Media Studies
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Number 014
Telling Stories – The Media’s Use of Narrative The aims of this Factsheet are to • introduce and define the way conventional narrative structure is used in media texts • discuss different uses of the conventional narrative structure • provide examples of media texts to demonstrate how narrative is used and its relationship with other media concepts
Activity Imagine you are planning the opening shot of a film or TV programme. 1. How could you show that the scene was taking place early in the morning? (temporal marker) 2. How would you show your film was set in London? (geographical marker) 3. What methods could you use to make it clear the text is set in the 1960s? (historical marker) 4. How could you make it clear one of the characters is a married policeman? (character marker) 5. What could you do to show the audience they are watching a thriller? (generic marker)
All media texts tell stories. The structure of these stories is called the narrative. The events in a story are called the plot but when narrative is discussed, it is the structure of the story rather than the events themselves that are focussed on. Certain genres of media text often use specific structures to tell their stories.
Conventional Narrative Structure Conventional narratives follow the same basic pattern in terms of the way they construct a story.
One way to achieve all this would be to show a sunrise (1) over the Thames (2) with a panning shot to Big Ben (2) and then down to policeman in uniform (2, 3 and 4) outside the houses of parliament (2). People nearby could be wearing 60s fashions and the cars that pass would be from the same era (3). He could speak on his radio using his left hand so the wedding ring was visible (4) and he could be talking about the murder victim (5) he has just discovered. Tense music could accompany these images to help set the tone (5).
The terms used by Todorov to define the three main parts of a narrative structure (the beginning, middle and end) are: • Equilibrium – the balanced normality of the world of the story • Disequilibrium – the unbalanced world between the problem and the climax (see below) • New Equilibrium – a return to normality at the end – returning the world to balanced state
Activity
The equilibrium and the new equilibrium are not exactly the same. The problems of the disequilibrium will have caused the world of the text to change in some way or the characters have learned lessons as the narrative developed.
Look at the opening of a TV programme or film. What markers are used to provide important information for the audience within the first few minutes?
This basic three point narrative can be looked at in more detail. This is sometimes called the narrative arc.
Complication
2. Problem* - This is where the story really begins. Something will happen that will cause a problem for the main characters. Problems can be small or large and the problem itself is determined by the plot of the media text and its genre. Sometimes there will be multiple problems.
Climax
Problem Exposition Equilibrium
Disequilibrium
3. Complication* - Events which occur to make the problem worse. In comedy a misunderstanding may be made more complicated and in an action film the threats become worse.
Resolution New Equilibrium
* There may be many problems and subsequent complications within the narrative and this is the section that takes up most time in a fictional media text.
1. Exposition – needed at the beginning of the narrative to set the scene. This is where basic information is given to the audience – Where are we? When are we? Whose story will we be following? Often the exposition provides information about the genre of the media text through the use of conventional iconographies. All of this information needs to be given to the audience as quickly as possible so they can understand what follows. A marker is a media language choice which provides information to audiences quickly and economically. Markers can provide information about the location (geographical marker), the time or era the text is set in (temporal or historical marker), the genre of the text (generic marker) or information about the characters (character marker).
4. Climax - This is the moment where the problems are actually solved. Questions will be answered, choices will be made, knowledge will be gained or there may be a battle. It is the highpoint of the text which enables the characters to reach the… 5. …Resolution - This is the part of the narrative where the world of the text returns to some sort of normality as the problems and their complications are now past. This is conventionally the part of the narrative where all the loose ends of the plot are tied up and questions are answered.
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Media Studies
014. Telling Stories – The Media’s Use of Narrative
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Example: Wallace and Gromit in the Curse of the Were-Rabbit (Parks and Box: 2005) www.movies.about.com/
1. It’s only days before the annual Giant Vegetable Competition and rabbits are eating the vegetables. This creates a problem that needs solving
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2. Wallace and Gromit are catching rabbits with their humane pest-control outfit, “Anti-Pesto” but…
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3. The problem is complicated as their home fills to the brim with captive rabbits.
4. Wallace creates a machine that will brainwash the rabbits so they won’t like vegetables in an further attempt to solve the problem
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5. Suddenly a huge, “beast” begins attacking the town’s sacred vegetable plots at night which further complicates the problem
6. Gromit realises Wallace has turned into a man-rabbit because of the mind control device which is yet another complication that needs to be sorted
7. Gromit battles to save Wallace before it is too late and this provides the climax to the film
How these roles are used often depends on the genre of the text. Action films and romantic comedies both use the hero but represent this character role in different ways.
Activity Select a range of different types of text: for example, sit-com, soap opera, horror film or home improvement show. Identify how each text uses the same basic narrative structure even thought the content and tone of the texts are very different.
