White House History Quarterly 64 - Queen Elizabeth II - Shogan by White House Historical Association

Please note that the following is a digitized version of a selected article from White House History Quarterly, Issue 64, originally released in print form in 2022. Single print copies of the full issue can be purchased online at Shop.WhiteHouseHistory.org No part of this book may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All photographs contained in this journal unless otherwise noted are copyrighted by the White House Historical Association and may not be reproduced without permission. Requests for reprint permissions should be directed to rights@whha.org. Contact books@whha.org for more information. © 2022 White House Historical Association. All rights reserved under international copyright conventions.

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Raising Glasses TO FRIENDSHIP Between Two Nations The Rhetoric of Soft Diplomacy Evolves as the President of the United States and Queen Elizabeth II Exchange Toasts OPPOSITE: GETTY IMAGES ABOVE: GERALD R. FORD PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY

co lleen j. s h o g an

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a state visit is the pinnacle of diplomacy provided to a foreign country and its head of government or chief public representative. State Visits consist of bilateral meetings, opportunities for socializing and recreation, and, oftentimes, an official State Dinner. It is customary for the president of the United States to give a toast to the head of state representing the visiting nation during a State Dinner. Likewise, the visiting foreign leader gives a toast in response. The long reign of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom provides an opportunity to assess presidential toasts over time. Five State Dinners were held in her honor in the United States, during the administrations of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1957), Gerald Ford (1976), Ronald Reagan (1983), George H. W. Bush (1991), and George W. Bush (2007).1 Given that the same individual, notably Queen Elizabeth II, was honored during each of these State Dinners, these toasts enable a unique longitudinal examination of the bilateral relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. A close reading of the five toasts, including Queen Elizabeth II’s replies, highlights the constancy of the diplomatic connection between the two countries and its evolution over five decades.

STATE DINNERS, FORMAL TOASTS The tradition of a State Dinner honoring a foreign leader began with Ulysses S. Grant, when he hosted King David Kalakaua of the Kingdom of Hawai’i, now known as Hawaii, on December 22, 1874.2 State Dinners continued with increasing frequency throughout most of the twentieth century, particularly after World War II, but in the last twenty-five years the number has declined. The height occurred during the presidencies of Dwight Eisenhower, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan. During the 1990s, Bill Clinton hosted fewer State Dinners than his immediate predecessors, with George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and Donald Trump accelerating the reduction. One reason for the decrease might be the end of the Cold War, which led to substantial changes in the geopolitical relationship of the United States with other countries.3 Furthermore, with the advent of social media, State Dinners are viewed by some as an antiquated, expensive way of showcasing American hospitality and diplomatic relationships with foreign leaders.4 Finally, the recent COVID-19 pandemic halted large, in-person

gatherings at the White House. The preparation time for a State Dinner is at least six months, involving the Department of State, the Office of the First Lady, the chief usher, and the White House social secretary. Menus must be planned, invites carefully curated, and all aspects of foreign diplomacy and protocol briefed and understood.5 The State Dining Room in the White House can seat approximately 120 guests. Round tables are sometimes used, and the president is seated with the foreign head of state.6 The president stands and provides the first toast, and then the visiting head of state replies, also when standing. Not surprisingly, the toast is an important component of a State Dinner requiring considerable attention from a diplomatic perspective. It is unclear when the tradition of toasting began, but ancient Hebrews, Persians, and Egyptians engaged in the custom, as well as the Saxons and Huns. Early Greeks toasted to their gods, while, later on, the Roman Senate required that all formal dinners include a toast to Augustus.7 The term “toast” did not come into existence until the seventeenth century, when it was customary to place a toasted piece of bread in a drink to enhance flavor. In the early years of the United States, dinners or celebrations included thirteen toasts, one for each of the original colonies.8 The “golden age” of toasting in America occurred during the late nineteenth century. The toasts of elected officials and prominent hosts were often scrutinized; books and magazine articles offered toasting tips. After Prohibition ended, toasting returned, now in its modern format as practiced during formal events at the White House.9 Although not much has been written about State Dinner toasts, diplomacy can be characterized as “a profession of words—written and spoken.”10 Certainly, the exchange of toasts between a president and a foreign leader is a “high point” of any State Dinner.11 When the president of the United States gives a toast at a State Dinner, he engages in the executive role of “chief diplomat.” A State Dinner is a formal, ceremonial occasion. Consequently, the type of speech given at such an event has been described by the communications scholar Michelle Murray Yang as “epideictic diplomatic rhetoric.”12 This means that the speaker, in this case the president, must blend the restrictive demands of ceremony while furthering the agenda of American foreign policy. The term “epideictic” refers to one of

