FORM FOLLOWS THE DEPARTMENT STORE Wiktoria Kijowska
CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
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TRANSFORMED SHOPPING EXPERIENCE
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Fixed prices
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Unlimited browsing
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Leisure pastime
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Window displays
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CLASS DIVISION
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Open to all
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WOMEN
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Women public toilets
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Créche
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Advertising
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Design of the shop
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Employment
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Problems
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CONCLUSION
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REFERENCES
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FIGURES LIST
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ABSTRACT
This visual essay of ‘form follows the department store’ focuses on how the development of department stores impacted the form of design seen within stores. Window displays, fixed prices and beauty departments are some of the new forms that are mentioned within this essay. Also considered are the wider social impacts; both positive and negative of these new forms and the impact that they had on the shopping experience, class division and women. What some might think is an ordinary store, has influenced the way we live. Department stores created a more luxurious style of retailing and enabled people of all classes to experience it.
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Figure 1: Department store facade in the Louvre in Paris, decorated for the 1918 victory celebrations
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INTRODUCTION The rise of department stores started to happen from around the middle of 18th century however, the first department store has been created in 1792 in London. It was the Harding, Howell and Co’s Grand Fashionable Magazine and it only had 4 departments (Glancey, No date). To compare, in 1880s a department store had an average of 15 departments which then grew to 100-125 by 1910 (Whitaker, 2011). Along with the development of the department stores came the development of forms as well as inventions of new ones. Most of the department stores adopted the aesthetics of the Great Exhibition held in Crystal Palace in 1851. The things found within it, had a big impact on “department stores’ “Department store, a novel social strategies of aesthetic destination” juxtaposition” (Li, 2018). Li, 2018 For example, by having objects of the same category in glass cases, they introduced a new way of viewing. In addition, the grand spaces of the department stores which included food courts and florists allowed “customers, or even, non- customers to mingle and spend time at the department store, a novel social destination” (Li, 2018). The invention of forms such as window displays, women public toilets and fixed prices transformed the image as well as the experience of shopping. From being a necessity, it became a form of entertainment; a leisure pastime. Within this essay topic such as these, along with many others will be discussed and supported by visual as well as textual evidence.
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Figure 2:Oak Hall, Wanamaker & Brown (1866)
Figure 3: Trade card from Wanamaker & Brown, also known as Oak Hall in Philadelphia
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Figure 4: Goods being showcased at the Great Exhibition in 1851
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TRANSFORMED SHOPPING EXPERIENCE fixed prices What now is considered a normal shopping experience and part of our everyday lives wasn’t the same back in the 19th century. Up until 1830s shops tended to be highly specialised and even with the rapid growth of indoor markets fixed prices did not exist. People had to negotiate the price which they often didn’t want to do. In 1861, John “If everyone was equal before God, Wanamaker put the then everyone should be equal first fixed price at the before price” Oak Hall department Wanamker, 1861 store. Wanamaker, being a devoted Christian, stated that “if everyone was equal before God, then everyone should be equal before price” (Roemmele, 2011). The clearly marked prices seen in figure 5 meant that no matter what class someone came from they would pay the same price. Before this invention, people of higher classes sometimes were charged more and therefore the idea of equality was not considered. The fixed price system also helped people with budgeting and they no longer had to negotiate.
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Figure 5: A still from ‘Mr Selfridge’ TV series (2013)
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unlimited browsing Another invention that was created within the department stores to help free the customer, was the idea of unlimited browsing. Modern shopping is based on this idea; however, people didn’t always have this freedom. Before late 19th and early 20th century, browsing was not allowed as Harry Gordon Selfridge found out during his trip to London in 1888. The sales assistant told him “Then ‘op it, mate!” (Harford, 2017) because he was just looking. A floor walker walked through the aisles and had to deal with potential time wasters which included anyone that was just browsing. The idea of the floorwalker within department stores has been used in the 1916 silent comedy film ‘The Floorwalker’ with Charlie Chaplin (figures 6 and 7). There, the floorwalker is one of the main characters, where he is the one trying to rob the store together with the store’s manager. This story could potentially be mocking the role of the floorwalker as it portrays him as the one wasting (in this case stealing) money from the department store.
