising by Judas the Galilean and before Pilate (26 CE), in general, Roman Judea was troubled but self-

363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament http://www.mkgandhi-sarvodaya.org/articles/social_tension.htm http://www.mkgandhi-sarvodaya.org/articles/social_tension.htm 366 http://www.mkgandhi-sarvodaya.org/articles/social_tension.htm 364 365

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managed, and occasional riots, sporadic rebellions, and violent resistance were an ongoing risk.

Again throughout the third quarter of the first century 367, the conflict between the Jews and the Romans gave rise to increasing tensions.

Before the end of the third quarter of the first century, these tensions culminated with the first Jewish-Roman War and the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem368.

The history world organization has recorded that between 1000 and 1300 the Middle Ages 369 were marked by the diversification and growth of the economy and the society and by the subsequent social tension and political and religious conflict.

There is no denial that the social construct tension did not play a critical role in each century.

367 368 369

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament etal http://history-world.org/dynamic_culture_of_medieval_euro.htm

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However, during the 6th century Gothic War (535–554) . The Goths cut off the aqueducts in the siege of 537, an act which historians traditionally regard as the beginning of the Middle Ages in Italy.

Of note, according to sparknotes World War I370 took place between 1914 and 1918.

Although the conflict began in Europe, it ultimately involved countries as far away as the United States and Japan.

At the time, the English-speaking world knew it as the “Great War”— the term “World War I”371 was applied decades later.

It must be noted that even the Historians still actively disagree over the fundamental causes of the war.

The period leading up to the war372 was a complex tangle of diplomacy and political maneuvering—many countries debated over strategies and alliances until nearly the last minute—and the first few weeks of the conflict were similarly chaotic and confusing.

370 371 372

http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/ww1/context.html http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/ww1/context.html http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/ww1/context.html

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However, although historians agree nearly unanimously about the war’s consequences: every action creates a reaction because World War I led almost directly to World War II and by extension the same set the stage for many other important events in the twentieth century373 What is extremely remarkable all of the people regardless of their identity status who occupied century 1 thru 21st century space had one thing in common they shared the social construct tension.

Overall, one of the ways that information regarding this tension could have been shared was people who provided representation, shared their ideas and habits they would have learnt with their generation and by extension future generations374 via ancestry within their cultural diaspora.

Therefore I humbly submit that after much analysis, metaphorically speaking, one wonders if all people who have occupied their space in every century can be viewed as complicit as it relates to this question in context.

373 374

http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/ww1/context.html Michael Haralambos and Robin Heald Sociology Themes and Perspectives Great Britain: University Tutorial Press Limited.1980.3.

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Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles that date back to approximately 35,000 B.C.375 A pestle and mortar376 is a device used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder.

The mortar (/ˈmɔːrtər/) is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, ceramic or stone.

The pestle (/ˈpɛsəl/) is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object, the end of which is used for crushing and grinding.

The substance to be ground is placed in the mortar and ground, crushed or mixed using a pestle.

Of note some members of the global village who refuse to do research may be oblivious to the fact who invented the Mortars and the pestles.

According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Mortars and pestles have been used in cooking up to the present day; they are frequently also associated with the profession of pharmacy due to their historical use in preparing medicines.

They can also be used in masonry and in other types of construction.

375 376

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle

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The English word mortar derives from classical Latin mortarium, meaning, among several other usages, "receptacle for pounding" and "product of grinding or pounding".

The classical Latin pistillum, meaning "pounder", led to English pestle.

The Roman poet Juvenal applied both mortarium and pistillum to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary.377 In addition I am cognizant of the fact that the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BCE can claim Ownership of this property which can or may be private, collective, or common and the property may be of objects, land/real estate, intellectual property, or people.

In this context I am referring to the Mortars and pestle which can be considered as the antiquity378 of these tools which is well documented in early writing,

377

Satire VII line 170: et quae iam ueteres sanant mortaria caecos. (and the mortars that cure old blind men) Look up Antiquity, antiquity, or ancient in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Antiquity may refer to any period before the Middle Ages (476–1453), but still within Western civilization-based human history or prehistory:Ancient history, any historical period before the Middle Ages 378

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such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BCE (the oldest preserved piece of medical literature) and the Old Testament (Numbers 11:8 and Proverbs 27:22).

Mortars and pestles were traditionally used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription.

The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Orange Cross, and others, is one of the most pervasive symbols of pharmacology,379 along with the show globe.

For pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood.

This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759.

Today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration.

Mortars and pestles are also used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested, or in preparation for insufflation.

379

Pharmaceutical Symbols, Museum of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Page 2. Retrieved 2009-10-21.

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It is given that in a real world people have needs regardless of their race 380 and it is because of the said needs such as this that the Mortars and pestles were created.