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Queen Elizabeth II often used humor in the toasts she delivered at the White House. At the State Dinner in her honor, July 7, 1976, her reference to the British burning the White House in 1814 drew laughter from President Gerald R. Ford.

NATIONAL ARCHIV ES AND R EC OR DS ADMINISTRATION

President George W. Bush exchanges the traditional toasts with Queen Elizabeth II during a State Dinner in her honor, May 7, 2007. They are seen standing beneath the portrait of President Abraham Lincoln. Seated at the round tables usually used for State Dinners, approximately 120 guests are raising their glasses to the queen.

the three types of rhetoric described by Aristotle; it is the category of speech associated with formal occasions, commemorations, ceremonies, or celebrations. In epideictic diplomatic rhetoric, remarks are constrained by the formal event at hand, but the substance of the speech is deliberative in nature. Protocol demands that for such an occasion, says Yang, the speaker must “mention friendship between the two peoples, improved relations, and toast all who are present.”13 However, such speeches are not without substance or effect. State Dinner remarks are reviewed intensely by both speechwriters and foreign policy experts.14 Toasts at events such as a State Dinner are “public rhetorical enactments” of private diplomacy.15 Nevertheless, such statements must be concise. Since the 1980s, the State Department’s Office of Protocol has recommended that State Dinner toasts should not exceed three minutes.16

TOASTING THE QUEEN A close reading of the five presidential toasts made in honor of Queen Elizabeth II reveals several repeated themes. The toasts include the following five elements: historical origins, war, shared values, commitment to the Atlantic alliance, and a promise for an enduring bond. There is a remarkable

consistency among the speeches despite the fifty years spanning the date of the first speech (1957) to the last one (2007). First, the toasts emphasize the communal history between the United States and Great Britain. President Dwight Eisenhower stated that the queen’s visit to Virginia to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown was fitting because it was “the first colony that Britain established on these shores.”17 President Gerald Ford noted that America’s Founding Fathers “served in British colonial legislatures, fought in British military forces, and learned representative self-government from British books and practice.” Speaking in San Francisco, President Ronald Reagan highlighted the fact that Sir Francis Drake was “one of the first titled tourists to visit this area.” President George H. W. Bush also went back in time, citing a shared history that “for nearly 400 years has been America’s inheritance and England’s bequest.” Similar to his father, President George W. Bush cited the 400th anniversary of Jamestown as a signicant point shared history when he hosted Queen Elizabeth II at the White House on May 7, 2007. Second, the speeches mention foreign conflicts and war, emphasizing the strategic alliance between the United States and Great Britain. Over