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Figure 6: Theaterical poster for ‘The Floorwalker’ (1916)
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Figure 7: A still from ‘The Floorwalker’ silent film (1916)
The development of the browsing experience within the department stores also influenced the form of posters created for and about the department stores. Many posters had clearly visible titles reading sentences such as ‘Visitor’s Day is every day at Selfridge’s’ and detailed drawings to ensure that this idea of not having to buy anything was clear. In figure 8 a group of upper class ladies can be seen wondering about the store without any purchases made showing that even those with a substantial amount of cash did not always buy things. A similar idea “Walk around today, don’t buy. was also presented There’s time for that on Fenwick’s another day.” advertisement where Fenwick’s advertisement (Lancaster, 1995, pg.30) it said “Walk around today, don’t buy. There’s time for that another day” (Lancaster, 1995, pg. 30). This encouragement to just browse was a clever marketing technique which Aristide Boucicaut, founder of the Le Bon Marché department store, knew very well. Boucicaut knew that “a customer who entered the Le Bon Marché to buy an umbrella would soon be back for something else. Even the browsers would leave with new desires in their minds” (Lancaster,1995, pg. 18).
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Figure 8: Advert for Selfridges
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Figure 9: Fenwick’s advertisement for the Glass Hat
However, what once was great can have its downfall in contemporary society. The rise of online shopping and fast fashion retailers like Primark, created a threat towards the department stores. Many people now prefer to shop from the comfort of their home and spend less on fashion which within the department stores is often expensive. Online retailers such as Pacsun (figure 11), often create flashy advertisements on their websites or social media showing that it is cheaper to buy online rather than in the shop, which decreases the number of people shopping in traditional stores. Recently, some department stores had to close some of their stores with House of Fraser closing 31 out of their 59 stores (figure 13) and Debenhams 10 out of their 176 (Thomas,2018). The once impressive forms of advertising created for the department stores no longer have the same effect as they did a century ago.
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Figure 10: Shopfront of Primark in Cologne
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Figure 11: Instagram advert for Pacsun (2018)
Figure 12: Le Bon MarchĂŠ department store in Paris
Figure 13: House Of Fraser in Highcross days before it closed, 2017
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The massive reduction in the number of department stores, shows that they must adjust and evolve to fit in with the contemporary market if they want to stay relevant. Many department stores continue the tradition of hosting events such as ‘Santa’s Grotto’ which attracts the attention of the public. These kinds of events put the department stores at an advantage over online shopping retailers as they allow people to come and experience something in real life which can’t be done online.
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Figure 14: Macy’s holiday parade
Figure 15: Santa at Harrod’s
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LEISURE PASTIME To stay relevant and visited by a great number of people, the form of department stores started to evolve in the late 19th and early 20th century. New spaces within them started to be created and they were not just places to shop anymore. Other attractions such as hair salons, art galleries and restaurants (figures 16 and 18 ) became open which ultimately affected the interior design of the shops we know today. As seen on figures 19, 20 and 21 each level became dedicated to something else and the customer no longer had to visit the department store just to shop. A trip to a department store became something more, it became a leisure pastime. Other attractions that were present within the department store acted as an encouragement for customers to stay longer in the store and “a destination where a person may enjoy pleasant surroundings and the sociability of the crowd while admiring beautiful things� (Whitaker, 2011, pg. 64) almost turning them into a form of a museum. This idea led to the transformation of a department store into another form of attraction rather than just plain shopping space.
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Figure 16: Grand Crystal Tea Room at the Wanamaker’s department store (1929)
Figure 17: The picture gallery at the Bon MarchĂŠ (1910)
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Figure 18: Daniel Galvin hair studio at Selfridges
Figure 19: Interior of Galeries Lafayette in Paris
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Figure 20: Interiors of the Myer’s store
Figure 21: Barneys New York (Chicago, 2009)
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As it can be seen on figures 22, 23 and 24, by visiting the department stores, the public would be introduced to new inventions such as the plane, hot air balloons and other exhibits. They would be able to see fine art exhibitions and concerts. For many, their first lift ride or escalator ride happened during a visit to a department store like it happened in 1898 in Harrod’s. Due to this, these stores functioned as ”a museum of social occasion and modern technology” (Whitaker, 2011, pg7). The products within them acted as precious exhibits that everyone would want to see. Although they were private spaces, many of the visitors came to “regard them as their temporary habitat, like a park or a street corner” (Whitaker, 2011, pg64). Visits to the department store became an everyday event which meant the owners achieved their aims, however the constant visits also created a problem. Many became addicted to shopping, which is also a problem over a century later in the contemporary society. Shopping addiction is a problem as it can be “a serious and destructive behavioural health addiction” (O’Keefe Osborne, 2018), which suggests that the mental health of the people with it is affected.