I will confess that as a child I once believed that the Mortar and the pestle originated in Barbados because it was frequently used by most Barbadians during the 1950’s and 1960’s. What was also very remarkable my views have changed since I have researched this subject the Mortars and pestles.

A case in point, Ms. Clarke a matriarch who resided across the street in my district of Martinique Road, Government Hill, in the parish of Saint Michael produced pepper sauce.

I visited Ms. Clarke’s home regularly just to watch her grind these ingredients at various times of the day especially the tumeric, the spices and the red peppers, among other ingredients in the Mortar and the pestle during the production process of pepper sauce.

I recall several educational conversations that my mother the late Ira Louise Gittens had with us siblings regarding the mortar and pestle.

380

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs

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I suppose that Maslow’s theory

381

is relevant to this conversation

because this theory includes- Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem, SelfActualization and Self-Transcendence. People of the world regardless of class, culture, gender, ethnicity hierarchy and race are still using the Mortars and pestles.

In summary, Maslow argues that needs 382 are often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top each person will prioritize those needs.

People in this context mean all races regardless of their identity status.

Groups of humans383 have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global.

These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today.

381 382 383

Steere, B. F. (1988). Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers.. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-88706-620-8.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(human_classification)

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In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences384 When I examine closely the above mentioned it makes me wonder if Roy Eichhorn’s theory is suggesting that the ability to be in control of their thinking and Maslow theory on prioritize of needs can harmonize.

Of note the theory regarding race385 is reissuing of the medieval past in ways that admit the ongoing inter-play of that past with the present can only recalibrate the urgencies of the present with greater precision.

Roy Eichhorn makes the point that “people have the ability to be in control of their thinking386.

This point is relevant to this discussion because regardless of their status the geographical space that they occupy have the ability to consciously or unconsciously examine and reason out that nothing is new. This line of reasoning a b Marks 2008, p. 28 https://www.academia.edu/321674/The_Invention_of_Race_in_the_European_MIddle_Ages_I_Race_Studies_Modernity_and_the_Middle_Ages 386 Roy Eichhorn, Strategic Systems Department http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html 384 385

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seems to imply that from the existence of human beings always had the ability to be in control of their thinking.

Further, it must be noted that although this question Is There Anything New Under The Sun? has been seen and heard of before we must be cognizant of the fact that humankind’s perception has to do with their identity status such as class, culture, gender, ethnicity and race or the global village diaspora.

We must be therefore mindful the Earth387 travels around the sun one full time per year. During that said year, the seasons 388 namely autumn, spring, summer and winter change but this depending on the amount of sunlight reaching the surface and the Earth's tilt as it revolves around the sun.

All of the facts highlight before begs the question Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

387 388

http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/season.html http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/cli_seasons.html

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CHAPTER 11 RELIGIONS It is recorded that the typical dictionary definition of religion389 refers to a "belief in, or the worship of, a god or gods" or the "service and worship of God or the supernatural".

However, writers and scholars have expanded upon the "belief in god" definitions as insufficient to capture the diversity of religious thought and experience.

In literature, Rick Riordan has written three books based on Egyptian mythology390 in the modern world: The Kane Chronicles - The Red Pyramid, The Throne of Fire, and The Serpent's Shadow.

These books are about the adventures of two siblings 391 , Sadie and Carter Kane, who discover that the ancient Egyptian world is still amongst them and they discover that they have the blood of pharaohs and must learn to become magicians in the House of Life.

389 390 391

Religion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture

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In their adventures they meet and interact with several ancient Egyptian Gods392, such as Thoth, Anubis, Isis, Horus, Tawaret, Osiris, Ra, Sobek, Ptah, Bes, and many others.

According to History Timeline of World Religions393 and its Founders Between the period 2,085 thru 1980 A.D listed below are many religions that were established:-

2,085 BC. Judaism-Abraham 1,500 BC. Hinduism- no specific founder 1000 BC Zoroastrianism - Zoroastrianism founded by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) in Persia 560 BC. Buddhism- Gautama Buddha 550 BC. Taoism - Lao Tzu 599 BC. Jainism, Mahavira 30 AD. Christianity –Jesus Christ 50-100 AD. Gnosticism150-250 AD. -Modalism (Monarchianism)–Sabellius, Praxeus, Noetus, Paul of Samosata

392 393

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_influence_in_popular_culture http://www.letusreason.org/Cult11.htm

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325 AD. -After being persecuted for almost 200 years Constantine made the Church becomes a legal religion, compromise begins to enter.