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the course of several paragraphs in his toast, President Eisenhower talked about the “two great wars” in which American and British sons “marched side by side.” President Reagan observed that in recent history, the two nations have seen “continued war, terrorism, and human oppression,” but the strength of the alliance means “we will find the strength to meet these dangers and face these challenges.” President George H. W. Bush compared the 1991 cooperation between U.S. and British forces in the Persian Gulf conflict to previous military engagements, stating that it “harkened back to our joint military endeavors of two World Wars.” Third, the toasts describe the political culture shared by the two nations. In particular, freedom was frequently mentioned as an important shared value. President Ford spoke about a “continuing, unswerving devotion to the principles that have made our two countries champions of freedom.” President Reagan highlighted the shared ideals and vision of free men inspired by John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, John Stuart Mill, and Abraham Lincoln. President Bush described the shared heritage distinctly: “Our alliance is rooted in the beliefs that we share. We recognize that every individual has dignity and matchless value.” Fourth, the speeches consistently underscore the continued importance and evolving scope of the Atlantic alliance forged by the United States and Great Britain during and after World War II. President Eisenhower argued that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) “should not be thought of merely as a military alliance” but as “a way of grouping ability—of our manhood, our resources, of our industries and our factories.” President Ford highlighted the preservation of freedom and common defense in the Atlantic alliance, thus ensuring peace and “greater global stability.” President Reagan discussed the Atlantic Charter signed by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1941. President George W. Bush mentioned the strength of the Atlantic alliance in reference to the ongoing global war on terror, specifically stating that the two countries were currently “supporting young democracies in Iraq and Afghanistan.” Lastly, each of the presidential toasts emphasize that the bond between the two countries is enduring. President Eisenhower stated that his “faith in the future of these two great countries . . . is

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absolutely unimpeachable.” In America’s “third century,” President Ford concluded, “the United Kingdom will be on our side and the United States will be on your side.” President George H. W. Bush predicted that the bonds connecting the two nations “will endure until the end of time.” Likewise, President George W. Bush stated, “We’re confident that Anglo-American friendship will endure for centuries to come.”

TOASTS TO THE PRESIDENT At each State Dinner, Queen Elizabeth II also provided a toast after the president spoke. Themes in her short speeches resembled those described above. To no surprise, she consistently emphasized the lasting nature of the relationship between the two countries. Queen Elizabeth II also discussed the shared history between the United States and Great Britain, incorporating references most frequently about the American Revolution and World War II. In her first toast in 1957, Queen Elizabeth II spoke about the role of technology as a unifying force, stating that “we are at a beginning of a new age of discovery and exploration in the world of human knowledge and technology.”18 Furthermore, the queen’s toasts included two additional noteworthy elements. First, she frequently mentioned her father’s visit to the United States in 1939. King George VI was the first reigning British monarch to travel to the United States, and he spent considerable time with President Franklin Roosevelt discussing the impending war 18 in Europe.19 For example, at the 1991 State Dinner, the she explained, queen explained, “It was Mrs. “It was Roosevelt Mrs. Roosevelt who wrote who in 1939, wroteafter in 1939, the long after talks thebetween long talks my father between and the my President father and about the President the world about crisis, the world that incrisis, times that of danger in timessomething of danger deeper something comes deeper to thecomes surface, toand the the surface, British andand thewe British standand together we stand with together confidence with confidence in our common in our heritage common and heritage ideas.” Second, and ideas.” Queen SecElizabeth ond, Queen II’sElizabeth toasts often II’sincluded toasts often humor. included In fact, humor. in everyInspeech fact, inexcept every speech her first except toasther in first 1957,toast the queen’s in 1957,remarks the queen’s drew remarks laughterdrew fromlaughter the audience. from Many the audience. of her humorous Many of comments her humorous highlighted comments the highlighted unique history theshared uniquebyhistory the two shared nations. by the In 1976, two nations. referringIn to1976, the British referring burning to theofBritish the White burning House of in the1814, White sheHouse quipped, in 1814, “Mr. she President, quipped, history “Mr. is Presinot dent, a fairyhistory tale. Despite is not agood fairyintentions, tale. Despite hostility good intensoon broke tions, hostility out between soonus—and broke out even between burst into us—and this even houseburst (Laughter). into this Buthouse these(Laughter). early quarrels But arethese long early buried.” quarrels are long buried.”

