Media Studies
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Number 003
Genre: Categorising texts 1. How Texts are Categorised
This Factsheet introduces the concept of genre by focussing on: 1. How texts are categorised a. The importance of visual iconographies b. The links between genre and other media concepts such as narrative, representation and ideology 2. How Genre is used by audiences 3. How Genre is used by media producers 4. Why genres are subject to change
a) The importance of visual iconographies Genres are categories or types of media text. Genres are recognisable through the repeated use of generic codes and conventions. Generic codes and conventions are the aspects of a text which the audience recognises as the shared characteristics of a genre. Film westerns will share codes and conventions with TV westerns. Although there are many differences between films and television programmes – they have different production values and often use different narrative structures – there are certain elements within the genre that are shared that enables the audience to recognise a western regardless of the form.
Body Text Genre refers to the labelling of texts through the identification of shared characteristics. Texts within certain genre categories will have certain things in common that will enable the audience to see similarities between texts.
Most commonly, codes and conventions are considered as coming from the iconographies (specific visual or aural media language choices). Sometimes these iconographies are enough to act alone, e.g. the mise en scene of deep space, usually indicates the genre of sci-fi. Sometimes, however, the iconographies work together to indicate the genre. Someone sitting behind a desk is not genre specific. However, add high key lighting, a modern mise en scene and a screen behind the character at the desk and the combination of media language choices creates an image we associate with a news broadcast.
Genre categories are used outside Media Studies all the time. For example, DVD sellers use categories to group their products to help purchasers locate what they want to buy. Many TV listings descriptions begin with an identification of the genre of the text Grouping and categorising enables the audience to have a broad general idea as to what the content and style of a media text will be.
Activity Go to an on-line DVD retailer’s website (amazon.co.uk or play.com for example) and look at the categorisation that is used to help find DVDs. Browse through some of these genre categories and see if you can identify what aspects of the films are used to decide where they should be ‘filed’.
Newspaper Genres The genre of a text is usually identifiable simply its appearance by the way it looks. A tabloid newspaper looks a certain way and it is significantly different to the look of a broadsheet – even when broadsheet newspapers are moving towards being produced using paper roughly the same size as a tabloid. It is not, however, simply the look of these types of newspaper that defines their genre type. Tabloids and broadsheets also have many other differences in the way they use language, select stories that they will publish and have different attitudes and values. However, the visual clues are often the first things that assist the audience when identifying the genre of a media text. What are the visual differences between a tabloid and a broadsheet newspaper? Consider the use of colour, images, layout and design choices, as well as the use of text. What other differences are there that distinguish ‘tabloid’ and ‘broadsheet‘ newspapers?
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Media Studies
003 - Genre: Categorising texts
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
The plot in these two genres my be very similar, but the narratives of soap operas and sit-coms are very different. Both use different narrative codes: sit coms tend to be episodic narratives whilst the soap opera convention is to use an open ended, multi-strand narrative structure.
An Example: Science Fiction Both Star Wars and Star Trek use recognisable iconographies of Science Fiction (see below) but they do not use them the same way. Star Trek tends to use a more futuristic setting which relates to an idealised (utopian) world of the future. The Star Wars universe is far less ideal and is portrayed in some parts as more ‘rough and ready’, however, they both share enough characteristics to be considered within the same genre. Science Fiction Set in outer space? Use of space ships? Use of alien characters? Laser Guns? High Tech Devices?
Star Wars yes yes yes yes yes
This plot is, however, unlikely to be used in an action film. Action heroes usually have much bigger things to deal with than bullying bosses – if they have one, the action hero’s bullying boss will be little more than an irritation. The plot and narrative are often part of the generic codes of the texts.
Star Trek yes yes yes yes yes
c) Character Representations Characters, including the use of stereotypes and character roles, are also part of the narrative of texts. Certain stereotypes tend to be linked to specific genres. The ’lone wolf’ hero, for example is a convention of an action text. Here the hero tends to be positioned outside a supportive group and he works alone to fight the villains or save the world. James Bond may be a member of MI6 but he is always sent on missions alone and is often seen as being unconventional.
Star Trek exists as both film and television texts and so genre codes and conventions are not limited to one media form. Sci Fi comics share the same codes and conventions as Sci Fi radio fictions. Radio fictions have to imply the visual codes by highlighting the aural codes. Comics need to make reference to the aural codes, often using text and illustrations to refer to the sounds that are part of the generic codes of science fiction. Different forms, therefore, identify genre in different media language choices.