590 AD.-Roman Catholicism- Developed after Constantine; Pope Gregory?

610 AD.- Islam- Mohammed 1400 AD.- Rosicrucians-Christian Rosenkreuz (1694 US) RosicruciansMaster Kelpius, Johann Andrea 1515 AD.- Protestantism- (Reformers) Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin 1650 AD.- Tibetan Buddhism-Dalai Lama 1700 AD.- Freemasony- Albert Mackey, Albert Pike 1760 AD.-Swedenborgism- Emmanuel Swedenborg 1784 AD.- Shakers - Mother Ann Lee 1830 AD.- Mormonism – Joseph Smith 1830 AD.-Cambellites-Alexander & Thomas Cambell, Barton Stone 1838 AD.-Tenrikyo- Miki Maegawa Nakayama 1840 “Orisha religion394 had its beginnings in Trinidad.”

1844 AD.-Christadelphians- John Thomas 1840-45 AD.-Millerites 2nd day Adventists –William Miller then became 7th Day Adventists 1844 AD.-Bahai- Baha'u'llah (Abul Baha) 1845-1870AD.- 7th Day Adventists-E.G. White 394

Houk, James.

“Anthropological Theory and the Breakdown of Eclectic Folk Religions”.

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, v 35, December 1996, p 42-47. -------. Spirits, Blood, and Drums the Orisha Religion in Trinidad. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995),52.

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1848 AD.-Spiritualism - Kate and Margaret Fox 1870 AD.-Jehovah's Witnesses- Charles Taze Russell 1875 AD.-Theosophical Society- H.P. Blavatsky, Henry Olcott 1879 AD.-Christian Science-Mary Baker Eddy 1889-1924 AD.-Unity School of Christianity- Myrtle Fillmore 1900 AD.-Rosicrucian Fellowship-Max Heindel 1902 AD.- Anthroposophical Society –Rudolf Steiner 1906 AD. -The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World 1914 AD.- Iglesia ni Cristo- Felix Manalo 1914 AD.- Oneness Pentecostalism- Frank Ewart, G.T.Haywood, Glenn Cook 1917 AD.-True Jesus Church. Founders Paul Wei, Lingsheng Chang and Barnabas Chang 1930 AD. -Black Muslims (Nation of Islam) –Wallace D. Fard 1927 AD.- Mind Science- Ernest Holmes 1934 AD.-World Wide Church of God- Herbert W. Armstrong 1935 AD.-Self Realization Fellowship- Paramahansa Yogananda 1945 AD. -The Way -Victor P.Wierwille 1948 AD.- Latter Rain –Franklin Hall, George Warnock.

1964 AD.- Eckankar The Ancient Science of Soul Travel (Eck).

Founded by Paul Twitchell

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1968 AD.- Hare Krishna (US)- Swami Prabhupada 1968 AD.- Children of God- David (Moses) Berg 1945 AD.-United Pentecostal International- Howard Goss, W.T. Witherspoon (can be traced back to 1914) 1944 AD.- Silva Mind Control –Jose Silva 1945 AD.- United Pentecostal International- Frist sepearted from Assembly of God in 1914. Howard Goss, W.T. Witherspoon 1950 AD.-Urantia Book- Dr. Bill Sadler 1950 AD.-Lafayette Ronald Hubbard published his book DianeticsScientology 1954 AD.-Atherius Society (UFO’s)- Dr. George King 1954 AD.- Unification Church- Rev.Sun Myung Moon 1955 AD.- Scientology- L. Ron Hubbard 1958 AD.- Institute of Divine Metaphysical Research- Henry Kinley 1958-1970 AD.- Church Universal and Triumphant –Mark and E.C. Prophet 1958 AD. -Henry Kinley begins (IDMR) the Institute of Divine Metaphysical Research 1959 AD.-Unitariarian Universalist 1960 AD.-Transcendental meditation- Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 1960 AD.-Enkankar- Paul Twitchell 1961 AD.- Unitarian Universalism was officially formed.

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1965 AD.-Assembly of Yahweh-Jacob Meyer 1966 AD.- Church of Satan –Anton LaVey 1970 AD.-Findhorn Community –Peter and Eileen Caddy –David Spangler 1970 AD.- Divine light Mission- Guru Maharaj Ji 1973 AD.- CARP was established in the United States.

The Collegiate Association for the Research of Principles to introduce the teachings of sun Myung Moon.