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THE WHITE HOUSE, OCTOBER 17, 1957, STATE DINNER TOAST, (selected text) The President Your Majesty, Your Royal Highness, My Friends: There have been a few times in my life when I have wished that the gift of eloquence might have been conferred upon me. This evening is one of those times. More than this, I know that each guest at this table fervently would pray that I could have had that gift, because through me each of us would like to say what we know is in America’s heart: Welcome to our distinguished royal couple that have come to us to this country, making their first visit in the old commonwealth of Virginia. Very fittingly they have done so. There was the first colony that Britain established on these shores, and there were established those ties, that commingling of customs and of practices and a way of life that became so much one that when we finally became independent it was difficult to tell where one custom left off and another began. And through the succeeding century Britain was a great influence in the world, a great influence for peace. Wherever her flag was shown there people felt that justice could prevail. And then there came two great wars, and in those wars Britain’s sons and ours marched side by side with a courage that matched that of those settlers that came here in the lone wilderness. . . . In those wars the courage of England again was as fully manifested. . . . Those great days are not over. The free world is engaged in a great struggle. . . . This is a struggle of ideologies, of a religious way of life against atheism, of freedom against dictatorship.

ALAMY

But we have the power. The only thing to do is to put it together. . . . And before I ask you to rise with me, I want to make a Toast to the Queen, I want again to say that my faith in the future of these two great countries and the whole Commonwealth of the British nations, indeed of the whole free world,

Queen Elizabeth II poses at the foot of the Grand Staircase in the White House Entrance Hall for photographs with President Dwight D. Eisenhower ahead of the State Dinner in her honor, October 17, 1957.

is absolutely unimpeachable. I know we can do it. Ladies and gentlemen, will you please rise with me and drink a Toast to the Queen. The Queen Mr. President: May I express our thanks for the generosity of your words of welcome and the gracious way in which we have been received.

The Jamestown Festival commemorates an age of discovery and exploration in which Europeans set out to start a new life and find new frontiers. It may be, Mr. President that in terms of geography that age is over and there are now no “new worlds” left to be explored and developed. But surely there are many indications today that we are at the beginning of a new age of discovery and exploration in the world of human knowledge and technology. . . .

I am most grateful to you for the kind invitation to visit the United States at a time when so many are celebrating the 350th anniversary of the first English speaking settlement in North America.

Your forefathers found, as we are finding today that new discoveries bring with them new problems as well as new opportunities. . . . Their example can help us to build another “new world” of which our children and descendants will speak proudly 350 years from now. . . .

In Virginia, I was reminded of the early beginnings of the United States and of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Here in Washington, so often a focus for the aspirations of the free world, our thoughts turn naturally to the future.

In commending this toast, I pray that the ancient ties of friendship between the people of the United States and of my peoples may long endure, and I wish you, Mr. President, every possible health and happiness.

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United Kingdom will be on our side and the United States will be on your side. . . . Your Royal Highness, ladies and gentlemen—the Queen.

!1 The Queen Mr. President, thank you for your welcome and for your gracious words tonight. We are deeply grateful for having been invited to visit the United States in the main week of your Bicentenary. It was a generous gesture and apposite. After all, nobody can say that what happened on the Fourth of July, 1776, was not very much a bilateral affair between us. . . . Two hundred years ago this week, America declared its independence from Britain, and for several years the English-speaking world was at war with itself, and families on both sides of the ocean were deeply divided.

THE WHITE HOUSE, JULY 7, 1976 STATE DINNER TOAST (selected text) The President Your Majesty, Your Royal Highness, distinguished guests: We are deeply honored to have you, and Prince Philip with you, this evening. On behalf of all Americans, Mrs. Ford and I take the greatest pleasure in extending the hospitality of the United States to you and your party who are visiting us. Your Majesty, this evening we honor a very remarkable relationship between two sovereign nations. During our 200 years as an independent nation, the United States has never forgotten its British heritage. Nearly four centuries ago, the British came to a wilderness and built a new civilization on British custom, British fortitude, British law, and British government. Our Founding Fathers served in British colonial legislatures, fought in British

military forces, and learned representative self-government from British books and practice. Yet, for all this, the colonists from England and other lands created in America a civilization different from that of the mother country. You will recognize in the American people a continuing, unswerving devotion to the principles that have made our two countries champions of freedom and a new American spirit of confidence and optimism as the United States enters its third century. . . . Our two nations today are working side-by-side in preserving freedom through commitment to a common defense in the Atlantic alliance, in pursuing peace and greater global stability. . . . In a changing world, our continuing relationship is a reassuring symbol of our determination to continue the defense of freedom. . . . In our third century, I know that the white house history quarterly