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Figure 22: Hydrogen balloon launching from the roof of the Wanamaker department store in New York (1911)
Figure 23: After WW1, airplane exhibits were popular and this one was at the Nordiska Kompaniet department store
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Figure 24: Visitors gathering around to see replicas of the swords of state exhibited at Eaton’s, Toronto (1937)
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Figure 25: Poster for Selfridges
WINDOW DISPLAYS To showcase their products as well as beliefs, department stores created outstanding window displays and changed the form in which products were showcased. Window displays were a sign of modernity and progress. Outdoor market stalls did not have any kind of spectacular displays; therefore, window displays were what made the department stores stand out. These displays enabled the customer to have an unlimited time to observe the goods without any interruption. They acted as a joining force of the different “From the dark streets, illuminated windows took on the look of classes. Mass interaction was created as people could theatrical stages” talk about the spectacles Whitaker, 2011, pg 174 that were happening behind the glass – almost like in a museum. This idea can be seen on figures 26 and 32 where a group of public gathers together to observe the spectacles that were created by the department stores. As there was no obligation to buy “even a person with little income believed that the world was at his feet” (Whitaker, 2011, pg174). Desires were created which are more important than needs as ultimately the stores created the public’s hopes and dreams.
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Figure 26: Public looking at a Eaton’s Queen Street Christmas window display (1955)
The invention of electricity added to the greatness of window displays as they’ve lit up the streets. Streets were no longer dark during the night and cities like “London might be made more like a city of living than of the dead” (Whitaker, 2011, pg174). By creating these spectacular displays filled not only with products but with stories and narratives, the public could imagine that they “The spectacle is not a collection of were a part of it, that they were images; it is a social relation between people living this luxurious that is mediated by images.” lifestyle. This meant Debord, 2002 that the store was not only selling products but perhaps ideas of a lifestyle that the public would want to live. They could achieve this by buying some of the products displayed and therefore increasing the profits made by the stores, which links to another one of the great marketing techniques developed with the creation of department stores.
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Figure 27: Wanamaker’s window display near a subway stop in Philadelphia
Figure 28: Fashion window display at Selridges (1920)
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Figure 29: Surrealistic window display at Bergdorf Goodman (1938)
Figure 30: Lifelike Printemps mannequins (1924)
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Figure 31: Visitors guide to Mitsukoshi, Tokyo, illustrating traditional markets before the invention of department stores (1930)
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Figure 32: Advertisement of Printemps from early 20th century showing its brightly lit interiors
CLASS DIVISION OPEN TO ALL The society in early 1900s was divided and the difference between the working, middle and upper classes was clearly visible. Usually these classes did not mix, even when shopping. Even though department stores impacted the way in which all classes shop together, it was only a few that particularly advertised this idea of ‘open to all’. For example, in Britain, Selfridges was the first store where all classes were able to shop together. On a poster for Selfridges from 1909 an angel like figure can be seen holding the Selfridges building with ‘Open to the world’ written underneath. This suggests that this brand new, luxurious, almost heavenly like institution was handed to everyone. Japan’s Mitsukoshi’s department store also adopted the policy of welcoming all and due to this their new post-earthquake of 1923 store had to change its interior design. They had to abandon traditional tatami mats for hardwood flooring (figure 34). This increased the number of people visiting as those with worn shoes no longer needed to be embarrassed when leaving their shoes at the doors, as previously it would have been done when they were required to exchange them for sandals.
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Figure 33: Selfridges’ opening day advertisement, 1909
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Figure 34: The interior of the Mitsukoshi department store in Tokyo
However, not everyone was keen on the idea of ‘open to all’. Some working-class customers at Braun’s department store were unhappy about how “the assistants, unless you are well dressed, treat you like dirt rotten” (Lancaster, 1995, pg 196). Many of the highly paid staff “had difficulty in coping with the tastes of working class customers” (Lancaster, 1995, pg 196). To fix these problems, strategies were introduced to make the shopping experience for the working class more comfortable. One of them was the removal of counters and introducing self-service. This invention meant that the customer no longer needed to speak to the sales staff who were sometimes unfriendly. The idea of an egalitarian approach created an environment in which everyone feels comfortable in and can enjoy the inventions of the department stores.