1974 AD.-Assemblies of Yahweh-Sam Suratt 1979 AD.-Church of Christ International - Kip McKean 1980 -1982 AD.- Tara Center-Benjamen Crème 1980 AD.- House of Yahweh (Abilene) Jacob Hawkins

Religion395

395

Adherents Percentage

Christianity

2.1 Billion

31.5%

Islam

1.6 Billion

23.2%

Agnostic

1.1 Billion

16.3%

Hinduism

1 Billion

15.0%

Chinese Folk Religion

394 Million

Buddhism

376 Million

7.1%

Tribal Religions

300 Million

5.9%

Sikhism

23 Million

Judaism

14 Million

Spiritism

15 Million

Baha'i

7 Million

Jainism

4.2 Million

Shintoism

4 Million

0.2%

Religion: Religious Adherents, Worldwide (Updated June 2014) http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Major_Religions.html(Updated June 2014)

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4 Million

Zoroastrianism

2.6 Million

Unitarian-Universalism

800,000

Rastafarianism

600,000

Scientology

500,000

Tylor & Frazer - Religion396 is Systematized Animism & Magic:

E.B. Tylor and James Frazer are two of the earliest researchers to develop theories of the nature of religion. They defined religion as essentially being the belief in spiritual beings, making it systematized animism.

The reason religion exists is to help people make sense of events which would otherwise be incomprehensible by relying on unseen, hidden forces.

This inadequately addresses the social aspect of religion, though; depicting religion and animism are purely intellectual moves.

Sigmund Freud - Religion is Mass Neurosis:

396

http://atheism.about.com/od/philosophyofreligion/p/ExplainReligion.htm

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According to Sigmund Freud, religion is a mass neurosis and exists as a response to deep emotional conflicts and weaknesses.

A by-product of psychological distress, Freud argued that it should be possible to eliminate the illusions of religion by alleviating that distress.

This approach is laudable for getting us to recognize that there can be hidden psychological motives behind religion and religious beliefs, but his arguments from analogy are weak and too often his position is circular.

Emile Durkheim - Religion is a Means of Social Organization:

Emile Durkheim is responsible for the development of sociology and wrote that “...religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.”

His focus was the importance of the concept of the “sacred” and its relevance to the welfare of the community. Religious beliefs are symbolic

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expressions of social realities without which religious beliefs have no meaning.

Durkheim reveals how religion serves in social functions.

Karl Marx - Religion is the Opiate of the Masses: According to Karl Marx, religion is a social institution which is dependent upon material and economic realities in a given society.

With no independent history, it is a creature of productive forces. Marx wrote: “The religious world is but the reflex of the real world.” Marx argued that religion is an illusion whose chief purpose is to provide reasons and an excuse to keep society functioning just as it is. Religion takes our highest ideals and aspirations and alienates us from them.

Mircea Eliade - Religion is a Focus on the Sacred: Key to Mircea Eliade’s understanding of religion is two concepts: the sacred and the profane. Eliade says religion is primarily about belief in the supernatural, which for him lies at the heart of the sacred. He does not try to explain away religion and rejects all reductionist efforts.

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Eliade only focuses on “timeless forms” of ideas which he says keep recurring in religions all over the world, but in doing so he ignores their specific historical contexts or dismisses them as irrelevant.

Stewart Elliot Guthrie - Religion is Anthropomorphization Gone Awry:

Stewart Guthrie argues that religion is “systematic anthropomorphism” — the attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman things or events.

We interpret ambiguous information as whatever matters most to survival, which means seeing living beings.

If we are in the woods and see a dark shape that might be a bear or a rock, it is smart to “see” a bear.

If we are mistaken, we lose little; if we are right, we survive. This conceptual strategy leads to “seeing” spirits and gods at work around us.

E.E. Evans-Pritchard - Religion and Emotions:

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Rejecting most anthropological, psychological, and sociological explanations of religion, E.E. Evans-Pritchard sought a comprehensive explanation of religion that took both its intellectual and social aspects into account.

He didn’t reach any final answers, but did argue that religion should be regarded as a vital aspect of society, as its “construct of the heart.” Beyond that, it may not be possible to explain religion in general, just to explain and understand particular religions.

Clifford Geertz - Religion as Culture and Meaning: An anthropologist who describes culture as a system of symbols and actions which convey meaning, Clifford Geertz treats religion as a vital component of cultural meanings.

He argues that religion carries symbols which establish especially powerful moods or feelings, help explain human existence by giving it an ultimate meaning, and purport to connect us to a reality that is “more real” than what we see every day. The religious sphere thus has a special status above and beyond regular life.

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Explaining, Defining, and Understanding Religion: Here, then, are some of the principle means of explaining why religion exists: as an explanation for what we don’t understand; as a psychological reaction to our lives and surroundings; as an expression of social needs; as a tool of the status quo to keep some people in power and others out; as a focus upon supernatural and “sacred” aspects of our lives; and as an evolutionary strategy for survival.

Which of these is the “right” explanation? Maybe we shouldn’t try to argue that any one of them is “right” and instead recognize that religion is a complex human institution.