In the summer of 1785, John Adams, America’s first envoy to the Court of St. James, paid his first call on King George III. My ancestor said to him, in wellknown words which are worth repeating, “I was the last man in the Kingdom to consent to the separation, but the separation having been made, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power.” Mr. President, history is not a fairy tale. Despite the good intentions, hostility soon broke out between us—and even burst into this house. But these early quarrels are long buried. What is more important is that our shared language, traditions, and history have given us a common vision of what is right and just. . . . Mr. President, I raise my glass to you and to Mrs. Ford, to the 200th birthday of America, and to the happiness of her staunch and generous people.

GERALD R. FORD PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY

Queen Elizabeth II and President Gerald R. Ford tap their glasses while sharing a toast during the State Dinner in celebration of America’s Bicentennial, July 7, 1976.

So, too, was the British Parliament, whose greatest orators of the time denounced the measures which provoked the war and the separation. But when Britain eventually recognized the independence of the United States of America, a new chapter in history opened.

THE M. H. DE YOUNG MEMORIAL MUSEUM, MARCH 3, 1983 STATE DINNER TOAST (selected text) The President Your Majesty, Your Royal Highness, ladies and gentlemen: Your Majesty, I welcome you this evening on behalf of the American people and, in particular, on behalf of the people of my home State of California. . . . In August of 1941, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill set down in the Atlantic Charter their hope “to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries and which will afford assurance that all the men in all the lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want.” And almost four years later in this city, America, Britain, and forty-four other nations formed the United Nations organization as a means of putting those great principles of the Atlantic Charter into practice. Unhappily, subsequent events have continued to put our values and our ideas to the test. We have seen continued war, terrorism, and human oppression in too many quarters of the globe. . . .

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We will find the strength to meet these dangers and face these challenges because it beats within the hearts of free societies and free men. . . . And ladies and gentleman, happily and conscious of the honor that is ours tonight, I ask you to join me in a toast to Her Majesty the Queen. To the Queen

!1 The Queen Mr. President, thank you for the very kind things you have said tonight. . . . Now, we have had the memorable experience of visiting you in your home State of California and of seeing your ranch at Santa Barbara. I knew before we came that we had exported many of our traditions to the United States. But I had not realized before that weather was one of them. . . .

President Ronald Reagan laughs as Queen Elizabeth II jokes about the rainy California weather during her toast to him during the State Dinner in her honor, March 3, 1983.

Prince Philip and I made a memorable visit to your country in 1976 to share with so many Americans in the celebration of your bicentenary; 1983 marks another bicentenary—the signing of the Treaty of Paris, formally bringing the War of Independence to an end. Two years before that, British troops had marched to surrender at Yorktown to the tune of “The World Turned Upside Down.” So it must have seemed to be at that time. But what would our world, 200 years later, be like if theirs had not been turned upside down? Since then, the hand of friendship has reached out from your shores and ours at critical periods in our history to ensure not just our own survival but the survival of freedom itself. . . . By far the most important idea which we share is our belief in freedom. . . . It is an idea whose power is such that some men will go to as great lengths to suppress it as others will to keep it alive,

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as our two countries have fought to keep it alive. . . . We have had a visit which has been spectacular and has fulfilled a long-standing ambition on my part to visit California on the west coast. What better time than when the President is a Californian? . . . From time to time, friendships must be publicly reaffirmed. My visit has given me the opportunity to reaffirm the ideals which we share and the affection that exists between our people—without which the formalities of alliance would be meaningless, but from the certainty of which our two countries continue to draw strength. Mr. President, I raise my glass to you and to Mrs. Reagan, to the friendship between our two countries, to the people of California, and to the people of the United States.