Jack Bauer of 24 is another stereotypical ‘lone wolf’ action hero and he is often depicted making decisions that could be seen as immoral. However his unconventional responses tend to enable him to get the job done.
Activity Using one of the genres you identified on the DVD retailer’s website, construct a list of codes and conventions of a genre you are familiar with. You could then construct a table similar to that above to identify how specific media texts select certain codes and conventions in their construction.
b) The importance of narrative Visual and aural iconographies are not the only way that genres can be identified. Genre can also be indicated in the way the story is told via its narrative (the structure of the story telling) and plot (the events and occurrences within the story).
Where the action hero is isolated from other people, the disaster movie usually often places the heroic role within a group of people. Often they all have particular strengths which play a part in solving the problem through the collaboration of a group who works together.
When you are watching a film or the TV or reading a newspaper or magazine you will probably find it very easy to identify genre. You will need to look in more detail and identify what media language options have been made to enable you to recognise the genre so easily. These choices will usually be the ones that are shared by the majority of texts within this genre, even if they have their own specific ways of using these choices.
Good examples of this are Independence Day (1996: dir. R. Emmerich), Deep Impact (1998: M. Leder) and, more recently, The Day After Tomorrow (2004: dir. R. Emmerich). In The Day After Tomorrow a father has two goals: to persuade the government to act on his advice and then to rescue his son. In both plots he accepts the help of others e.g. accepting information from other scientists or letting his colleagues accompany him as he travels to New York where his son is trapped.
Some genres have particular types of story lines. For example, in a soap opera it would not be unusual to see one of the story-lines follow a family having to deal with a domestic situation such as a member of the family having trouble with their boss at work. This type of story may also appear in a sit-com but the way the story develops and is dealt with will be different.
He is shown putting his trust in others and accepting the need for cooperation in order to solve the problems he faces.
In a soap opera, the situation may be shown in a serious way and the boss could be represented as a villain and act in a very abusive manner. In a soap the story may take a long time to develop as it will be one of many story-lines the soap opera will be dealing with at the same time. In a sit-com, this may be an ongoing story or it may be a problem that is solved within the thirty minute episode. Either way, the sit-com will deal with the humour in the situation and it is most likely that the boss will be represented as foolish rather than villainous.
The representation of heroes ia a part of the codes and conventions of the genres.
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Media Studies
003 - Genre: Categorising texts
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
He came up with many more potential methods of categorisation – these are just some examples:
d) Ideologies Closely related to the narrative is the fact that the themes, ideas and values (ideologies) of a text are often based on generic codes and conventions.
• • • • • •
As shown, Action texts depend on ideas of individual strength whereas disaster movies value team work and collaboration. In soap operas the value of families sticking together is a generic code and in the various types of story-lines that a soap opera can offer the audience, this ideology tends to be consistent – characters who do not value the family eventually being punished, whilst there is reward for those that do.
Period or Country, e.g. US films of the 1930s Director / Star, e.g. Ben Stiller Films Technical Process, e.g. Animation Style, e.g. German Expressionism; Series, e.g. Bond; Audience, e.g. Family Films
Each of these methods of categorisation have their own ‘shared characteristics’ in the media language, plots, narrative structures, characterisation and in the values and ideologies they conform to. It is important to consider how it is we recognise genres and, Most often it is likely to be through a combination of media language codes, narrative codes and thematic codes.
In addition, media texts can be categorised in a number of different ways. Bordwell was considering film specifically and noted some of the ways that films are categorised.
2. How Genre is Used by Audiences
3. How Genres are Used by Media Producers a) Production
There are number of ways that audiences use the concept of genre.
Genres are paradigms or templates media producers can follow. If a media producer wants to produce a new sit-com, there are certain ’rules’ that must be followed. This actually makes life easier for writers and producers as they don’t have to invent things from scratch. They can also look to successful examples of the genre and attempt to replicate what was popular and, of course, avoid the mistakes made by texts which have disappointed the audience.
a) They use their prior knowledge of the genre to anticipate whether or not they are likely to enjoy a text. This helps when selecting a media text whether it is a lifestyle magazine, a film or a television programme. b) They are able to compare a text through its shared characteristics with another. If you try to describe a TV programme to someone who has not seen it, you are likely to define its genre and then clarify what other text it is similar to.
b) Attracting an Audience Some genres have loyal fan-bases. People will try out a new sitcom simply because it’s a new sit-com and this can help media producers minimise the potential for failure.
c) They also use their knowledge of genre to reject a text. For many of us there will be genres we actively dislike and therefore will avoid accessing texts we assume to hold those characteristics.
c) Marketing Texts Good examples of this are film trailers which usually attempt to clearly define the genre of the film and then show as many of the codes and conventions in the trailer. This acts to attract fans of the genre and set up the expectations of the film.
d) In addition to this, the knowledge we have of genre prepares us when we start to access a media text. Chandler states that Genre ‘frames the reader’s interpretation of a text.’ In other words, knowledge of a genre means we will have certain expectations of the text that we expect to be fulfilled.