Why assume that religion is any less complex and even contradictory than culture in general? Because religion has such complex origins and motivations, all of the above could serve as a valid response to the question “Why does religion exist?” None, however, can serve as an exhaustive and complete answer to that question.

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We should eschew simplistic explanations of religion, religious beliefs, and religious impulses. They are unlikely to be adequate even in very individual and specific circumstances and they are certainly inadequate when addressing religion generally. Simplistic as these purported explanations may be, though, they all offer helpful insights which can bring us a little closer to understanding what religion is all about.

Does it matter whether we can explain and understand religion, even if only a little bit? Given the importance of religion to people’s lives and culture, the answer to this should be obvious.

If religion is inexplicable, then significant aspects of human behavior, belief, and motivation are also inexplicable.

We need to at least try to address religion and religious belief in order to get a better handle on who we are as human beings.

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In view of the information highlighted above evidently Religion is and will always be a significant aspect of all societies regardless of religious philosophy, practice, and/or belief or identity.

Perhaps this may have been the critical reason why in 1987, Lewis Hopfe 397 asked this question: Where does religion come from? (6). this is a fundamental question.

Hopfe’s question is valid because it addressed the very nature of human beings who have physical, spiritual, emotional, and other needs. It is clear that Religion is one of the ways in which man’s spiritual needs are satisfied.

And since Religion is part of human beings cultural experience it will always evoke some analytical discussion and therefore it justifies the pertinent Is There Anything New Under The Sun?

397

Hopfe. Lewis. Religions of the World: New York: Macmillan Publishing Company; 1987.

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CHAPTER 12 TRIPARTITE The “tripartite” 398nature of humans is designed to work in harmony to live, exist, and interact with God and creation.

According to the Genesis 2:7399 “and the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul”.

What the author has underscored in the above text seems to be explicitly and implicitly implying that humans comprise of Body, Soul and Spirit.

Therefore humans also comprise of mental, intellect soul, conscious and the ego this was evident thru the centuries. The fact that people have a body, a soul and a spirit suggests that there is harmonized connectivity coordination because they can think; they are analytical; they have a will; they have thoughts and they are wired to think.

398 399

https://redeeminggod.com/humans-three-parts-body-soul-spirit/ http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Bible-Verses-About-Body-Soul-and-Spirit/

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In this context since people are dynamic beings it is only obvious that they have the capacity to think; it should not be anything new; however; when ideas that were develop and executed by people in the B.C. are modified and used by people in the A.D. perhaps this may be perceived as a new thing under the sun. It is my view that since humans have ideas and would have constructed something from the said idea and ideas are developmental and an idea was conceptualize in B.C. and the said idea was modified in the A.D. then what may be considered as new is the developmental aspect but the platform and basics were already established. A case in point Roman400 civilization401 was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards.

Many cities of the Roman Empire had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings called insulate, street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows and floor and wall heating.

400

Clare, I. S. (1906). Library of universal history: containing a record of the human race from the earliest historical period to the present time; embracing a general survey of the progress of mankind in national and social life, civil government, religion, literature, science and art. New York: Union Book. Page 1519 (cf., Ancient history, as we have already seen, ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire; [...])

401 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology

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The Romans understood hydraulics 402 and constructed fountains and waterworks, particularly aqueducts, which were the hallmark of their civilization.

They exploited water power by building water mills 403 , sometimes in series, such as the sequence found at Barbegal in southern France and suspected on the Janiculum in Rome. Some Roman baths have lasted to this day.

The Romans developed many technologies 404 which were apparently lost in the Middle Ages, and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries.

They also left texts describing their achievements, especially Pliny the Elder, Frontinus and Vitruvius.

Other less known Roman innovations 405 include cement, boat mills, arch dams and possibly tide mills.

The history of communication406 dates back to prehistoric times, with significant changes in communication technologies (media and appropriate

402

etal etal https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology 405 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology 406 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_communication 403 404

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inscription tools) evolving in tandem with shifts in political and economic systems, and by extension, systems of power. It is my view that people who occupied the space of every century whether it is B.C

or A.D. has always and will always

communicate with their generation and their diaspora because they have told stories, shared their ideas, skills, information, talents, time with their families who in turn pass the same from generation to generation. In my view the above mentioned process can be considered as communicating with.

Because of the aforementioned admission, human beings from the B.C. are still communicating with future generations because what they have documented what was shared with their generation who also shared the same with their generation and this practice still continues today. Consequently, as long as human beings occupy this global space this practice will continue even if the method of telling and documentation is modified as result of modern technology.

According to Craig von Buseck407 people are made up the spirit, the soul, the heart, the conscience, the mind and the emotions.

407

http://www1.cbn.com/questions/what-are-the-three-parts-of-man

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Communication can range from very subtle processes of exchange, to full conversations and mass communication.