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Figure 35: Painting of the main floor at the Leonhard Tietz store in Dusseldorf (1920)
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WOMEN
women public toilets In Edwardian Britain it was generally considered improper for a lady to go out in public without an escort; she would have to be chaperoned wherever she went. The department stores became a new respectable destination to which women could go to and feel safe alone or with another female friend. An example of a department store that was particularly liberating for women is Selfridges in London. This was the first place where women’s public toilets were designed and made. This enabled women to spend hours within the shop. The previous lack of access to female public toilets “tied them to their homes, putting them on a leash as long as their bladder capacity” (Collinson, 2017). This added to the creation of an atmosphere in which women felt comfortable in.
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Figure 36: Ladies toilets at the Chung Yo department store in Taichung City, Taiwan
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CRECHE Before opening his own store in London, Selfridge introduced a crèche at the Marshall Field’s department store in Chicago. Now women could leave their children in a safe environment while they went to shop. As an explanation “They came to the store and to the introduction of the crèche Selfridge said “I realised some of their dreams” came along just at the Selfridge, No date time when women wanted to step out of their own. They came to the store and realised some of their dreams” (Harford, 2017). This introduction meant that even while being a parent, women had the freedom to go out and shop.
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Figure 37: Women queuing up to leave their children and prams at the Bentalls’ department store in Surrey (1934)
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ADVERTISING Once women’s presence alone in a public sphere was established they could freely go out and spend hours in these “cathedrals of commerce” (Harford, 2017). Their presence within the department stores was of an importance because they were the ones that made most of the purchases, therefore most of the advertising was firstly aimed at women to create strong desires to purchase “Crying is for plain women, the increasing number of pretty women go shopping” mass produced goods. In Wilde, 1893, pg 13 1890s, a shopping district in New York was called ‘Ladies Mile’ (figure 39) and the stores within it transformed the men-only city into “female playgrounds” (Whitaker, 2011, pg. 67). Women used their clothes, beauty and interiors to “express their levels of fashion awareness and therefore their real or aspired social standing” (Sparke, 2004, pg. 27).
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Figure 38: Cover of Nordiska Kompaniet Spring catalogue (Stockholm, 1928)
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Figure 39: Ladies Mile in New York
DESIGN OF THE SHOP The freedom of middle class women to have the luxury of self-beautification at home was reinforced by objects such as powder containers, and hairbrushes that were available in the department stores. Selfridges introduced the perfume and beauty department at the front entrance of the store which previously was at the back as these products were considered taboo. The women could now freely buy products to aid them with the self- beautification process. The increased popularity of beauty products meant that this concept was heavily used within the department store advertisement. Figure 40 is a luggage advertisement, however the idea of self-beautification has also been considered. This could suggest that even when travelling, the woman is expected to take care of her look and perhaps feel pressurised to do so by the mass advertisement. In addition, the cover of a catalogue of women’s accessories and perfumes (figure 41) presents a few of the most important things that will allow women to look presentable and feel like they belong to the upper class. The beauty department as well as the advertisement created for it portrayed the ideas of what women could look like if they bought the products on offer.
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Figure 40: Poster for travel luggage at La Rinascente (M.Dudovich 1925)
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Figure 41: Catalogue cover for the beauty and accessories department
Figure 42: A customer trying on a hat in the millinery department at the Karstdat department store (1970)
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Figure 43: Cosmetics and perfume department at Harrods (1920)
Figure 44: Beauty and perfume department at Selfridges (2016)
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Figure 45: Poster for Debenhams (2014)
Figure 46: Macy’s sale advertisement and coupons
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EMPLOYMENT The department stores not only influenced women customers but also the women they employed. In figure 47 can be seen the senior management team of Fenwick’s in 1932 which mostly constituted of women. In other sectors of business this number of women in positions of power would be impossible to find and this new form of employment opened new possibilities for women. Therefore, this suggests that department stores were the “first institutions that opened their doors to middle and high management to women, thereby creating perhaps the first career structure with the genuine prospects of promotion for women in the modern period” (Lancaster, 1995, pg 177). Women were often the ones making the decisions of what to buy for the store, which shows that their opinion was respected. In addition, Selfridges introduced female lift operators which was also unusual for the public of the time because it meant that women would be near men in the same small space, which previously was unacceptable.