THE WHITE HOUSE, MAY 14, 1991 STATE DINNER TOAST (selected text) The President Your Majesty and Your Royal Highness, ladies and gentlemen, let me welcome you to the White House, to a dinner to salute the relationship between America and Great Britain which has perhaps never been more special. We’ve got a lot of things in common. Americans share the Queen’s love of horses. And I often wonder if I’d be standing here today if it weren’t for a horse fancier named Paul Revere. Most of all, what links our countries is less a place than an idea—the idea that for nearly 400 years has been America’s inheritance and England’s bequest. The legacy of democracy, the rule of law, and basic human rights. Recently, this legacy helped our nations join forces to liberate Kuwait. . . . Our military cooperation in the Gulf hearkened back to our joint military endeavors of two World Wars, and four decades of peacetime alliance. And yet it forms just one part of this the remarkable British-American friendship. . . .

of welcome. . . . This is now the fourth time I have had the honor of proposing a toast to the President of the United States in the very place where my father once proposed a toast to President Roosevelt. No wonder I cannot feel a stranger here. The British have never felt America to be a foreign land. Here we feel comfortable and among friends. This is not entire one sided. It was Mrs. Roosevelt who wrote in 1939, after the long talks between my father and the President about the world crisis, that in times of danger something deeper comes to the surface, and the British and we stand together with confidence in our common heritage and ideas. This visit . . . is, therefore, an occasion to reaffirm what has sometimes been called the special relationship between our two nations. The path of this friendship has

not always been smooth. But at a time of unusual tension between us, my great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria noted in her diary shortly before she died that the disputes and disagreements between us are really entirely superficial. I am convinced that this is still true today. . . . While much has changed since those days, events still demand that our two countries use their mutual understanding to work together with our allies and partners towards a world in which more people and more nations can live in freedom with confidence in the rule of law. . . . Mr. President, I raise my glass to you and Mrs. Bush; to the friendship of our two nations; and to the health, prosperity, and happiness of all the people of the United States of America.

Your Majesty, you have touched the heart of this nation many times—and in our bicentennial year; and then visiting our shores in 1983, the 200th anniversary of the Treaty of Paris; and then again in 1989. I know I speak for the American people when I express the belief that the bonds which connect our nation and yours—bonds of history, principle, interest, and affection—will endure until the end of time.

!1 The Queen Mr. President, I must first thank you for your characteristically generous words

Queen Elizabeth II pauses at the North Door of the White House for photographs with President George H. W. Bush ahead of the State Dinner in her honor, May 14, 1991.

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In that spirit and conscious of the real honor that is ours tonight, I ask you to rise and join me in a toast: To the liberty we share; to the liberty we seek to keep; to the ties which bind America and Great Britain, the ties which make us one; and to the health of our friend, a true liegeman of democracy, Her Majesty the Queen.

THE WHITE HOUSE, MAY 7, 2007 STATE DINNER TOAST (selected text) The President Your Majesty, and Your Royal Highness, distinguished guests, Laura and I offer you a warm welcome to the White House. We’re really glad you’re here. Tonight is the fourth state dinner held in Your Majesty’s honor here at the White House. On previous such occasions, you’ve been welcomed by President Eisenhower, President Ford, and another President named Bush. (Laughter.) Over your long reign, America and Britain have deepened our friendship and strengthened our alliance. Our alliance is rooted in the beliefs that we share. We recognize that every individual has dignity and matchless value. We believe that the most effective governments are those that hold themselves accountable to their people. And we know that the advance of freedom is the best hope for lasting peace in our world. Based on our common values, our two nations are working together for the common good. Together we are supporting young democracies in Iraq and Afghanistan. Together we’re confronting global challenges such as poverty and disease and terrorism. And together we’re working to build a world in which more people can enjoy prosperity and security and peace.