Human

communication

was

revolutionized

with

Origin

of

language|speech approximately 500,000 years ago. Symbols were developed about 30,000 years ago.

The imperfection of speech, which nonetheless allowed easier dissemination of ideas and stimulated inventions, eventually resulted in the creation of new forms of communications, hence improving both the range at which people could communicate and the longevity of the information.

All of those inventions were based on the key concept of the symbol.

The oldest known symbols created with the purpose of communication through time are the cave paintings, a form of rock art, dating to the Upper Paleolithic.

Just as the small child first learns to draw before it masters more complex forms of communication, so Homo sapiens' first attempts at passing information through time took the form of paintings.

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The oldest known Cave Painting is that of the Chauvet Cave, dating to around 30,000 BC.408 Though not well standardized, those paintings contained increasing amounts of information: Cro-Magnon people may have created the first calendar as far back as 15,000 years ago.409 The connection between drawing and writing is further shown by linguistics: in the Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece the concepts and words of drawing and writing were one and the same (Egyptian: 's-sh', Greek: 'graphein').410 The developmental process to expand a concept thru the centuries may be perceived as new but the social construct thinking is not new by any means because of the fact that all people comprises of body, soul, spirit and mind therefore the pertinent question should be asked “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?� because humans have the capacity to think regardless of their identity.

408 409 410

Paul Martin Lester, Visual Communication with Infotrac: Images with Messages, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, ISBN 0-534-63720-5, Google Print: p.48 according to a claim by Michael Rappenglueck, of the University of Munich (2000) [1] David Diringer, The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental, Courier Dover Publications, 1982, ISBN 0-486-24243-9, Google Print: p.27

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CHAPTER 13 SUGGESTION As a Media Arts Specialist I believe that human beings must continue searching for Facts411 since Facts are the assertions or statement of a thing done or existing; whereas an Assumption is the act of taking for granted, or supposing a thing without proof; for facts instead of just embracing assumptions according to Edita Ruzgyte Ph.D. Your Career in Counseling. In light of Ruzgyte’s admission, I humbly submit that any information that would have been shared by families during the B.C. with their children and who also shared the same with their children all down thru to the A.D. and beyond should be accurate because the annals of history in most instances always reflect what was shared /documented. And it is for these reasons that the people who occupied the B.C space are still communicating with the people in A.D. because of the information that they would have documented/shared.

Therefore, any attempt to answer this question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” or any question for that matter requires research and the examining of facts.

411

Edita Ruzgyte Ph.D. Your Career in Counseling https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/your-career-in-counseling/201110/facts-and-assumptions-what-is-the-differenceand-does-it

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CHAPTER 14 PERSONAL REFLECTIONS I would like to bring this chapter to a close with this quote from Ecclesiastes 1:9 NIV412 which states that What has been will be again, what has been done will be done again; there is nothing new under the sun.�

Here is another quote with this Commentary from Matthew Henry Commentary413 1:9-11 Men's hearts and their corruptions are the same now as in former times; their desires, and pursuits, and complaints, still the same. This should take us from expecting happiness in the creature, and quicken us to seek eternal blessings.

How many things and persons in Solomon's day were thought very great, yet there is no remembrance of them now!

Ecclesiastes 1:9 Commentaries Dr. Joseph R. Nally, Jr., D.D., M.Div. is the Theological Editor at Third Millennium Ministries (IIIM) 414 . Makes the telling point that The Teacher gives another implication of the description of the world in vv. 38a: "What has been will be again." Nothing is new, and nothing gains eternal fame.

412 413 414

http://www.biblestudytools.com/ecclesiastes/1-9.html http://biblehub.com/ecclesiastes/1-9.htm http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/40682

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The Teacher's words are not contradicted by technological advances or by the fact that we can remember the names of famous people such as Homer, Caesar, and Shakespeare. The fundamental events of life (birth, marriage, work, death, etc.) remain unchanged 415 . The desire for something new is the desire for something that alters the nature of life in the world. Cars, computers, and jet airplanes may have made some things easier and faster416. For us, however, as for our ancient predecessors, the sun rises and sets; the rivers run their courses; and people continue their endless quest for fame, power, and happiness even as they move steadily toward death. The vast majority of people never achieves417 lasting fame, while those who do gain nothing by it.

This cultural expression “Is there anything new under the sun?� is classified as Modernity.

The reality Modernity is a term of art used in the humanities and 418

social sciences to designate both a historical period (the modern era), as well as the ensemble of particular socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in post-medieval Europe and have developed since, in various ways and at various times, around the world.