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Figure 47: Fenwick’s senior staff (1932)
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Figure 48: Women lift operators
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Figure 49: Saleswomen in Baltimore (1909)
PROBLEMS As much as the department stores have been a wonderful creation and help in liberating women, they have also done the complete opposite. Most women were recruited for their attractiveness rather than their knowledge and in 1909 it has been claimed that women were paid so badly that they were forced to sell their bodies and thus linking the department store workers to prostitutes. There was also a problem with the dormitories in which workers lived in. The freedom which the A ‘latch key scandal’ department stores gave women, supposedly happened was also taken away by them. where some “proprietors supplied keys to women’s quarter instead of wage rises turning the upper floors into brothels” (Lancaster, 1995, pg 182). If these claims are true, the freedom which the department stores gave women, was also taken away by them because of treatment like this.
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Figure 50: Women employees of the D.B. Lovemans & Co department store in downtown Chattanooga, Tennessee (Gustavus Walline, 1898-1900)
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CONCLUSION
To conclude, form was highly influenced by the development of the department stores. New forms such as window displays changed the way we portray the mass-produced goods and the effect that these have on our lives. These displays inside as well as outside the stores created and still create idealistic images of what the public’s lives could look like if they visited these department stores. As well as transforming the shopping experience, new forms for the department stores liberated women and introduced them to the public sphere where they have not previously been very present. Department stores became a place in which “women were encouraged to find their life’s meanings in conspicuous consumption”, (McBride, 1978, pg. 664) increasing their sales but also improving people’s lives. Both gender as well as class inequalities and divisions were influenced by the new forms created. Middle class people could now freely visit department stores with the ability to just browse and they could experience the same things as people from the upper class.
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As with all things positive, some of these new forms potentially created problems. This was true in the case of women employment where even though women were welcome in the work place and had a chance to earn money to support themselves, many were employed for their attractiveness rather than qualifications. However, the positive impact that was created through these new forms designed within department stores outweighs the few negative ones that arose because of them. Ultimately, form follows the department store and the new forms within them, made these “cathedrals of commerce� an environment in which people, regardless of class and gender can explore, shop and relax even with their eyes closed (figure 51).
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Figure 51: A Printemps advertisement proclaims it is safe to buy there with your eyes closed (1930)
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Taplin, S. 2014. Secrets of Selfridges [online] Netflix, Available at: https://www.netflix.com/watch/70296574?trackId=14277 281&tctx=0%2C0%2C9a5c06e0-102d-40d2-9b76-f222a54edb6c-8133486%2C%2C [Accessed on 24 November 2018] Thomas, D. June 2018. Why we no longer love department stores [online] BBC, Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ business-44358704 [Accessed on 23 November 2018] Whitaker, J. 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Wilde, 1964, Lady Windermere’s Fan. Methuen Wikipedia. No date. The Floorwalker [online] Wikipedia, Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Floorwalker [Accessed on 18 November 2018]
FIGURES LIST Fig 1 – DeAgostini, 2008, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/news-photo/departmentstore-facade-in-the-louvre-in-paris-decorated-news-photo/159829377 [Accessed 20 November 2018] Fig 2 – Anonymous, 1866, Oak Hall. Wanamker & Brown [digital image] Available at: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/ item/43293 [Accessed on 20 November 2018] Fig 3 – Anonymous, 1866, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 4 – Anonymous, 1851, Untitle [digital image] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/culture/bespoke/story/20150326-ahistory-of-the-department-store/index.html [Accessed 10 November 2018] Fig 5 – Davies, A, 2013, Untitled [still] Available at: https://www.netflix.com/watch/70292891?trackId=141702 89&tctx=0%2C2%2C4056ad15-e462-4c65-8f41-2cc30f84ce74-23492315%2C75866978-6f50-43cd-8851bf24e8747709_38426903X3XX1543448122918%2C75866978-6f50-43cd-8851-bf24e8747709_ROOT [Accessed on 27 October 2018] Fig 6 – Anonymous, 1916, The Floorwalker [digital image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Floorwalker [Accessed on 18 November 2018] Fig 7 – Anonymous, 1916, The Floorwalker [still] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opzMXjHOiwA [Accessed on 18 November 2018] Fig 8 – Anonymous, No date, No title [digital image] Available at: http://london-tourist-guide.s3-website-eu-west-1. amazonaws.com/What-is-the-history-of-selfridges-department-store-london.html [Accessed on 22 November 2018] Fig 9 – Anonymous, No date, The Glass Hat [digital image] Available at: Lancaster, B. 1995. The department store: a social history. London: Leicester University Press Fig 10 – Anonymous, 2015, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://www.synergyengineering.ie/news/primark-cologne [Accessed on Fig 11 – Anonymous, 2018, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BqrSOM6hSxL/ [Accessed on 23 November 2018] Fig 12 - Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://paris1900.lartnouveau.com/paris00/gds_ magasins/le_bon_marche_1900.htm [Accessed on 29 November 2018] Fig 13 – Anonymous, 2017, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/whats-on/shopping/ house-fraser-closing-date-revealed-198354 [Accessed on 26 November 2018]
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Fig 14 – Anonymous, 2013, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://365thingsswfl.com/2013/12/21/special-holidaycelebration-at-universal-studios/ [Accessed on 24 November 2018] Fig 15 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://www.londontown.com/London/ChristmasShopping-in-Londons-Top-Department-Stores [Accessed on 28 November 2018] Fig 16 – Anonymous, 1929, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 17 – Anonymous, 1910, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 18 – Anonymous, 2018, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.danielgalvin.com/salons/selfridges-salon/ [Accessed on 23 November 2018] Fig 19 – Anonymus, 2018, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://leahtravels.com/places/europe/france/paris/things-todo-at-galeries-lafayette-in-paris-other-than-shopping [Accessed on 25 November 2018] Fig 20 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 21 – Anonymous, 2009, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 22 – Anonymous, 1911, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 23 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 24 – Anonymous, 1937, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 25 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/6c/9b/ c2/6c9bc2b130045fcf385ff973abcdc98c.jpg [Accessed on 29 November 2018] Fig 26 – Anonymous, 1955, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 27 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 28 - Anonymous, 1920, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 29 – Anonymous, 1938, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 30 – Anonymous, 1924, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 31 – Anonymous, 1930, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 32 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 33 – Anonymous, 1909, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://www.selfridges.com/KR/en/features/articles/ selfridges-loves/selfridges-lovesourhousesecrets [Accessed on 28 November 2018] Fig 34 – Anonymous, 1970, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://www.oldtokyo.com/mitsukoshi-departmentstore-c-1926-1960/ [Accessed on 28 November 2018]
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Fig 35 – Anonymous, 1920, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 36 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.cheapflights.com/news/cool-loos-you-canuse-top-10-public-toilets-worth-talking-about [Accessed on 22 November 2018] Fig 37 – Getty Images, 1934, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://flashbak.com/creche-at-shop-2/ [Accessed on 26 November 2018] Fig 38 – Anonymous, 1928, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 39 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://footnotesfromhistory.blogspot.com/2010/09/theladies-mile.html [Accessed on 22 November 2018] Fig 40 – Anonymous, 1925, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 41 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 42 – Anonymous, 1970, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 43 – Anonymous, 1920, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson Fig 44 – Anonymous, 2016, Untitled [digital image] Available at: http://www.scentspy.com/selfridges-london-uk/ [Accessed on 19 November 2018] Fig 45 – Anonymous, 2014, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.manilaonsale.com/2014/10/debenhamsholiday-offer-sale-october-november-2014/ [Accessed on 22 November 2018] Fig 46 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.cityguideny.com/coupon/ Macy-s--2017-04-30 [Accessed on 19 November 2018] Fig 47 – Anonymous, 1932, The Glass Hat [digital image] Available at: Lancaster, B. 1995. The department store: a social history. London: Leicester University Press Fig 48 – Anonymous, No date, Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/ pin/318629742359569614/?lp=true [Accessed on 22 November 2018] Fig 49 – Anonymous, 1909, Untitled [image] Available at: Lancaster, B. 1995. The department store: a social history. London: Leicester University Press Fig 50 – Gustavus Walline, C. 1898-1900. Untitled [digital image] Available at: https://mashable.com/2016/04/07/ department-store-workers/?europe=true#EEoG0BBA5qq3 [Accessed on 27 November 2018] Fig 51 – Anonymous, 1930, Untitled [image] Available at: Whitaker, 2011. The Department Store; History, Design Display. London: Thames &Hudson
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