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Friendships remain strong when they are continually renewed, and the American people appreciate Your Majesty’s commitment to our friendship. We thank you for helping us celebrate the 400th anniversary of the Jamestown settlement. We’re confident that Anglo-American friendship will endure for centuries to come. So, on behalf of the American people, I offer a toast to Your Majesty, to Your Royal Highness, and to our staunch allies, the valiant people of the United Kingdom.

Queen Elizabeth II exchanges toasts with President George W. Bush as the State Dinner in her honor begins, May 7, 2007.

The Queen Mr. President, thank you again for your warm words of welcome. . . . It is now 16 years since my last visit to Washington. In 1991, most of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe were just emerging from behind the Iron Curtain. Their people were rejoicing in the opportunities presented by their newfound freedom. At the time, your father, President Bush, saw the potential for what he called, a Europe whole and free. It is never easy to give royal form to such hopes and aspirations. But here, in 2007, those aspirations have, for the most part, been fulfilled. NATO and the European Union opened their doors to friends across the continent, and both institutions have grown to encompass the great majority of countries in Europe. . . . I grew up in the knowledge that the very survival of Britain was bound up in that vital wartime alliance forged by Winston Churchill and President Roosevelt. On my first visit to

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Washington in 1951, your predecessor, President Truman, welcomed me to the White House, and it was his administration which reached out to Europe through the Marshall Plan to help our tired and battered continent lift itself from the ruins of a second world war. In the years that followed, successive administrations here in Washington committed themselves to the defense of Europe, as we learned to live with the awesome responsibilities of the nuclear age. Administrations in your country, and governments in mine, may come and go. But talk we will; listen we have to; disagree from time to time we may; but united we must always remain. Mr. President, I raise my glass to you and to Mrs. Bush, to the friendship between our two countries, and to the health, freedom, prosperity, and happiness of the people of the United States of America.

and a foreign country. Queen Elizabeth II’s long reign presents a unique opportunity for analysis. Since she participated in an unparalleled five State Dinners in the United States, it is possible to trace the evolution of toasts in her honor, thus revealing the most critical and enduring aspects of the British-American friendship and strategic alliance. NOTES Matthew Costello and Lina Mann provided helpful feedback on this article prior to publication. 1.

All of these State Dinners were held at the White House except for the Reagan State Dinner in 1983, which was held at the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum in San Francisco, California.

During a State Banquet at Buckingham Palace, President Barack Obama inadvertently prompted the band to play “God Save the Queen,” thus much of his toast to Queen Elizabeth II could not be heard, May 24, 2011.

2. “Notable State Dinners at the White House,” White House Historical Association website, www.whitehousehistory.org. 3. Kate Bennett and Christopher Hickey, “How a Canceled State Dinner Highlights a Fading White House Tradition,” posted April 22, 2020, CNN Politics website, www.cnn.com. 4. Sandra Shim, Michael Lomio, Hannah Flom, and Julia Laurence,

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When Queen Elizabeth hosts a state banquet in honor of a visiting head of state, such as the president of the United States, she speaks first and proposes a toast. Then, the visiting head of state replies and proposes a toast to Her Majesty.19 The protocol for a state banquet in the United Kingdom is intense and specific. In 2011, President Obama made a slight error. Halfway through his toast, he said the words: “and to Her Majesty, the Queen.” When those words are spoken aloud in the United Kingdom, it signals to the band to play “God Save the Queen.” President Obama was forced to finish his speech during the song, which largely drowned out the remaining part of his toast.20 The toasts given at State Dinners can be overlooked as traditionalist rhetoric filled with platitudes. However, toasts are a public display of the diplomatic relationship between the United States

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Queen Elizabeth Queen Elizabeth II II stands to stands to deliver deliver a a toast to toast to her her guest, guest, President Donald President Donald J. J. Trump, during Trump, during a a State Banquet State Banquet at at Buckingham Buckingham Palace, June Palace, June 3, 3, 2019. 2019.