415

http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/40682 http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/40682 http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/40682 418 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity 416 417

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While it includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern warfare), it can also refer to the subjective or existential experience of the conditions they produce, and their ongoing impact on human culture, institutions, and politics (Berman 2010, 15–36). These quotations certainly shed some perspective as well as summarize this text “Is There Anything New Under The Sun”; the same can only be answered by the people of the world whose culture and diaspora is a way of life which has become a narrative.

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CHAPTER 15 CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS

When I examined the entire character of this question 419 I have discovered that it can be categorized as a linguistic expression which can be used to request information because it also behaves somewhat like a recurring decimal in this context.

Therefore this deep thinking question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” is also an interactive invisible construct which has pervaded the B.C.420 cultural landscapes and still permeates the A.D.421 cultural landscapes.

419

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

420 421

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CHAPTER 16 CONCLUSION In this penultimate chapter it must be noted that revolution in knowledge in this twenty-first century is a lived experience.

Such an admission

presumably has drawn enormous attention to the pertinent philosophical quintessential question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” The same seemed to have baffled the populous for decades. Hence I was motivated to rationalize in seventeen chapters an expository that highlights and examines eleven social evolutionary topics namely- Agriculture, Antiquity, Architecture, Culture, Editing, Family Planning, Governance, Immigration, Interpretation, Ownership, Religions, and Tripartite 422 of human beings way of life especially their behavior and their belief during the pre and the post B.C.423 and the A.D.424 period. Further it should be underscored that the aforementioned B.C.425 and the A.D.426 period are critical reference points where these events were staged.

422

https://redeeminggod.com/humans-three-parts-body-soul-spirit/ B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

425 B.C. is an abbreviation for “Before Christ.”

426 A.D. is an abbreviation for “anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.” B.C. and A.D. are commonly used to count years in time. Jesus Christ’s birth is used as a starting point to count years that existed before (B.C.) and after (A.D.) He was born.

423 424

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Ironically, although Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle 427 were among the greatest minds that have lived in Western Civilization yet they believed different things. Conversely, in such a setting, just as human beings are the critical tenets of this investigative discussion; similarly, Clifford Geertz’s 428 thick description theory and Stuart Hall’s Identities429 theory aided the conversation whereby any individual can measure their understanding with empirical support in answering the philosophical question.

The Socratic Method430 merge with historical data created a framework which is factual, theoretical and pragmatic that assists:(a) The author to answer the pertinent question (b) To engage and transport the reader to other realms, (c) To acquiring more knowledge, and by extension increase their vocabulary and (e) Hone their analytical thinking skills.

427

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/ Clifford James Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology, and who was considered "for three decades...the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States." [1] He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz 429 Stuart Hall, ”Introduction:Who Needs Identity Questions of Cultural Identity?”, Stuart Hall and Paul duGay,ed., (London: Sage Publications,1996), 1-17(p.5).

430 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method 428

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As a Media Arts Specialist I must confess that I became very enthralled with this this deep-thinking question to the extent that the more that I wrestle with and analyze the same I have discovered that it appears to be (a) Paradoxical (b) It makes all human beings complicit (c) It does not discriminate but people do because of their identity; and (c) It is a perennial cultural expression Maslow’s theory underscored the fact that people have needs which are interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness; “the hierarchy of needs such as the psychological health is predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization was displayed through the B.C. and the A.D. To this end, such a deep-thinking question namely “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?” was discussed within a broad-mind context, which validated the fact that Aristotle431 Plato, and Socrates also asked deep-thinking questions too.

Therefore to ignore this glaring fact in my view may be considered as hubris.

431

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/122533-philosophy-of-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/

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In light of such reasoning I was motivated as a Media Arts Specialist to address such a deep-thinking question “Is There Anything New Under The Sun?� .

William Anderson Gittens Media Arts Specialist 978-976-95731-2-3

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CHAPTER 17 ACTIVITIES 1. Define the following words listed below– cultural expression soliloquy; discriminate paradoxical, complicit;

2. Write a paragraph on any the words previously defined concerning an event that you would have experienced.

3. Now compare and contrast your experience with another person’s experience that occurred in the B.C. or A.D. so as to determine if “There Is Anything New Under The Sun?”

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR WILLIAM ANDERSON GITTENS IDEAOLOGOY Developing and growing in the context of excellence, professionalism and quality in Multimedia Services is what we do best.

Marital Status Married

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Children Lisa Gittens and Laron Gittens 2015 CEO/Managing Director Consultant Devgro Media Arts Services EDUCATION: 2004-2006 Pursued studies in Post Masters Works in Cultural Studies at the University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus 2002 Management Course BIMAP 1995 Bachelors of Arts in Media Arts Jersey City State Universityspecial concentration pre and postproduction 1992 General Education Diploma (U.S.A.) 1992 Pursued the Diploma Video Production at the Barbados Community College.