Vin Diesel is probably more appropriate as a hero in an action film. Conventional narratives tend to follow the order of the arc but may integrate flashbacks into the structure to provide more information on the characters or the events’ back stories. This is a manipulation of the narrative arc but does not disrupt it completely as long as the arc is reinstated after the manipulation.
http://www.transbuddha.com/images/ uploads/vin-diesel.jpg
Narrative and Character Roles Conventional narratives use a range of characters all designed to help serve the narrative. These character roles were defined by the theorist Propp and can be seen in most media texts and they define the function that the characters perform within the narrative: • The Hero – a character that seeks something • The Villain – who opposes or actively blocks the hero’s quest • The Donor – who provides something to help the hero • The Dispatcher – who sends the hero on his/her quest • The Helper – who aids the hero • The Princess – the reward for the hero • The Father – who acts to reward the hero for his effort
Whereas Zach Braff is more believable as a romantic/comedy hero.
http://www.celebritywar.com/pictures/ zach-braff.jpg
They have different qualities which relate to audience expectations of heroes in these genres.
It should be noted that these character roles are often metaphorical rather than literal. In The Day after Tomorrow (R Emmerich: 2004) the villain is the weather and one of the ‘princesses’ is the hero’s son.
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Media Studies
014. Telling Stories – The Media’s Use of Narrative
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Binary Oppositions and Ideology
Example: Lord of the Rings (P Jackson: 2001/3) • • •
• •
Binary oppositions can be very useful to help identify the ideology of a text. The conflict between opposites in a conventional text will usually culminate in one force winning.
Frodo is the hero, he seeks Mount Doom in order to destroy the ring The villain is Sauron The donor is Gandalf who gives Frodo the ring and he is also the dispatcher who sends Frodo on his mission. The helpers are Sam and Merry who do anything they can to help Frodo The reward for Frodo is peace www.musicroom.com in the hobbit world
The winner often represents the dominant ideas and values of our culture. When the policeman captures the criminal in a crime drama– the ideology of the value of law and order is emphasised. When the girl wins the heart of the guy in a romantic comedy the values of heterosexual relationships and monogamy are reinforced. In conventional texts crime doesn’t usually pay and the guy most often gets the girl.
Narrative and Genre/Audience Conventional narrative offers gratifications for audiences. Problems and their complications create enigma (Barthes) for the audience. The viewers are curious as to what actions (Barthes) will be undertaken and how the problems will be solved.
These characters fit into the following structure: • The opening sequence shows us an ideal world in the shire (exposition) • This peace is threatened by the existence of the ring (problem) • There are many complications - Sauron (who wants the ring back) and Boromir (who is influenced by the ring and wants to possess it) are amongst the people and events that make the completion of the task difficult • Eventually the ring is destroyed (climax) and the hero returns and is rewarded with peace (resolution) although some of the main characters do not get to return to the shire (new equilibrium).
Depending on the genre, particular emotions are generated by the narrative. Audiences feel: • Fear in a horror narrative • Excitement in an Action narrative • Empathy, sympathy and/or identification in a soap or drama narrative • Suspense and tension in a thriller narrative These emotional responses draw the audience into a story and then encourage them to stay. The climax provides the emotional high spot. It is usually the most thrilling, funny or horrific moment in the text.
AQA/OCR/WJEC? All assessments require an understanding of the way narrative structure is used. In close textual analysis the way the narrative is constructed should be commented on its effects analysed. In your own productions you should consider the structure of the ‘story’ you are telling.
The Resolutions provide comfort and reassurance especially when good wins over evil. The resolution is the reward the audience receives at the end of the emotional journey the narrative has taken them on.
Case Studies - TV Fictions
How do Narratives work?
Film texts which use the conventional narrative structure are called closed narratives as each individual text comes to its own resolution. In TV fictions this is sometimes the case (see the series below) but there are other ways the narrative arc can be used and this often depends on genre. A variety of audience activity is encouraged by these different uses of conventional narrative.
Binary Opposition The theorist Levi Strauss identified that narratives work because they are often based around the conflict between binary oppositions. There is an inherent opposition between a hero and a villain, between a prisoner and freedom, between lies and truth. The problems in a narrative stem from the conflict between one force and another and it is these conflicts which move a narrative forward.
1. Episodic Narrative – The Series These are fictions which have many parts but where the narrative arc is usually resolved at the end of each episode. This is a common structure within the sit com. A series contains the same main characters every time and each episode puts them in a different situation. Audiences can watch the episodes in any order and this is very useful for the media producers as the audience does not have to necessarily commit images-eu.amazon.com themselves to regular viewing.