“A Look Back at White House State Dinners,” posted September 24, 2015, White House Blog, https://obamawhitehouse.archives. gov. Protocol: The 5. Capricia Penavic Marshall, Protocol: The Power Power of of Diplomacy Diplomacy and How How to and to Make Make It It Work Work For For You You (New (New York: York: HarperCollins, HarperCollins, 2020), 75. Marshall’s entire book emphasizes the importance of early preparation for international engagements and State Visits. 6. Betty Monkman, “The White House State Dinner,” White House Association website. Historical Association, White House Historical Association website. 7. Paul Dickson, “A Brief History of Raised Glasses,” Toasts website,

http://toastsbook.com. 7. Paul Dickson, “A Brief History of Raised Glasses,” Toasts website, http://toastsbook.com. 8. Reema Khrais, “Why We Toast: Uncorking a New Year’s Tradition,” posted December 31,Uncorking 2012, National Public 8. Reema Khrais, “Why We Toast: a New Year’sRadio website, www.npr.org. Tradition,” posted December 31, 2012, National Public Radio website, www.npr.org. 9. Frederick J. Ryan, Jr., Wine and the White House: A History (Washington, D.C.:Jr., White Historical Association, 2020), 9. Frederick J. Ryan, WineHouse and the White House: A History 236. (Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association, 2020), 10. 236. Ben Limb, “Speech: The Life of a Diplomat,” Quarterly Journal

Speech 43“Speech: (1957): 57. 10. of Ben Limb, The Life of a Diplomat,” Quarterly Journal Speech 43and (1957): 57. 11. of Ryan, Wine the White House, 235. 11. Wine and the White House, 235. 12. Ryan, Michelle Murray Yang, “President Nixon’s Speeches and Toasts During His 1972 Trip China,” Rhetoric Publicand Affairs 14 12. Michelle Murray Yang,to“President Nixon’sand Speeches Toasts (2011): 5. During His 1972 Trip to China,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 14

13. Ibid., (2011): 6.5. 14. 13. Ibid., 7-8. 6. 15. 14. Ibid., 33. 7-8. 16. Wine and the White House, 237. 15. Ryan, Ibid., 33. 17. This toast byand Dwight D. Eisenhower and all the president’s’ 16. Ryan, Wine the White House, 237. toaststoast subsequently and presented sidebars are given 17. This by Dwightquoted D. Eisenhower and allinthe presidents’ toasts in full on the American Presidency website, subsequently quoted and presentedProject in sidebars are www. given in full presidency.ucsb.edu. The queen’s toasts in 1976, 1983, and 1991 on the American Presidency Project website, www.presidency. are also given this website. toast in 1957 is given ucsb.edu. Theon queen’s toasts inHer 1976, 1983, and 1991 arein also “Queen Elizabeth II Visits United States,” Department of State given on this website. Herthe toast in 2007 is given in “President Bulletin 37, pt. 2,Toasts no. 954 (November 11, 1957): HerII,” Bush Exchanges with Her Majesty Queen743–44. Elizabeth toast in 2007 May is given in “President Bush Exchanges Toasts with press release, 7, 2007, The White House: President George HerBush Majesty Queen Elizabeth II,” press release, May 7, 2007, The W. website, www.georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. White House: President George W. Bush website, www. 18. Quoted in Joseph R. L. Stern, “Macmillan, Eisenhower To Confer georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. in Washington; President Toasts Queen, Asks Allies To Pull 18. “The British Royal Sun, Visit,October June 7–12, Might,” Baltimore 18, 1939,” 1957, 1.Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum website, www.fdrlibrary.org. 19. “The British Royal Visit, June 7–12, 1939,” Franklin D. Roosevelt 19. “State Visits,”Library The Royal website, www.royal.uk. Presidential andFamily Museum website, www.fdrlibrary.org. 20. Protocol, 219–20. 20. Marshall, “State Visits,” The Royal Family website, www.royal.uk. 21. Marshall, Protocol, 219-220.

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