Other media producers do the same. As cable TV has developed, specialised channels, e.g. Paramount, The Horror Channel and Sci Fi, have found that by broadcasting generic texts they are able to market solely through attracting interested audiences to very specific programmes. On terrestrial television this occurs in the way channels use scheduling. There are specific times of the day when certain genres tend to be shown – for example, 9 p.m. and 10 p.m. are the conventional screening times for dramas on British television.
When watching a comedy the expectation is that it will amuse and, hopefully, generate laughter. It is through the recognition of codes and conventions that we create these expectations. If they are fulfilled, the audience receives pleasure, if not they can be disappointed. The audience may judge a text as unsuccessful simply because it did not meet their generic expectations. Exam Hint: Identifying genre codes is not going to be enough in an examination response. You should consider what gratifications the genre may provide for its audience and perhaps who that audience is assumed to be.
Given the vast amount of choice now available on television, this makes the complicated job of finding a text easier for the audience and also helps the channels market their programmes effectively.
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Media Studies
003 - Genre: Categorising texts
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Each one of these sub-genres has a whole host of codes and conventions of their own. Iconographies like crosses, holy water, graveyards and gothic mansions are part of the vampire sub-genre (and are within horror codes) but are not necessarily included in the teen slasher film.
4. Why Genres are Subject to Change Keeping the Audience Interested As genres rely on audiences' understanding of the codes and conventions, over-repetition of these codes means that genre texts run the risk of becoming predictable. However, moving too far away from conventions could cause audience dissatisfaction as the text does not fulfil generic expectations. Media producers have to try to balance ‘repetition and difference’ (Neale). Too much repetition creates cliché, too much difference and the audience’s generic expectations are not met.
Add to this the fact that there are also hybrid genres. These are texts which deliberately mix the codes and conventions of more than one genre. Buffy the Vampire Slayer successfully blended codes of the gothic horror, comedy, romance and soap opera and so provided many different viewing pleasures for its audience. AQA/OCR/WJEC? The different exam boards assess understanding of genre in different ways. For example, OCR will specify a genre that the students must study whereas other exam boards allow teachers and students to select which ones they look at. AQA expect students to respond to general questions on genre, making reference to texts that have been studied. However an understanding of this concept is common to all boards in the assessment of textual analysis and practical production modules.
The two images below show how much the iconographies of the Gangster genre have altered over time. Despite their differences, there are many similarities between conventional gangster films and the modern equivalents: the genre focuses on groups of criminals, often romanticises the gangster lifestyle and the texts within this genre are violent and deal with conflict between the police and the criminals.
Images web references www.informativostv.com www.bris.ac.uk http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk http://media.fox50.com www.ziyue.com www.webstar.co.uk http://members.aol.com/bobbuttman They also focus on conflicts within the gangster community such as rivalry between opposing gangs or internal power struggles. These themes are the same whether the text is Scarface, Reservoir Dogs or The Sopranos. Over time, the iconographies have changed so the genre has not become stale and uninteresting for the audience. but the basic conventions of the genre remain. New gangster films share codes with the traditional ones but create more modern approaches to the subject matter to stay up to date with modern audience’s interests and changes in culture. One code of the traditional gangster movie was to have a Tommy Gun hidden in a violin case. • The first time an audience member saw this is would be a surprise, • after that it would be pleasurable when the expectation of a gun being hidden this way was met. Eventually, the idea of using the violin case would be seen as unimaginative – it had become a cliché All of this seems to imply that it is easy to identify a genre and all texts fit within one or other simple category. This is not the case. Genres can include sub-genres. Horror for example is a very broad term but in film it can include • vampire movies (Blade (1998: dir. S. Norrington)), • psychological horrors (Saw (2004, dir. J. Wan)), • gothic horrors (Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992: dir. F. Coppola)), • ghost stories (The Grudge (2004: dir. T. Shimuzu)), • the teen slasher (Scream (1996: dir. W. Craven)), • haunted-house movies (The Amityville Horror (2005: dir. A. Douglas)).
Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Steph Hendry Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Sociology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
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