1991 Diploma in Communication Arts at the University of the West Indies -the course concentrated primarily upon public speaking; Journalism techniques, Writing and speaking; Audio and video production, and the legal aspect of journalism.

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

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2015 CEO, Managing Director, Consultant, isobl member 12th January 2015, Devgro Media Arts Services was registered in the Register of Business Names under No. 54463 and a Member of Small Business Association # 20912 Devgro Media Arts Services we will develop and grow in what we do best in this Global Space in the context of Excellence, Professionalism and Quality in the production of Multimedia Trailer Presentations for • Anniversaries, • Birthdays, • Conference Planning, • Consultancy Services, • Documentaries, • Funerals, • Graduations, • Publishing and • Weddings,

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July 4-8 2011 Coordinator 47th Caribbean Food Crops Society Conference Managing a budget of BDS. $200.000.00 dollars as well as managing the logistical aspect of the conference, networking information to international delegates, soliciting sponsorship, coordination 12 subcommittees, drafting the president’s speech, Liaising with the following;

the Chief Immigration Officer

requesting the waiving of visas for international delegates from Haiti, Chief Protocol Officer Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade regarding seating of diplomats and specially invited guests. Ministry of Health, requesting information of the countries that will require vaccinations to facilitate their at Conference; CEO at Grantley Adams International Airport Incorporated requesting passes for Liaison Officers and Transportation Officers in facilitating delegates. The Commissioner of Police requesting Police Officers to provide security and to serve on the Protocol Committee for the conference.

Managed a budget of BDS$110,489.91the 21st Conference of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Regional Commission for the Americas held in Barbados November 26-29, 2012 at two hundred and forty-three thousand six hundred dollars (BDS$110,489.91) Barbados dollars; AUTHOR AND PUBLISHER: Page 236 of 252

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October 2000 Author and Publisher of 10 Educational/Historical Children Books 1. Images of Yesteryear in Barbados volume 1 , 2. Images of Yesteryear in Barbados Vol. 2, 3. Building for the Future Vol.1, 4. Colour Me Vol.1, 5. Mise en scene Vol.1, 6. Land Marks Vol.1, 7. Technique Demonstration Vol.1, 8. Established in Barbados Vol.1, 9. Established in Barbados Vol.2, 10. Monuments Vol.1, 11. Focus Vol.1, 12. People Vol.1, 13. People Vol.2, Page 237 of 252

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14. People of Conversation Vol.1, 15. Barbados in Review Vol.1, 16. Have You Considered This Approach? Vol.1, 17. The Children of Immigrants Vol.1, 18. Is There Anything New Under The Sun? Vol.1,

Editor In Chief 1992-1994 -Duties included setting up meetings to discuss tender proposals. With prospective tenders of publishing firms and photography firms for selection. Managed a staff of ten students; managed a budget of $35,000.00 to $50,000.00 in U.S. currency pages, laying out pages press ready.

Taking photographs of students and activities on campus 1992- 1994 -Member of the Judicial Committee Jersey City State University Duties included listening to student's complaints that contravened the institutions 'regulations.

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1990 ~ 1991 Seconded to the Faculty of Education, University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus. Duties included preparing workshops for CARNEID and UNESCO. Teaching graphic arts, video and still photography to teachers in the Dip Ed Programme and Masters programme Graphic Artist1990 -1991 Technical AssistantAudio Visual Aids Department Duties-processing black and white, colour film and Transparencies slide, graphic arts and illustrations.

1983-1988 1 Official Composite Artists of the Royal Barbados Police Force Duties included -sketching composites of suspects, stolen items jewelry from written information, Intelligence unit, Crime prevention Unit and Special branch 1989 –2005 Freelance Photojournalist –Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation Duties - field assignments, live broadcast, and shell umbra cup football Jazz festival, Arial photography

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Calligraphy Justices of the Peace Certificates for the Government of Barbados Cabinet Office 1978-1979 Supervisor at Barbados Knitting and Spinning 1972-2015 Member of the Barbados Regiment and the Barbados Boys Scouts Association HONORS AND AWARDS ➢ Inducted in the Hall of Professionals of St.Giles Primary ➢ Recipient of the 12th International Prestigious Scout Award Arco Italy ➢ Presented to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of England for outstanding contributions in the field of art. ➢ Presented to His Excellency Governor General Sir Hugh Springer ➢ for outstanding contributions in the field of art and Scouting in Barbados.

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➢ Received Special accreditation from Hackney England International ➢ Art Exhibition. ➢ Designer of postage stamps commemorating 60 years of scouting in Barbados ➢ 2016- Received Participation Certificate The 50th Anniversary of Independence of Barbados National Monument Committee

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