Typical conflicting binary oppositions Villain………….Hero Man……………Woman Love…………...Hate Truth……...……Lies Good…….…….Evil Right….…….....Wrong Intelligence…....Brute force Law …….……..Crime
Activity
These texts are good for the casual viewer but familiarity with the characters also rewards the loyal viewer. Family Guy and The Simpsons both use an episodic narrative as do the procedural dramas such as CSI.
Look for binary opposition in a variety of media texts. Newspapers usually contain ‘good versus evil’ narratives and suggest right versus wrong. Women’s magazines often present ‘victim and villain’ narratives in the ‘real life’ stories they tell.
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Media Studies
014. Telling Stories – The Media’s Use of Narrative
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
2. Overarching Narrative - The Serial
Narrative and other media forms
The serial uses the conventional narrative arc over a number of episodes. Individual episodes do not tend to have a resolution; this comes at the end of the serial. Often each episode begins with a summary of what occurred in previous episodes in case the audience missed a part. To keep the audience interested the episodes usually end with a cliff-hanger, a tense moment that is unresolved so the audience want to find out what happens next. This way the audience is likely to return to the show. This has become a popular structure recently with US TV recently. Texts such as Desperate Housewives, Lost and 24 all use this structure. Some UK dramas also follow this structure, for example, Bleak House, Dr Who and The Fingersmith. This structure requires that audiences become loyal viewers as they need to watch all episodes in the correct order.
Narrative is used in all media texts – not just fictions. • Documentaries use the same structures to help construct their stories • Broadcast news uses narrative structure and character roles in its bulletins • A newspaper story may be part of a larger narrative arc which is in the complication stage. For example, the Beckhams’ move to Los Angeles, was presented as another episode in the ongoing narrative of their lives • Photographs and still images cannot easily show the passing of time which is central to a moving image narrative but often the narrative is implied o Newspaper photographs are often chosen specifically to reinforce the character role of an individual o Paper based advertising often provides the solution a problem that is not stated but is understood by the audience • In advertising the idea of the problem and resolution is crucial. Often adverts set up a problem (bad breath) and then immediately offer the solution (buy their toothpaste) to create a swift resolution (fresh breath)
3. Mixed Narrative (episodic and overarching) Some texts use both structures. Friends is an example of this. Each episode of Friends can be watched on its own as the episodes usually deal with a number of small conflicts which resolve at the end of the episode. However, there are a also some overarching narratives, for example, Rachel’s pregnancy, which are returned to in a number of episodes until a resolution is provided. In addition, some longer arcs are also used. The ‘Ross and Rachel’ arc lasted ten years as their relationship was an ongoing story from the first season that was not resolved until the final episode. This structure rewards the loyal viewer as larger stories take time to be resolved but the casual viewer can enjoy the text’s individual episodes.
Activity Identify how narrative is used to help sell washing powder?
Exam Hint :- When looking at narrative, don’t just spot the structure and describe it. Think about the relationship the audience will have with the narrative structure and consider if the narrative is related to generic expectations. Students gain marks when they discuss the effect of the narrative.
In this example we see the exposition and the resolution at the same time (the ‘ideal’ world where clothes are clean and bright). However, if we recognise the rugby scrum and apply our knowledge of what is about to happen we know that there will soon be a problem that needs solving. The rugby game will create a muddy mess. Persil is mentioned and we recognise that it is the ‘hero’ that will solve the problem of dirty clothes to return us to the state of equilibrium.
4. Multi strand overlapping narrative – the soap narrative These have a continuous narrative and they tell a number of different stories at the same time. This is sometimes called an open narrative as there is no final resolution for the text. Each narrative strand involves different characters. Some are serious whilst others are funny; some go on for a long time and some just for an episode or two. Each individual story follows its own conventional narrative structure and will, at some point, resolve. This is a very successful way to attract and maintain an audience.
Exam Hint :- The analysis above uses the terminology from the theories covered to discuss how the narrative in the advert works. This is useful for exams because you can demonstrate you understand theory by using terminology and you don’t need to write out the theories themselves.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ eastenders
Conclusion The conventional narrative structure provides a framework which is used by media producers to tell stories. Audiences understand the way this structure works and are able to interpret the stories through their logical sequencing. This understanding comes from past experiences of media texts and from the fact that narrative is part of our day to day lives. The structure is used in story-telling of all kinds from childhood bedtime stories to the way we give out information in conversations or tell jokes. Narrative is a structure which helps us make sense of events and occurrences in the real world and so is an important aspect of the production of media texts to allow audiences to make sense of the events and occurrences they are presented with.
Different people will be attracted to the different characters, themes and issues and so this broadens the potential audience. When a story reaches its resolution, there will be other stories that are still ongoing and so audiences are likely to stay with the soap over a long period of time. In addition, soaps end each episode with a cliffhanger which is a good way to persuade the audience to come back for the next instalment. Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Karen Fallows and Steph Hendry Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Media Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
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